Is Caste System Intrinsic to Hinduism? Demolishing a Myth Author(s): M. V.

Nadkarni Reviewed work(s): Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 38, No. 45 (Nov. 8-14, 2003), pp. 4783-4793 Published by: Economic and Political Weekly Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4414252 . Accessed: 24/12/2012 00:20
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Is

Caste

System

Intrinsic

to

Hinduism?

Demolishing a Myth
This paper, citing evidence from the ancient scriptures, attempts to establish that Hinduism- its vedic and classic variants - did not support the caste system; it rigorously opposed it in practice and principle. Even after the emergence of the caste system, Hindusociety still saw considerable occupational and social mobility. Moreover, Hinduism created legends to impress on the popular mind the invalidity of the caste system - a fact further reinforced by the constant efflorescence of reform movementsthroughout history. Thecaste system survived in spite of this because of factors that rangedfrom the socio-economic to the ecological, which helped sustain and preserve balance among communitiesin a non-moder world.
M V NADKARNI andeven moreon the untouchables knownas varnaof shudras It hierarchical in and was however, not, power wealth 'antyajas'. at least as betweenthe uppercastes. Dumontthoughtthat the distinctionbetweenstatusand power is basic to understanding is to that is an demolish the caste ,caste necessary myth system sysem [Dumont 1999:65-91]. It intrinsic of Hinduism. This part myth is believed by orthodox - The system is associatedwith a notion of purity vis-a-vis elements within Hinduism and also is propagatedby elements pollution,with utmostpurityat the level of brahmins declining At the outside Hinduism with the mischievous intent of proselytising. successivelywith kshatriyas, vaishyas,andthenshudras. are treatedas most impureor polluted. Ironically both, though opposed to each other, jointly do a lot of otherend, untouchables to polluteothersincludingshudras. damage. Moreover, this myth has harmed relations between the A touchof themis supposed of hierarchy so-called upper castes and lower castes. This paper intends to A gradation and pollutionwas found among unas considered too, for example,bhangis(scavengers) logically and with documentary proof show thatHinduism - even touchables vedic and classical Hinduism- not only does not supportthe caste morepollutedthansay, mahars labourers). (agricultural Initially system, but has taken lots of pains to oppose it both in principle the notion of purityvs pollutionmay have been based on the and practice,making it obvious thatcaste system is not an intrinsic need to maintaincleanliness, but it soon developed into an formwherepollutionwas associated withbirth. part of Hindu canon, philosophy and even practice. It will then institutionalised show that the caste system emerged and survived due to totally The uppercastes whenpollutedcould, however,get ridof their different factors, which had nothing to do with Hindu religion. pollution ritualbathandsuchotherexpiatory measures. through The notion of purityand pollutiondevelopedinto a powerful I instrument to discourageand preventvarnasankara. - The whole system along with its taboos and restrictionsis WhatCaste System Means authenticated by religionor canon,giving it a religioussanctity. of the whole system thereis a production Caste system as discussed here includes untouchability too, - At the foundation and locally based rather but wherever necessary it will be referred to separately. As we system, which is subsistence-oriented relationsbeing shall note, untouchability came into the caste system much later. thanorientedto largermarket,and production Sucha system The following features are generally taken as essential in of patron-client type,basedon mutual dependence. is not necessarily of economicsurplus gearedfor the generation characterising caste system. - It means not simply a division of labour, with each 'varna' andits appropriation, as it was not orientedto the largermarket associated with a type of occupation, but also a division of labour but to local needs.
determined by birth permitting no occupational/social mobility. This is what distinguishes caste from class. While the former is hereditary, the latter is not - at least in principle. - It is a rigid system, separatingcaste from caste, with restrictions on inter-diningand inter-marriage,due to a morbid fear of 'varnasankara'(mixtureof varnas). 'Caste' correspondstojatis, and each varnais supposed to be a cluster ofjatis, though there is sometimes ambiguity about which jati belongs to which varna. It is varnas that are cited in canon, not jatis. Restrictions on inter-dining and inter-marriage pertained not merely to varas but also to jatis. - It is a hierarchical system, one below the other in ritual (or purity) status, with several disabilities imposed on the fourth One need not despairof ever knowing the truthof one's religion, becausethe fundamentals of Hinduism,as of every greatreligion, are unchangeable,and easily understood. - M K Gandhi, Young India, October 6, 1921

II to the Our of the Myth Demolition Approach

I rejecttotallythe myththatcaste system,as definedby these featureseithercollectively or singly, forms an integralpartof Hinduism.Why Hinduismis not varnadharmaunderstood as jati or birthbased,will becomeclearin the courseof this paper. Hinduismcan be defined,as Gandhijidid, as searchfor truth, non-violence,compassionfor all beings and tolerance.Consistent with its commitment to searchfor truth,it is also marked by liberalism.Hinduismis a dynamic religion, not fixed or 4783

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revealed once for all, and hence cannot be identified exclusively with the religion of the Vedas and Upanishads, nor with the religion expounded by 'Dharmashastras', nor with the Hinduism of the three eminent Acharyas - Shankara, Ramanuja and Madhva, nor also exclusively with medieval Hinduism and modern Hinduism. All these phases represent Hinduism, and have contributed to its development. Moreover, there is no disjointedness between different phases of Hinduism, each deriving its inspiration from the previous ones. In that sense, there is both change and continuity in Hinduism. Since however, it is accepted by all as beyond controversy that medieval Bhakti movement was a protest against caste system and since it is equally well known that modem Hinduism as explained by Swami Vivekananda, Aurobindo and others also has rejected caste system, the focus of this paper is on previous or classical phases of Hinduism. It is this earlier Hinduism, which may be termed as classical Hinduism, that is taken as supportive to the caste system, and it is this myth that is being demolished by this paper. Our greater attention to the previous phases of Hinduism is thus not because Hinduism is defined in terms of these phases, but simply because the contention concerns these phases. The myth is demolished in the following way: (i) by showing that there is no strong correlation between Hinduism and caste system, either spatially or temporally; (ii) by showing thateven after the caste system emerged in Hindu society, there was considerable social and occupational mobility, and thatnone of the defining features of caste system listed above were strictly observed in practice particularly in the classical period; (iii) by showing that far from supporting the caste system, Hindu canon and philosophy were actually against caste system based on birth; (iv) by showing that, in addition, Hinduism created legends to impress the popular mind that the caste system is immoral and invalid; (v) by showing that within the framework of Hinduism, there took place several movements against caste, startingfrom Bhakti movements continuing to more modern movements; (vi) by showing that caste system emerged and survived in spite of Hindu canon and philosophy, because of factors which had nothing to do with Hindu religion.

Ill NoCorrelation betweenHinduism andCasteSystem

The statement that there is no correlation between Hinduism and caste may sound surprising to many. If not in exactly the same words, this is the sum and substance of what Dumont, the most highly regarded authority on caste system, and later even Gail Omvedt - not known to be an admirer of Hinduism - had to say [Dumont Omvedt 1994:31-32]. Dumont refers to caste distinctions including even untouchable castes, among Christians in India in different regions. The discrimination against untouchable Christians is reflected in the form of their separate seating in churches, and even separate burial grounds. Even today, one can see advertisements in newspapers seeking 'Catholic brahmin' spouses for Catholic brahmins. Islam, supposed to be an egalitarian religion, is not free from castes at least in south Asia. Dumont himself refers to different communities within 'ashrafs', who are supposed to be high caste, and also 'non-ashrafs' who have a lower status. Among the

non-ashrafs also, there are three levels of status: '(1) the converts of superior caste, who are mainly rajputs - except for those who have been admitted into the ashraf; (2) a large number of professional groups corresponding to the artisan castes of the Hindus, ...; (3) converted untouchables who have preserved their functions. These groups indeed seem to be endogamous .... [Dumont 1999:208]. There is no commensality also between ashrafs and non-ashrafs, due to difference in their status [ibid: 207]. There is caste system among Buddhists of Sri Lanka also. Some lingayats claim that they are non-Hindus because they do not accept the Vedas and the varna dharma, and yet they too are not free from castes and ritual gradation. Basaveshwara (Basavanna), who led the Bhakti movement whose followers became known as veerashaiva or lingayats in Karnataka, was truly against caste system. But unfortunately, he could not succeed in preventing caste system among his latter-day 'followers'. On the other hand, Gail Omvedt points out that among Hindus settled for many generations in Surinam, West Indies, Mauritius, Bali, Fiji and other centres outside India, caste system was weak, almost non-existent. There took place inter-mixture more freely, including inter-dining and intermarriage, and no one took varna-based castes seriously, though identities in termsof regionaljatis (such as MarvarisandGujaratis) have not disappeared. Gail Omvedt, therefore, says significantly that caste is more a feature of south Asia than of Hinduism per se, taking root in this region because of its peculiar social and economic characteristics. Now we may examine correlation between Hinduism and caste system over time. The first reference to the four varnas comes in the tenth mandala of Rg Veda, in two verses of Purusha Sukta (quoted in another section below). According to several scholars who have made deep research on the theme, the tenth mandala was chronologically the last to be composed. There is a good consensus on the point that previous to this, there was no varna system in vedic society. Mahabharataand Bhagavata Puranaalso mention that in Kritayuga, there was no caste, but only one varna of human beings - that of the children of Vivaswata Manu [Arvind Sharma 2000:136]. Hence, the word manava, popular in all Indian languages. Puranas and other Hindu scriptureshave preserved the racial memory of a golden age in the past when there was no caste. According to B R Ambedkar, there were only three varnas in vedic society, and no fourth varna of shudras. He says, the economy had advanced enough to give rise to a division of labour but there was no hierarchy. He refers to other cosmologies in Hindu texts, but they are all secular, without hint of a hierarchy and without hint of a divine origin. He feels therefore that the two verses in Purusha Sukta are an interpolation, added much later after the caste system was established. According to him shudras as an ethnic group were a part of kshatriyas, and a part of Aryan society itself. He does not accept the theory of western scholars according to which shudras and untouchables were originally non-Aryans who were defeated by Aryans, and taken into the vedic society giving them a lower status. On the other hand, shudraswere very much a partof the ruling society, several of them being kings. As per Ambedkar, they fell from grace and became the fourth varna when brahmins stopped performing the rite of 'upanayana' for them as a revenge against harassmentand insults suffered by them at the hands of some shudra kings. He also says that untouchability is a post-Buddhist phenomenon, which emerged as a result of Hindus giving up sacrifice of animals and beef-eating under the influence of Buddhism, but they went

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to such an extremethat those who continuedto eat beef were as untouchables.2 regarded or not one acceptsAmbedkar's Whether theoryof origin of shudras anduntouchables, scholarsareagreedthatvarna-system basedon birthis very mucha post-vedic3feature,and untouchThis meansthatat some abilityis a post-Buddhist phenomenon. time, maybefor aboutfirsthalf of the long historyof Hinduism since 4000 BCE to the presentday, therewas Hinduismbut no caste system.This is so even accordingto Ambedkar himself. of thispaper, Hinduism And,as we shallsee in theconcluding part can surviveafterthe collapse of caste system.

The Bhaktimovement,both in the south and northof India, saw many saint poets coming from the so-called lower castes. thanbrahmin anduppercastesin the Theyweremoreprominent movement.There were so many sharanas(male saints) and sharanes(female saints) in Basavanna'sBhakti movementin Karnataka thatM N Javaraiah (1997) has writtena whole book of more than 300 pages on them. It is thus evident thatthere was considerable social mobilityin the post-vedicsociety too, not to mentionthe vedic society where it was very evident. Becauseof this mobility,therewas no unanimity aboutwhich caste is above which caste, becauseeach considereditself superiorto the other.They competedwith others in observance of purityrulesto show thatthey were superiorto others.Thus, IV themselvesto be kshatriyas, while quitea few castesconsidered SocialandOccupational Mobility castes considered them be shudras. to To a upper gain higher NotInsignificant rankin the caste system, they practisedwhat the uppercastes Themodelof castesystemas definedin termsof features listed practised,like upanayana (sacredthreadceremony),and even in the first section here hardlyever workedin practice.There certain 'homas' and pujas. Such attempts are called as whicheventually have always been exceptionsto each of these featuresand to sanskritisation (1977),through byM N Srinivas as a process eachof thecasterulesandrestrictions. Actualoccupations have severalcastesgainedin castestatus.Sanskritisation whichwholecastesgainedin castestatuscouldnothave since centuries deviated from the varna theoretical model. through Dharmashastras themselves allowed exceptions under been a purely20th centuryphenomenon, thoughscholarlyatwherebypersonswho could not maketheirlive- tentionhas been mostly confined to the modernperiod. 'apaddharma', Evenmarriages betweendifferent varnas werenotrare.It must lihoodunderthe occupations of theirown varna,could take to thatthereis other occupations.Brahminsby birth have taken not only to have been becauseof theirsignificantoccurrence, in Hindutexts based which is their varnabased occupation,but also to a mentionof differenttypes of marriages priesthood, is froma higher severalothers,including manuallabour.It is not unusualto find on whichjatis wereevolved. Whenthe husband was calledas 'anuloma'; brahmin cooks in the service of scheduledcaste (formerly'un- castethanthatof the wife, the marriage was thecase,it was calledas 'pratiloma'. Whilethe tribeministers andscheduled andofficials.Havyaka whenreverse touchables') in Karnataka brahmins have not only owned gardenlands but formertype was tolerated,the latterwas despised.There was to it,a love marriage in them.Shudras, alsohavebeendoingmanual labour from another also;according typeof classification apart anda marriage wherethe womanwas labour andartisan doingmanual jobs, whichis theirvarnabased was calledas 'gandharva', was called as 'rakshasa'. The formerwas havetraditionally servedas soldierstoo, makingthe forcedinto marriage occupation, tolerated andthelatterwas despised.It is evidentfromliterature distinctionbetweenkshatriyas and shudrasquite blurred. himself has given severalexamplesof social and that not all marriageswere arrangedby parents,and mixed Ambedkar werenotrare.It is thusnota surprise thatcastedistincoccupational mobilityduringthe vedic and upanishadic period. marriages andKavasa Ailushawereadmitted to ashrams tions arenot basedon racialor colourdistinction, Janashruti Raikva, thoughvarna for vedic learningeven after revealingtheir low caste status. meantcolour.Raceandcolourverymuchcut acrosscastessince be determined daysin Indiaso thata person'scastecannot Chhandogya Upanishadhas a significantstory of Satyakama ancient colouror racial orgeneticpeculiarities. Just admission totheashram of Gautama on thebasisof his/her Jabala. Hesought (hermitage) castepeoplewithblackcomplexion, rishi(not Gautam Buddha)for vedic learning.On being asked as it is possibleto findupper fromwhatfamilyhe comes, Jabalafranklytells the rishi: 'I do it is equallypossibleto findpersonswithfaircomplexionamong Thiscouldnothave notknowthis, sir, of whatfamily I am. I askedmy mother.She theso-calledlowercastesanduntouchables. a significant of inter-marriages. BothRama answered me, "Inmy youth,when I went abouta greatdeal as beenso without degree are blackgods but highly adoredand worshipped. I got you. So I do not knowof whatfamilyyou and Krishna a maidservant, Theoccupational andsocialmobility as well astheintermixture are.I am Jabala by nameandyou are Satyakama by name".So as infringements I am Satyakama of canonor as rare Jabala,sir'. The rishi was so pleasedwith his of castescannotbe regarded As we shallnowsee, evencanonitselfdidnotrespect hepromptly initiated himashispupil[Radhakrishnan exceptions. truthfulness, of determining status on thebasisof birth. andcharacter So manyrishis came from obscureoriginthem- thecustom 1994:406-07]. selves, thatthereis a proverbwhich says that one should not askabout'rishi-moola' V (originor birthof a rishi).Sage Parasara of a Chandala wasbornof a Shvapaka woman, woman,Kapinjala Canon andCaste andMadanapala of a boatwoman.Rishishada muchhigher ritual We first take up such partsof the canon that are (wrongly) who were merepriests.Valmiki(author of statusthanbrahmins to be supportive and editorand interpreted and Vyasa (authorof Mahabharata, of caste system, and then take up Ramayana) such as are and even the Vasistha and of to the vedas) parts directly compiler great belonged definitivelyagainstcaste system thegreatest classof theso-called low birth. of greatpoets based on birth. Kalidasa, It is only in the dharmashastras in Sanskrit also came from a very humbleand obscureorigin.4 (dharmasutrasand smritis) to the caste system,andnot in othercanon. in his commentary thatwe find support Evenas lateas 12thcentury, Vijnaneshwara on Yajnavalkya Smritisaid 'nrinpatiiti nripah, na However.dharmashastras never had the same status as other (Mitakshara) tu kshatriyah iti nemah'(whosoeverprotectspeople is fit to be canon known as shruti(Vedas and Upanishads) and it is laid down thatwheneverthereis a conflict betweenthe shrutiand a king; he need not as a rule be a kshatriya').

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smritiliterature, it is the formerthatprevails.It is Manusmriti, which is particularly supportiveof caste system but where it conflictswith Vedas and Upanishads, the latterwould prevail. as a partof shruti, (Gita) is not regarded ThoughBhagvadgita Gita is highly regardedas sacred and is very much a partof As we shalljust see even the Gitais against classicalHinduism. caste system basedon birth,and not supportive to it. Thus, to the extentthatdharmashastras conflictwith shrutiandthe Gita, the latterprevails.Apasthambha dharmasutra may have supbutit seemsto be readmoreby thosewho ported untouchability, like to attackHinduism with it thanby its followers!It is hardly as canon, even if any Hindu has heardof it. regarded aresupposedto support castesystem, Thoughdharmashastras thereis hardlyunanimity aboutit amongthem.Forexample,as Ambedkar a pointed out, though accordingto dharmasutras, is notentitledto upanayana, shudra Sanmskara Ganapti explicitly declares shudras to be eligibleforit. He alsoshowsthataccording to Jaimini, the author of Purva shudras couldperform Mimamsa, vedic rites. Ambedkar refersalso to Bharadwaja SrautaSutra Srauta Sutrawhichconcedeeligibilityto (V 28) andKatyayana shudras to perform vedicrites[Vasant Moon 1990:198-99]. Kane pointsout thatin spite of some otherdharmashastras saying to the contrary,"Badariespoused the cause of the shudrasand the view thatall (includingshudras)were entitled propounded to performvedic sacrifices"[Kane 1990]. Manusmriti itself shows the way to demolishits Interestingly, own supportto the caste system based on birth.In chapter4, verse 176 clearlystates:'Discardwealthand desireif they are to dharma,and even dharmaitself if it leads to uncontrary or arousespeoples' indignation'. Dharma heredoes happiness not meanreligionin the westernsense, but rulesof conduct.If varnadharma, or rules of conductgoverningvarnas,and caste for thatmatter, lead to unhappiness or to people indignation, as itself says that such dharma can they certainlydo, Manusmriti be discarded. Whatthen is dharma,accordingto Manusmriti? The first verse in chapter2 of Manusmriti is a reply to this It says:"Knowthatto be truedharma, whichthe wise question. and the good and those who are free from passion and hatred follow andwhichappealsto the heart".5 Mahatma Gandhiwas thisversein his lectures. to thisverse, fondof quoting According if the wise andthe good, who arefree frompassionandhatred, do not acceptcaste systembasedon birthas it does not appeal totheManusmrti totheheart, thesystem canbediscarded according of Manusmriti itself.So muchto thesupport forthecastesystem. Purusha Suktain Rg Veda (X 90) has often been cited, more thanManusmriti, as authenticating, sanctifyingand glorifying the caste system. The pertinentverses are as follows:
Yatpurushamvyadadhuhu kritidha vyakalpayaln Mukham kinmasya kow bahu Ka uru pada uchyete// (11t' verse)

As is notedabove,Ambedkar considersthese versesto be an on several interpolation grounds,includingthe fact that while the style or formatof the two versesis of a question-and-answer in style. suktaarenarrative type,the otherversesin the purusha Evenif it is takenas a genuinepartof theoriginalpurusha sukta, and not an interpolation, it cannotbe interpreted as supportive It is essentiallya to caste systembasedon birthand hierarchy. takingthe society to be an organicwhole, of which metaphor the four varnasbased on division of labourare intrinsicparts. Thereis nothingto indicatethatthey oughtto be castes orjatis is evidently aspresently Thereference to occupations understood. be based orworkof respective vamas,whichneednotnecessarily on birth.Thereis also nothingprescriptive or recommendatory aboutthe two verses. It is only indicativeof the existence of to that part division of labour,with each varnacorresponding of the body of the primevalpurushawith which the work or of the respectivevarnais associated.Since vaishyas occupation and shudras the society through theireconomicor prosupport ductivework,they weretakenrespectively as comingout of the withoutnecessarily thighsandfeet of thepurusha, hintingat any work in lowly statusof theirwork. Similarlysince kshatriyas' warfare involvedmainlythe use of theirarms,they were taken as comingout of the armsof the purusha. work Sincebrahmins' consistedof recitingmantras oral andpreserving Vedasthrough s mouth. transmission, theyweretakenascomingoutthepurusha' In a lighter vein, it could be said that this was also because brahmins are traditionally describedas 'bhojanapriyah' (lovers of food)!If theintention behindthetwo controversial verseswas to sanctifya hierarchical order, theycouldas well havedescribed brahmins as comingoutof theheadof thepurusha. Itwasperhaps seen by the vedic sage who composedthe purushasuktathat brahmin thantheirhead priestsmostly used theirmouthrather whilereciting themantras! Thereis thusno needforhard feelings due to the two verses in purushasukta. The Gita is alleged to supportthe caste system on the basis of threeverses. The key quotationin this contextis from 13th verse in ch 4 where the Lord tells ArjunaChaturvarnyam maya srishtam Gunakarma vibhagashah

when(gods)dividedPurusha, intohow manypartsdid theycut himup?Whatwas his mouth? Whatarms(hadhe)?What(two objects)aresaid (to have been)his thighsand feet?
Brahmanosya nukhamasit bahu rajanyah kritah/ uru tadasya yadvaishyah padbhyam shudro ajayata// (12'h verse)

Thebrahmana washis mouth, therajanya was (kingor kshatriya) madehis arms: the beingcalledthe vaishya,he was his thighs; 6) the shudra fromhis feet(5' sprang

Thefourvarnas werecreated and by meon thebasisof character occupation. Inverse31 of ch 2, Arjuna is cajoledintofightingon theground thathe is a kshatriya for whom thereis nothingmoreglorious thana righteous war.Againin verse47 of ch 18 the Lordstates that one should performone's own dharmaeven if devoid of merit and not follow another'seven if well-performed.7 Verse 13 in ch IV holds the key to the understanding of the other two as well. Krishnarefers to the four varnas,saying explicitly that they were createdon the basis of guna (nature, and karma(work, action, occupation).He aptitude,character) does notat all referto birthas the basisfor the fourfolddivision, which is only a division of labourwhere each one follows an occupationbased on aptitudeor naturalinclination.Far from to the caste system, K M Panikkar considersit as consupport a devastating attackon caste basedon birth.8 Kanesays stituting thatif Krishna wantedto makebirthas the basisof his division of labour, he couldeasily have said 'jati-karma-vibhagashah' or 'janma-karma-vibhagashah', instead of 'guna-karmavibhagashah' as actually stated [Kane 1990:1635-36]. He pointed out clearlyto 'guna'.This is also consistentwith what Krishnarepliedto Arjuna'sspecific questionin Uttaragita. Economicand PoliticalWeekly November8, 2003

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Once this is clear, it follows that the dharma referred to in the other two verses (1II31, and XVIII 47) also is based on guna and not birth. In the Mahabharata war, persons not born as kshatriyas also participated in the war as per their inclination, svabhava or guna. So there was nothing casteist in Krishna's asking Arjuna to fight like a kshatriya. Similarly, the advice to follow one's own svadharma only means that one has to follow one's aptitude and qualities, and see where one's comparative advantage lies. A talented person may be able to perform many tasks better than others, but she cannot afford to do so, and she would achieve more by concentrating on where her comparative advantage lies. The principle of comparative advantage, instead of absolute advantage, is followed in internationaltrade between countries. What Krishna advocated was to ask us to follow the more scientific and practical principle of comparative advantage as thatwould maximise social as well as individual welfare. There is nothing casteist about his advice. Comparative advantage here can also be taken in the dynamic sense, of potential that can be realised,and not in termsof presentor actual guna in a static sense. The story of Shambukain Ramayana is also cited as supporting caste system to an extreme extent. It is the story of a shudra who was killed on the advice of ministers by Rama as a punishment for doing penance and neglecting his caste duties. The story appearsin UttaraKanda,which is not a partofValmiki's Ramayana which ends with Rama's return to Ayodhya in Yuddhakanda. P V Kane, an eminent Sanskrit scholar, is of the view that Uttara Kanda was clearly a 'work of later interpolators' [ibid: Vol 1, Part 1, p 389]. The interpolation was done at a time when varna system deteriorated and got established on the basis of birth in a rigid form. Shambuka's story is not consistent with many examples of persons of so-called low birth being initiated into ashrams as pupils by rishis, and becoming rishis themselves. Matangarishiis mentionedin Valmiki Ramayanawith high regard. He came froma caste thatmay be regardedas untouchablein today' s Ramamet him to pay his respectsduringhis forestsojourn. parlance. Now we may take note of those parts of classical Hindu canon, which cannot co-exist caste system and have condemned the practice of determining one's character and status on the basis of birth or 'kula' (family). Vedanta philosophy declares that there is divinity in every lecture. Krishna says in verse 30 of ch 6: 'He who sees Me in all things and sees all things in Me, never becomes departedfrom Me, nor am I lost to him'. The preceding and succeeding verses in the Gita also convey the same message. The lord says again: 'He who judges pleasure and pain in others by the same standard as he applies to himself, that yogi is the highest' (ch 6.32). How can this advice be consistent or co-exist with support to caste distinctions based on birth?In the 16th chapter, the Lord narrates the virtues he looks for in human beings and says that those who possess them are divine. Among these virtues are: non-violence, truth, compassion to all, absence of anger and hatred, giving charityand service selflessly, forgiveness, non-covetousness and modesty (ch 16, v 1-3). It follows thathigh birthis hardlyrelevant. Rg Veda emphasises equality of all human beings. It goes to the extent of saying, which sounds quite modern: 'No one is superior, none inferior. All are brothers marching forward to prosperity'.9 The idea thatall humanbeings are equal before god irrespective of caste and that all are entitled to receive his light comes out clearly from the following: Ruchanm no dhehi brahmaneshu Rucham rajasu naskridhi I

Rucham vishveshu shudreshu Mayi dhehi rucha rucham 11 -Taittiriya Samhita V 7.6 3-4 Put light in our brahmanas,put it in our chiefs (kings), (put) light in vaishyasand shudras,put light in me by your light.10 It may sound surprising to critics of Hinduism but is a fact that Hindu scriptures have backed liberalism and humanism by underminingbirth,upholdingcharacterand basic worthof persons as being more important. Mahabharata makes this point very strongly, to an extent that it reflects a revolt against the caste system based on birth: Na kulam vrittahinasya Pramanainiti me natihi / Anteshwapij jatanam Vrittameva vishishyate // - Mahabharata, Udyoga Parva, Ch 34, v 41. It means: High birthcan be no certificatefor a person of no character.But personswith good charactercan distinguishthemselves irrespective of low birth. Mahabharataemphasises the same point again elsewhere too: Yastu Shudro dame sat,e dharme cha satatotthitah / tarn brahmanamaham manye writtenhi bhavet dvijah // - Mahabharata, Vanaparva, Ch 216, vs 14-15. It means: That shudrawho is ever engaged in self-control, truthand righteousness,I regardhim a brahmin.One is a twice-bornby conduct alone.i Uttaragita, which is also a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, makes the same point. When Arjuna specifically asks Krishna how varna is determined, he replies: Na jatih karanam tata gunah kalyanakaranam / Vritasthamapi chandalam tarn devah brahmanam viduh // It means: Birthis not the cause, my friend;it is virtues,which are the cause of welfare. Even a Chandalaobserving the vow is considered a brahmanaby the gods.12 The verse above corroborates our interpretation of the three controversial verses from the Bhagavadgita quoted above. The story of Shankaracharya(8th century), prostrating before a Chandala is well known. When the latter stood in the way of the former, he was asked to move away. The Chandala asked him whether the Acharya's behaviour was consistent with his philosophy. He asked further: Viproyam Shvapachoyam ityapi mahan koyam Vibhedabhramah(what is this confusing distinction between a brahmin and an untouchable?). Shankaracharya then prostrates before him as before a guru and breaks out into five verses known as Manisha Panchakam. He reiterates his advaita philosophy, but in his very first verse he says thata person who knows the Supreme, whether he is a Chandala or a twiceborn,is a gurufor him. (Chandaloastu sa tu dvijoastu gururityesha manisha mama).13 Ramanujacharyawho came in 12th century, defied caste even more powerfully. Madhvacharya(13th century) in his Brahmasutrabhashya declares: 'Even the low born (untouchables) have the right to the name and knowledge of god if they are devoted to him.14 Tirukkural,an ancient text venerated by Tamils as Tamil Veda,

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authored says: Let him who thinksinequitybe by Tiruvalluvar, thatruinawaitshim' (116thaphorism). warned Again, 'All men arebornalike;thedifferences aredueto differences in whatthey do.' (972nd aphorism).15 devoted Thereis an entireUpanishad,namedVajrasuchika, to an attackon caste system based on birth.The name of the can be translated as 'Thunderbolt Upanishad suggestive',which fits its claim to blast ignorance for leadingto caste responsible andawayfromgod. It is in proseandsmall in size, distinctions It is includedas the last having only nine short paragraphs. in S Radhakrishnan editedThePrincipalUpanishads Upanishad [Radhakrishnan 1994:935-38].The along with his translation based on The Upanishadis account is it. following summary argumentativein style and begins with a few questions (in second para):'Who is verily, the brahmana (brahmin)?Is he the individualsoul (Jiva)?Is he the body?Is he class basedon Is birth(jati)?Is he the knowledge?Is he the deeds (Karma)? he the performer of rites?' Then it answersthe questionsone cannotbe the individualsoul, since soul is by one. A brahmin the samein previousbirths.He cannotbe the body becausethe body consists of physicalelements,which are common to all human beings.He cannotbe determined by birth,becausemany of birth.He cannotalso be sages attained highrankirrespective and determined by knowledge,as therewere many kshatriyas otherswho too attainedhighest knowledge and wisdom, and hasnotbeenanexclusivefeature of brahmins. Deeds knowledge alsocannot makea brahmin, since all human beingscando good work.Similarly,rites andcharitycan also be done by all. Who He is the one who knows his self like thenis reallya brahmin? an amalaka fruit (gooseberry)on his palm, withoutcaringfor of birth,beingdevoidof infirmities, distinctions narrowness and ego, and who functionsas the in-dwellingspiritof all beings. At the end, the Upanishadcalls upon all to meditateon the all distinctions andegoismfrommind.There Supreme, removing is no needfor further proofto show thatHinduphilosophyand religionare againstcaste system, afterreadingthis Upanishad.

devoted to him. The lord responds by deeply identifying himself with the devotees and participates in their work and toil, and brings them emotional relief. It is also a way of raising the status of manual labour in the eyes of particularly the upper castes for the lord himself does this labour of love for his devotees. There is such a legend about several, but is particularly interesting in the case ofJanabai, a woman saint from a dalit caste. Chokhamela, a contemporary dalit saint-poet, has immortalised this legend in one of his poems: He scours the floor and pounds the grain, sweeps rubbish from her yard, hastens to fetch water, the Lord of the wheel, and plaits hair with his own hands, sitting at peace, peering down, he quickly kills lice. Chokha says loves' labour this. He cares little for greatness. 16

VII Hinduism Movements Castewithin Against

The most prominent movement within the framework of Hinduism to fight against casteism was the Bhakti movement. Though started first in Tamil Nadu as early as in 6th century CE by Shaiva saints, it found a powerful expression against caste system when Veerashaiva movement was led by Basavanna in Karnatakain 12th century. The Bhakti movement democratised, broad-based and humanised Hinduism as never before. Even if it may not have succeeded in eliminating caste system, it brought home the important fact that caste distinctions based on birth can have no sanctity in the eyes of god. The movement effectively underminedthe authorityof texts, which supportedcaste, though a false impression was also created more by upper castes than by lower castes that Vedas supported caste. As a result, several Bhakti sects declared thatthey rejected the authorityof the Vedas, prominent among them being the Veerashaiva movement and VI Sikhism. The Bhakti movement cut across not only castes, but even as a Caste Legends Weapon against System religions and spreadall over India. Kabirin northIndia, Shishunal discussedabove,Hinduism Sharif in Karnataka,and Shirdi Sai Baba in Maharashtrawere Apartfromsuch directpreaching anduntouchability foughtcasteism by creating legendstoo. Such bor as Muslims, but were a partof Bhakti movement and highly legends appealedto popular mind directly. A legend about respected by Hindus. The movement explicitly and powerfully has alreadybeen presentedabove. condemned caste system, including untouchability. Basavanna's Shankaracharya Alvar(10thcenturyCE), an untouchable devoteeof movement in Karnatakawas most aggressively against caste, and Tiruppan LordRanganatha, was insultedby a priest for standingin the included several dalit sharanasand sharanesas pointed ourearlier. way to the temple.The templedoorsdid not open to the priest, Basavanna went to the extent of getting a brahmin disciple's buta voice camefromwithinthe sanctum sanctorum thatunless daughter married to an untouchable disciple's son, causing a the priesttakesthe Alvaron his shoulders andcircumambulates serious commotion. Basavanna was far ahead of his time. Since the templethreetimes and bringshim in the Lord'spresence, the lower castes were from the working class, he preacheddignity thedoorswouldnotopen.The priesthadto obey, andthereafter, of manual labour as an important principle of his philosophy. Alvar was hailed as a great saint. The Bhakti movement in Maharashtra also was very similar, Tiruppan A similarlegend is aboutKanakadasa (16th century).When drawing saint-poets from the lower caste working class, though he wasnotadmitted intoUdupiShriKrishna templeby thepriests, it included brahmins too. The movement in Maharashtra was theidol is saidto haveturned its face around so thatKanakadasa started by an outcaste brahmin, Sant Jnaneshwar, whose family couldhavethedarshan a backwindow. lost caste because his father, a sannyasi renounced sannyasa and (sight)of thelordthrough It is still knownas Kanakana Kindi (Kanaka'swindow). got marriedon receiving a message from god to that effect. The There are similarlegends in other regions of India too. An movement in Maharashtra too emphasised dignity of manual interesting legend concerns working class bhakti-saintsof labour.There is thus quite a lot of evidence to show thatHinduism Maharashtra who came from low castes. The legend reflects constantly, deliberately and consciously fought against caste the felt by lordVitthala forhis working class system and untouchability from time to time, even before the poignantly empathy devoteeswho strugglefor their livelihood and yet are deeply modern age and before the influence of western ideas.

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Apart from the scattered and sporadic attacks on caste system, there were also concerted attempts to lift individual communities of untouchablesas a whole and to bring them into the mainstream. These attemptsstartedfrom the 19th century itself. Two glorious examples may be taken - that of ezhavas in Kerala and nadars in Tamil Nadu. Both examples relate to the pre-independence period of late 19th to early 20th century. These examples are of great interest as they involved two dalit communities elevating their caste status entirely through self-efforts and very much within the framework of Hinduism. They have been much more successful than other efforts involving conversion to other faiths for the purpose of elevation in social status. Shri Narayan Guru (1854-1928) was the chief force behind elevating the social status of ezhavas, who is venerated by them as well as by others. He gave three slogans to his followers: "One caste, one religion, and one god for man". "Ask not, say not, think not caste." "Whatever be the religion, let man improve himself." Though a religious leader, his religion was not sectarian and emphasised that all human beings are equal before god. He wanted to totally remove all caste consciousness. When he saw that the caste Hindus did not permit the entry of ezhavas and other dalits into temples, he first started building new temples for them into which non-dalits too could enter. Then he started vedic schools where dalit priests could be trained both in rituals and the philosophy of Hinduism. Next, he encouraged general and secular education for all, by starting schools and colleges. His initial temple building programme was only to mobilise his community, but his lateremphasis was more on general education so that all ezhavas and other dalits could get properly educated and seek good opportunities. He also started credit cooperative societies so that the dependence of dalits on higher castes was avoided. Thus, the guru sought all-round development of dalits. Like Gandhiji,he also tried to change the attitudesof uppercastes. He did not preach hatred of upper castes to his followers, as he did not want a rift between them. An example of his success in this regardis the supporthe received from progressive sections of uppercastes, which resulted in a savarnaprocession in support of dalits' entry in to the famous Vaikom temple during temple entrysatyagrahastartedby Gandhiji.NarayanaGuruandGandhiji worked together in temple entry movement. Narayana Guru did not confine himself only to his own community of ezhavas. There wereothercommunitiesamong untouchablesin Kerala,which were even lower in social status than ezhavas. But the guru involved them too in his attempts to elevate the status of all dalits.17 Though the nadars did not seem to have had the advantage of a charismatic and religious leader like Narayana Guru, they also did equally well under their secular leaders. The elevation of caste status came mainly through the spread of education and skills, mutual self-help by making credit available for starting enterprises,by helping caste members secure jobs by functioning as an informal employment exchange and also through Sanskritisation.18The members of both these communities ezhavas and nadarsare now highly literate and occupy important positions. Nadars have also emerged economically strong, creating a niche for themselves in industry and commerce. The example of ezhavas and nadars offers important lessons for dalits. It is not enough to build their own organisation merely to spreadawareness, make demands and protest against injustice, butit is also equally necessary to launch constructive programmes for the welfare of the community. The tendency to rely mainly on making demands on the government to promote social welfare among dalits is not enough. By its very nature, government

has limitationsin promotingsocial welfare and bureaucracy social mobility.The communities'own efforts at constructive are also necessary.These programmes may be to programmes to sendtheirchildren inducedalitparents to schools,to helpthem in getting trainingand skills for jobs outside their traditional vocations,to provideguidanceand help to those who wish to fromvillagesto townsandcities andhelpin getting migrate jobs and houses, preventingaddiction to liquor and so on. The of bothnadarsand ezhavastook care community organisations of the membersof their communitieslike parents.Once dalit takeup constructive organisations programmes, help will come to themin a big way fromprivatesourcestoo like voluntary and social service organisations and philanthropic associations. The successfulexampleof ezhavasandnadars also has shown how irrelevantare conversionsto other faiths to solve dalit problem. Another importantlesson, particularlyfrom Shri in NarayanaGuru,is that his movementwas not adversarial character. He broke throughupper caste resistanceto social change,withoutmakingenemiesof them.He could even enlist theircooperation andsupport. He was Gandhian in his approach. In Indianethos, conciliationseems to have been far more successful in effecting change than confrontation. A difference betweenezhavaandnadar movements, however, is thatthe formerwas not concentrated only on one community, but aimedat reachingall untouchables and lower castes which sufferedsocial deprivation. It was a seriousattemptto hit out atritual whichexistedamong dalitsthemselves. Success hierarchy, in this task, however,perhapswas not as greatas in elevating the status of ezhavas. Both nadars'and ezhavas' movements however,were successfulin significantlyreducingsocial deprivation untouchable commuamongtwo numerically important nities,whichhadalso a higherlevel of social statusthanothers among dalits. Therehavebeenmoremovements in modemHinduism, which arenot casteor community basedandhave helpedto enrichthe moraland spirituallife of their followers - such as those led Mission,Aurobindo, ISKON, Brahmakumaris, by Ramakrishna Shri Satya Sai Baba and Mata Amritanandamayi. Their main for thispaperis thattheyhaveshownthatHinduism significance can very well thrivewithoutcaste system.19

VIII How thendidCasteSystemEmerge andSurvive?

If allthatis contended aboveis trueandif Hinduism asa religion andphilosophy wasagainst castesystembasedon birth, andeven in practice, it opposedthe system,how did it emergeandsurvive forsolong?Simply thesystem certain functions because, performed thatwere valuedby the society.These functionshadnothingto do withreligion,beingentirelyin the 'aihika'(mundane) sphere. The unfortunate partof the story is that caste identitieshave outlivedthese functions.These functionsmay now be enumerated and explained. (i) A System of Checks and Balances The vamasystemwas notjust a divisionof labour. It was also a system of checks and balancessuch that thereis no concentrationof powerin any varnaor class. It was morea systemto avoid concentration of powerthanone meantfor appropriation of economicsurplus.As per the vama system, brahmins were

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Their notsupposed toseekregalpower. dutywastoseekknowledge and preservethe Vedas and carryon the vedic tradition. They were not supposedto amasswealthand had to dependon other 'a varnasfor their sustenance.Accordingto dharmashastras, brahmana shouldnothanker aftergifts;he maycollect (brahmin) themonly for his livelihood,a brahmana takingmorethanwhat is required for his maintenance incursdegradation' [Kane1990: Vol II,Part1,p 531]. As Dumont saystherewasa clearseparation of ritualstatusfrom materialpower. While the duty of kshatriyas,particularly of kings, was to maintain law andorder,protectdharma anddefendpeople,they too had no absolutepower. It was their duty to consult their ministersand listen to people and meet their grievances.The' of all varnas,including ministryconsisted of representatives shudras.B R Ambedkar of Mahabharata, in cites Shantiparva whichBhishmaadvisesYudhisthira to have four (Dharmaraja) brahmins, eight kshatriyas,21 vaishyas and three shudrasas ministers to guidehimintheaffairsof thestate[Moon1990:112]. The relativelylargeallocationto vaishyasmay be reflectiveof theirnumerical as agriculturists then, apartfromtheir majority too. It is also possible thatvaishyaswere the being merchants largestsource of revenuefor the state and hence were given If the king was unableto upholddharma greater representation. or protectpeopleandtheirproperty, he could even be removed by the ministers with the support of people, according to dharmashastras. A pictureof harmony andperfectalliancemay not always have been obtained,but it was at least the ideal. (ii) Division of Labour - Easy Acquisition of Skills and Knowledge Thoughtherewas significantsocial mobilityinitially,varnas became gradually hereditary andjati systemevolvedwithincreasIt was easierfor skills ing divisionof labourand specialisation. and knowledgeto be impartedwithin family from father to children as therewere no tradeschools or polytechnics as such. in skills and knowledgerequired Education in hereditary occupationsbegan quite early right at home from childhood.As familiesbecamespecialisedin arts and crafts,they flourished and soughteven distantmarkets.Kane observes that"professional castes were wealthy and well organised" as seen from dharmashastras and epigraphicrecords.The organisation had reachedsuch sophistication thattherewere largerprofessional associations calledas 'gana',andvillagelevel associations called as 'sangha'[Kane1990:Vol II, PartI, pp 66-67]. Kaneobserves further that 'the sudragraduallyrose in social statusso far as occupationwas concernedand could follow all occupations so much so except those speciallyreservedfor the brahmana, thatsudrabecameeven kings and Manu(IV.61) had expressly to enjoinuponbrahmanas notto dwell in thekingdom of a sudra' 121]. [ibid: while vaishyasand shudraswere so organised Interestingly, in professional associations or guilds, there were no such for brahmins. As Kane says, 'the brahmanas had organisations no organisedcorporate body like for Anglicanchurchwith its of archbishops, hierarchy 118]. bishopsandotherdivines' [ibid: Itis oftenargued thatbeingatthetopof thecastesystembrahmins it by giving religious designedthe caste systemandperpetuated Buttheydid not havean organisation to enforceit. The sanctity. castesystemcouldnothavecontinued because of a smallminority, whichhad neitherregalnor monetary power.It continued only becauseall castes acceptedit as in their interest.

(iii) Decentralised

Democracy - Lobby Group

When the varnastransformed themselves into ethnic endogamousgroupsbasedon birth,they developedtheirown caste/ to decide their own affairs,reducingtheirdejati panchayats pendenceon the king. The caste panchayatssettled disputes withinthe caste in an inexpensiveand promptway. They also tremendous social stability.Kingscame andwent,but imparted the society remainedstable in spite of all invasions,wars and The panchayats looked afterthe welfareof politicalinstability. the membersof theircastes in a decentralised way. The caste system provideda mechanismfor decentraliseddemocracy. Thoughthis mechanism providedstability,it also madeat least the medievalHindusociety moreconservative. The panchayats inter-caste and strictlydiscouraged marriages severelypunished hadthe elopementin love affairs,becauseinter-caste marriages of weakening The separation of caste potential caste-panchayats. fromcaste was made morerigid.The hold of caste panchayats, though weakened considerablyafter independence,has not vanished atleastin a few cases.We stillhearnewsreports of lovers acrosscastes intending to marry drivento suicide.This is more commonin ruralIndia,includingthe so-calledlow castes and untouchables. Thecontinued holdof castepanchayats is ensured of familieson membersof theircaste by continued dependence duringbirth,weddinganddeath,andexcommunication by caste is stillconsidered a matter of terrible andshame. panchayat disgrace Caste panchayats or their more modernavatar- caste lobbies - are simply instruments to preservecaste identitiesor ethnic to seekconcessions fromor makedemands on thelarger identities, society or the state.In this form,they arecompletelydisjointed fromthe traditional notionsof ritualstatus,purityandpollution. (iv) Ecological Role There is alsoanecological dimension tothecastesystem,brought outby Madhav 2002].The Gadgilin 1983[Gadgil1983;Kavoori castesystemperformed animportant of reducing function competitionforandavoiding of natural resources. overexploitation Only fishermen castecould go for fishing,andtheircastepanchayats evolvedrulesforsustainable of fisheries. exploitation Onlyhunters' castecouldgo forhunting wildlifein the forests,exceptthe king who did it occasionallyfor pleasureandalso to kill man-eating intovillages.Onlychamar orcobbler caste tigers,whichintruded hadtherightto thedeadanimals andtheirskin.Castepanchayats evolved rules for restrictinghunting in particular seasons,or animals so thatwild life is protected andnot drivento particular extinction. Certain forestareasknownas sacredgroves(known as 'devara kadu'in Kannada, or 'dev-ran' inMarathi, or 'pavithravana'inSanskrit) wereoutof bounds foranyhunting orevencutting in a way so as to greentrees.The caste systemalso functioned control thegrowth of population barriers formarriage. bycreating After giving several illustrations, MadhavGadgil observes: Thecastesocietyhadthusdeveloped two specialmechanisms to the exploitation of natural resources. The occupational regulate of eachcasteensured thatany particular resource specialisation was primarily if not exclusivelyutilisedby one particular caste. The intra-caste thenspread the exploitation territoriality evenly over geographical regions[Gadgil1938:282]. Gadgilpointsoutbothpositiveandnegativeways 'of viewing this ecological steady state': It maybe viewedpositively as a desirable stateof manlivingin balance withnature. it maybe viewednegatively Alternatively,

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as a stateof stagnation.For if the resourcesare used in a balanced fashion, there would be no pressures for cultural change and technologicalinnovation.This is no doubt what happenedandthe Indiansociety remainedlargely balanced (or stagnant!)freezing its caste system for perhapstwo and half millennia between the colonisation of much of the time of Buddhawhen the agricultural subcontinentwas complete and the beginning of the British rule. But valuejudgmentsapart,an important consequenceof the Indian caste system was this attainment of ecological approximate steady state [ibid:282-83].

and division of labour, especially under political patronage, as happened for example under the Vijayanagara kings and Mughal emperors. It was no wonder that caste system survived under such security. Neither the Muslim rulers nor the British interfered with the system. Many Hindus may have been converted, but the caste system was imbibed into the new religions of Islam and Christianity in India, since the jajmani system and other functions of caste system had nothing to do with religion.

IX

(v) Security of Livelihood and Employment

An importantfeature of caste system was its localised system of production based on jatiwise division of labour for meeting local needs, rather than the needs of the larger market. As M N Srinivas explains in a posthumously published article, the base of this localised production was not necessarily a village, but a cluster of neighbouring villages, each cluster having one or more "weekly markets, where villagers and itinerant traders would gather to exchange goods, or buy paying cash. The cluster could claim a large degree of self-sufficiency as far as the production of basic needs was concerned..." [Srinivas 2003] In most partsof the India,there developed a system of making annual payments in kind or cash, as soon as harvesting was done, for services rendered by village artisans, barbers, washermen, agricultural labourers and the like. The system of payment was not on piece-work, but involved the principle that taking care of the artisansand labourersand their basic needs was the responsibility of land owning families. Whenever there were special occasions of urgent need such as marriage, the working class families were given special help. M N Srinivas refers to different names of this system in different parts of India: "jajmaniin the north, bara balute in Maharashtra, 'mirasi' in Madras, 'adade' in Mysore. The relationship between the jajman and his kamin is unequal, since the latter is regarded as inferior" [Srinivas 1980:14]. The continuing tensions between land owning communities and communities which traditionally were subservient, resulting sometimes into atrocities against the latter owe their origin to this patron-clientrelationship and its breakdown, rather than to any canonical support to caste system. This institution in the past at least recognised the right to work and livelihood, and in the process controlled competition. The relationship between patron and client extended beyond generations, and in the traditional system at least, it was not open to a landlord to prefer a new client merely because he charged lower for the services offered. Nor could the client seek alternative employment outside his traditional patron for a higher wage - at least not when his services were needed by his patron. It was the obligation of the patron that the client and his family did not starve. The much maligned 'Apasthambha Dharmasutra' even says that if an unexpected guest comes and there is limited food, the head of the family and his family members have to cut down their own food, but not that of the servants. The latter have to have their proper meal. The guest should not be fed at the expense of servants [Kane, Vol I, Part 1, pp 57-58]. The system was certainly not an ideal one without blemish. All the shortcomings resulting from patron-client relationship, curbing competition and subsistence oriented production followed from the system. In conditions of frequent droughts and high political instability since the medieval age, what mattered most was food security, more than growth. Yet, even under this system, artsand crafts flourished made possible by specialisation

of Casteas a System Collapse

A posthumously published paper by M N Srinivas (2003) carries the assertive title - 'An Obituary on Caste as a System'. Paradoxically, the system has expired but caste identities remain and show no sign of going. It looks, caste system is dead but its ghost remains. Caste as a system is taken to mean by Srinivas as involving mainly its localised social production base, subsistence economy, and jati (caste) based occupations. Caste as a system, however, covers all the features listed in the beginning of this paperand its functions listed in the preceding Section VIII. Srinivas refers specifically to the last function discussed here. But other functions also were no less significant in determining the structureof the system. Caste as a system has collapsed today because all its functions have collapsed. It has lost whatever relevance, role, utility and justification it may have had. Several factors contributed to the collapse of the system ethical, political social, economic and technological. Though the system gave some stability and even security, it lost on the side of humaneness and social justice. All kinds of indignities were imposed on lower castes, their access to learning was barred, and they were pushed to unenviable and inhuman positions. It was thus that the caste system, particularly its extreme form untouchability, became disgraced and condemned right from Buddha's time, and again from the medieval age, and then again in the modem times. The functional significance of the caste system also vanished, making its collapse all the moreinevitable. A major factor is the emergence of the modern state as a much stronger, much more powerful and pervasive institution than it ever was with its different wings - the executive, judiciary and legislature, able to exercise powers on all. Hinduism has accepted the emergence of the modem state to enact its own laws, including personal laws, and the sphere of dharmic laws regulating the conduct of people in day-to-day life has shrunk very significantly. There is thus no need for either dharmashastraswhich served as de facto legislation in dharmic matters, nor for caste panchayats which acted as judiciary. To the extent that their role still continues, it is much less powerful and is superceded by the role of the state. For the same reason, the role of the varna system in providing a system of checks and balances also has vanished. The legally enacted constitution, accepted by all, provides now a system of checks and balances to maintain equilibrium and stability. Since in the bargain, decentralised democracy of the caste system has broken down, a new type of decentralised democracy, which is village based, has taken its place. It does not need any authenticationby religion, but is backed by the Constitution and state power, which is more important. For some time, the dominant castes (which are not the same as ritually upper castes) may try to hijack the village panchayats, but it is a losing battle. The system of reservation for backward castes and untouchables and also for women will gradually but definitely reduce the role of

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dominant castes. The secular and inclusive forces will prevail over the caste forces before long, even if they have not already done so in some areas. The political consensus against caste system and the power of adult franchise in democracy will ensure the success of democratic and secular forces and defeat caste forces. The next factor, which worked against the caste system, was the rise of modern secular education. Education need not be and is not family-based though family education will supplement outside education. It is in schools and colleges including trade schools, professional colleges and polytechnics that skills and education are provided. Thus the need for hereditary occupation is now redundant, and social mobility will be much more. The need for hereditary principle in occupation is now redundantalso because of the rise of new occupations and the extinction of several old occupations. The dynamics of the growth of diversity of occupations is such that the hereditaryprinciple looks totally outdatedand nonsensical. The information age has thrown up an opening for new occupations, which cannot be classified into the sphere of the four traditional varnas. It is wrong to interpretthat all the intellectual tasks were assigned exclusively to brahmins in the traditional vara system. Brahmins had no monopoly of intellect even if they had some monopoly to study the Vedas and officiate as priests. Even the monopoly as priests has been broken, with different jatis arranging their own priests from outside the caste of brahminsand evolving their own rituals. The institutions started by Shri Narayana Guru and Mata Amritanandamayi have been training priests from all castes including women. The exclusive role of brahmins in conducting ritualsand ceremonies is highly exaggerated. In any case, it could not have been exclusively intellectual, because every task - regal, warfare,agriculture,arts and crafts required the role of intellect. This is even more so in the modern age, particularly the informationage, underwhich every sector demands the role of intellect and information and not one sector alone. The reason why this point is elaborated is because the new intellectual tasks of the information as brahmanical. age cannotbe mechanicallyinterpreted Can we say that the study and research in medicine fits into brahminvarna,but practice of medicine into shudravara? How can we separate the two? Just as new professions and occupations emerged, quite a few old occupations have vanished. Some of them have moved right into homes and do not any longer require specialised occupations and caste groups, thanks mainly to technological change. The system of toilets has undergone a revolutionary change during the last 50 years even in ruralareas, making it totally unnecessary to handle human waste and carry it on head as in the past. Toilets have moved inside the homes now, and family members themselves clean them. Several tasks which were considered as dirty and polluting need not be done now directly by hand, and can be handled by tools and machines. It is now possible to be clean and hygienic even while handling the so-called dirty tasks. Thus any rationale for separate castes for doing dirty jobs and for isolating them is now totally lost. Alvin Toffler (1980) in his book, The Third Wave, has pointed out to the recent phenomenon of what he calls the 'prosuming' or 'prosumer',occasioned by the blurringline between producing and consuming. This refers to 'do-it-yourself kits and selfservice, which is becoming more prominent. From furniture pieces to cars to computers, several things are supplied with stepby-step instructions for assembling them at homes. This has reduced the cost to producer and the price to consumers. What is more, the consumer enjoys the thrill of doing it oneself, of

creating some thing. This phenomenon is not limited to commodities and has invaded services too. Thus, we do the daily shave ourselves with safety razor, taking over a part of the task of barber.Many of us, with or without washing machines, wash our clothes ourselves and iron them too. The social significance of all this is that the old wall of distinction between artisans and arm-chair consumer is falling apart. The old division of labour separatingmanualtasks from the intellectual is losing its meaning. of the purusha In this context, Arvind Sharma's reinterpretation sukta in the 10th mandala of Rg Veda is of interest. According to Sharma, the reference here need not be to social structure as such, but to combining in the same individual different duties one has to perform during one's life, - learning, helping in the management or governance of the community and the country as in a democracy (voter being the king) including offering militancy service when needed, participation in economic or professional activities and service to society including manual labour (for one's own benefit and for the society). In his words: 'The idea is that all varnas are contained in every individual from now on instead of every individual being comprised within one of the varnas' [Sharma 1996]. M N Srinivas (2003) refers to a combination of new forces in operation, responsible for the destruction of the caste system. These forces have led to the breakdown of the caste-based mode of social production in turn leading to the collapse of the caste system. The new forces are breakdown of the jajmani system, emergence of the larger market and decline of the village based subsistence production, urbanisation, and above all the rise of democracy based on adult franchise. Along with these, there is widespread acceptance of new values - equality, self-respect, and human dignity. He cites several instances of how village artisan based production has given place to factory production - mass produced edible oil replacing the oil-seed pressing caste, factory producedplastic andaluminumvessels replacingthe village potter caste, urbantextiles replacingthe village weaverand so on. Srinivas observes significantly: "The moral is that ideological attacks on hierarchy and brahmanical claims to supremacy failed to create an egalitarian social order since at the local level the production of basic needs was intrinsically bound up with jati" (p 458). Last, the caste system has also lost its ecological role and relevance, as observed by Madhav Gadgil himself in the same paper in which he pointed out this role of the caste system. The resources under the control of local communities have been depleted significantly, thanks to their take over by the state and their exploitation by the larger market forces. "Thus alienated from their ecological resource base which was depleting rapidly, the Indian caste society was rudely thrown out of the ecological steady state maintained perhaps for more than a hundred generations"[Gadgil 1983:283]. The recent attempts at regeneration of local natural resources through local committees under schemes like Joint Forest Management, are not based on caste but are secular. Moreover, with the breakdown of social base of production, it is doubtful if the caste-based occupations will ever get a new lease of life. It is evident from the above analysis that the emergence as well as survival of the caste system had nothing to lo with Hinduism as a religion. The caste system was purely social phenomenon, very much in the mundane sphere. It is aihika sphere (mundane), and not paramarthikaor adhyatmika (spiritual). Being in aihika sphere, rules of conduct and custom are liable to change from time to time, and not eternally fixed, as Hindu texts themselves concede. The support to it given by dharmashastras including

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and discussed them. The interpretation here is based on this, but goes Manusmruti couldbe only a resultof the social significance and a little further.The principleof comparativeadvantageattributed to Gita role of the caste system of the time, and not the cause of it. here is not in Sharma's discussion. But without such interpretation, a Dharmashastras reflectedwhat is alreadythere in the society. full sense cannot be made of verse 35 in ch 3 and verse 47 in ch 18, bothof which have the same message, with the first half of the two verses of it like whenManusmrti (IV 176) Theyalsoapproved rejection being common. indicated rulecouldbe rejectedif it led clearlythatanydharmic 8 As by Arvind Sharma (2000) ibid, p 163. to people'sunhappiness andindignation. Therecanbe no ground 9 Thequoted Sanskrit original is 'Ajyesthaso akanishthaso ete sambhrataro for fear thatdharmashastras would give a new lease of life to vahaduhusaubhagaya' (Rg Veda V 60.5). Translationand originalfrom K T Pandurangi (1999, second edn) - Indian Thoughton HumanValues, the caste systeminspiteof its being redundant andirrelevant in BharatiyaVidya Bhavan, p 3. the modernage. Most of the verses in dharmashastras have 10 Bangalore: Original and translationfrom P V Kane op cit, Vol II, Part I, p 34. themselvesbecome irrelevant,at least those parts supporting 11 The original of this verse taken from P V Kane, op cit, Vol V, Part II, castesystem.On theotherhand,the collapseof the castesystem p 1006, and the translationfrom Arvind Sharma(2000), op cit, p 158; Kane cites several more verses on the same theme, see esp Vol II, PartI, would also pose no threatto the continuation and survivalof 101. Hinduism.Hinduismhas been thriving Avith renewed vigour 12 p As quotedby ArvindSharma(2000), op cit, p 165. His source is S V Oka thanks as SatyaSai Baba,MataAmritanandamayi (1957) Uttaragita with a Translation into English and Appendices, to suchleaders Oriental Research Institute, p 44. Poona, Bhandarkar andSriSriRavishankar, andinstitutions likeRamakrishna Mission, both the originaland translation, see Swami Iswarananda Giri (2000, Brahmakumaris andISKONon an entirelynon-caste basis.This 13 For second edn) Portrait of Guru: Lectures on Maneesha Panchakam of is becausecaste is not intrinsicto basic principlesandtenetsof AcharyaShreeShankara,Mt Abu: Samvit Sadhanalaya, esp pp xiv-xviii. Hinduismas enshrinedin Hindu canon. Hinduismitself has 14 K T Pandurangidrew my attention to this quotation. 15 At leasttwotranslations of Kuralareavailablein English: C Rajagopalachari foughtandis still fightingagainstcasteismin a significant way. Mumbai: (1999; firstedn 1965) - Kural:TheGreatBookof Tiruvalluvar, If castesystemwereintrinsic to Hinduism, ShriNarayana Guru and,P S Sundaram Bharatiya VidyaBhavan(containingselectedportions); andMataAmritanandamayi would not have workedwithinthe (1990)- Tiruvalluvar:The Kural, Translatedfrom the Tamil with an Introduction,New Delhi: Penguin Books (containing complete work). framework of Hinduism. Mi

Address for correspondence:

mv.nadkami @rediffmaio.com

Notes
[This is a partof my ICSSR National Fellowship Project in progress.I am to V R Panchamukhi, chairman,for financial gratefulto ICSSR,particularly supportand academic encouragement.K T Pandurangiwas quite helpful in locating some references. I have benefited from comments particularly and suggestionsmade when I presenteda draft version of this at the Centre for MultiDisciplinaryDevelopmentResearch,Dharwad,on April 29, 2003. My hearty thanks to all the participantsat the seminar, particularlyto P R Panchamukhi who invited me to give this talk, to D N Dhanagarewhose comments were specially helpful in clarifying my points further,and to C B Tigadi who chaired. The usual disclaimers apply.] 1 Dr Ambedkarfinds R S Sharma's supporthere: 'It is evident then that the shudrasappearas a social class only towards the end of the period of Atharva Veda [chronologicallythe lastof the Vedas], when the Purusha Suktaversion of theirorigin may have been insertedinto the 10th book of the Rg Veda.' R S Sharma- Sudras in Ancient India, p 29, as cited in ArvindSharma(2000) Classical Hindu Thought,New Delhi, Oxford University Press, p 142. 2 See Dr B R Ambedkar'stwo books - Whowere the Shudras?How They Becamethe FourthVarnain Indo-Aryan Society (1947) andTheUntouchables - Who were They, and Why They Became Untouchables(1948), bothreprinted in Dr BabasahebAmbedkar: and Speeches,Vol 7, Writings ed by VasantMoon,Mumbai: Govt of Maharashtra, Education Dept, 1990. 3 DipankarGupta Says: "It was well after the Vedic period, after even the period of Mauryanempire, that the notion of untouchabilitycame into being. In Satapatha Brahmana, the chief or the noble is advised to eat from the same vessel as vis, and commoner. ...In the Rg Veda thereis no mentionof untouchableeither. ....t was only aroundsecond century AD that the stratum of untouchables and the notion of untouchability became evident for instance in Apasthambha See his InterrogatingCaste - UnderstandingHierarchy Dharmasutra". and Difference in Indian Society, (2000), Sage, New Delhi, p 190. 4 For examples of this type, see Arvind Sharma(2000), op cit, Chl9 on 'Varna', pp 132-180. 5 The two verses in original are (respectively): Parityajet arth kamou yow syatam dharma varjitow/ dharmachyapisukhodarka lokavikrishtamevacha//(Manus 4.176) vidvadbhihsevitah sadbhir nityam advesha ragibhih/ hridayenabhyanujnato yo dharmastvamnibodhata// (Manus 2.1). 6 The translationas by Dr Ambedkar,Vasant Moon (ed), (1990) op cit, p 22. 7 ArvindSharma(2000, op cit, pp 161-4) has identifiedthese threeverses

16 As translatedby Rohini Mokashi-Punekar(2002) On the Threshhold: New Delhi:The Book Review Literary Trust,p 65. Songs of Chokhamela, 17 For a moredetailedaccountof ezhavas' success (also knownas izhavas), see Ciriac K Pulapilly (1976) 'The Izhavas of Keralaand their Historic Struggle for acceptance in Hindu Society' in Beldwell L Smith (ed) Religion and Social Conflictin SouthAsia, Leiden:E J Brill; and, Sathya Bai Sivadas and P Prabhakara Rao (2002) Narayana Guru- The Social Philosopher of Kerala, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 18 See Robert L HardgraveJr (1969) The Nadars of Tainil Nadu: The Political Culture OxfordUniversityPress,andUniversity ofa Community, of California Press, L I Rudolph and S H Rudolph (1969) Modernity of Tradition- Political Development in India, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. 19 These movements have been discussed at a little greaterlength in my earlierpaperin EPW, 'Ethics and Relevance of Conversions...', January 18, 2003, pp 227-35. 20 Madhav CasteSystemas a Historical Gadgil(1983) 'TheIndian Adaptation: An Ecological Perspective',New Quest 41, September-October, pp 27983; also see PurnenduS Kavoori (2002) 'The Varna Trophic System: An Ecological Theory of Caste Formation', EPW, 37(12) March 23.

References
Dumont,Louis (1999, first published 1970): Homo Hierarchicus:The Caste System and Its Implications, Oxford India Paperback,New Delhi. Gadgil,Madhav(1983): 'TheIndianCasteSystem as a HistoricalAdaptation: An Ecological Perspective', New Quest 41, September-October. Ma Na (1997): Dalita VargadaSharanaruMattuSharaneyaruJavaraiah, Ondu Adhyayana, SiddharthaGranthamale(in Kannada),Mysore. Kane, P V (1990; first published 1930): History Dharmashastra(Ancient andMedievalReligionsand CivilLawin India), VolumesI- V,Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune. Kavoori, PurnenduS (2002): 'The Varna Trophic System: An Ecological Theory of Caste Formation', EPW, 37(12) March 23. Moon, Vasant (ed) (1990): Who were the Shudras? How They Becane the Fourth Varnain Indo-AryanSociety (1947); The Untouchables- Who wereThey,and Why (1948) by B R Ambedkar, TheyBecameUntouchables in Dr BabasahebAmbedkar:Writingsand Speeches, Vol 7, Government of Maharashtra, Education department,Maharashtra. Omvedt,Gail (1994): Dalits and DemocraticRevolution,Sage Publications, New Delhi. S (1994; first publication1953): ThePrincipal Upanishads, Radhakrishnan, HarperCollins, New Delhi. Sharma,Arvind (1996): Hinduismfor our Times, Oxford University Press, Delhi. - (2000): Classical Hindu Thought,Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Srinivas,M N (1977; first edition 1966): 'Sanskritisation'in Social Change in Modern India, Orient Longman, New Delhi. - (1980; firstpublished1969):Ildia: Social Structure,HindustanPublishing Corporation,Delhi. - (2003): 'An Obituaryon Caste as a System', EPW, Vol 38(5), February1. Toffler,Alvin (1980): 'TheRise of the Prosumer'in TheThirdWave,William Morrow and Co, New York.

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