Chap 28

A Time of Upheaval
19541980
hy It Matters
From a presidential assassination to massive governmental programs, from the Vietnam War to the civil rights movement, the postWorld War II decades immensely affected the lives of Americans. The nation struggled to put its social and political ideals into practice while fighting military wars overseas and social wars at home. Understanding how these events unfolded provides a window to the world you live in today. The following resources offer more information about this period in American history.
Primary Sources Library

See pages 10561057 to find additional primary source readings to accompany Unit 9. Use the American History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM to find additional primary sources about this eventful era.
Poster from the March on Washington
Mural on building in Davenport, Iowa
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What we won when all of our people united . . . must not now be lost in suspicion, distrust, selfishness, and politics. . . .
Lyndon Johnson, 1968
New Frontier and the Great Society 19611968

The
Why It Matters
President John F. Kennedy urged Americans to work for progress and to stand firm against the Soviets. Cold War tensions and the threat of nuclear war peaked during the Cuban missile crisis. Kennedys assassination changed the nations mood, but President Lyndon Johnson embraced ambitious goals, including working toward the passage of major civil rights legislation and eradicating poverty.
The Impact Today

Initiatives introduced in this era remain a part of American society. Medicaid and Medicare legislation provides major health benefits for elderly and low-income people. The Head Start program provides early educational opportunities for disadvantaged children.
The American Vision Video The Chapter 28 video,

A New Frontier: The Space Race, explores the dramatic history of the American space program. November 1963 Kennedy assassinated; Lyndon Johnson becomes president December 1961 Presidential Commission June 1963 on the Status of Women Kennedy visits created Berlin Wall October 1962 Cuban missile crisis
Kennedy 19611963
April 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion
1962
L. Johnson 19631969
1960
1959 Cuban revolution brings Castro to power April 1961 Eichmann goes on trial for crimes against Jews
1964

August 1961 Construction of Berlin Wall begins
1964 South Africas Nelson Mandela sentenced to life in prison
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President John F. Kennedy at his inaugural ball in 1961
July 1965 Congress establishes Medicare and Medicaid programs
October 1966 Fair Packaging and Labeling Act passed
March 1968 Lyndon Johnson announces that he will not run for re-election
HISTORY
1968
1966 Indira Gandhi becomes prime minister of India 1968 Student riots paralyze France
1966
Chapter Overview
Visit the American Vision Web site at tav.glencoe.com and click on Chapter OverviewsChapter 28 to preview chapter information.
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The New Frontier

Main Idea
John F. Kennedy encountered both success and setbacks on the domestic front.
Reading Strategy
Categorizing As you read about the presidency of John F. Kennedy, complete a graphic organizer similar to the one below by filling in the domestic successes and setbacks of Kennedys administration.
Successes Setbacks
Reading Objectives
Summarize Kennedys economic policies. Explain why Congress often did not support Kennedys proposals.
Key Terms and Names

missile gap, New Frontier, Earl Warren, reapportionment, due process
Section Theme
Civic Rights and Responsibilities The Supreme Court made decisions that protected individual rights, including the one man, one vote decision.
1960
1960 John Kennedy defeats Richard Nixon for the presidency
1961
1961 Kennedy creates Presidential Commission on the Status of Women
1962
1962 Supreme Court issues Baker v. Carr ruling
1963
1963 Kennedy signs Equal Pay Act for women
On September 26, 1960, at 9:30 P.M. eastern standard time, streets all across the United States grew strangely still. An estimated 75 million people sat indoors, focused on their television sets, where they saw two men standing behind lecterns. One was John F. Kennedy, and the other was Richard M. Nixon. For the first time, thanks to the wonders of television, two presidential candidates were coming right into the nations living rooms to debate. Americans were enthralled: You hear each man directly, observed one. Theres nothing between you and what he says, added another. You can see which man gets rattled easily. The man who seemed to get rattled easily was Nixon. Kennedy, the Democratic nominee, looked healthy, strong, and confident. Nixon, the Republicans choice, came across as tired and frazzled. He appeared ill, one viewer commented. In fact, Nixon had been ill recently. Kennedy had a glowing tan, while Nixons face was pale and drawn, shadowed by the stubble of a beard. As one observer noted, Nixons eyes darted around, perspiration was clearly noticeable on his chin, and with the tight shots . . . these things were more obvious. adapted from The Great Debate
John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon in the 1960 debate
The Election of 1960

The television debates of the 1960 presidential election had enormous impact. Following the first debate, the media focused more strongly on the appearance of the candidates. Suddenly the whole country seemed to have become experts on makeup and
840 CHAPTER 28 The New Frontier and the Great Society
television lighting. One Republican leader even wondered if the Democrats had supplied Nixons makeup. With that debate, the era of television politics had begun. Though television had been used in campaigns as early as 1948, it was not until the 1960 election that a large majority of voters used the medium as a voting tool. The nation itself seemed on the brink of a new age. Having lived through a decade of unprecedented prosperity and the onset of the Cold War and the atomic age, Americans looked to the future with excitement and anxiety. Both candidates shared the desire to lead the nation through the challenges of a new decade, but they differed in many ways. Kennedy, a Catholic, came from a wealthy and influential Massachusetts family. Nixon, a Quaker, was a Californian from a financially struggling family. Kennedy seemed outgoing and relaxed, while Nixon struck many as formal and even stiff in manner.
warned that the Democrats fiscal policies would boost inflation, and that only he had the necessary foreign policy experience to guide the nation. Kennedy came under scrutiny about his religion. The United States had never had a Catholic president, and many Protestants had concerns about Kennedy. Kennedy decided to confront this issue openly in a speech. I believe in an America where the separation of the church and state is absolute, he said, where no Catholic prelate would tell the president, should he be a Catholic, how to act. The four televised debates strongly influenced the outcome of the election, one of the closest in American history. Kennedy won the popular vote by 119,000 out of 68 million votes cast and the Electoral College by 303 votes to 219. In several states only a few thousand votes could have swung the Electoral College numbers the other way.
Reading Check Identifying What were two main

issues of the 1960 presidential election?
A New Kind of Campaign
Compared to earlier campaigns, the 1960 presidential race made new use of television, with both major parties spending substantial amounts of money on television ads. The Democrats spent over $6 million in television and radio spots, while the Republicans spent more than $7.5 million. Not everyone was happy with this new emphasis on image. Television news commentator Eric Sevareid complained that the candidates had become packaged products, and he stated that the Processed Politician has finally arrived.
The Kennedy Mystique

Despite his narrow victory, John F. Kennedy, commonly referred to as JFK, captured the imagination of the American public as few presidents before him had. During the campaign, many had been taken with Kennedys youth and optimism. The new president strongly reinforced this impression when he gave his Inaugural Address. Inauguration Day, January 20, 1961, was crisp and cold in Washington, D.C. At the site of the ceremony, a crowd gathered, wrapped in coats and blankets. As Kennedy rose to take the oath of office, he wore neither a coat nor a hat. During his speech, the new president declared, The torch has been passed to a new generation, and he called on his fellow citizens to take a more active role in making the United States a better place. My fellow Americans, he exclaimed, ask not what your country can do for youask what you can do for your country. Kennedy, his wife Jacqueline, their children Caroline and John, and their large extended family seemed to have been created for media coverage. Reporters followed the family everywhere.
Kennedy tie clasp (left) and Nixon pendant from 1960 presidential campaign
The Main Issues The campaign centered on the economy and the Cold War. Although the candidates presented different styles, they differed little on these two issues. Both promised to boost the economy, and both portrayed themselves as Cold Warriors determined to stop the forces of communism. Kennedy argued that the nation faced serious threats from the Soviets. In Cuba, Fidel Castro was allying himself with the Soviet Union. At home, many people lived in fear of a Soviet nuclear attack. Kennedy voiced his concern about a suspected missile gap, in which the United States lagged behind the Soviets in weaponry. (Decades later, Americans learned that, in fact, the only area where the Soviet Union was briefly ahead was in rocketry). The nation, Kennedy argued, had grown complacent and aimless. It is time to get this country moving again. Nixon countered that the United States was on the right track under the current administration. Im tired of hearing our opponents downgrade the United States, the vice president said. Nixon also
would soon find that transforming lofty ideals into real legislation was no easy task on Capitol Hill.
History
The Kennedy White House Jacqueline Kennedy (center right) brought youthful elegance and style to the White House. Why do you think the media scrutinized the First Family so much?
Kennedy himself was a master of the media, particularly television. He was the first to broadcast his press conferences live on television. The Kennedy charisma inspired many of his staff members. His press secretary, Pierre Salinger, put this feeling into words: None of us will ever have a better job as long as we live. . . . The big plusthe fringe benefit that made it all worthwhilewas JFK himself. . . . Our faith in him and in what he was trying to do was absolute, and he could impart to our work together a sense of challenge and adventurea feeling that he was moving, and the world with him, toward a better time.
Kennedy Struggles With Congress Although the Democratic Party enjoyed large majorities in both houses of Congress, Kennedy was unable to push through many of his domestic programs. Kennedy had trailed Nixon in many Democratic districts and had not helped many Democrats get elected. Those who did win, therefore, did not feel they owed him anything. As one Democrat in Congress told U.S. News & World Report, A good many [congressional representatives] were elected in 1960 in spite of his presence on the ticket rather than because his name was there. As a result, legislators found it easy to follow their own interests rather than those of the president. In addition, Republicans as well as conservative Southern Democratswho were responsible for holding the Democratic majority in Congressviewed the New Frontier as too big and too costly. Senator Everett Dirksen, Republican minority leader from Illinois, claimed that Kennedys efforts to increase the power and reach of the federal government would push the nation down an ominous path. In the end, Congress defeated a number of JFKs proposals, including health insurance for the elderly, a Department of Urban Affairs, and federal aid to education. The president often resisted calls to push harder for his agenda. He decided not to fight every battle on Capitol Hill and preferred to reserve his bargaining power for issues that were both truly important and winnable.
ECONOMICS
quoted in With Kennedy
Strengthening the Economy
Reading Check Summarizing In what ways did

John F. Kennedy inspire the nation?
Success and Setback on the Domestic Front

Not everyone in the nation fell for the Kennedy mystique. His high culture, elite Northeast upbringing, and Catholicism irritated some Americans. Congress also was less than taken with the new president. Upon entering office, President Kennedy set out to implement a legislative agenda, which became known as the New Frontier. He hoped to increase aid to education, provide health insurance to the elderly, create a Department of Urban Affairs, and help migrant workers. He
Kennedy did achieve some victories in Congress, particularly in his efforts to improve the nations economy. The American economy, which had soared through much of the 1950s, had slowed by the end of the decade. From 1960 to 1961, the growth rate of the gross national product was only 2 percent, while the unemployment rate hovered near 7 percent of the workforce, the second-highest figure since World War II. In an effort to increase growth and create more jobs, Kennedy advocated the New Deal strategy of deficit spending, first implemented during Franklin Roosevelts presidency. The new president convinced Congress to invest more funds in defense and in space exploration. Such spending did indeed create more jobs and stimulate economic growth. Reluctant to rely too heavily on deficit spending, which tends to cause inflation, Kennedy also sought to boost the economy by increasing business production and efficiency. In
addition, his administration asked businesses to hold down prices and labor leaders to hold down pay increases. Prodded by Secretary of Labor Arthur Goldberg, labor unions in the steel industry agreed to reduce their demands for higher wages. In 1962, however, several steel companies raised prices sharply. The president threatened to have the Department of Defense buy cheaper steel from foreign companies and instructed the Justice Department to investigate whether the steel industry was guilty of price-fixing. In response to Kennedys tactics, the steel companies backed down and cut their prices. To achieve this victory, however, the president had strained his relations with the nations business community. In an effort to get the economy moving, Kennedy also adopted supply-side ideas and pushed for a cut in tax rates. When opponents argued that a tax cut would only help the wealthy, Kennedy asserted that lower taxes meant businesses would have more money to expand, which would create new jobs and benefit everybody. A rising tide lifts all boats, Kennedy explained, as a way to illustrate how tax cuts would stimulate the economy and help all Americans. Congress refused to pass the tax cut because many members feared it would cause inflation. However, they did support Kennedys request to raise the minimum wage and his proposal for an Area Redevelopment Act and a Housing Act. These two programs provided funds to poor areas. They helped to clear slums, create jobs, and build low-income housing.
Warren Court Reforms

During the Kennedy years, the Supreme Court also took an active role in social issues. In 1953 President Eisenhower had nominated Earl Warren, the popular Republican governor of California, to become Chief Justice of the United States. More so than previous courts, the Warren Court took an activist stance, helping to shape national policy by taking a forceful stand on a number of key issues of the day. GOVERNMENT
One Man, One Vote One of the Warren Courts more notable decisions had a powerful impact on who would hold political power in the United States. This decision concerned reapportionment, or the way in which states draw up political districts based on changes in population. By 1960 many more Americans resided in cities and suburbs than in rural areas. Yet many states had failed to restructure their electoral districts to reflect that change. In Tennessee, for example, a rural county with only 2,340 voters had 1 representative in the state assembly, while an urban county with 133 times more voters had only 7. The vote of a city dweller counted for less than the vote of a rural resident. Some Tennessee voters took the matter to court. The Baker v. Carr case reached the Supreme Court after a federal court ruled that the issue should be
Womens Rights Kennedy also helped women make strides during the 1960s. Although Kennedy never appointed a woman to his cabinet, a number of women worked in prominent positions in his administration, including Esther Peterson, assistant secretary of labor and director of the Womens Bureau of the Department of Labor. Kennedy advanced womens rights in other ways as well. In 1961 he created the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. The commission called for federal action against gender discrimination and affirmed the right of women to equally paid employment. Kennedy responded by issuing an executive order ending gender discrimination in the federal civil service, and in 1963 he signed the Equal Pay Act for women. The commission also sparked the creation of similar groups on the state level and inspired many women to work together to further their interests.
Reading Check Evaluating Why did Kennedy have
difficulty getting his New Frontier legislation passed?
Camelot In December 1960, Camelot, a musical starring Richard Burton and Julie Andrews, opened on Broadway in New York City. The Kennedys attended the show, which told the legend of the heroism of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, and so enjoyed it that they listened to the music often. The presidents favorite song included the lines: Dont let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief shining moment that was known as Camelot. In later years, the Kennedy presidency became known as Camelot, largely because of Mrs. Kennedy. Shortly after the presidents death in 1963, she told a journalist that all she could think about was the presidents favorite line. She went on to say: Therell be great presidents again, . . . but therell never be another Camelot again. Journalist Theodore H. White later wrote that all she could repeat was, Tell people there will never be that Camelot again.
CHAPTER 28
The New Frontier and the Great Society
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Major Decisions of the Warren Court, 19541967

Civil Rights Brown v. Board of Education (1954) Baker v. Carr (1962) Segregation in public schools unconstitutional Established that federal courts can hear lawsuits seeking to force state authorities to redraw electoral districts State legislative districts should be equal in population Desegregation of public accommodations established in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is legal States may not ban interracial marriage Unlawfully seized evidence is inadmissible at trial Suspects are entitled to court-appointed attorney if unable to afford one on their own Accused has the right to an attorney during police questioning Police must inform suspects of their rights during the arrest process State-mandated prayer in school banned State-mandated Bible readings in school banned Celebrities may sue the media for libel only in certain circumstances
Reynolds v. Sims (1964) Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964) Loving v. Virginia (1967) Due Process Mapp v. Ohio (1961) Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) Escobedo v. Illinois (1964) Miranda v. Arizona (1966) Freedom of Religion and Freedom of Speech Engel v. Vitale (1962) Abington School District v. Schempp (1963) New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)
solved by legislation. The Fourteenth Amendment specifically gives Congress authority to enforce voting rights. In 1962 the Supreme Court ruled that the federal courts did have jurisdiction and sent the matter back to the lower courts. ; (See page 1080 for more
information on Baker v. Carr.)
1. Interpreting Charts Analyze the effects Brown v. Board of Education and Reynolds v. Sims had on the nation. 2. Summarizing What three major areas of policy did the Warren Courts decisions affect?
Two years later, in June 1964, the Supreme Court ruled in Reynolds v. Sims that the current apportionment system in most states was indeed unconstitutional. In a decision that helped to promote the principle of one man, one vote, the Warren Court required state legislatures to reapportion electoral districts so that all citizens votes would have equal weight. The Courts decision was a momentous one, for it shifted political power throughout the country from rural and often conservative areas to urban areas, where more liberal voters resided. The Courts decision also boosted the political power of African Americans and Hispanics, who typically lived in cities. ; (See page
1082 for more information on Reynolds v. Sims.)
Extending Due Process
In a series of historic rulings in the 1960s, the U.S. Supreme Court began to use the Fourteenth Amendment to apply the Bill of Rights to the states. Originally, the Bill of Rights
CHAPTER 28 The New Frontier and the Great Society
applied only to the federal government. Many states had their own bill of rights, but some federal rights did not exist at the state level. The Fourteenth Amendment specifically stated that no state shall . . . deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. Due process means that the law may not treat individuals unfairly, arbitrarily, or unreasonably, and that courts must follow proper procedures and rules when trying cases. Due process ensures that all people are treated the same by the court system. In the 1960s, the Supreme Court ruled in several cases that upholding due process meant applying the federal bill of rights to the states. In 1961 the Supreme Court ruled in Mapp v. Ohio that state courts could not consider evidence obtained in violation of the federal Constitution. In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that a defendant in a state court had the right to a lawyer, regardless of his or her ability to pay. The following year, in Escobedo v. Illinois, the justices ruled that a
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suspect must be allowed access to a lawyer and must be informed of his or her right to remain silent before being questioned by the police. Miranda v. Arizona (1966) went even further, requiring that authorities immediately give suspects a fourfold warning. The warning consisted of informing suspects that they have the right to remain silent, that anything they say can and will be used against them in court, that they have a right to a lawyer while being questioned, and that if they cannot afford a lawyer, the court will appoint one for them. Today these warnings are known as the Miranda rights. ; (See pages 10811082
for more information on Mapp v. Ohio, Gideon v. Wainwright, Escobedo v. Illinois, and Miranda v. Arizona.)
Many citizens and police departments and even some of the Supreme Court justices accused the Warren Court of favoring criminals. Others cheered the decisions, seeing them as promoting the rights of all citizens, even the less privileged.
Activist Court The Warren Court poses for its official portrait in 1962, with Chief Justice Earl Warren front and center.
Prayer and Privacy The Supreme Court also handed down decisions that reaffirmed the separation of church and state. The Court applied the First Amendment to the states in Engel v. Vitale (1962). In this ruling, the Court decided that states could not compose official prayers and require those prayers to be recited in state public schools. The following year, in Abington School District v. Schempp, it ruled against state-mandated Bible readings in public schools. Weighing in on another controversial issue, the Court ruled in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) that prohibiting the sale and use of birth control devices violated citizens constitutional right to privacy. ; (See pages
10801081 for more information on these Supreme Court cases.)
As with most rulings of the Warren Court, these decisions delighted some and deeply disturbed others. What most people did agree upon, however, was the Courts pivotal role in shaping national policy. The Warren Court, wrote New York Times columnist Anthony Lewis, has brought about more social change than most Congresses and most Presidents. From the political arena to the legal system to peoples everyday lives, the Warren Court indeed left its imprint on the nation. Meanwhile, away from the domestic arena, President Kennedy worked to make his mark on the countrys foreign affairs during a time of rising Cold War tensions.
Reading Check Examining What was the significance of the Warren Courts One Man, One Vote ruling?
Checking for Understanding 1. Define: missile gap, reapportionment, due process. 2. Identify: New Frontier, Earl Warren. 3. Summarize the progress made for womens rights during Kennedys administration. Reviewing Themes
4. Civic Rights and Responsibilities Name three decisions of the Warren Court that protected civil rights.
Critical Thinking 5. Interpreting In what way was the 1960 presidential election a turning point in campaign history? 6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer similar to the one below to list the economic policies of the Kennedy administration.
Analyzing Visuals 7. Analyzing Charts Study the chart of Warren Court decisions on page 844. How did the Court expand the rights of the accused? Were these sound decisions? Why or why not?
Economic Policies
Writing About History 8. Expository Writing In his Inaugural Address, President Kennedy asked his fellow Americans to Ask what you can do for your country. Respond to this statement in an essay.
CHAPTER 28 The New Frontier and the Great Society 845
JFK and the Cold War

Main Idea
As president, John F. Kennedy had to confront the challenges and fears of the Cold War.
Reading Strategy
Sequencing As you read about the crises of the Cold War, complete a time line similar to the one below to record the major events of the Cold War in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
Jan. 1959 Aug. 1963
Reading Objectives
Describe Kennedys plan for the armed forces. Explain how the Cold War influenced foreign aid and the space program.
Key Terms and Names

flexible response, Peace Corps, space race, Berlin Wall, Warren Commission
Section Theme
Science and Technology During the Cold War, the nation devoted much of its scientific and technological resources to competing with the Soviet Union, especially in getting to the moon.
1961
April 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion
1962
May 1961 Kennedy informs Congress of moon expedition goal October 1962 Cuban missile crisis
1963
September 1963 Senate ratifies Limited Test Ban Treaty
1964
November 22, 1963 Kennedy assassinated
Like millions of other Americans in late October 1962, Tami Gold was having trouble concentrating on anything. For several tension-filled days that fall, the world seemed headed for nuclear destruction. U.S. officials had discovered that the Soviet Union had placed missiles in Cubaa mere 90 miles (145 km) from the shores of the United States. When the Soviets refused to remove the weapons, a bitter weeklong standoff ensued in which the two superpowers hurled threats and warnings at each other and moved to the brink of nuclear war. Gold, then a seventh-grade student in Long Island, New York, recalled the events of one particular day: I remember I was in the bathroom of the school . . . when they had said over the loud speaker . . . that everyone had to return to their homerooms immediately and get instruction from their homeroom teacher. And it was probably one of the scariest moments of my life, it was like the sensation that our country could go to war and I didnt understand at all what it was about, but the fact that the country could go to war at any moment was really really present. . . . It was chilling, it was scary, it was really nauseating. . . . quoted in Collective Memories of the Cuban Missile Crisis
Emergency water supplied by Department of Defense
Kennedy Confronts Global Challenges

The Cuban missile crisis, as the standoff came to be called, may have been the most dramatic foreign policy episode Kennedy faced. It was not the only one, however. As Kennedy entered the White House, the nations dangerous rivalry with the Soviet Union continued to intensify. As a result, the new president had to devote much of
his energy in foreign policy matters to guiding the nation through the deepening Cold War. Kennedy appeared ready to stand up to the Soviets. Upon taking the oath of office, the new president devoted much of his Inaugural Address to the role of the United States in a divided world: Let the word go forth from this time and place . . . that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americansborn in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritageand unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this nation has always been committed. . . . Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, to assure the survival and the success of liberty.
quoted in Let the Word Go Forth
Kennedy attempted to reduce the threat of nuclear war and to stop the spread of communism with a range of programs. These included a conventional weaponry program, economic aid, and the Peace Corps.
lived in extreme poverty. In some Latin American countries, these conditions spurred the growth of leftwing movements aimed at overthrowing their governments. When the United States was involved in Latin America, it was usually to help existing governments stay in power in order to prevent Communist movements from flourishing. Poor Latin Americans resented this intrusion, just as they resented American corporations that had business operations in their countries, a presence that was seen as a kind of imperialism. To improve relations between the United States and Latin America, President Kennedy proposed an Alliance for Progress, a series of cooperative aid projects with Latin American governments. The alliance was designed to create a free and prosperous Latin America that would be less likely to support Communist-inspired revolutions. Over a 10-year period, the United States pledged $20 billion to help Latin American countries establish better schools, housing, health care, and fairer land distribution. The results were mixed. In some countriesnotably Chile, Colombia, Venezuela, and the Central American republicsthe alliance did promote real reform. In others, governing rulers used the money to keep themselves in power.
The Peace Corps
A More Flexible Response
Kennedy took office at a time of growing global instability. Nationalism was exploding throughout the developing world, and the Soviet Union actively supported wars of national liberation. Newsweek magazine wrote that the greatest single problem that faces John Kennedy is how to meet the aggressive power of the Communist bloc. Kennedy felt that Eisenhower had relied too heavily on nuclear weapons, which could only be used in extreme situations. To allow for a flexible response if nations needed help against Communist movements, the president pushed for a buildup of conventional troops and weapons. Although costly, a flexible response plan would allow the United States to fight a limited style of warfare. In adopting this plan, Kennedy supported the Special Forces, a small army unit created in the 1950s to wage guerrilla warfare in limited conflicts. Kennedy expanded it and allowed the soldiers to wear their distinctive Green Beret headgear.
Another program aimed at helping less developed nations fight poverty was the Peace Corps, an organization that sent young Americans to perform humanitarian services in these countries. After rigorous training, volunteers spent two years in countries that had requested assistance. They laid out sewage systems in Bolivia and trained medical technicians in Chad. Others taught English or helped to build roads. By late 1963 thousands of Peace Corps volunteers were serving in over 30 countries. Today, the Peace Corps is still active and remains one of Kennedys most enduring legacies.
TECHNOLOGY
The Cold War Moves Into Space President Kennedy

sought to increase the countrys presence not only around the world but also in space. With Cold War tensions continuing to rise, the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a space racevying for dominance of the heavens to enhance their competitive positions on Earth.
CHAPTER 28
HISTORY
Student Web Activity Visit the
American Vision Web site at tav.glencoe.com and click on Student Web Activities Chapter 28 for an activity on the New Frontier.
Aid to Other Countries
One area of the world where Kennedy wanted to renew diplomatic focus was Latin America. Conditions in much of Latin American society were not good: Governments were often in the hands of the wealthy few and many of their citizens
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The Space Program

The space program expanded significantly when President Kennedy announced his determination to beat the Soviets to the moon. By the time Neil Armstrong and Edwin (Buzz) Aldrin walked on the moon in 1969, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) had spent over $33 billion. Since that time, NASA expenditures have affected far more than space missions. NASA research findings have advanced knowledge of the nature of the universe, and people have applied them to many technical fields and manufacturing processes.
Moon boot material developed for the space program is used in many running shoes. It has improved shock absorption and provides superior stability and motion control.
Kennedy was determined that the first humans to reach the moon would be Americans, not Russians. In 1961 he recommended to Congress that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon. Kennedys dream was realized in July 1969, during Richard Nixons first administration, when astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the moon.
Reading Check Examining What global challenges

did Kennedy face during his presidency?
Crises of the Cold War

President Kennedys efforts to combat Communist influence in other countries led to some of the most intense crises of the Cold War. At times these crises left Americans and people in many other nations wondering whether the world would survive.
The Bay of Pigs
The first crisis occurred in Cuba, only 90 miles (145 km) from American shores. There, Fidel Castro had overthrown the corrupt Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959. Almost
CHAPTER 28 The New Frontier and the Great Society
immediately, Castro established ties with the Soviet Union, instituted drastic land reforms, and seized foreign-owned businesses, many of them American. Cubas alliance with the Soviets worried many Americans. The Communists were now too close for comfort, and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was also expressing his intent to strengthen Cuba militarily. Fearing that the Soviets would use Cuba as a base from which to spread revolution throughout the Western Hemisphere, President Eisenhower had authorized the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to secretly train and arm Cuban exiles, known as La Brigada, to invade the island. The invasion was intended to touch off a popular uprising against Castro. When Kennedy became president, his advisers approved the plan. In office fewer than three months and trusting his experts, Kennedy agreed to the operation with some changes. On April 17, 1961, 1,400 armed Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs on the south coast of Cuba. The invasion was a disaster. La Brigadas boats ran aground on coral reefs, Kennedy cancelled their air support to keep United States involvement a secret, and the
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Assistance for People With Disabilities

The NASA tele-operator and robot technology was used to develop a voicecontrolled wheelchair and manipulator. Using a minicomputer, the wheelchair responds to 35 single-word voice commands, helping physically challenged people perform tasks like picking up packages, opening doors, and turning on appliances.
Increased Safety
Remote-controlled robots reduce human injury levels because they can perform hazardous tasks men and women used to carry out. Robots can also perform operations no human being ever could, such as volcano research on the Puna Ridge of Kilauea, Hawaii.
A communications satellite now in development will provide better telephone, television, and data service between western Europe, the Americas, and Africa. Another communications satellite has improved ship-to-shore communications, which used to be interrupted frequently by bad weather.
expected popular uprising never happened. Within two days, Castros forces killed or captured almost all the members of La Brigada. The Bay of Pigs was a dark moment for the Kennedy administration. The action exposed an American plot to overthrow a neighbors government, and the outcome made the United States look weak and disorganized.
and the rest of the city. Guards posted along the wall shot at many of those attempting to escape from the East. For nearly 30 years afterward, the Berlin Wall stood as a visible symbol of the Cold War division between East and West.
The Berlin Wall Goes Up Still reeling from the Bay of Pigs fiasco, Kennedy faced another foreign policy challenge beginning in June 1961 when he met with Khrushchev in Vienna, Austria. The Soviet leader was determined to test the resolve of the young president. Khrushchev also wanted to stop the flood of Germans pouring out of Communist East Germany into West Berlin. He demanded that the Western powers recognize East Germany and that the United States, Great Britain, and France withdraw from Berlin, a city lying completely within East Germany. Kennedy refused and reaffirmed the Wests commitment to West Berlin. Khrushchev retaliated by building a wall through Berlin, blocking movement between the Soviet sector
The Cuban Missile Crisis By far the most terrifying crisis of the Kennedy era occurred the next year. Once again, the crisis dealt with Cuba. Over the summer of 1962, American intelligence agencies learned that Soviet technicians and equipment had arrived in Cuba and that military construction was in progress. Then, on October 22, President Kennedy announced on television that American spy planes had taken aerial photographs showing that the Soviet Union had placed long-range missiles in Cuba. Enemy missiles stationed so close to the United States posed a dangerous threat. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade to stop the Soviets from delivering more missiles, demanded that they dismantle existing missile sites, and warned that if any weapons were launched against the United States, he would respond fully against the Soviet Union. Still, work on the missile sites continued. Nuclear holocaust seemed imminent.
Then, after a flurry of secret negotiations, the Soviet Union offered a deal. It would remove the missiles if the United States promised not to invade Cuba and to remove its missiles from Turkey near the Soviet border. As American officials considered the offer, letters and cables flew between the two leaders and their chief advisers. The reality was that neither Kennedy nor Khrushchev wanted nuclear war. Only lunatics . . . who themselves want to perish and before they die destroy the world, could do this, wrote the Soviet leader. Still, the dangerous standoff persisted. On October 28, the leaders reached an agreement. Kennedy publicly agreed not to invade Cuba and privately agreed to remove the Turkish missiles; the Soviets agreed to remove their missiles from Cuba. The world could breathe again. The Cuban missile crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any time since World War II. Both the United States and the Soviet Union had been forced to consider the consequences of such a war. In the following months, each country seemed ready to work to lessen world tensions. In August 1963, the United States and the Soviet Union concluded years of negotiation by agreeing to a treaty to ban the testing of nuclear weapons in the
atmospherethe first step toward mutual arms reduction since the beginning of the Cold War. In the long run, however, the missile crisis had ominous consequences. The humiliating retreat the United States forced upon the Soviet leadership undermined the position of Nikita Khrushchev and contributed to his fall from power a year later. The new leadership was less interested in reaching agreements with the West. Perhaps more important, the crisis gave the Soviets evidence of their military inferiority and helped produce a dramatic Soviet arms buildup over the next two decades. This buildup contributed to a comparable military increase in the United States in the early 1980s. For a time, the arms race undermined American support for negotiating with the Soviets.
Reading Check Summarizing How was the Cuban

missile crisis resolved?
The Impact of the Cuban Missile Crisis
The Death of a President

Soon after the Senate ratified the test ban treaty, John F. Kennedys presidency came to a shocking and tragic end. On November 22, 1963, Kennedy and his wife traveled to Texas with Vice President Lyndon Johnson for a series of political appearances. As the presidential motorcade rode slowly through the
History
Cold War Peak Fears of communism peaked during the Cuban missile crisis. Routine reconnaissance flights over Cuba revealed the construction of missile sites, fueling facilities, and launch pads. What steps did Kennedy take to deal with the crisis?
crowded streets of Dallas, gunfire rang out. Someone had shot the president twiceonce in the throat and once in the head. Horrified government officials sped Kennedy to a nearby hospital, where he was pronounced dead moments later. Lee Harvey Oswald, the man accused of killing Kennedy, appeared to be a confused and embittered Marxist who had spent time in the Soviet Union. He himself was shot to death while in police custody two days after the assassination. The bizarre situation led some to speculate that the second gunman, local nightclub owner Jack Ruby, killed Oswald to protect others involved in the crime. In 1964 a national commission headed by Chief Justice Warren concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin. The report of the Warren Commission left some questions unanswered, and theories about a conspiracy to kill the president have persisted, though none has gained wide acceptance. In the wake of the assassination, the United States and the world went into mourning. Americans across the land sobbed in public. Thousands traveled to Washington, D.C., and waited in a line that stretched for several miles outside the Capitol in order to walk silently past the presidents flag-draped casket. Millions of others spent hours in front of their televisions, simply watching people file past the casket. In Rome, Italy, people brought flowers to the American embassy. In the streets of New Delhi, India, crowds wept. In Africa, the president of Guinea said, I have lost my only true friend in the outside world. John F. Kennedy served as president for little more than 1,000 days. Yet his powerful personality and active approach to the presidency made a profound impression on most Americans. Aided by the tidal
History
A Final Salute John F. Kennedy, Jr. (right) bravely salutes his fathers coffin during the state funeral. How did people around the world react to JFKs assassination?
wave of emotion that followed the presidents death, his successor, Lyndon Baines Johnson, would set out to promote many of the programs that Kennedy left behind.
Reading Check Evaluating How did Kennedys

presidency end?
Checking for Understanding

1. Define: flexible response, space race. 2. Identify: Peace Corps, Berlin Wall, Warren Commission. 3. Explain the goals of the Alliance for Progress.
Critical Thinking
5. Interpreting What was the role of foreign aid in the relations between the United States and Latin America? 6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer similar to the one below to list the programs that Kennedy used to reduce the threat of nuclear war and to try to stem communism.
Programs
Analyzing Visuals
7. Analyzing Photographs Study the photographs on pages 848849. Explain how space exploration has led to other innovations that have affected our daily lives and standard of living.
Reviewing Themes 4. Science and Technology What was Kennedys goal for the United States in the space race?
Writing About History 8. Descriptive Writing Take on the role of an American citizen during the Cuban missile crisis. Write a journal entry describing the mood of the country during that time.
The New Frontier and the Great Society 851
CHAPTER 28
N O T E B O O K
VERBATIM
Is there any place we can catch them? What can we do? Are we working 24 hours a day? Can we go around the moon before them?
PRESIDENT JOHN F. KENNEDY, to Lyndon B. Johnson, after hearing that Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin had orbited the earth, 1961
It was quite a day. I dont know what you can say about a day when you see four beautiful sunsets. . . . This is a little unusual, I think. There are tens of millions of Americans who are beyond the
COLONEL JOHN GLENN, in orbit, 1962
BETTMANN/CORBIS
Eyewitness
On May 22, 1964, PRESIDENT LYNDON JOHNSON delivered a speech in Ann Arbor, Michigan, outlining his domestic agenda that would become known as The Great Society. Speechwriter and policy adviser Richard Goodwin watched the speech on videotape the next morning back in Washington. He recalls his reaction: Then, with the cheers, at first muted as if the audience were surprised at their own response, then mounting toward unrestrained, accepting delight, Johnson concluded: There are those timid souls who say . . . we are condemned to a soulless wealth. I do not agree. We have the power to shape civilization. . . . But we need your will, your labor, your hearts. . . . So let us from this moment begin our work, so that in the future men will look back and say: It was then, after a long and weary way, that man turned the exploits of his genius to the full enrichment of his life. Watching the film in the White House basement, almost involuntarily I added my applause to the tumultuous acclaim coming from the sound track. . . . I clapped for the President, and for our country.
welfare state. Taken as a whole there is a culture of poverty . . . bad health, poor housing, low levels of aspiration and high levels of mental distress. Twenty percent of a nation, some 32,000,000.
MICHAEL HARRINGTON, The Culture of Poverty, 1962
I have a dream.
MARTIN LUTHER KING, 1963
I dont see an American dream; . . . I see an American nightmare . . . Three hundred and ten years we worked in this country without a dime in return.
MALCOLM X, 1964
W H A T I S A P I P, A N Y W A Y ?
Match these rock n roll headliners with their supporting acts. 1. Paul Revere and 2. Martha and 3. Gary Puckett and 4. Gladys Knight and 5. Smokey Robinson and 6. Diana Ross and a. the Union Gap b. the Supremes c. the Miracles d. the Vandellas e. the Raiders f. the Pips
answers: 1. e ; 2. d; 3. a; 4. f; 5. c; 6. b
The Great Society rests on abundance and liberty for all. It demands an end to poverty and racial injustice.
LYNDON B. JOHNSON, 1964
In 1962, the starving residents of an isolated Indian village received 1 plow and 1,700 pounds of seeds. They ate the seeds.
PEACE CORPS AD, 1965
852
CHAPTER 28
NEW FRONTIERS: 19611968
Space Race
Want to capture some of the glamour and excitement of space exploration? Create a new nickname for your city. You wont be the first. CITY Danbury, CT Muscle Shoals, AL Houston, TX Galveston, TX Cape Kennedy, FL Blacksburg, VA Huntsville, AL NICKNAME Space Age City Space Age City Space City, USA Space Port, USA Spaceport, USA Space Age Community
RALPH MORSE/TIMEPIX
NUMBERS
of African American adults registered to vote in Mississippi in 1964 before passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965
7%
67% of African American

adults in Mississippi registered to vote in 1969 of white adults registered to vote in 1964, nationwide of white adults registered to vote nationwide in 1969 Number of days senators filibustered to hold up passage of the Civil Rights Bill in 1964
70%
Rocket City, USA Space City, USA Space Capital of the Nation Space Capital of the World
John Glenn, first American to orbit Earth
90% 57
Milestones
PERFORMED IN ENGLISH, 1962. THE CATHOLIC MASS, following Pope John XXIIIs Second Vatican Council. Vatican II allows the Latin mass to be translated into local languages around the world. ENROLLED, 1962. JAMES MEREDITH, at the University of Mississippi, following a Supreme Court ruling that ordered his admission to the previously segregated school. Rioting and a showdown with state officials who wished to bar his enrollment preceded Merediths entrance to classes. BROKEN, 1965. 25-DAY FAST BY CSAR CHVEZ, labor organizer. His protest convinced others to join his nonviolent strike against the grape growers; shoppers boycotted table grapes in sympathy. STRIPPED, 1967. MUHAMMAD ALI, of his heavyweight champion title, after refusing induction into the army following a rejection of his application for conscientious objector status. The boxer was arrested, given a five-year sentence, and fined $10,000. PICKETED, 1968. The Miss America Pageant in Atlantic City, by protesters who believe the contests emphasis on womens physical beauty is degrading and minimizes the importance of womens intellect.
14 1/ 2 Hours duration of
all-night speech delivered by Senator Robert Byrd before a cloture vote stopped the filibuster of elementary and high school teachers approve of corporal punishment as a disciplinary measure in 1961
72%
HULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS
$8090 Weekly pay for a

clerk/typist in New York in 1965 Rent for a twobedroom apartment at Broadway and 72nd Street on New York Citys Upper West Side in 1965
AP
REMOVED, 1968. TOY GUNS, from the Sears, Roebuck Christmas catalog after the assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Robert Kennedy.
$200
CHAPTER 28
853
The Great Society

Main Idea
Lyndon Johnson succeeded John F. Kennedy as president and greatly expanded Kennedys agenda with farreaching programs in many areas.
Reading Strategy
Organizing As you read about Lyndon Johnsons presidency, complete a graphic organizer similar to the one below to list the social and economic programs started during his administration.
Reading Objectives
Explain what inspired Johnsons Great Society programs. Identify several specific health and employment programs of the Johnson administration.
Key Terms and Names

consensus, war on poverty, VISTA, Great Society, Medicare, Medicaid, Head Start, Robert Weaver
Section Theme
Johnsons Programs
Government and Democracy In a time of prosperity, President Johnson won support for extending government aid to the poor and elderly.
November 1963
November 1963 Johnson becomes president upon Kennedys death
June 1964
August 1964 Congress enacts Economic Opportunity Act
January 1965
August 1965
July 1965 November 1964 Johnson wins election Congress passes Medical Care Act, establishing Medicare and Medicaid as president
In 1961, 61-year-old John Rath lived in a sparsely furnished room in Chicago. In the room sat a stove, a sink, a package of cereal, and a tiny icebox. The plaster on the wall was crumbling, the ceiling was cracked, and the window shades were smudged. Telling his story to an interviewer, Rath said: I come home to an empty room. I dont even have a dog. No, this is not the kind of life I would choose. If a man had a little piece of land or something, a farm, or well . . . anyway, youve got to have something. You sit down in a place like this, you grit your teeth, you follow me? So many of them are doing that, they sit down, they dont know what to do, they go out. I see em in the middle of the night, they take a walk. Dont know what to do. Have no home environment, dont have a dog, dont have nothing . . . just a big zero.
Urban poverty in Chicago
quoted in Division Street: America
Johnson Takes the Reins

John Raths life was not the image that many Americans had of their country in the mid-1960s. The United States that President Lyndon Johnson inherited from John F. Kennedy appeared to be a booming, bustling place. From new shopping malls to new roads with new cars to fill them, everything in the country seemed to shout prosperity. Away from the nations affluent suburbs, however, was another country, one inhabited by the poor, the ill-fed, the ill-housed, and the ill-educated. Writer Michael Harrington examined the nations impoverished areas in his 1962 book, The Other America. Harrington claimed that while the truly poor numbered almost 50 million, they remained largely
hidden in city slums, in rural areas, in the Deep South, and on Native American reservations. Harringtons book moved many Americans and inspired both President Kennedy and his successor, Lyndon Johnson, to make the elimination of poverty a major policy goal. The nation was prosperous, and many leaders had come to believe that the economy could be managed so that prosperity would be permanent. They believed the federal government could afford to fund a new antipoverty program. Lyndon Johnson decided to continue with Kennedys plan soon after taking office. Immediately after President Kennedy was pronounced dead, officials whisked Johnson to the airport. At 2:38 P.M. on November 22, 1963, he stood in the cabin of Air Force One, the presidents plane, with Jacqueline Kennedy on one side of him and his wife, Lady Bird, on the other. Johnson raised his right hand, placed his left hand on a Bible, and took the oath of office. Johnson knew that he had to assure a stunned public that he could hold the nation together, that he was a leader. He later recalled the urgency with which he had to act: A nation stunned, shaken to its very heart, had to be reassured that the government was not in a state of paralysis . . . that the business of the United States would proceed. I knew that not only the nation but the whole world would be anxiously following every move I madewatching, judging, weighing, balancing. . . . It was imperative that I grasp the reins of power and do so without delay. Any hesitation or wavering, any false step, any sign of self-doubt, could have been disastrous.
personable politician than of the elegant society man. Finding it difficult to gain acceptance from the Eastern establishment in the nations capital, he often reveled in his rough image. Johnson had honed his style in long years of public service. By the time he became president at age 55, he already had 26 years of congressional experience behind him. He had been a congressional staffer, a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, a U.S. senator, Senate majority leader, and vice president. As he moved up the political ladder, Johnson developed a reputation as a man who got things done. He did favors, twisted arms, bargained, flattered, and threatened. The tactics he used to persuade others became known throughout Washington as the Johnson treatment. Several writers described this often overpowering and intimidating style: The Treatment could last ten minutes or four hours. . . . Its tone could be supplication, accusation, cajolery, exuberance, scorn, tears, complaint, the hint of threat. It was all these together. . . . Interjections from the target were rare. Johnson anticipated them
History
Home on the Range Born and raised in Texas, President Johnson loved to get back to his ranch in the Texas hill country. How does this image contrast with those of his predecessors?
quoted in Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream
Days after the assassination, Johnson appeared before Congress and urged the nation to move on. The ideas and ideals which [Kennedy] so nobly represented must and will be translated into effective action, he stated. John Kennedys death commands what his life conveyedthat America must move forward.
Johnsons Leadership Style
Lyndon Baines Johnson was born and raised in the hill country of central Texas, near the banks of the Pedernales River. He remained a Texan in his heart and in his life. Johnsons style posed a striking contrast with Kennedys. He was a man of impressive stature who spoke directly, convincingly, and even roughly at times. His style was more that of a persuasive and
before they could be spoken. He moved in close, his face a scant millimeter from his target, his eyes widening and narrowing, his eyebrows rising and falling. From his pocket poured clippings, memos, statistics. Mimicry, humor, and the genius of analogy made The Treatment an almost hypnotic experience and rendered the target stunned and helpless. from Lyndon Johnson: The Exercise of Power With every technique he could think of, Johnson sought to find consensus, or general agreement. His ability to build coalitions had made him one of the most effective and powerful leaders in the Senates history.
A War on Poverty
As president, Johnson used his considerable talents to push through a number of Kennedys initiatives. Before the end of 1964, he won passage of a tax cut, a major civil rights bill, and a significant anti-poverty program. Why was this powerful man so concerned about poor people? Johnson liked to exaggerate the poor conditions of his childhood for dramatic effect, but
he had in fact known hard times. He had also seen extreme poverty firsthand in a brief career as a teacher in a low-income area. Johnson understood suffering, and he believed deeply in social action. He felt that a wealthy, powerful government could and should try to improve the lives of its citizens. Kennedy himself had said of Johnson, He really cares about this nation. Finally, there was Johnsons ambition. He wanted to achieve great things so that history would record him as a great president. Attacking poverty was a good place to begin. Plans for an anti-poverty program were already in place when Johnson took office, and he knew that he would be able to command strong support for any program that could be linked to Kennedy. In his State of the Union address to Congress in 1964, barely seven weeks after taking office, President Johnson told his audience: Unfortunately, many Americans live on the outskirts of hope, some because of their poverty and some because of their color and all too many because of both. Johnson concluded his speech by announcing that his administration was declaring an unconditional war on poverty in America.
History
Rural Poverty Photographs such as this one of Alice Mae Wyatt and her children6-year-old Sally and 17-month-old Henryshocked many Americans and won support for Johnsons programs. Why was the president so concerned about poverty?
. . . many Americans live on the outskirts of hope . . .

Lyndon Johnson
By the summer of 1964, Johnson had convinced Congress to pass the Economic Opportunity Act. The act established a wide range of programs aimed at creating jobs and fighting poverty. It also created a new government agency, the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to coordinate the new programs. Many of the new programs were directed at young Americans living in the inner city. The Neighborhood Youth Corps provided work-study programs to help underprivileged young men and women earn a high school diploma or college degree. The Job Corps tried to help young unemployed people find jobs. One of the more dramatic programs introduced was VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America), which was essentially a domestic Peace Corps. VISTA put young people with skills and community-minded ideals to work in poor neighborhoods and rural areas to help people overcome poverty.
The Election of 1964
As early as April 1964, Fortune magazine declared, Lyndon Johnson has achieved a breadth of public approval few observers would have believed possible when he took office. Johnson had little time to enjoy such praise, for he was soon to run for the office he had first gained through a tragic event. Johnsons Republican opponent in the 1964 presidential election was Barry Goldwater of Arizona, a senator known for his outspoken conservatism. He set the tone for his campaign when he accepted his partys nomination, declaring, Extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice! And let me remind you also that moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue! Few Americans were ready to embrace Goldwaters message, which was too aggressive for a nation nervous about nuclear war. On Election Day, Johnson won in a landslide, winning all but five southern states and Arizona. For the first time in my life, he said later, I truly felt loved by the American people.
History
Conservative Stance The extreme language of Senator Barry Goldwaters campaign posed little challenge to President Johnson. How many states did Goldwater win?
Reading Check Examining What inspired the war

on poverty?
The Great Society

After his election, Johnson began working with Congress to create the Great Society he had promised during his campaign. In this same period, major goals of the civil rights movement were achieved with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which barred discrimination of many kinds, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which ensured African Americans right to vote.
The Great Society was Johnsons vision of the more perfect and equitable society the United States could and should become. According to Bill Moyers, who served as Johnsons press secretary, Johnson admired Franklin Roosevelt and wanted to fulfill FDRs mission. To do that would require a program that would be on the same large scale as the New Deal. Johnsons goals were consistent with the times for several reasons. The civil rights movement had brought the grievances of African Americans to the forefront, reminding many that greater equality of opportunity had yet to be realized. Economics also supported Johnsons goal. The economy was strong, and many believed it would remain so indefinitely. There was no reason, therefore, that poverty could not be significantly reducedespecially when some had so much and others had so little. Johnson first elaborated on the goals of the Great Society during a speech at the University of Michigan. It was clear that the president did not intend only to expand relief to the poor or to confine government efforts to material things. The president wanted, he said, to build a better society for all, a society where leisure is a welcome chance to build and reflect, . . . where the city of man serves not only the needs of the body and the demands of commerce but the desire for beauty and the hunger for community. . . .
This ambitious vision encompassed a multitude of programs. In the three years between 1965 and 1968, more than 60 programs were passed. Among the most significant programs were Medicare and Medicaid. Health care reform had been a major issue since the days of Harry Truman. By the 1960s, public support for better health care benefits had solidified. Medicare had especially strong support since it was directed at the entire elderly populationin 1965, around half of those over the age of 65 had no health insurance. Johnson convinced Congress to set up Medicare as a health insurance program funded through the Social Security system. Medicares twin program, Medicaid, financed health care for welfare recipients, those who were living below the poverty line. Like the New Deals Social Security program, both programs created what have been called entitlements, that is, they entitle certain categories of Americans to benefits. Today, the cost of these programs has become a permanent part of the U.S. budget. Great Society programs also strongly supported education. For Johnson, who had taught school when
he was a young man, education was a personal passion. Vice President Hubert Humphrey once said that Johnson was a nut on education. . . . [He] believed in it, just like some people believe in miracle cures. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 granted millions of dollars to public and private schools for textbooks, library materials, and special education programs. Efforts to improve education also extended to preschoolers, where Project Head Start, administered by the Office of Economic Opportunity, was directed at disadvantaged children who had never looked at a picture book or scribbled with a crayon. Another program, Upward Bound, was designed to provide college preparation for lowincome teenagers. Improvements in health and education were only the beginning of the Great Society programs. Because of the deterioration of inner cities, Johnson told Congress that Americas cities are in crisis. Conditions in the citiespoor schools, crime, slum housing, poverty, and pollutionblighted the lives of those who lived there. Johnson urged Congress to act on several pieces of legislation addressing this issue.
Major Great Society Programs

Health and Welfare Medicare (1965) established a comprehensive health insurance program for all elderly people; financed through the Social Security system. Medicaid (1965) funded by federal and state governments, provided health and medical assistance to low-income families. Education The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965) targeted aid to students and funded related activities such as adult education and education counseling. Higher Education Act (1965) supported college tuition scholarships, student loans, and work-study programs for low- and middle-income students. Project Head Start (1965) funded a preschool program for the disadvantaged. The War on Poverty The Office of Economic Opportunity (1964) oversaw many programs to improve life in inner cities, including Job Corps, an education and job training program for at-risk youth. Housing and Urban Development Act (1965) established new housing subsidy programs and made federal loans and public housing grants easier to obtain. Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act (1966) helped revitalize urban areas through a variety of social and economic programs.
Consumer and Environmental Protection The Water Quality Act and Clean Air Acts (1965) supported development of standards and goals for water and air quality.
The Highway Safety Act (1966) supported highway safety by improving federal, state, and local coordination and by creating training standards for emergency medical technicians. The Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (1966) required all consumer products to have true and informative labels.
Child Nutrition Act (1966) established a school breakfast program and expanded the school lunch program and milk program to improve poor childrens nutrition.
1. Interpreting Charts What was the purpose of the Office of Economic Opportunity? 2. Evaluating Which Great Society program do you think had the most impact on American society? Why?
MOMENT
in HISTORY
YOUTHS HELPING HAND
In 1965 VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America) was created as part of President Johnsons war on poverty. Roused by the social consciousness of the early 1960s, thousands of students and young people focused their energy into working with local agencies in low-income communities around the nation. One of VISTAs basic themes was to help local communities mobilize their own resources. Since 1993 VISTA has been a part of the AmeriCorps network of service programs.
One created a new cabinet agency, the Department of Housing and Urban Development, in 1965. Its first secretary, Robert Weaver, was the first African American to serve in a cabinet. A broad-based program informally called Model Cities authorized federal subsidies to many cities nationwide. The funds, matched by local and state contributions, supported an array of programs, including transportation, health care, housing, and policing. Since many depressed urban areas lacked sufficient or affordable housing, legislation also authorized about $8 billion to build houses for low- and middle-income people. One notable Great Society measure changed the composition of the American population: the Immigration Reform Act of 1965. For a brief time, this act maintained a strict limit on the number of immigrants admitted to the United States each year: 170,000 from the Eastern Hemisphere and 120,000 from the Western Hemisphere. It did, however, eliminate the national origins system established in the 1920s, which had given preference to northern European immigrants. The new measure opened wider the door of
the United States to newcomers from all parts of Europe, as well as from Asia and Africa.
Reading Check Summarizing What were the Great

Society programs?
Legacy of the Great Society

The Great Society programs touched nearly every aspect of American life and improved thousands if not millions of lives. In the years since President Johnson left office, however, debate has continued over whether or not the Great Society was truly a success. In many ways, the impact of the Great Society was limited. In his rush to get as much done as he could, Johnson did not calculate exactly how his programs might work. As a result, some of them did not work as well as people had hoped. Furthermore, the programs grew so quickly they were often unmanageable and difficult to evaluate. Cities, states, and groups eligible for aid began to expect immediate and life-changing benefits. These
to the present, however. These include Medicare and Medicaid, two cabinet agenciesthe Department of TransEsther Peterson portation and the Department of 19061997 Housing and Urban Development Peterson then In the 1930s, Boston employers asked (HUD)and Project Head Start. encouraged women who sewed aprons for them to Kennedy to create switch from square pockets to a more Overall, the programs provided some a Presidential difficult heart-shaped pocket, but they important benefits to poorer commuCommission on the did not offer any increase in pay. Esther nities and gave political and adminisStatus of Women to focus Peterson, a local teacher and outspoken trative experience to minority groups. attention on working women. advocate for womens rights, led the An important legacy of the Great Under President Johnson, Peterson workers in a strike for more money. The Society was the questions it prowomen won their pay raise. For 60 years, served as Special Assistant for duced, questions Americans continue Esther Peterson continued to use her tact Consumer Affairs, where she worked and will to fight for womens rights, trade on consumer concerns. Lynda Johnson to consider. How can the federal govRobb, daughter of President Johnson, unions, and consumers. ernment help its disadvantaged citidescribed Peterson this way: She had Born in Provo, Utah, as Esther zens? How much government help a velvet hammer and talked people into Eggertsen, Peterson became a teacher can a society have without weakening doing what was right, even if we didnt in the 1930s. She taught milliners, telethe private sector? How much help know it at the time. Peterson continphone operators, and garment workers can its people receive without losing ued to use her velvet hammer for the at the innovative Bryn Mawr Summer School for Women Workers in Industry. public good throughout her long life. motivation to fight against hardships In 1961 President Kennedy selected her At the time of her death at the age of on their own? 91, she was actively promoting senior to serve as Assistant Secretary of Labor Lyndon Johnson came into office citizens health issues. and Director of the Womens Bureau. determined to change the United States in a way few other presidents had attempted. If he fell short, it was expectations often left many feeling frustrated and perhaps that the goals he set were so high. In evaluangry. Other Americans opposed the massive growth ating the administrations efforts, the New York of federal programs and criticized the Great Society Times wrote, The walls of the ghettos are not going for intruding too much into their lives. to topple overnight, nor is it possible to wipe out A lack of funds also hurt the effectiveness of Great the heritage of generations of social, economic, and Society programs. The programs themselves were educational deprivation by the stroke of a expensive enough. When Johnson attempted to fund Presidential pen. both his grand domestic agenda and the increasingly Reading Check Evaluating What was the impact of costly war in Vietnam, the Great Society eventually the Great Society? suffered. Some Great Society initiatives have survived
in History
Checking for Understanding

1. Define: consensus, war on poverty. 2. Identify: VISTA, Great Society, Medicare, Medicaid, Head Start, Robert Weaver. 3. Describe how the Great Society programs were inspired.
Critical Thinking
5. Interpreting What were three legacies of the Great Society? 6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer similar to the one below to list five of the Great Society initiatives that have survived to the present.
Great Society Initiatives
Analyzing Visuals
7. Photographs Study the photograph on page 856. Why do you think pictures such as this one would help build support for the war on poverty?
Reviewing Themes 4. Government and Democracy How did Johnsons war on poverty strive to ensure greater fairness in American society?
Writing About History 8. Descriptive Writing Take on the role of a biographer. Write a chapter in a biography of Lyndon Johnson in which you compare and contrast his leadership style to that of John Kennedy.
860
CHAPTER 28
Critical Thinking
Problem Solving
Why Learn This Skill?
Imagine you have just done poorly on a chemistry exam. You wonder why you cannot do better since you always go to class, take notes, and study for exams. In order to improve your grades, you need to identify the specific problem and then take actions to solve it. Congress. Use that information and the steps listed on this page to answer the following questions.
1 What problem did

Kennedy encounter as he tried to pass domestic policy legislation through Congress?
Learning the Skill

There are six key steps you should follow that will help you through the problem-solving process. Identify the problem. In the case listed above, you know that you are not doing well on chemistry exams. Gather information. You know that you always go to class and take notes. You study by yourself for about two hours each day for two or three days before the exam. You also know that you sometimes forget details or get confused about things as you are taking the exam. List and consider possible solutions. For example, instead of studying by yourself, you might try studying with a friend or a group. You might also study for shorter timespans to avoid overloading yourself with information. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. Now that you have listed and considered the possible options, you need to choose the best solution to your problem. Choose what you think is the right solution, and carry it out. Evaluate the effectiveness of the solution. This will help you determine if you have solved the problem. If you earn better scores on the next few chemistry tests, you will know that you have solved your problem.
2 What options were

available to the president in facing this opposition? What were the advantages and disadvantages?
3 Explain the solution

Kennedy implemented to solve his problem.
4 Evaluate the effectiveness of Kennedys

solution. Was it successful? How do you determine this?
Skills Assessment
Complete the Practicing Skills questions on page 863 and the Chapter 28 Skill Reinforcement Activity to assess your mastery of this skill.
Applying the Skill

Problem Solving The conservation club at your school has no money to continue its recycling project. The school district allocated money to the club at the beginning of the year, but that money has been spent. As a member of the club, you have been asked to join a committee to save the conservation club and its projects. Write an essay describing the problem, the list of options and their advantages and disadvantages, a solution, and an evaluation of the chosen solution. Glencoes Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook CD-ROM, Level 2, provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills. Glencoes Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook CD-ROM, Level #, provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.
861
Practicing the Skill

Reread the material in Section 1 on page 842 under the heading Kennedy Struggles with
Reviewing Key Terms

On a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence. 1. missile gap 2. reapportionment 3. due process 4. flexible response 5. space race 6. consensus 7. war on poverty
Critical Thinking
18. Analyzing Themes: Government and Democracy Why were Medicare and Medicaid landmark pieces of legislation in American history? 19. Evaluating In the 1960 presidential debate, most radio listeners thought Nixon had won, while most television viewers thought Kennedy had. Why do you think this was so? 20. Drawing Conclusions How did Kennedy help prevent Communist movements from flourishing in Latin America? 21. Analyzing President Kennedy was unable to pass civil rights legislation. What were some of the factors that allowed President Johnson to push civil rights forward after Kennedys assassination? 22. Organizing Use a graphic organizer similar to the one below to list the crises of the Cold War during the Kennedy administration. Crises
Reviewing Key Facts

8. Identify: New Frontier, Earl Warren, Peace Corps, Warren Commission, Great Society, Head Start. 9. How was the 1960 presidential election a new kind of campaign? 10. What main issues did Nixon and Kennedy discuss in their televised debate? 11. How close was the outcome of the 1960 presidential election between Nixon and Kennedy? 12. What was Kennedys response to the steel industrys decision to raise prices sharply? 13. What were three measures Kennedy took to strengthen the economy? 14. What were three programs set up by Kennedy to reduce the threat of nuclear war and to try to stem communism? 15. What inspired President Johnsons war on poverty? 16. What was the purpose of Medicare, passed during Johnsons administration? 17. Which Great Society initiatives are still in effect today?
23. Evaluating How did the Warren Court decisions in Baker v. Carr and Reynolds v. Sims affect voting power in the nation? 24. Interpreting Primary Sources Although the standard of living for most Americans rose dramatically throughout the
The New Frontier and the Great Society Domestic Programs

Ofce of Economic Opportunity ghts illiteracy, unemployment, and disease. Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits race discrimination and social segregation. Voting Rights Act protects the right to vote. Medicare and Medicaid Acts provide federal medical aid to the elderly and poor. Elementary and Secondary Education Act increases aid for public schools.
862 CHAPTER 28
Foreign Policy
Flexible response policy maintains opposition to communism. U.S. pledges aid to struggling Latin American nations. Peace Corps offers humanitarian aid in poor countries. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty with the Soviet Union eases Cold War tensions.
Supreme Court Cases

Reynolds v. Sims boosts voting power of urban dwellers, including many minorities. Extension of due process gives more protection to people accused of crimes. Court rules that states could not require prayer and Bible readings in public schools.
HISTORY
Self-Check Quiz
Visit the American Vision Web site at tav.glencoe.com and click on Self-Check QuizzesChapter 28 to assess your knowledge of chapter content. 1960s, some Americans remained mired in poverty. Reread the excerpt on page 854 in which John Rath discusses his personal experiences with coping with poverty in his sparsely furnished room in Chicago. Then answer the following questions. a. What does Rath think might help him to have some purpose in his life? b. What does Rath mean when he says: You sit down in a place like this, you grit your teeth. . . .?
Election of 1960
WASH. 9 OREG. 6 IDAHO 4 UTAH 4 ARIZ. 4 MONT. 4 WYO. 3 COLO. 6 N. MEX. 4 N.H. 4 ME. VT. 3 5 MICH. 20 N.Y. MASS. 16 45 R.I. 4 PA. CONN. 8 32 N.J. 16 DEL. 3 MD. 9
N. DAK. MINN. 4 11 WIS. S. DAK. 12 4 NEBR. 6 IOWA 10
NEV. 3 CALIF. 32
Practicing Skills
25. Problem Solving Reread the passage on pages 849850 titled The Cuban Missile Crisis. Use that information to answer the following questions. a. What problem did Kennedy encounter in Cuba? b. What options were available to the president in this situation? What were the advantages and disadvantages of each option? c. Explain the solution Kennedy used to resolve the Cuban missile crisis. d. Was Kennedys solution successful? Why or why not?
ALASKA 3
OHIO ILL. IND. 25 W. 27 13 VA. VA. KANS. MO. KY. 8 12 8 13 10 N.C. 1 11 OKLA. TENN. 14 ARK. S.C. 7 8 ALA. GA. 8 MISS. 6 5 12 LA. 8 TEX. 10 24 FLA. 10
Presidential Election, 1960

3 Candidate
HAWAII
Electoral Vote
303 219 15
Popular Vote
34,227,096 34,107,646 501,643
Political Party
Democrat Republican Independent
HAWAII
3
Kennedy Nixon Byrd
Chapter Activity
26. Technology Activity: Using the Internet Search the Internet to check the status of Great Society programs today. Find out how these programs have changed since they were initiated. Make a chart showing the provisions of the programs in the 1960s compared to the provisions of the programs today.
Standardized Test Practice

Directions: Choose the best answer to the following question. All of the following were effects of rulings by the Warren Court EXCEPT: A Involved federal courts in the reapportionment of state election districts B Extended rights for people accused of crimes C Protected religious minorities through greater separation of church and state D Increased state authority at the expense of federal authority Test-Taking Tip: This question calls for an answer that does NOT accurately complete the statement. The Warren Court expanded individual civil liberties and the power of the judicial branch. Eliminate answers that had either of those effects.
Writing Activity
27. Expository Writing Assume the role of a historian. Evaluate the effectiveness of Kennedys New Frontier and Johnsons Great Society programs. Write an article for a historical journal explaining the successes and setbacks of each presidents policy agendas.
Geography and History

28. The map on this page shows the results of the presidential election of 1960. Study the map and answer the questions below. a. Interpreting Maps Which regions of the country supported Kennedy? Which regions supported Nixon? b. Applying Geography Skills What would have happened if Kennedy had lost New York to Nixon?
CHAPTER 28
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A Time of Upheaval

Primary Sources Library

Poster from the March on Washington

Mural on building in Davenport, Iowa

New Frontier and the Great Society 19611968

The Impact Today

The American Vision Video The Chapter 28 video,

April 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion

1964 South Africas Nelson Mandela sentenced to life in prison

President John F. Kennedy at his inaugural ball in 1961

July 1965 Congress establishes Medicare and Medicaid programs

October 1966 Fair Packaging and Labeling Act passed

The New Frontier

Key Terms and Names

The Election of 1960

Reading Check Identifying What were two main

A New Kind of Campaign

The Kennedy Mystique

quoted in With Kennedy

Strengthening the Economy

Reading Check Summarizing In what ways did

Success and Setback on the Domestic Front

Warren Court Reforms

The New Frontier and the Great Society

Major Decisions of the Warren Court, 19541967

Extending Due Process

JFK and the Cold War

Key Terms and Names

Emergency water supplied by Department of Defense

Kennedy Confronts Global Challenges

quoted in Let the Word Go Forth

The Peace Corps

A More Flexible Response

The Cold War Moves Into Space President Kennedy

Aid to Other Countries

The New Frontier and the Great Society

The Space Program

Reading Check Examining What global challenges

Crises of the Cold War

The Bay of Pigs

Assistance for People With Disabilities

Reading Check Summarizing How was the Cuban

The Impact of the Cuban Missile Crisis

The Death of a President

Reading Check Evaluating How did Kennedys

Checking for Understanding

COLONEL JOHN GLENN, in orbit, 1962

MARTIN LUTHER KING, 1963

The New Frontier and the Great Society

NEW FRONTIERS: 19611968

67% of African American

John Glenn, first American to orbit Earth

$8090 Weekly pay for a

The New Frontier and the Great Society

The Great Society

Key Terms and Names

quoted in Division Street: America

Johnson Takes the Reins

quoted in Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream