Geog Focus 1

Geography
stage four
1
Sue van Zuylen Glyn Trethewy Helen McIsaac
Author acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Sue Watson for her work on this book; and acknowledge their considerable respect and value of her opinions during the initial editing process. The authors would also like to acknowledge the role played by our publisher, Penelope Naidoo. Her coordination of and perseverance throughout the production process of the Geography Focus series has been highly valued by them all. Author dedications Sue van Zuylen: To my parents: Godfrey and Peggy Fowkes. Glyn Trethewy: To my wife, Karen, and my children Sarah, Nicholas and Hannah. Helen McIsaac: To the Irving and McIsaac families.
Pearson Education Australia A division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd Level 9, 5 Queens Road Melbourne 3004 Australia www.pearsoned.com.au/schools Ofces in Sydney, Brisbane and Perth, and associated companies throughout the world. Copyright Pearson Education Australia 2007 (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) First published 2007 Reproduction and Communication for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10 per cent of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given remuneration notice(s) to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. For details of the CAL licence for educational institutions contact Copyright Agency Limited (www.copyright.com.au). Reproduction and Communication for other purposes Except as permitted under the Act (for example a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review) no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher at the address above. Edited by Susan Watson and Writers Reign Designed by Paul Ryan Illustrated by Bruce Rankin and Wendy Gorton Prepress work by The Type Factory Produced by Pearson Education Australia Printed in Hong Kong National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data Trethewy, Glyn. Geography focus 1: stage four. For secondary school students. ISBN 978 0 7339 7714 5 (pbk.). 1. Geography - Textbooks. I. McIsaac, Helen. II.Van Zuylen, Sue. III. Title.
910 Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. However, should any infringement have occurred, the publishers tender their apologies and invite copyright holders to contact them.
Contents
Series features How to use this book Syllabus correlation grids vi viii x
Investigating the world

1
Unlocking the world
1.1 The nature of Geography 1.2 Wonders of the world 1.3 Maps and map reading 1.4 Physical elements of the environment 1.5 Human elements of the environment 1.6 Fieldwork 1.7 Measuring the weather
Global environments
3
2
4 6 10 14 16 18 20
Polar lands
3.1 The polar land environment 3.2 The northern polar landsthe Arctic 3.3 Living in polar landsthe Sami 3.4 The changing Sami culture 3.5 The Sami and self-determination 3.6 The southern polar landAntarctica 3.7 Antarcticas ecosystem 3.8 Human impact on Antarctica
56
58 60 62 66 70 72 74 76 80
3.9 Protecting Antarctica
4
Our world and its heritage
2.1 Introducing our world 2.2 Map making and map projections 2.3 Latitude and climate 2.4 Longitude and time 2.5 Mapping the physical and human world 2.6 Our world heritage 2.7 Criteria for World Heritage listing 2.8 Valuing World Heritage 2.9 Galapagos Islandsa World Heritage site 2.10 Introducing global environments
24
26 28 32 36 40 42 46 48 52 54
Coral reefs
4.1 Coral reefsrainforests of the sea 4.2 Coral reefsplant or animal? 4.3 Coral reef formations 4.4 Animals of the coral reef environment 4.5 Human threats to coral reefs 4.6 The Great Barrier Reef 4.7 Natural threats to coral reefs 4.8 Global warmingthe end of coral reefs? 4.9 Coral reef destructiona global issue
82
84 86 88 90 92 94 98 100 102
iii
5
Mountains
5.1 Mountain landforms 5.2 Plate tectonics 5.3 Earthquakes and volcanoes 5.4 Glaciation 5.5 Mountain climate 5.6 Mountain tourism 5.7 Khumbuland of the Sherpa 5.8 Living in the mountain environment Sherpa people
Global change
104
106 108 112 116 120 122 126 128
Changing global relationships 178

180 182 184 186 188 192 196 198 200 202
8.1 The globalisation process 8.2 Advances in communications technology 8.3 Motorolaa telecommunications giant 8.4 Computers and the World Wide Web 8.5 Transport technology and globalisation
8.6 Transnational corporations and globalisation 8.7 The globalisation of sport 8.8 The sweatshop side of globalisation 8.9 Cultural impacts of globalisation
Rainforests
6.1 Rainforest environments 6.2 How the Amazon rainforest works 6.3 Living things of the Amazon 6.4 Indigenous people of the Amazon 6.5 The Congo rainforest and its community 6.6 The DaintreeAustralias tropical rainforest 6.7 The future of rainforests
132
134 136 140 144 146 150 154
8.10 Globalisationwinners and losers
9
Global inequality
9.1 Accessing the necessities of lifefresh water 9.2 Accessing the necessities of lifefood and shelter 9.3 Other aspects of the quality of life 9.4 The world and its resources 9.5 Measuring inequality between countries
204
206 208 210 212 216 218 220 222 224 226
Deserts
7.1 World deserts and their people 7.2 Processes in the desert atmosphere 7.3 Processes in the hydrosphere and lithosphere 7.4 Processes in the desert biosphere 7.5 Human impact on the desert environment 7.6 A desert communitythe San of the Kalahari 7.7 Deserts in Australia
156
158 160 162 166 170 172 176
9.6 The Human Development Index 9.7 Life opportunities throughout the world 9.8 Reducing global inequality 9.9 The importance of action 9.10 Global organisations
iv
Global issues and the role of citizenship

10
Climate change
10.1 Climatic records 10.2 Natural climate change 10.3 The greenhouse effect 10.4 Global warming 10.5 Different perspectives on climate change 10.6 Living more sustainably
13
Land degradation 284
13.1 The nature of land degradation 13.2 Soils and their degradation 13.3 Desertication 13.4 Soil salinity 13.5 Mining and land degradation 13.6 War and land degradation 13.7 Nuclear pollution and land degradation 13.8 Land management 286 288 292 294 296 298 300 302
228
230 232 234 236 240 242
14
Human rights
11
Access to fresh water
11.1 Watera scarce and precious resource 11.2 Groundwatera hidden resource 11.3 Effects of falling water tables 11.4 Contamination of groundwater 11.5 Water and health 11.6 The Aral Sea ecological disaster 11.7 The issue of dam-building 11.8 Conict or cooperation? 14.1 Human rights for all 14.2 Life and liberty
304
306 308 312 314 316 318 320 322
246
248 252 254 256 258 260 262 264
14.3 Discrimination denies human rights 14.4 Childrens rights 14.5 Child labour 14.6 Child soldiers 14.7 Child trafcking 14.8 Campaigning for human rights
15
Threatened habitats
15.1 The dimension of habitats
12
324
326 328 330 332 336 340 342 344 346
Urbanisation 266
12.1 Cities of the world 12.2 The growth of cities 12.3 The urban footprint 12.4 New York Citya world city 12.5 Issues in cities of the developing world 12.6 MumbaiIndias megacity 12.7 Mexico Citya megacity from Latin America 268 272 274 276 278 280 282
15.2 The threats to habitats 15.3 Perspectives on threatened habitats 15.4 Management of threatened habitats 15.5 Grasslandsa threatened habitat 15.6 The lemurs of Madagascaran endangered species in a threatened habitat 15.7 Threatened species proles Acknowledgements Index
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS 1
Geography Focus 1 is specifically written to provide comprehensive coverage of the NSW Stage 4 Geography syllabus.
Geography Focus 1 Coursebook

Includes Student CD
Geography Focus 1 provides a thorough introduction to the study of Geography. Stunning visuals, together with the most up-to-date and stimulating material, will engage and motivate students. Key features include: full-colour, double-page spread format outcomes listed at the start of every chapter a diverse range of appealing maps and other geographical media structured, student-centred activities catering for different learning abilities activities contributing to skills associated with literacy, active and informed citizenship and cross-curriculum content Skills Master sections providing the geographical skills and tools integral to the study of Geography Snapshots incorporating high-interest features Geography Focus boxes providing fascinating facts about a topic, country or place ICT skills incorporated throughout.
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Geography
1
Sue van Zuylen Glyn Trethew y Helen McIsaac
stage four
Each coursebook includes an interactive Student CD containing: an electronic version of the coursebook the Companion Website on CD a link to the live Companion Website.
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Geography Focus 1 Companion Website
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary
The Companion Website contains a wealth of support material that has been written to enhance teaching and learning: Surf: activities relating to specied units from the coursebook. These activities address necessary skills in an ICT environment Review Questions and Quick Quizzes: auto-correcting multiple-choice questions for revision Web Destinations: a list of reviewed websites that support further investigation and revision Additional content: for selected units in the coursebook.
Geography Focus 1 Teachers Edition

Includes Teachers Edition CD
The innovative Teachers Edition allows any teacher to approach the teaching and learning of Geography condently using the Geography Focus 1 package. It includes: pages from the coursebook with wrap-around notes cross references to material on the Teachers Edition CD a wealth of teaching strategies and activities directly related to the coursebook a practical exam for each chapter in the book, consisting of multiple-choice questions, short-answer and then long-answer questions a CD containing teaching programs, animations, outline maps, atlas skills PowerPoints and editable exam practice tests with answers.
AGRICULTURE INDUSTRY
close to the raw In the past industries were located coalelds that materials that they needed or to the high-tech industries provided their power. Today, modern ir markets and are more concerned with access to the can be inuenced reducing labour costs. Their location by many factors as shown in 1.XX. in the location of There have been two major changes industry in the last 50 years: and As the old industrial areas in Europe iness parks have North America declined modern bus grown up to replace them. to poorer countries Factories have moved from richer to reduce their costs.
TEACHERS EDIT
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Geography
stage four
1
Ray Handley
Sue van Zuylen y Glyn Trethew Helen McIsaac
PEARSON EDUCAT
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edita ers exams and answ practical er for each chapt es case studi outline maps tions anima interactive quizzes PowerPoint atlas skills version of the electronic ebook student cours CD Website on Companion
Focus 1.5
Patterns are present in the human landscape as well as the natural environment. The way settlements, agriculture and industry use the land, water and atmosphere is reflected in the form and condition of the planet. In this unit, students will look at several patterns that are presently emerging as a result of these elements.
Human elements of the environment

of Singapore are 1.22 The tall buildings of the city the environment. some of the human elements of
es that have been Agriculture involves human activiti . In some parts of the shaping the landscape for centuries been signicantly world the natural environment has created by changed by farming practices. Patterns tiny elds typical of agriculture vary from patchworks of expanses subsistence farming in Asia to the featureless n farming in created by modern commercial grai North America. was originally dry In Bolivia, the area east of Santa Cruz ject cleared the land tropical forest. The Tierras Bajas pro the high plains of and moved people in to the area from commercial crop. the Andes to grow soy beans, a valuable vities can be seen in The resulting pattern of human acti is centred on 1.XX. Each agricultural pin-wheel pattern es are then spaced a small community. The communiti ilometre intervals. evenly across the landscape at ve-k . Roadways connect each town centre
Work, employment and enterprise

Ask students two further questions as an extension to the activities: 1 What do you think are the factors that make locating in a poorer country more cost effective for factories? Factors could include that cheap labour is readily available, buying land and building factories is cheap, governments may reduce taxes or relax working conditions to encourage factories to relocate, rich countries have more regulations, stricter working conditions and higher wages, factories in countries with large populations are close to large markets, transportation is cheap and communication technology makes the shipment of goods and the management of business easier between the factories and their head offices. 2 How will the jobs available for people change as more people move into urban areas? Changes could include more office jobs, more building jobs as construction increases, fewer jobs in labouring and more emphasis on service jobs, such as waiters, nurses, doctors, accountants and taxi drivers.
TRY US IND
Vocabulary preview
agriculture commercial community culture industry landscape rural settlements urban
to live.
SETTLEMENTS
in? 9 Which place would you most like to live
Why?
Quality teaching and learning

Providing intellectual depth and higher-order thinking are key factors in providing quality teaching and learning opportunities. This unit is an excellent springboard for looking at these factors. Skills activity 3 asks students to gather facts directly from the newspaper article on page 16. They can also use this article to stimulate a deeper understanding by using their prior knowledge of the increasing number of people moving from the country to the city, and by looking at the implications of the facts detailed in the article. Either as a class or in small groups within the classroom, invite students to discuss the possible future costs and benefits of the movement of people into urban areas. Construct a table of the points discussed. 16 Geography Focus 1 Teachers Edition
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
up of several A megalopolis is made together. cities that have merged Boston to BosWash stretches from States, a Washington in the United kilometres. distance of over 600
4 Dene the term 'agriculture'. industry. 5 List the factors that affect the location of in the last 6 How has the location of industry changed 50 years?
Application
Ed u
Skills
7 Describe the buildings in 1.22 and 1.23.
live with those in 10 Compare the buildings in the place that you on page 4. Look Singapore and Oia in this unit and the Amazon buildings. What do at the building materials and the style of the there? How they tell you about the people that live and work settlement? has the physical environment inuenced the
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Unlocking the world
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16 Geography Focus Chapter 8 Changing Global Relationships
Answers to activities
Knowledge
live. Settlements can be a small 1 Settlements are places where people farmhouse or a large city. city with over 10 million people 2 A megacity or megalopolis is a huge of a megalopolis with a population living within it. Tokyo is an example of over 35 million. population now live in urban areas. 3 a Over 50 per cent of the worlds India: 22.6 million; New Delhi, b Tokyo, Japan: 35 million; Mumbai, 20.6 million; Sao Paulo, India: 20.9 million; Mexico City, Mexico: Brazil: 20 million of food created 4 Agriculture is the organised production when the natural environment is modified.
site, capital or 5 energy, raw materials, government, finances, labour, transport, markets areas have closed 6 Over the last 50 years, old industrial been established. down while new industrial estates have countries to poorer Also factories have moved from richer countries where their costs will be lower.
Surf Activities
Invite students to conduct Internet research to find one place in the world where people have overcome a major challenge presented by the physical environment and constructed something they needed. The challenge could be steep ground, flooding, or even the climate. The construction could be rice paddies, a dam or a whole city.
Skills
7 Answers will vary. 8 Answers will vary. 9 Answers will vary.
Application
10 Answers will vary.
Chapter 1 Unlocking the world 17
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1.23 A traditional village on one of the Greek islands in the Mediterranean Sea
Knowledge
types of settlement. 1 What is a settlement? Name two different 2 What is a megalopolis? Name one. 3 Refer to the news article in this unit. worlds a Where does the largest percentage of the population now live? in 2015 and b List the ve cities predicted to be the largest their project population.
that 8 In class discuss the lifestyle of the people these settlements. a What jobs might they do? b What clothes might they wear? c What food do you think they would eat?
live in each of
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Activities
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farmhouses with Settlements range in size from isolated as Tokyothe one or two people to huge places, such over 35 million. worlds largest city with a population within settlements The buildings that people construct the physical often reect their culture as well as . environment where they are located
1.24 The pin-wheel settlement pattern of Tierras Bajas, Bolivia
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How to use this book

There are 15 chapters in the book, each with the following features:
Geography allows us to see the world more clearly. Geographers learn to view things from different perspectives and understand the natural and human processes that shape our world. The discipline involves two key dimensions: the spatial dimensionwhere things are and why they are there the ecological dimensionhow humans interact with environments.
Chapter opening pages outline the syllabus outcomes and geographical tools addressed within the chapter. The opening pages also dene all the key terms used in the chapter.
Coral reefs
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTS
Coral reefs have been labelled the rainforests of the sea because they contain a wide and colourful variety of plants and animals. Located in the warm tropical waters of the world, they are increasingly coming under pressure from human activities and are an environment at risk. Geographers need to study the interrelationships that exist within coral reefs so that they can make recommendations about their management and ensure that these precious ecosystems exist into the future.
Geographical tools
Maps
use various types of maps locate features using latitude and longitude, area and grid references identify physical and cultural features on a map measure distances on a map using linear scale identify scale as written, linear or representative fraction use the points of a compass to determine direction construct a sketch map read synoptic charts identify and calculate maximum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images distinguish between oblique, aerial, groundlevel photographs and satellite imagery collect and interpret electronic information practise ethical behaviour when using email and the Internet
Definitions
archipelagoa chain or cluster of islands atolla circular or ring-shaped coral reef that nearly or entirely encloses a lagoon barrier reefa coral reef that forms to protect a lagoon or coastline from the ocean biodiversitythe variety of all living things calcium carbonatethe chemical compound created by the coral polyp as it grows. (It is the skeleton of the coral and is frequently found elsewhere in nature.) coral bleachingwhere coral polyps expel multi-coloured zooxanthellae from their cells, making coral lose its colour, causing the reef to die fringing reefa coral reef that forms close to an island or coastline hard coralcorals that form calcium carbonate skeletons as they grow, giving reefs their structure soft coralcorals with a small amount of calcium carbonate that they use to attach themselves to the reef symbiotic relationshipa mutually benecial interaction between two living organisms synoptic charta map that shows air pressure across an area, enabling predictions about the weather to be made zooplanktonvery tiny, drifting animals such as shrimp and small sh zooxanthellaealgae that grow in the tentacles of the coral polyp
Outcomes
A student: 4.1 identifies and gathers geographical information 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.6 describes the geographical processes that form and transform environments 4.8 describes the interrelationships between people and environments 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship
Graphs and statistics

Photographs

ICT

Geography Focus 1 addresses the content,

outcomes and objectives of the New South Wales Stage 4 Geography syllabus. The coursebook is divided into four colour-coded sections, corresponding to each of the prescribed focus areas: Investigating the world Global environments Global change Global issues and the role of citizenship. Activities at the end of each unit are broken down under the following headings: Knowledge: comprehension and recall questions. Skills: questions that relate specically to the Stage 4 course content and address the Stage 4 skills outcomes. Application: extension-type questions where students are asked to apply their knowledge. Civics and citizenship activities are embedded within these activities. Surf: activities that incorporate ICT, including Internet-based skills. These activities can be found on the associated Companion Website and are cached on the Student CD.
Geographical tools
Maps
use various types of maps locate features using latitude and longitude, area and grid references identify physical and cultural features on a map measure distances on a map using linear scale use the points of the compass to determine direction identify and interpret relief construct a sketch map identify and calculate maximum and minimum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images distinguish between oblique, aerial, groundlevel photographs and satellite imagery collect and interpret electronic information design and create a multimedia presentation
Deserts
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTS
Deserts are stark but spectacular environments, portrayed in books and motion pictures as places of adventure and mystery. They have very little precipitation and high levels of evaporation, leading to scattered vegetation and highly adapted ora and fauna. Almost one third of Earths land surface is classied as arid or semi-arid desert. This global environment is located on every continent except Europe. Geographers study the geographical processes in desert environments and the adaptations people have made to live in them.
Definitions
aeolianprocesses to do with the wind arableland that is capable of growing crops ariddry, parched climate or land atmospheric pressurethe weight of the air on the Earths surface deserticationthe spread of desert lands and land degradation across more arable land ecosystema community of organisms interacting with one another and with the environment in which they live evaporationthe process by which water turns from liquid to vapour nomadica lifestyle where people move around an environment to a range of locations, usually related to the seasons and the availability of food oasisan area in the desert where groundwater is close to the surface and plants can grow playaa at basin in the desert that is covered in water every so often salinisationthe process by which soil and water become salty due to salts moving in soils semi-aridthe transition zone between desert and grassland that receives an average 250500 millimetres of rain per year subsistencecrops or food grown to satisfy a community and not for sale subtropicalclimates close to the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn but not between them sustainableusing resources in a way that does not degrade them wadia stream or river course in a valley of a desert xerophytea plant adapted to living in the desert or in drought
Fieldwork: activities carefully planned to achieve syllabus outcomes. They enhance learning opportunities and cater for a variety of teaching and learning styles.
SNAPSHOT 2
Syllabus outcomes
Photographs

ICT

Activities
Knowledge
1 What is an ecosystem? 2 What conditions determine the ora and fauna that grow in deserts? 3 Outline some of the adaptations that plants make to live in deserts. 4 Outline the specic characteristics of the Saguaro cactus that help it to survive in the desert environment. 5 Name the insects mentioned in this unit. 6 Outline some of the adaptations that animals make to live in deserts. 7 What are producers? 8 What is the main difference between a primary and secondary consumer? 9 How has the roadrunner adapted to living without much water?
7.22 The sidewinder rattlesnake
Sidewinder rattlesnake
The sidewinder rattlesnake is so called because of the way that it moves sideways with an S-shaped curve. It lives in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts of the United States. The snakes venom helps in catching prey, but it also provides a defence. Rattlesnakes are generally heavy-bodied and slow-moving, unable to chase down their prey or kill it by constriction, so they need another means to make themselves competitive predatorstheir venom. It is produced like saliva and the chemical kills by stopping the normal cellular processes in a bitten victim. Venom also aids in the digestion of prey by breaking down its tissue. A rattlesnake also contains a rattle in its tail to warn other creatures away. The rattle probably developed as a means to alert the other animals sharing the snakes habitat to its presence, and thus protect it from being stepped on. Rattlesnakes prey on small mammals, birds and reptiles. The snakes are, in turn, preyed upon by various mammals, such as coyotes and badgers, birds of prey and humans.
10 What is the prey of the sidewinder rattlesnake? 11 Outline three characteristics of the beavertail cactus that make it a unique species.
Skills
12 Refer to 7.20: a What three species does the sidewinder rattlesnake eat? b What three species eat the ant? c Name the two producers in the food web. d Name the three primary consumers in the food web. e Give two examples of secondary consumers in the food web. f Give an example of an insectivore. g Give an example of a carnivore.
Application
13 Refer to the thorny devil in 7.18. Draw your own annotated thorny devil by using the description in the last column as labels. Place the labels around the devil with connecting lines to the part of the animal they apply to. (See Skills Master on page 9 in unit 1.2 for an example of annotated photographs.) 14 Consider the adaptations that ora and fauna have developed to live in the desert. Create your own new desert plant based on the characteristics of real ones. Annotate your plant with labels pointing to the parts that show its adaptations. 15 Research what animals of the desert eat. Create a food chain or web from your research. Conduct further research into two of the animals or plants in your food chain or web and prepare a brief multimedia presentation outlining the unique characteristics of these species.
A CHANGE IN BALANCE
If one aspect of the ecosystem is changed then the other aspects can also become unbalanced. For example, if one species in 7.20 becomes extinct, then other species and the environment may be affected. If rodent populations were to drop then there would also be fewer of their main predator, the rattlesnake. There may also be an increase in beetles because there are fewer rodents to eat them, and an increase in lizards because they would have less competition for food. These changes in turn would affect other species in the web.
Surf
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Deserts
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Skills Master sections provide students with the knowledge they require to use and apply geographical tools.
SKILLS MASTER
How to write latitude and longitude
Latitude and longitude are two numbers describing the position of any point on the surface of the Earth. There are a few rules to follow. 1 Latitude and longitude are expressed in degrees. Degrees latitude refers to the distance of a place either north or south of the equator. Degrees longitude refers to the distance of a place either east of west of the Prime Meridian. 2 Latitude is always written rst and the letters N (north) or S (south) must follow the number. 3 Longitude follows latitude and must be labelled E (east) or W (west). An example from the Fiji extract in 2.23 is: Suva is about 18 degrees south of the Equator and 178 degrees east of the Prime Meridian. This is written 18S, 178E. 2.23 Atlas map of Fiji
Geography Focus boxes provide interesting facts and denitions that will enhance student learning.
G H I
16S
178E Vanua Labasa Levu
180
Yasawa Group
Tavua Nadi 18S Viti Levu
Nabouwalu Koro Ellington Ovalau Koro Levuka Nausori Gau SUVA
Taveuni Lomaloma
Sea
N
Lakeba
10 20 km
e Passag avu K ad Vunisea Kadavu 178E
F I J I
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The average urban resident in a developed country generates four to six times more waste than the average urban resident in a developing country.
180
Legend Capital city town or city
SKILLS MASTER
How to use an atlas
An atlas is a collection of maps of different parts of the world. The maps may show the whole world or specic regions or countries. Use the table of contents to nd a map, not a place. For example, you might want to nd a map of Canada, a settlement map of Africa or a political world map. Use the index to nd a particular place like a town or city, mountain, river or lake but not an entire map. In the index every place is listed in alphabetical order.
place name
country name or state name page number
alphanumeric grid reference latitude longitude
Nabouwalu
Fiji
82 H2 17.00S 178.43E
2.24 How to read the index
N
Naalehu Hawaiian Is 82 J10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.04N 155.36W Naberezhnyye Chelny Russian Fed. 118 H3 . . . . 55.42N 52.20E Nabeul Tunisia 116 F4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.28N 10.44E Nablus West Bank 109 A3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.13N 35.16E Nabouwalu Fiji 82 H2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.00S 178.43E Nacala Mozambique 123 D3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.30S 40.37E Nadi Fiji 82 G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.47S 177.29E Nador Morocco 116 C4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.12N 2.55W Nstved Denmark 114 I3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.14N 11.46E
Using the index

Nadi (shown in 2.25) would be found on page 82, in the grid of G2. Its latitude and longitude reading is 1747S 17729E.
2.25 Part of the N section in an atlas index
38 Geography Focus 1
Snapshots incorporate high-interest items to illustrate aspects of the text.

SNAPSHOT
Genocide of the Hmong people

14.7 Location of the Hmong people
CHINA Hanoi LAOS Xaysomboune Hmong people hiding in jungle THAILAND Bangkok
ET
NA
M
to hunt down and eliminate the Hmong and their families. The Lao government has continued with this aim for over 30 years. Between 1975 and 2005 ethnic cleansing took place in the jungles of Laos. More than 300 000 Hmong and Laotian people were killed, including many of the 14 000 people that have surrendered. Others were put into concentration camps. Those that remain free are trying to survive in remote mountain areas. The Lao Human Rights Council has appealed to the UN to stop the Lao government from carrying on the ethnic cleansing and genocide. Their cause was further advanced by a 2006 documentary Hunted Like Animals, which was made by a human rights activist and reveals shocking images of the militarys brutality.
CAMBODIA Phnom Penh

Gulf of Thailand
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300 km
During the Vietnam War, the indigenous Hmong people of Laos sided with the United States to ght against communism. Because of this, when the communists took control of Laos in 1975, they vowed
14.6 These Hmong protestors want human rights for their people.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The world has the resources and the know-how to create a poverty-free world in less than a generation.
Although some of these deaths happen in countries such as Australia and the United States, the largest proportion occurs in the worlds poorest countries (see 14.8). While many children there continue to starve to death, others especially in developed countriesare facing increasing problems due to obesity.
14.8 Highest and lowest infant mortality rates, 2006
14.9 Not all of the worlds people have the opportunity of a secure lifestyle with plenty of food to choose from.
ICT competencies such as Internet research, using websites, creating emails, designing web pages and making multimedia presentations are addressed through the activities. The ICT icon indicates when an activity addresses any of these skills. ICT skills are also usually incorporated in Surf activities which can be found on the live Companion Website and the cached version on the Student CD.
Country/region Angola Afghanistan Sierra Leone Liberia Mozambique Iceland Japan Hong Kong, SAR Sweden Singapore
Infant mortality rate (deaths per 1000 live births of children under 1 year) 188 163 162 162 131 3 3 3 3 2
Human rights
309
Case studies are treated in depth as unit topic spreads.

The lemurs of Madagascar an endangered species in a threatened habitat
Madagascar is the worlds fourth-largest island, located off the east coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean. It has a land area of 582 000 square kilometres or about threequarters the size of New South Wales. The capital Antananarivo has a latitude of 1852'S and longitude of 4730'E. It is covered by many types of habitat, including rainforest, temperate inland areas and arid desert in the south.
15.28 Location of Madagascar
N
15.27 The female ring tailed lemur is dominant in the group.
The CW icon indicates when an activity or additional content is available for students on the Geography Focus 1 Companion Website. These can be found on the live Companion Website and the cached version of the CD.
LEMUR CHARACTERISTICS
Lemurs are small primates that are known as prosimians. They are only found on Madagascar and the Comoros Islands. Lemurs range in size from the tiny 30-gram pygmy-mouse lemur to the cat-size Indri lemurs. They can live to about 18 years of age. Lemurs are arboreal (they live in trees) and spend most of their time in the canopy of the rainforest. Lemurs live in groups with a dominant female leader. She controls the movement of the group and chooses a mate rst. Lemurs eat fruit, leaves and other plant material. They use their long plumy tails and scent to communicate. Lemurs are important to Madagascar as they disperse seeds from their food through droppings. These seeds help to regenerate forests.
40E Comoros Islands
45E Antsiranana
50E
e Ch
Key capital city town road 200 km
Mozambique
anne l
Moza
mbiqu
Mahajanga
15S
Toamasina
Antananarivo
Morondava Eianarantsoa Toliara Mananjary 20S
THREATS TO LEMUR SPECIES

Lemurs are threatened. Of the 61 types of lemurs: 10 are critically endangered 7 are endangered 19 are vulnerable. One main threat comes from increasing population pressure and poverty. The population of Madagascar exceeds 14 million in an area less than the size of New South Wales (which has 7 million). The population is growing at a rapid rate of 3 per cent per annum. Many Malagasy people live on only AU$350 a year in a subsistence lifestyle. Poverty means that the environment can be less important to most people than nding the next meal. Another threat to lemurs is the reduction in their natural forest habitat due to deforestation. Madagascar used to be covered by a large area of rainforest. Up to 80 per cent of this has been cleared for logging, fuel wood and crop cultivation (see page 149). Lemurs have also been hunted for pet trade and food, which has had a signicant impact on their population.
Madagascar
Tolanaro
25S
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Madagascar has been isolated from other landmasses for about 60 million years. This means that there are many species that are endemicthey are unique because they live in Madagascar and are found nowhere else on Earth. Sixty-one of these unique species are lemurs. Madagascar is considered to be one of the worlds 25 biodiversity hotspots. A biodiversity hotspot contains a very large and diverse range of plant and animal species. Madagascar has lost over 70 per cent of its original habitat.
ix
Syllabus correlation grids

The content and activities in Geography Focus 1 and Geography Focus 2 have been designed to engage students as they work towards achieving the outcomes of the New South Wales Years 710 Geography syllabus. The key elements featured in the following grids are the Stage 4 Mandatory Outcomes and the Stage 4 Geographical Tools. These outcomes and tools have been extracted from the 7 10 syllabus document prepared by the New South Wales Board of Studies. The grids below relate specically to Stage 4 outcomes for Geography Focus 1.
STAGE 4 MANDATORY OUTCOMES

Outcomes
A student: 4.1 4.2 4.3 identies and gathers geographical information organises and interprets geographical information uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information uses a range of geographical tools demonstrates a sense of place about global environments describes the geographical processes that form and transform environments identies and discusses geographical issues from a range of perspectives describes the interrelationships between people and environments describes differences in life opportunities throughout the world * * * * * 4G1 (12) * * *
Focus Areas (chapters)

4G2 (37) * * * 4G3 (89 ) * * * * * 4G4 (1015)
4.4 4.5 4.6
* * *
* *
4.7 4.8 4.9
* * * *
4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship.
GEOGRAPHICAL TOOLS
Skills Masters follow the format of the syllabus; they have been integrated into chapter content so that they form a part of the teaching of Geography. They have been designed to enable students to develop their knowledge and understanding of the range of geographical tools relevant to Stage 4 Geography. The knowledge and understanding gained from these Skills Masters and information units is then applied, and competency in the use and application of the tools a geographer uses is developed as students complete activities that cover a range of stimulus and activity types in further units of the text.
Tool
Maps
Content: In working towards Stage 4 outcomes, students learn to:

use an atlas use various types of maps: physical, political, topographic, thematic identify and use elements of maps, including legend, direction, title, scale, border distinguish between different types of map projections locate features on a map using: latitude and longitude area and grid reference identify physical and cultural features on a map measure distances on a map using a linear scale identify scale as written, linear or representative fraction use the points of a compass to determine direction identify and interpret relief using shading, spot heights, colour and contour lines construct a sketch map read synoptic charts: wind direction and speed, pressure patterns, fronts and rainfall
Geography Focus 1 unit number

2.4 2.5; 5.4; 6.6 1.3 2.2
2.3; 2.4; 6.6 1.3; 6.6 2.5; 6.6 1.3; 6.6 1.3; 6.6 1.3; 6.6 1.3; 5.4; 6.6 1.3 1.7
Fieldwork
use geographical instruments, including: a compass to determine direction weather instruments, a Beaufort wind scale and cloud identication charts collect and record data in the eld, including: design and conduct interviews construct and implement surveys eld sketch, diagram 1.6 1.6 1.2 3.3; 3.8 3.3; 3.8; 11.1 1.2; 2.3 1.2 1.2; 2.6 1.3 1.7
Graphs and Statistics
identify and calculate maximum, minimum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing distinguish between oblique, aerial, ground-level photographs and satellite imagery collect and interpret photographic images
Photographs
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICT)

ICT skills have been addressed in the Skills Masters and through the activities. The ICT icon in the coursebook indicates when an activity addresses the development and application of ICT skills. ICT skills in the form of Surf activities are incorporated into the majority of units. These can be accessed and found on the associated Companion Website and on the cached version on the Student CD and offer the opportunity for students to investigate course content by using specic websites on the Internet.
INVESTIGATING THE WORLD
Unlocking the world

Geography is not just a body of knowledge. It is a style of learning that will prepare you for the future. Through meaningful research geographers expand their knowledge and understanding of the world. By learning geographical skills and developing spatial awareness you will be equipped to become an active citizen of the world.
Geographical tools
Maps
identify and use elements of maps: legend, north point, title, scale and border locate features on a map using area and grid references identify physical and cultural features on a map use the points of a compass to determine direction construct a sketch map read synoptic charts use geographical instruments collect and record data in the field draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images create a desk-top published document for a specific audience develop and refine search techniques using the Internet
Syllabus outcomes
A student: 4.1 identifies and gathers geographical information 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.6 describes the geographical processes that form and transform environments
Fieldwork

Photographs
ICT

Definitions
cartographera specialised geographer who draws maps citizena person who is part of a society with the right to protection from it and the responsibility of loyalty to it condensationthe process by which water vapour turns to liquid contoura line on a map joining places of equal height ecosystema community of organisms interacting with one another and with the environment in which they live environmentthe total surroundings evaporationthe process by which water turns from liquid to vapour human featuresareas of the Earth's surface that have been built or changed by humans isobara line on a synoptic chart joining places of equal air pressure nutrienta source of nourishment physical featuresareas of the Earths surface that are naturally occurring or have been largely unaltered by humans precipitationany form of water falling to the Earths surface including rain, hail and snow relative humiditythe amount of moisture in the air compared to the amount it could hold settlementa place where people live spatial dimensionwhere things are and why they are there temperaturea measure of the amount of heat energy water cyclethe continuous movement of water, in its different states, between land, sea and air (also called the hydrological cycle) wind directionwhere the wind is coming from wind speedthe rate of air movement
The nature of Geography
1.1 Geography is everywhere.
Geography allows us to see the world more clearly. Geographers learn to view things from different perspectives and to understand the natural and human processes that shape our world. It is a spatial subject, which means it is concerned with where people and places are located and the patterns of features on the Earths surface.
Geographers need to be curious and ask questions about the world around them. This is the basis of geographical research.
KEY GEOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONS

Geographers start by asking questions. What is it? Where is it? Why is it there? When investigating issues they go on to ask questions, such as: What are the effects of it being there? How is it changing? Should it be like this? Then they consider citizenship. What groups are involved? What do different groups think? What action is appropriate?
WHY STUDY GEOGRAPHY?

Geographers are curious people. They investigate the ways in which people and places affect each other so that they can understand how to manage environments for the future. They become powerful when they use their knowledge to inuence the decisions that are made about issues that affect our lives. As far as we know the Earth is the only planet that supports life. With a population of nearly seven billion people and increasing competition for resources, there are many issues that are causing concern. By studying Geography we can become active and informed citizens and do something to help protect our future.
1.2 Geography is always in the news.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The word Geography comes from the Greek word Ge ( ) meaning the Earth, and graphein ( ) meaning to describe or to write.
Protestors rally against increased whaling for scientific purposes
Nuclear power is the answer to global warming
CYCLONE SEASON IN FULL FORCE
Tourism brings wealth to African nation
Indigenous group settles with mining company over land use
KE HITS MASSIVE EARTHQUA HIMALAYA REGION
High-rise office block to tower over native bushland
4 Geography Focus 1
GEOGRAPHERS HAVE THEIR SAY ABOUT GEOGRAPHY

Geography allows us to see the world more clearly. By learning Geography we gain a greater understanding of the world in which we live and the people that share our world. Geography is our future. Geography is POWER!
1.3 Tim FlanneryAustralian of the Year, 2007
FAMOUS GEOGRAPHERS
There have been many famous geographers throughout history, such as: Eratosthenes (276194 BC) is thought of as the father of Geography. He was the rst person to use the term Geography and also calculated the Earths circumference. Al-Khwarizmi (780850) was one of the earliest Arabic b Su rat geographers. He wrote a famous book Kita al-Ard (The Form of the Earth) and was the rst to produce maps of global geography. Gerardus Mercator (151294) is known as the prince of modern geographers. He was the rst to use the term atlas and was a leading cartographer. Alexander von Humboldt (17691859) is regarded as the founder of modern Geography. He spent years exploring South and Central America and was one of the rst people to look at the spatial relationships between plants and climates. Thomas Grifth Taylor (18801963) became the rst president of the Institute of Australian Geographers in 1959. He believed that academics had a duty to be concerned with the great controversies of their day and spoke out against the White Australia Policy, which prevented non-white immigrants from coming to Australia. In the year of his death, he was still publishing on the contribution of geographical studies to world peace. Mother Teresa (19101997) taught Geography at St Marys High School in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) from 1933 to 1948, becoming its principal in 1944. She left to found the Missionaries of Charity that has become a worldwide organisation helping the poor.
[The Australian of the Year Award 2007] also means I have an obligation to the people of Australia to continue the quest to create a sustainable future for our country and for our children.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Where does the word Geography come from? 2 List ve things beginning with P that geographers study. 3 Why are geographers powerful? 4 Who was the rst person to use the term Geography? 5 Who founded the Institute of Australian Geographers?
Application
6 Read the quotes about Geography and then hold a class discussion on the question: What is Geography? a Record all the ideas that are put forward. b Write your own denition of Geography. c Compare your denition with those of other students.
Surf
Unlocking the world
Wonders of the world
1.4 Mount Everest, Nepal
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient Worldamazing structures built thousands of years agowere regarded as the most impressive monuments of their time. They demonstrated the ability of humans to change their surrounding landscape.
Try choosing just seven places to put on a new list and you will soon realise how many spectacular places there are in the world, and how much more we know about the world than our ancestors who named the ancient wonders.
AN AMAZING SURVIVOR
Only one of the original seven ancient wonders, the Great Pyramid of Giza, built 4500 years ago, has survived to the present day. It was built exactly in line with the four points of the compass. This means that its four sides point toward true north, south, east and west. The error from true north is about one-twelfth of a degree. What is even more astounding is that this was done without a compass, which was not invented until thousands of years later!
PHYSICAL AND HUMAN FEATURES

The term environment means total surroundings. Geographers classify the features of environments as either humanthose that are made, or physicalthose that occur naturally. They examine environments at a variety of scales from local to global, and are particularly interested in the relationships between physical and human features.
MODERN WONDERS
With only one of the original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World left there have been many attempts to come up with a new list of Wonders of the Modern World and also one for the Natural Wonders of the World. Some of the suggestions for these lists are shown here.
1.6 Christ the Redeemer statue, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
1.5 The Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt
1.7 Angel Falls, Venezuela (top left), Grand Canyon, Arizona, United States (top right) and Mount Rushmore, South Dakota, United States (bottom right)
These images show some of the most spectacular physical and human features of our world. However, not all features are as impressive as these. Consider your own local environment; does it have any special features? Are you surrounded by mostly human features, physical features or a mixture of both? In Australia most people live in towns and cities containing human features such as houses, schools, roads, railways, shopping malls and entertainment centres. But there are also many physical features. The weather, plants, animals, rocks and soil, as well as the water in rivers, lakes and seas, are all physical features.
1.8 The Great Wall of China
Unlocking the world
USING PHOTOGRAPHS IN GEOGRAPHY

Geographers often use photographs to record their observations of features of the environment. They can do this by annotating the photographs (see the Skills Master opposite) or by making a line drawing of the photographs. There are many different types of photographs and they are all useful in different ways.
Ground level
To show the nature of features. In this example the size, shape and colour of the mangrove tree are all clear.
Close up
To show the specic characteristics of a feature, for example a plant or animal. In this example the different elements that make up a mangrove leaf can be seen.
Oblique angle
To show a threedimensional (3D) view of the environment. In this example the size and location of the mangroves can be seen in relation to the surrounding parkland. Places in the distance look smaller than those in the foreground.
Aerial
To show the location of features in relation to each other and their surroundings. In this example the lake and mangroves are the dark areas and the straight line of the bridge can be seen in the centre.
Satellite image Panorama

To show a total scene and the relationship of different features in the environment. In this example the relationship between mangrove trees and water can be seen. To show the location of features, particularly land use over a large area. In this example Sydney Harbour and Botany Bay in bright blue stand out from the built-up area of Sydney in grey and natural vegetation (bushland) in green.
8 Geography Focus 1
SKILLS MASTER
Annotating a photograph or line drawing

Notes are printed around the outside of the image. Ruled lines/arrows connect the notes to the features. The photograph or line drawing is given a title. The source of the photograph is recorded.
Pittwater is a sheltered waterway 5.5 kilometres long and 1 kilometre wide where it enters Broken Bay at Barrenjoey headland. Palm Beach with a population of 1600 is the most northerly beachside suburb of Sydney. Barrenjoey Lighthouse was built in 1881 from the local Hawkesbury sandstone. It is the third light to occupy this site. Barrenjoey is a sandstone headland joined to the mainland by a tombolo (a sand spit). The vegetation is mostly open scrub, but there is a sheltered patch of rainforest on the south-west side.
1.9 View of Palm Beach and Pittwater looking south-west from Barrenjoey headland
1.10 Line drawing of Palm Beach looking south-west from Barrenjoey headland
Pittwater Palm Beach suburb Palm Beach Vegetated sand dunes
golf course jetty Barrenjoey lighthouse
Barrenjoey headland
walking track
open scrub: black she-oak; heath-leaved banksia; coast ti-tree
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is astounding about the Great Pyramid of Giza? 2 What does the term environment mean? 3 What are human features of the environment? Give two examples. 4 What are physical features of the environment? Give two examples. 5 Why are photographs useful to geographers? list of The Seven Wonders of the World. You can include both human and physical features. 7 Compare your list with those of other students. a Are there any places that appear on everyones list? b Do the lists have more human or physical features? 8 Make a class collage of Wonders of the World, including both physical and human features.
Skills
9 Collect photographs of your local environment and present them either electronically or on a poster. Use annotations and/or line drawings to describe the physical and human features in each.
Application
6 Look at the photographs on pages 6 and 7. Think of any other places in the world that are spectacular, then make your own
Unlocking the world
Maps and map reading

Geographers can use photographs in a variety of different ways to help describe features, relationships and changes within environments. Photographs are just one of the many valuable tools that geographers use. As Geography is a spatial subject, another essential tool is a map. There are many different types of maps and they are all useful in different ways. Anything that has a location can be marked on a map. There are maps that cover the entire surface of the Earth and others that show only a very small area. Maps are important to geographers because they show spatial distributions.
SCALE AND DISTANCE

A map is a two-dimensional drawing of a place viewed from above. It is drawn to scale so that the features on the map are in the same proportions as those in the real place. The scale of the map can be shown in three different ways: words: 1 centimetre represents 1 kilometre linear:
0 kilometres 5
1.11 Map and compass
ratio: 1:100 000. The ratio may look complicated but it is easy to use. It is like using shortcuts in a mobile phone text message. For the scale 1:100 000: 1 means one unit measured on the map : means represents 100 000 means 100 000 of the same units in the real place. Putting it all together, 1:100 000 means that each centimetre measured on the map represents 100 000 centimetres (cm) in the real place. As we do not usually measure large distances in centimetres, we change 100 000 cm to 1000 metres (m) or 1 kilometre (km), so 1 cm represents 1 km. For a scale of 1:50 000: 1 cm represents 50 000 cm, which is 500 m or 0.5 km. So 2 cm represents 1 km. For a scale of 1:25 000: 1 cm represents 25 000 cm, which is 250 m or 0.25 km. So 4 cm represents 1 km.
DIRECTION
Maps are usually drawn so that north is at the top of the map. The orientation of the map is indicated by a north arrow or compass rose drawn on the map. Directions are described using the points of the compass. The four main points north (N), south (S), east (E) and west (W) are called the cardinal points.
1.12 The compass rose
N
NNE
NW
WNW
NNW
NE
ENE
W
WSW ESE
SW
SSW
SSE
SE
SKILLS MASTER
Locating features on a map
Some of the maps that you will use will have a grid system like the one on Gem Island (see 1.15). The grid is used to locate places on the map. There are two different ways that the grid can be used to identify locationsone is with an area reference and the other is with a grid reference. Area reference An area reference identies one square in the grid and is made up of four numbers (see 1.13). The rst two numbers are those for the line along the left side of the square. The second two numbers are those for the line along the base of the square.
Grid reference A grid reference pinpoints a specic place within a grid square and is made up of six numbers (1.14). The rst three numbers indicate the position going across the grid and the second three numbers give the position going up the grid.
46
A
5
47
B
2
B
46
45
*
21
22
A
45 21
Square A
Line on left 2 1 Line along base 45 Area reference (AR) 2145
Grid reference (GR) of point A

Start at the bottom left corner of the square Record the two numbers for the line along the left side of the square 2 1 Imagine the width of the square is divided into 10 equal parts and estimate how far across the square point A is located. Half-way is 5 out of 10. 5 Go back to the bottom left corner of the square Record the two numbers on the line along the base of the square 4 5 Estimate how far up the square point A is located. Half-way is 5 out of 10 5 The GR is 2 15 4 5 5
22
23
Square B
Line on left 2 2 Line along base 46 Area reference (AR) 2246
1.13 Locating places with an area reference
Grid reference (GR) of point B

Start at Line along left 2 1 Distance across square Go back to Line along base 4 5
Distance up square
The GR is 2 19 4 5 2
1.14 Locating places with a grid reference
Unlocking the world
11
SYMBOLS AND LEGEND

Not every feature on a map can be shown in detail. Instead colours and symbols are used to represent them. Traditionally blue is used for water, red lines for roads, and brown for highlands. Individual buildings such as churches and hospitals often have their own symbols. The symbols are all identied in the legend, which can also be called the key.
RELIEF
Relief is the term used by geographers to describe the ups and downs of the Earths surfacethe shape of the land. The height of land above sea level can be shown on a map by: a spot heighta dot with the height in metres next to it (see 1.15) a contour linea line with the height marked on it. All places on a contour line are the same height above sea level (see 1.15) shadingfrom lighter to darker for each different layer of height from lower to higher.
1.15 Map of Gem Island
Remember all maps must have BOLTS:
Border Orientation Legend Title Scale

60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 Nab 52 Point 51 50 49 Smugglers Cave Fishermans Beach
Way
The Scout Knoll Island The 135 Narrows Coniston

Cra
ke River
Co
tal as
High Way
Kendal Hill 225
Lindale
150
100
200
in
River
Easter Bay
Lookout Hill 165 Hagg Wood
48
50
47 46 45 21
Hidden Cove
Sandy Bay
Herries Reef
22
23
24
25
26
27
Scale 1: 100 000 0 1 2 kilometres

Contour interval: 50 metres
28 29 LEGEND
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
225 Trig point 165 50 Spot height Contour line
River Sand dunes; beach Cave; jetty
Dense woodland Scattered trees Track; bridge Building Lighthouse; submerged rock
Activities
Knowledge
1 Why are maps important? 2 What are the ve essential features of a good map? 3 How many gures do the following have: i an area reference ii a grid reference? 26 What is the area reference for: a Smugglers Cave b the top of Lookout Hill c the trig point on Kendal Hill d the highest point on Scout Island e Nab Point? 27 What feature is found at each of these grid references: a 340470 b 270565 c 259565 d 326501 e 213597? 28 What is the grid reference of each of the following features: a the trig point on Kendal Hill b the spot height on The Knoll c the submerged rock nearest to Scout Island d the building nearest the bridge in Coniston e the building nearest the jetty in Lindale?
Skills
All the following questions will help you build map-reading skills. They are based on the map of Gem Island in 1.15.
Using the legend

4 Write the scale of the map in words. 5 Draw the symbol used for sand dunes. 6 Draw the symbol used for a lighthouse. 7 What colour is used for dense woodland? 8 How many submerged rocks are there on the map? 9 How many rivers are there on the map? 10 Record three ways in which height can be shown on a map. 11 Name one of the tracks found on the island. 12 Is there a bridge in Lindale? 13 Name an area of dense woodland.
Distance
29 Give the distance in a straight line from the triangulation point on Kendal Hill to each of the following: a the spot height on Lookout Hill b the spot height on Scout Island c the building at Fishermans Beach d the lighthouse e the southern end of the jetty. 30 What is the shortest distance across The Narrows? 31 What is the distance along the Coastal Way from Smugglers Cave to the bridge in Coniston? 32 How far is it along the coast from Smugglers Cave to Hidden Cove? 33 How far is it around the coast of Scout Island?
Direction
14 What is the correct term for the symbol on the map showing direction? 15 What is the direction from Lindale to Coniston? 16 What is the direction from Coniston to Smugglers Cave? 17 What is the direction from The Knoll on Scout Island to Herries Reef? 18 What is the direction from Kendal Hill to the jetty? 19 What is the direction from the lighthouse to Hidden Cove? 20 On which side of the island is Easter Bay? 21 On which side of the island is Sandy Beach? 22 Which point on the map is the furthest west? 23 If you walked north from Kendal Hill to the coast would you pass through trees?
Relief
34 What is the height of the trig Point on Kendal Hill? 35 What is the height of the summit of Lookout Hill? 36 What is the height of the summit of The Knoll on Scout Island? 37 How high is the High Way at 320535? 38 How high is the Coastal Way at 252550?
Locating features
24 What human feature would you nd in the grid square at these area references: a 2350 b 2853 c 3451 d 2556? 25 What physical features would you nd in the grid square with these area references: a 3545 b 3051 c 2256 d 2347?
Treasure trail
39 Start at the lighthouse, travel north-west for 6 kilometres, then north for 5.5 kilometres. Follow the track heading north-west until you reach a human feature. From there travel directly west for three kilometres and then dig for the treasure. Where did you dig? 40 Draw your own treasure map. (Remember BOLTS.)
Unlocking the world
13
Physical elements of the environment

Geographers classify features of the environment as either physical elements or human elements. The relationships between them can be simple or very complex and are always changing, which is why Geography is a dynamic subject.
ECOSYSTEMS
Physical elements occur naturally. They can be divided into two groups: bioticliving things, such as plants and animals abioticnon-living things, such as water, rocks and soil. The way in which all these things interact in a particular environment is known as an ecosystem. The three main processes that connect all parts of an ecosystem are the energy ow, water cycling and nutrient cycling (see 1.17).
1.16 The physical elements of the environment occur naturally.
Energy flow Water cycling Nutrient cycling
1.17 Ecosystem processes
Small animals
Decomposers
ENERGY FLOW
The energy ow in the ecosystem is shown by the yellow arrows. Plants capture about 1 per cent of the solar energy that reaches the Earth from the Sun. Through the process of photosynthesis plants convert this energy into carbohydrates that are a food source for their growth and the animals that eat them. In an ecosystem: the source of energy is the Sun energy is stored in the plants and animals, the biotic part energy is used for growth and generates heat. These energy ows are shown in 1.18 on the next page.
THE WATER CYCLE

Sun
Water is essential for life and ows through all ecosystems. When heated by the Sun, water evaporates, turning into water vapour. If water vapour rises it cools and condenses forming clouds. Precipitation falls from the clouds and the water either soaks into the ground or ows over the surface back in to rivers (see 1.20). In the water cycle (also known as the hydrological cycle): clouds are made of water droplets rain, sleet, snow and hail are all types of precipitation transpiration is water loss from plants.
Secondary consumer
Primary consumer Plants Decomposers
Condensation
Precipitation
Energy flow
1.18 Energy ow in an ecosystem
Transpiration Evaporation
Infiltration
THE NUTRIENT CYCLE

Plants gain the water and nutrients they need for growth from the soil. The nutrients then pass along a food chain as plants are eaten by animals and they, in turn, are eaten by other animals. Eventually the plants and animals die, and the nutrients are returned to the soil by the decomposers. In the nutrient cycle (see 1.19): the plants are the producers animals that eat plants are called herbivores animals that eat animals are called carnivores.
Runoff
Ground
r wate
flow
River Bedrock
1.20 The water cycle
Water as liquid Water as vapour
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name three physical elements of the environment. 2 What are biotic elements? 3 What are abiotic elements? 4 For each of the following say whether it is biotic or abiotic: a a tree b a river c an insect d grass e snow.
Water
Secondary consumer
5 Write a denition for each of the following: a ecosystem b food chain c producer d consumer e decomposer.
Application
6 Copy the diagram in 1.17. Using the information in the text fully label the diagram.
Primary consumer Producers
1.19 The nutrient cycle
Decomposers
7 Draw your own food chain. (Remember the arrows point in the direction that the energy is moving.) 8 Draw a diagram and add detailed notes to explain how the water cycle works.
Nutrient cycle
Unlocking the world
15
Human elements of the environment

1.21 The tall buildings of the city of Singapore are some of the human elements of the environment.
There are very few environments left in the world that are completely natural. In most places humans have had some inuence on the landscape. Land has been cleared for agriculture, rivers have been dammed to provide water. Industries have been developed to process raw materials and people have created settlements in which to live.
MORE PEOPLE NOW IN CITIES THAN RURAL AREAS

The percentage of the global population that live in urban areas exceeded the 50 per cent mark in 2007, making it the rst time in history that urban residents outnumbered the rural population. The worlds urban population is estimated to rise to ve billion by 2030. The rural population will decline during that time, from 3.3 billion to 3.2 billion. All of the future population increase will take place, or end up, in urban areas. The proportion of people living in megacities (more than 10 million people) is still small, around 4 per cent, and will not grow as fast as many believe. In 2015 the proportion is not expected to be more than 5 per cent. In 2003, about 25 per cent of the world population and over half of the urban population lived in urban settlements with fewer than 500 000 inhabitants. Urban growth will predominantly take place in this kind of urban area. The report predicts that Tokyo will maintain its current position as the worlds most populous city, increasing its population to 36 million in 2015. Coming in second and third will be the Indian cities Mumbai, with 22.6 million, and New Delhi, at 20.9 million. Mexico City with 20.6 million and So Paulo at 20 million are next on the list.
Adapted from: UN Population Division report World Urbanization Prospects, 2003 revision
SETTLEMENTS
Settlements range in size from isolated farmhouses with one or two people to huge places, such as Tokyothe worlds largest city with a population over 35 million. The buildings that people construct within settlements often reect their culture as well as the physical environment.
1.22 The village of Oia, Santorini Island, Greece
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
A megalopolis is made up of several cities that have merged together. BosWash stretches from Boston to Washington in the United States, a distance of over 600 kilometres.
16 Geography Focus Chapter 8 Changing Global Relationships
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture involves human activities that have been shaping the landscape for centuries. In some parts of the world the natural environment has been signicantly changed by farming practices. Patterns created by agriculture vary from patchworks of tiny elds typical of subsistence farming in Asia to the featureless expanses created by modern commercial grain farming in North America. In Bolivia, the area east of Santa Cruz was originally dry tropical forest. The Tierras Bajas project cleared the land and moved people into the area from the high plains of the Andes to grow soy beans, a valuable commercial crop. The resulting pattern of human activities can be seen in 1.23. Each agricultural pin-wheel pattern is centred on a small community. The communities are then spaced evenly across the landscape at 5-kilometre intervals. Roadways connect each town centre.
INDUSTRY
In the past industries were located close to the raw materials that they needed or to the coalelds that provided their power. Today, modern high-tech industries are more concerned with access to their markets and reducing labour costs. Their location can be inuenced by many factors as shown in 1.24. There have been two major changes in the location of industry in the last 50 years. As the old industrial areas in Europe and North America declined, modern business parks have grown up to replace them. Factories have moved from richer to poorer countries to reduce their costs.
1.24 Factors affecting industrial location
Energy Market Raw materials
U IND
Transport
Y STR
Government
1.23 The pin-wheel settlement pattern of Tierras Bajas, Bolivia
Labour Capital
Site
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is a settlement? Name two types of settlement. 2 What is a megalopolis? Name one. 3 Refer to the news article in this unit. a Where does the largest percentage of the worlds population now live? b List the ve cities predicted to be the largest in 2015 and their projected population. 4 Dene the term agriculture. 5 List the factors that affect the location of industry. 6 How has the location of industry changed in the last 50 years? 8 As a class discuss the lifestyle of the people that live in each of these settlements. a What jobs might they do? b What clothes might they wear? c What food do you think they would eat? d How would they travel around? e What leisure activities might they have? 9 Which place would you most like to live in? Why?
Application
10 Compare the buildings in the place that you live with those in Singapore and Oia in this unit. Look at the building materials and the style of the buildings. 11 Complete a mind map to show how each of the factors shown in 1.24 would inuence the location of industry.
Skills
7 Describe the buildings in 1.21 and 1.22.
Surf
Unlocking the world
17
Fieldwork
In order to understand the world it is essential to experience environments rsthand. Books and modern technology can provide useful information about people and places, but it is only through directly interacting with environments that we can appreciate their real scale and complexity. Fieldwork allows geographers to gain a better understanding of physical processes and the interactions that take place between people and their environment. By conducting eldwork you will learn how to use a variety of geographical tools and you will gain the skills necessary to undertake your own geographical enquiry.
GETTING STARTED
The best place to start developing your eldwork techniques is in your own local environment. So far in this chapter you have learnt about two important tools that geographers use: maps and photographs. You have also learnt that geographers are curious and ask questions about the world around them. (See page 4 for the key geographical questions.)
1.25 Fieldwork gives geographers direct contact with physical and human elements of the environment.
There are several ways that you can use these tools to investigate your local environment, either at school or at home. There are a series of steps to follow when conducting eldwork. These are shown in the eldwork exercise below, which could be carried out in your school grounds.
FIELDWORK GUIDE
Step 1: Decide on the aim of your eldwork.
To identify the main physical and human features of the school environment.
Step 5: Go out and collect your data.

Draw your own map or use a base map of the school provided by your teacher. Spend time observing all the features in the environment before you select the ones that you are going to photograph. When you take each photograph record the location, feature, where you were standing and the direction you were facing.
Step 2: Generate key questions that relate to the aim.

What are the main physical features of the school? What are the main human features of the school? Where are the features located?
Step 6: Process the data.

Develop or download the photographs.
Step 3: Decide what data you need to collect.

Photographs of physical features. (Think about how many you need and what type.) Photographs of human features. The location of each feature.
Step 7: Select a presentation method.

You could use your workbook, a poster, PowerPoint or another electronic format. Look back at unit 1.2 for ideas on how to use photographs. Remember that maps should all have BOLTS, and photographs should have titles and/or captions.
Step 4: Identify the techniques that you will use to collect your data.
Photography and mapping.
OBSERVATION
As well as being curious geographers need to be observant. One of the easiest ways to collect information about an environment is to look at it carefully and keep a detailed record of observations. A eld sketch is a useful tool for geographers and can be drawn to show the features of an individual plant or an entire area of study. Field sketches are line drawings like the one on page 9, but they are drawn from observation in the study environment and not from a photograph. They can be more useful than a photograph because: They only contain the main features. Features that are not important to your study can be left out. For example, you can draw one tree in a forest, whereas in a photograph the tree may be lost against a background of all the other trees. You can zoom in or out as far as you choose, whereas a camera is limited by its lenses. For example, you can draw the entire view from your classroom window, whereas with a camera a wide angle lens would be needed. You can make notes of your observations directly onto a sketch as you draw it. For example, you can record that the sand was hotter at the top of the beach than near the water.
PRODUCING A GOOD QUESTIONNARE

DO
Start with an introduction in which you clearly identify yourself and your purpose, and indicate how long it will take to complete. Keep it short, people are busyve questions is a good guide. Use mostly closed questions where the possible answers are provided. These questions are very good when you are looking for ways to present your data as the answers can be easily graphed. For example: How did you travel to school this morning? Walked Car Bus Train Other Use some open questions where people can express their opinions, for example: What are your main concerns about nuclear energy? Thank people at the end (even if they have not been very helpful).
DO NOT
Record peoples names and addresses. Ask people their age/income/or other personal questions. If you need to know these provide ranges such as under 21, 2130 and so on. Ask leading questions, for example: Do you agree that nuclear energy should never be used in Australia? Ask more than one thing at a time, for example: What do you think about importing elephants from Thailand and keeping them in zoos?
SAMPLES AND SURVEYS

Another good way to collect information in the eld is by conducting a survey. A survey is a collection of statistical data. The simplest form of survey is a count. For example, if you were interested in how students travelled to your school you could count the number that used each form of transport and how many walked. Another simple form of survey is a poll. A poll records peoples vote on an issue. For example, if you want to nd out how many people are in favour of nuclear energy you could ask them to vote either: For Against or Undecided
When a lot of people are involved in an issue it is usually impossible to ask everyone for their opinion so only some of the people are surveyed. It is important that these people represent the total population fairly and therefore the results are not biased. For example: The council has suggested lowering the speed limit in your suburb to 30 kilometres per hour and you want to nd out peoples opinion about this. It is important to ask all types of peopleyoung and old, male and female, those with and without children, and people that drive as well as pedestriansin order to get a fair picture of the communitys opinion. To get a more detailed set of data a questionnaire can be used. This should be well planned and tested before being used according to the guidelines.
Activities
Fieldwork
1 Either individually or in a small group, conduct the eldwork outlined opposite. 2 Conduct a trafc count at different times of the day on a road near your school or home. 3 Carry out a poll about a global geographical issue. 4 Design a questionnaire that you could use to nd out about an issue in your local area. 5 In class discuss other eldwork exercises that you could carry out in your local area. After the discussion, plan and carry out a eldwork investigation following the steps in the eldwork guide.
Unlocking the world
19
Measuring the weather
1.26 The weather affects the way people dress and the things they do.
The weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular time and place, including the air pressure, wind, cloud cover, precipitation, sunshine, temperature and humidity. It inuences day-to-day living more than any other aspect of the physical environment. It determines the clothing people wear, the design of houses and the activities that people pursue.
1.27 An automatic weather station
THE CHANGING WEATHER

The weather is dynamic. It varies dramatically from place to place, even over short distances and sometimes through the course of a single day. Meteorologists collect and analyse information about the weather in order to make forecasts. The information contained in these forecasts is critical in many decision-making situations. When you are thinking about a trip to the beach, the weather forecast is useful. For a cricket captain the forecast helps in the planning of tactics, but for a reghter trying to control a bushre or a community facing a cyclone the accuracy of the weather forecast can mean the difference between life and death. Due to modern technology meteorologists are becoming more accurate with their weather forecasts.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Cherrapunji in India has an average annual rainfall of over 11 metres! Less than 100 millimetres fall in January and over 2500 millimetres fall in June. The greatest temperature range recorded on Earth is 105C for Verkhoyansk in Siberia. Temperatures there have spanned from 68C to 37C.
WEATHER STATIONS
A traditional weather station contains instruments that measure air pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed and precipitation. These are read regularly and the observations recorded to build up an understanding of weather patterns. Automatic weather stations can record observations continuously even in remote areas and relay the data to central computers via modern communication technologies for analysis, as shown in 1.27.
Temperaturea measure of the amount of heat in the air

Temperature is measured using a thermometer and recorded in degrees Celsius (C). As the temperature is much higher in direct sunshine than in shade, and can be affected by wind, the thermometers are kept in a white box with louvered sides known as a Stevenson screen. Maximum and minimum thermometers record the highest and lowest temperatures each day. There are two markersone for the maximum temperature and another for the minimum. The mercury in the tube pushes the markers as temperatures go up or down. The difference between the two temperatures is the temperature range.
Humiditya measure of the amount of moisture in the air

Humidity is measured using a hygrometer and recorded as a percentage (%). A hygrometer has two thermometers: a dry-bulb thermometer, which is exposed to the air a wet-bulb thermometer, which is covered in a damp cloth (gauze). When water from the gauze round the wet bulb evaporates it takes heat from the thermometerit cools the thermometer. The temperature is lower on the wet-bulb thermometer than the dry-bulb thermometer. When there is low humidity, the air is dry and more evaporation takes place so the difference in temperatures between the two bulbs is greater than when there is high humidity and less evaporation takes place. When the temperatures are the same the relative humidity is 100 per cent.
table
1.28 A Stevenson screen
Precipitationany form of water falling to Earth, including rain, hail and snow
Rainfall is the precipitation most commonly measured at a weather station. It is measured using a rain gauge and recorded in millimetres (mm). A rain gauge should be located in an open area and raised slightly above the ground to prevent water running or splashing into it. Water is funnelled into a measuring cylinder. Rainfall can be described as: light < 25 mm per hour moderate 2575 mm per hour heavy > 75 mm per hour.
dry-bulb thermometer
wet-bulb thermometer
gauze water reservoir

1.30 A hygrometer
Air pressurethe weight of the air

Air pressure (atmospheric pressure) is measured using a barometer and recorded in hectopascals (hPa). It is a measure of the force of air pressure down onto the Earths surface. High pressure indicates ne weather. Low pressure indicates changeable weather and the chance of rain.
1.31 A barometer
1.29 A rain gauge
Unlocking the world
21
Wind speedthe rate of air movement

Wind speed is measured using an anemometer and recorded in metres per second. The cups on the anemometer spin in the wind and the number of revolutions are counted for a given time. The Beaufort scale is used to describe wind conditions.
1.33 Beaufort wind scale
m/s 0 1 2 3 4 5 01 12 23 45 68
Common signs for recognition Smoke rises vertical Smoke drifts slowly Leaves just move Leaves move constantly Small branches move
m/s
Common signs for recognition
7 1517 Large trees sway 8 1820 Small branches break 9 2124 Large branches break 10 2528 Small trees uprooted 11 2933 12 >33 Buildings badly damaged Buildings torn apart
911 Small trees sway
6 1214 Large branches move

1.32 An anemometer
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
Cumulonimbus
Wind directionwhere the wind is coming from

Wind direction is shown by a wind vane. The arrow points to the direction the wind is blowing from.
Cirrostratus
Cirrocumulus
CLOUDS
Meteorologists make two observations about clouds. They: identify the type of cloud (see 1.34) record the amount of the sky covered by cloud. Cloud cover is measured in 1/8ths of the total sky area, so if half the sky is cloudy, the cover is 4/8ths, as shown in 1.35.
Altostratus
Altocumulus
4
1.35 Measuring cloud cover
Nimbostratus
2
Stratocumulus
Clear 1 8 2 8 3 8 4 8
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Observers at 500 locations around Australia send regular reports to the Bureau of Meteorology on cloud types, height and the amount of sky covered.
Cumulonimbus
1 km
Sratus
1.34 Types of clouds
Cumulus
5 8 6 8 7 8 8 8 Sky obscured
SKILLS MASTER
Isobarsare lines that join places of equal pressure. Air pressure is measured in hectopascals (hPa). The air pressure here is 1014 hPa.
Low pressure system (L)air pressure decreases towards the centre of the system. Intense low pressure systems are called cyclones. They bring unsettled weather with cloud and rain. When air is warmed it expands and rises causing low pressure. Surrounding air moves in to take the place of the rising air. In the Southern Hemisphere, winds spiral clockwise into low pressure systems.
1012
High pressure system (H)Air pressure increases towards the centre of the system. High pressure systems are also called anticyclones. They bring settled weather with clear skies. When air is cooled it contracts and sinks causing high pressure. Air moves away from high pressure. In the Southern Hemisphere, winds spiral anticlockwise out from high pressure systems.
L
1014
Darwin
10 12
Wind speedis shown by feathers on the wind direction line. Winds are strongest where the isobars are close together. In this case the wind speed in Townsville is 14-23 km/hr. Rainin the previous 24 hours is shown using diagonal lines. Wind directionis shown by a line pointing to the direction that the wind is coming from. Winds are always named by the direction they come from. In this case the wind on Lord Howe Is is a northeasterly. Winds from the south bring cooler weather. Winds from the north bring warmer weather.Calm weather is shown by a circle (see Perth).
Port Hedland Alice Springs Carnarvon
Townsville
10
12
Rockhampton Charleville
L
Brisbane
1026
H
Perth Sydney Adelaide Lord Howe Is Melbourne Canberra
10
24
10
20
10
16
2 101 008 1
Hobart
1004 1000 996
L
WINDS 24.32 33.41 42.51 52.60 61.68 RAINFALL Previous 12 hours
MELBOURNE NOON 9 OCTOBER 1992
ISOBARS COLD FRONT WARM FRONT TROUGH
1024
calm 1.14 5.13 14.23
Cold frontis the front of a mass of cold air. As a cold front passes over it brings a drop in temperature, change in wind direction, increase in wind speed and the chance of rain. This front is moving north-east. It will pass over Perth in the next 24 hours.
Legendshows the time and place where the chart was produced and provides a key to the symbols.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Copy and complete the following table:
Weather element Temperature % Rainfall Anemometer Wind vane Air pressure Observation Compass points Instrument Units of measurement
Fieldwork
2 Individually or in groups, make your own weather recording instruments and use them to collect data in your local environment. 3 Follow the eldwork guide on page 18 to devise your own weather research.
Skills
4 What is the air pressure in: a Rockhampton b Adelaide c Perth? 5 What is the lowest air pressure shown? 6 What is the highest air pressure shown? 7 What is the wind speed and direction in: a Carnarvon b Port Headland c Rockhampton? 8 How many fronts are there on the map? 9 Which direction is the cold front south of Perth moving? 10 Name one place that received rainfall in the past 24 hours.
Unlocking the world
23
INVESTIGATING THE WORLD

The Earth is an extraordinary and complex planet. The interactions of physical and human features cause patterns on the Earths surface. Geographers use tools to investigate these patterns and interactions, including maps, latitude and longitude, atlases and photographs. Geographers also acknowledge the importance of World Heritage areas and understand the importance of active citizens in protecting these special places in our world.
Geographical tools
Maps
use an atlas use various types of maps: physical, political and thematic identify and use elements of maps: legend, north point, title, scale and border distinguish between different map projections locate features on a map using latitude and longitude, and grid and area references identify physical and cultural features on a map collect and use photographic images create a desktop-published document for a specific audience develop and refine search techniques using the Internet
Syllabus outcomes
A student: 4.1 identifies and gathers geographical information 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.5 demonstrates a sense of place about global environments 4.6 describes the geographical processes that form and transform environments 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship
Photographs
ICT

Definitions
atlasa collection of maps showing different parts of the world biomesthe worlds major environment types consisting of both plant and animal communities that are uniquely adapted to the particular environment criteriaa standard for judging something degradationthe wearing down of the natural environment through human actions or by natural processes Equatoran imaginary line that runs around the middle of the Earth separating the Northern Hemisphere from the Southern Hemisphere human environmentsenvironments that have been changed by people insolationthe amount of solar energy received on the Earths surface International Date Linethe meridian of longitude at which the date changes international treatyan agreement between nations for a common purpose latitude and longitudea grid system on a map that helps to locate places on the Earths surface map projectiona representation of the Earths curved surface drawn on a at piece of paper meridians of longitudegrid lines that run around the world from north to south parallels of latitudegrid lines that run around the world from east to west physical environmentsmostly made up of natural features like air, water, rocks and soils, and living things Prime Meridianan imaginary line that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole passing through Greenwich, and from which other lines of longitude are measured UNESCOa branch of the United Nations that is involved in protecting and managing World Heritage sites
Int roducing our world

2.1 It suddenly struck me that that tiny pea, pretty and blue, was the Earth. I put up my thumb and shut one eye, and my thumb blotted out the planet Earth. I didnt feel like a giant. I felt very, very small. (Neil Armstrong, rst person to set foot on the moon, 1969)
Our world is the only planet known to support life and have liquid water on the surface. From a human perspective the Earth appears to be endless, complicated and sturdy. From space it appears small and fragile.
2.2 The relative size of the worlds continents
THE PHYSICAL WORLD

The main pieces of land on the Earths surface are called continents. There are seven continentsAustralia, North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Antarctica. These are labelled in large black capital letters over the landmasses in 2.5. The main saltwater areas on the Earths surface are called oceans. There are ve oceansPacic, Indian, Atlantic, Arctic and Southern. These are labelled in blue capital letters over the main water bodies in 2.5.
Asia Africa North America South America Antarctica Europe Australia
WORLD RECORDS
Largest islandGreenland, with an area of about 2 175 600 square kilometres (excluding Australia, which, with an area of 7 682 300 square kilometres, is usually regarded as a continent) Longest coastlineCanada, with 243 792 kilometres Highest mountainMount Everest, with an elevation of 8850 metres above sea level Greatest mountain rangeHimalayas, which contains 96 of the worlds tallest 109 peaks Longest mountain rangeAndes in South America, with a length of approximately 7250 kilometres Deepest point in the oceanMariana Trench, Pacic Ocean, which is nearly 11 kilometres deep
2.3 The relative size of the worlds oceans
Pacific Atlantic Indian Southern Arctic
2.4 The Earths measurements
Feature Circumference (length) at the Equator Polar circumference Total surface area Area of land Area of water
Measurement 40 076 km 40 005 km about 509 600 000 km2 147 784 000 km2 or 29% of total surface 361 816 000 km2 or 71% of total surface
Longest riverNile River, Africa, which is 6695 kilometres long Greatest river owAmazon Basin, which holds two-thirds of all the owing water in the world Largest lakeCaspian Sea, with an area of 371 800 square kilometres Deepest lakeLake Baikal, in Siberia, Russia with a depth of 1637 metres of which 1181 metres are below sea level
2.5 A map of the world showing continents and oceans 0 180

ARCTIC OCEAN
Arctic Circle
66 2 N
EUROPE ASIA
Tropic of Cancer
NORTH AMERICA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN 23 2 N
1
AFRICA
Equator PACIFIC INDIAN
N
0 OCEAN
OCEAN
SOUTH AMERICA
23 2 S
1
Tropic of Capricorn
AUSTRALIA
2000
4000 km SOUTHERN continent name ocean name line of latitude degrees of latitude or longitude OCEAN Antarctic Circle 66 2 S
1
True scale only on the Equator Key ASIA INDIAN Equator 0
ANTARCTICA
180
THE WORLD MAP

Maps help people to understand the size, complexity and fragility of planet Earth and the relationships that humans have with it. Maps are essential tools for geographers. The world map is an important and useful tool in studying the global environment. There are three features that are shown on every world map: continents oceans a grid system. The grid system used on a world map is made up of lines of latitude and longitude. On the world map in 2.5 the main lines are shown as blue lines making up a grid. These help to locate a place on the Earths surface. Parallels of latitude are the lines that run across the map from east to west. There are ve main lines of latitude the Equator, Tropic of Capricorn, Tropic of Cancer, Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle. These are named in 2.5. (See unit 2.3 for more on latitude.) Meridians of longitude are the lines that run up and down the map from north to south. There are two main lines of longitudethe Prime Meridian at 0 and the International Date Line (IDL), which is loosely based around the 180 line in the Pacic Ocean. (See unit 2.4 for more on longitude.)
Activities
Knowledge
1 List the seven continents and ve oceans in two separate columns in alphabetical order. 2 Which three features are shown on every world map? 3 What percentage of the Earths surface is made up of land? 4 What is the circumference of the Earth at the Equator? 5 What are the ve main lines of latitude? 6 What are the two main lines of longitude?
Skills
7 Refer to 2.2 and 2.3. List the continents in descending order of size, from largest to smallest and the oceans in ascending order of size, from smallest to largest. 8 Use the information in 2.4 to construct a graph showing how much of the Earths surface is made up of land and water.
Application
9 Why do you think most maps have north at the top? 10 Why do you think the circumference of the Earth is less around the Poles than around the Equator?
Surf
27
Map making and map projections

A globe is the only accurate map of the world but globes are not always practical to use as they are expensive and fragile, and you can only see one hemisphere of the Earth at a time (see 2.6).
Flattening the globe

2.6 A globe is a true representation of the Earths spherical shape.
It is impossible to create at maps of the world without some distortion. Every map projection has to squash or stretch the Earths round surface to make it t on a piece of paper. Map projections attempt to show correctly: the shape of continents and oceans the area or size of continents and oceans the distance between two points direction.
You will notice that not all world maps are the same. This is because planet Earth is a sphere (3D) and a map is at (2D). Cartographers are people who make maps. They have different perspectives on how a world map can be drawn and have invented different ways of showing the curved surface of an almost spherical lump of rockour planeton a at piece of paper. These different ways of drawing the world are called map projections.
No map projection can show all of these correctly on the one mapusually only one or two of these can be represented accurately at one time.
REPRESENTING THE SHAPE OF PLANET EARTH

The Earth is a spherical shape, but it bulges at the middle due to the quick rotation around its axisonce every 24 hours it completes a revolution. It is attened at the Poles and is a rough irregular shape. This makes drawing maps of the world difcult.
HOW ARE MAP PROJECTIONS MADE?

Map projections are made by shining a light through part of a transparent globe so that the lines of latitude and longitude and the outlines of continents and oceans make a chart on the screen behind it (see 2.8). On the drawn map, areas near the centre will be about the right shape, but areas near the Poles will be distorted.
BRIEF HISTORY OF WORLD MAPS

85165 Ptolemy drew a world map which showed the area between the latitudes 60N and 30S including only parts of Asia, Europe and Africa.
2300 BC 350 BC 200 AD
14001500 Printing using carved wooden

blocks and copper plates allowed maps to be copied more easily and they became more available. The age of exploration meant that navigation charts, compass lines and other navigation aids became necessary. 400 AD 1500
2300 BC The oldest

known maps were drawn on clay tablets in Babylon.
350 BC The concept of a round Earth was known among Greek philosophers, including Aristotle.
4001400 During the Medieval

period European maps were inuenced by religious views. World maps often had Jerusalem at the centre during this time. All maps were hand drawn.
1508 The rst map to show

the whole globe was published showing a mythical southern continent, as Australia was yet to be discovered.
2.7 Four different types of map projection
Method 1 Cylindrical Resulting projection 2 Conical
Method Resulting projection
Method Resulting projection Method 3 Azimuthal Resulting projection 4 Interrupted
2.8 Making a map projection
TYPES OF MAP PROJECTIONS

Projected lines of latitude and longitude
There are many types of map projection. The type of projection used depends on what the map is being used to show and how much of the Earths surface is to be shown (also see page 30). The main types are constructed in the following ways. CylindricalBy projecting the surface of the globe onto a cylinder that just touches the outside edges of the globe ConicalBy projecting the surface of the globe onto a cone that just touches the outside edges AzimuthalBy projecting the surface of the globe onto a at surface that just touches the outside edges. Rectangular maps are prone to area and distance stretching, while round ones distort the shape. Interrupted projections cut the world map along less important featureslike oceansto show size and shape correctly.
Light source
Transparent semi-spherical globe (half a globe)
Screen
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
15001600 The rst whole world
maps were drawn following the voyages of Columbus and other explorers. A Belgian named Mercator was the leading cartographer. 1600
16001900 Maps
of the world become increasingly accurate with new scientic methods.
ar On the Mercator map Greenland looks simil fact in size to the continent of Africa, when in e Europ ica, Amer North ler! smal it is 14 times is ctica Antar big. too also and Russia are often left off because it is so distorted.
1700
1800
1900
2000
1569 Mercators projection of

the world was published. It is still used widely for navigation and other purposes.
1940s and 1950s

The use of aerial photography in map making makes it more accurate.
Present Modern cartography is a combination of ground observation, remote sensing, geographical information systems (GIS) and other computer technology. Our world and its heritage
29
2.9 Mercators projection is a cylindrical projection.
2.11 The conic equidistant projection is a conical projection.
Used for History How made Benets Drawbacks
Sea and air navigation One of the earliest and most well-known types of map projections, made in about 1600 Cylindrical Correct direction and shape of continents Distorted size of continents and distances
Used for How made Benets Drawbacks
Areas of the world in the mid-latitudes Conical Correct distances Distorts shape and area of continents near the poles and equator. Seldom used to show the whole world
2.10 The azimuthal equidistant projection is an azimuthal projection.
2.12 The Goodes interrupted homolosine projection is an interrupted projection.
Travel routes from a central point or for compact areas like Australia Azimuthal Area, distance and direction are fairly accurate Strongly distorts the shape of continents on the edge of the map
Various maps that need correct size and shape Interrupted Area and shape of continents are shown correctly Distance is distorted where the map is cut
SKILLS MASTER
Making your own map projections
Materials needed: 1 soft drink bottle with a rounded pouring end 1 torch Tracing paper Permanent marker Scissors Instructions 1 Cut the top off the bottle where the curved section becomes straight. Also cut off the neck of the bottle where the straight neck meets the curved area. This leaves you with a clear bowl shape, which represents a half globe, with a hole in the centre where the neck was. 2 Carefully draw lines of latitude and longitude on the inside of the half globe using a permanent marker. Use round objects to guide the marker when drawing the lines of latitude.
Azimuthal projection Place the half globe on tracing paper with the neck hole resting on the paper. Shine the torch from directly above the globe and trace with a pencil the lines of latitude and longitude on the paper. Cylindrical projection Roll a piece of tracing paper to form a cylinder which is the diameter of the large circle of the half globe. Place the half globe inside one end of the tube with the larger end facing you. Shine the torch through the half globe and the paper and trace with a pencil the lines of latitude and longitude on the paper. Conical projection Make a cone out of tracing paper and rest it on top of curved surface of the half globe. Shine the torch through the half globe and the cone and trace with a pencil the lines of latitude and longitude on the paper.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is a map projection? 2 What is the only completely accurate map of the world? 3 Why is a globe not practical when mapping the world? 4 What four features do cartographers attempt to show correctly on a map projection? 5 When were the rst world maps drawn? 6 What invention made maps more readily available? 7 What methods do cartographers use to draw maps today?
Map projection Mercator Conic equidistant Interrupted Azimuthal
Advantages
Disadvantages
Skills
8 Copy the following table. Use the four maps on page 30 to write down the continent that matches each colour.
Colour Red Green Blue White Orange Yellow Pink Continent
10 Refer to an atlas to nd out the names and types of projections used for: a a map of North America b a world map showing time zones c a map of Australia d a world map showing population distribution. 11 Use a piece of square or rectangular paper to fold or cut it into the shape of the world. Is it easy or hard to do?
Application
12 Which of the map projections shown in this unit would be most useful for the following? Explain your answer. a a person sailing solo around the world b people working at the North Pole. 13 Locate Australia and North America on the map projections in 2.92.12. Compare the shape and size of these continents on the maps and suggest why they are similar or different. 14 Explain why Antarctica does not appear on some projections and why it may appear to be enormous on others.
9 Copy and complete this table to show the advantages and disadvantages of different types of map projections.
Surf
31
Latitude and climate
2.13 The insolation from the Sun inuences the pattern of global climate.
Geographers use a grid system to express the location of a place on the Earths surface. This system is made up of parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. These are drawn as lines on maps at set intervals.
LATITUDE AFFECTS CLIMATE

Latitude has an important role in determining the climate. Climate is the usual condition of the atmosphere near the Earths surfacethe long-term weather of a place. Incoming solar radiation (insolation) is the energy that reaches the Earth from the Sun and it determines our climate. Insolation is greatest at the Equator because the Sun is directly overhead and the rays hit the Earths surface at a direct angle. Places at the Equator are generally hotter than places near the Poles. At the higher latitudes the rays come in at an angle and the same energy is spread over a larger area, as shown in 2.15.
2.14 Zones of latitude and their corresponding climates
LATITUDE
Latitude measures how far north or south of the Equator a location is. The Equator is an imaginary line that runs around the middle of the Earth, separating it into two halves or hemispheres. Latitude and longitude are angles and therefore are measured in degrees (). The measurement of latitude is between 0 degrees at the Equator and 90 degrees either north (N) or south (S). Each degree contains 60 minutes (written 60). The North and South Poles are at right angles to the centre of the Earth so the angle is 90. Therefore the latitude of the South Pole is 90S and the North Pole is 90N. Lines of latitude are called parallels because they never meet each other. They run from east to west on a map. Lines near the Equator are known as the low latitudes, while those further away are the high latitudes. Each degree of latitude covers approximately 111 kilometres in distance on the Earths surface.
Latitudes High latitudes Mid latitudes
Corresponding climates
66 2 N
1 23 2 N 1
Polar Temperate
Low latitudes Low latitudes
Equator
23 2 S
1
Tropical Tropical Temperate

66 2 S
1
Mid latitudes High latitudes
Polar
2.15 Insolation at the Equator (left) and mid-latitudes (right)
Equator
Suns rays are direct and heat up the Earths surface and the atmosphere above it.
Sun overhead
Mid latitudes/poles
Suns rays are less direct and are spread over a larger area of the Earths surface and atmosphere. It will not be as hot.
Low or angled sun
Land Area of land
Land Area of land
Other inuences on climate

As well as latitude there are other conditions that also affect climate, making it more complicated: Height above sea levelHigh elevations or altitudes experience colder conditions. Ocean currentsWarm ocean currents bring wet conditions, while cold currents bring dry conditions. Being close to the oceanThe ocean heats and cools more slowly than land, causing temperatures to be milder near the sea. Prevailing or usual wind patternsWinds that come over water may bring rain, but winds over land may bring dry conditions. AspectNorth-facing slopes in the Southern Hemisphere will be warmer than south-facing slopes.
SKILLS MASTER
Drawing a line drawing
Line drawings are completed in lead pencil and have shading, but no colour. They are intended to show the main features of an area or photograph for later reference (see example on page 9). 1 Rule up a frame the same size as the photograph. If you are completing a line drawing in the eld it is a good idea to use a frame cut from cardboard or paper. In this way the image will appear like a photograph. 2 Make a list of the features you can see in the background, middle ground and foreground of the image. Its useful to classify the features as physical or human. 3 Lightly sketch in the outline of the main features of the photograph paying attention to the background, middle ground and foreground. Add shading and some of the detail from the image. 4 Finally, label the main features in the image and add a title that describes what the image shows.
2.16 Even near the Equator temperatures can be colder due to high elevations.
33
No light at North Pole
Earths axis Sunlight Northern Hemisphere

Eq r uato
Sun
Sunlight
ator
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
Equ
Australias Summer
2.17 The Earths tilt, rotation and orbit around the Sun cause the seasons.
No light at Australias Winter South Pole
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Solstices occur on the longest and shortest days of the year. In the Southern Hemisphere the summer solstice (the longest day) is usually around 21 December and the winter solstice occurs around 21 June. The opposite occurs in the Northern Hemisphere. Equinoxes occur when the Sun is exactly above the Equator at noon, and day and night are of equal length. The spring equinox in the Southern Hemisphere is around 21 September and the autumn equinox is around 21 March.
THE SEASONS
The amount of insolation is also affected by the Earths orbit around the Sun. The Earth revolves around the Sun once a year and spins on its axis at a tilt of 23 degrees. As the Earth rotates on its axis and orbits around the Sun different parts of the world receive more or less energy. This creates the seasons spring, summer, autumn and winter.
At the Equator there is very little difference between the seasons. The further away from the Equator you are, the greater the difference between the seasons. Twice a year at the Equator there are equal hours of day and night. At the South Pole there are 24 hours of darkness for six months in winter, and 24 hours of daylight in summer (see 2.17).
2.18 The blossoms in this fruit orchard indicate the arrival of the spring season.
2.19 World pattern of climate
Arctic Circle
66 2 N
Tropic of Cancer
23 2 N
Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
N
23 2 S
2000
4000 km Antarctic Circle 66 2 S

1
Key
Ice capice and snow all year Tundracool short summer, very severe winter Sub-arcticrainy; cool short summer, severe winter Continentalcool wet summer, cold winter Continentalwarm wet summer, cold winter Temperaterainy; mild winter, warm summer Wet subtropicalrainy; mild winter, warm to hot summer Mediterraneanmild wet winter, dry warm to hot summer Semi-aridcool and dry or hot and dry Desertvery dry all year Tropical wet and drywarm to hot with a distinct wet and dry season Rainy tropicalhot and wet all year
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name the ve major parallels of latitude and give their values in degrees north or south of the Equator (see page 27). 2 What is the purpose of latitude? 3 What parallel of latitude separates the Northern and Southern hemispheres? 4 Why are lines of latitude called parallels? 5 Explain in your own words how latitude affects climate. 6 List the other factors that affect climate. 8 Look at 2.19: a List the continents that experience a rainy tropical climate. b List the continents that experience a sub-arctic climate. c List the types of climate experienced in Australia. 9 Make a line drawing of 2.16 on page 33.
Application
10 Refer to 2.15 to help you explain why areas close to the Equator are warmed more than areas in the mid-latitudes. 11 Refer to 2.17 to help you explain why we have seasons. 12 Explain the terms solstice and equinox. Why do they occur at opposite times of the year in the Southern and Northern hemispheres?
Skills
7 Look at 2.14: a What climates would you expect in the low latitudes? b What climates would you expect in the high latitudes?
35
Longitude and time

Lines of longitude run in a northsouth direction, or longways, down a map. They are not parallel to each other so all the lines meet at the North and South Poles. They are called meridians of longitude. Longitude measures the distance east or west of the Prime Meridian or 0 degrees.
IMPORTANT LINES OF LONGITUDE

The Prime Meridian is an imaginary line at 0 degrees that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole passing through Greenwich, a suburb of London. It is also referred to as the Greenwich Meridian. This line separates the Eastern Hemisphere from the Western Hemisphere. From the Prime Meridian you can head 180 degrees either east or west to reach the International Date Line, totalling the 360 degrees for the full globe. Meridian refers to the middle of the day or noon when the Sun is directly overhead. All places on the same meridian experience noon at the same time. Morning is known as a.m., or ante meridian (before noon), and p.m., or post meridian, means afternoon.
2.20 The 0 degree line of longitude in Greenwich, London is also known as the Prime Meridian.
LONGITUDE AFFECTS TIME

GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
China stretches across ve time zones, but the government has decided not to use time zones meaning that the time is the same everywhere in the nation. If you live in western or eastern China the Sun will not be directly overhead at noon.
Day and night occur because the Earth is spinning on an axis. It takes 24 hours for the Earth to complete one rotation. It makes sense that the Earth is divided into 24 time zones, one for each hour of the day. Some time zones zigzag so that people living in a region can have the same time (see 2.21). Time changes as you move east or west. Each degree of longitude represents a difference in time of four minutes.
Places in the Eastern Hemisphere have sunrise before Greenwich, therefore they have a local time earlier than GMTSydney, Australia is 10 hours ahead of GMT. Places in the Western Hemisphere have sunrise after Greenwich and therefore have a local time that is later than GMTLos Angeles, United States is 8 hours behind GMT. The International Date Line is the point at which the change of day takes place. If we travel east to west across this line we gain a day, such as from Sydney to Los Angeles. If we travel west to east we lose a day. It is not a straight line so that countries are not split into two days (see 2.21).
Daylight saving
During the summer when the Sun rises earlier, people make use of the extra daylight hours by shifting the clocks by one hour. What was 6 a.m. in winter is called 7 a.m. in summer. Each day people actually get up one hour earlier and have sunlight for a longer time in the evening.
Each time zone of one hour is approximately equal to 15 degrees longitude. If it is 12 noon where you are, 15 degrees to the west it will be 11 a.m. and 15 degrees to the east it will be 1 p.m.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
When travelling to the west coast of America Australians often arrive at their destination before their departure time in Australia!
How does time work?

At the Prime Meridian, Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is set by the most accurate clock in the world. All other places in the world set their time according to this clock.
2.21 The Prime Meridian, the International Date Line and world time zones
2 1 0 +1 +2 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0600 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400
Noon
1100
Moscow London Paris

0600 0600
Mo Su nda nd y ay
Oslo
Helsinki
0500 0600
0700
0900
Yakutsk
1400 1300
Anchorage Vancouver Winnipeg Ottawa Seattle San Francisco Washington Los Angeles New Orleans Miami Mexico City Panama City Equator
day Mon ay Sund
Yekaterinburg Novosibirsk
0800 1000 Beijing 0745
Magadan
1200
Rome Rabat Algiers Cairo
Baku Tehran 0630
Tokyo Hawaiian Is.
Ndjamera Abidjan Kinshasa
Thimbu 0530 Delhi Riyadh Muscat Dhaka Hong Kong 0730 Bangkok 0800 Addis Ababa Singapore Dar es Salaam Mauritius Perth Jakarta
0830
Peurto Rico Caracas
Port Moresby Darwin Fiji

1130
1630
Lima La Paz So Paulo Brisbane

1230
1330
International Date Line

Santiago Buenos Aires South Georgia
1445
Cape Town
Sydney Melbourne Hobart
Auckland
Greenwich Meridian
15 15 30 45 60 75 90 105
Monday Sunday
Sunday
Monday
120 135
150
165 180
165
150
135
120 105
90
75
60
45
30
Key
N
4 0800
0 2000 4000 km 0730
How many hours ahead (+) or behind () each time zone is compared to Australian Eastern Standard Time. What time it would be in each zone if it was 1200 hours (noon) in Sydney, Melbourne or Brisbane (in 24 hour time). Time zones which differ from the normal pattern
True scale only on the Equator
2.22 In December, when it is 4 p.m. on Sunday in San Francisco on the west coast of the United States, it is 11 a.m. on Monday in Sydney, Australia. (Remember daylight saving.)
37
SKILLS MASTER
How to write latitude and longitude
Latitude and longitude are two numbers describing the position of any point on the surface of the Earth. There are a few rules to follow. 1 Latitude and longitude are expressed in degrees. Degrees latitude refers to the distance of a place either north or south of the equator. Degrees longitude refers to the distance of a place either east of west of the Prime Meridian. 2 Latitude is always written rst and the letters N (north) or S (south) must follow the number. 3 Longitude follows latitude and must be labelled E (east) or W (west). An example from the Fiji extract in 2.23 is: Suva is about 18 degrees south of the Equator and 178 degrees east of the Prime Meridian. This is written 18S, 178E. 2.23 Atlas map of Fiji
16S
178E Vanua Labasa Levu
180
Yasawa Group
Tavua Nadi 18S Viti Levu
Nabouwalu Koro Ellington Ovalau Koro Levuka Nausori Gau SUVA

e Passag
Taveuni Lomaloma
Sea
N
Lakeba
10 20 km
F I J I
avu Kad Vunisea
178E
Kadavu
180
Legend Capital city town or city
SKILLS MASTER
How to use an atlas
An atlas is a collection of maps of different parts of the world. The maps may show the whole world or specic regions or countries. Use the table of contents to nd a map, not a place. For example, you might want to nd a map of Canada, a settlement map of Africa or a political world map. Use the index to nd a particular place like a town or city, mountain, river or lake but not an entire map. In the index every place is listed in alphabetical order.
place name
country name or state name page number
alphanumeric grid reference latitude longitude
Nabouwalu
Fiji
82 H2 17.00S 178.43E
2.24 How to read the index
N
Naalehu Hawaiian Is 82 J10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.04N 155.36W Naberezhnyye Chelny Russian Fed. 118 H3 . . . . 55.42N 52.20E Nabeul Tunisia 116 F4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.28N 10.44E Nablus West Bank 109 A3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.13N 35.16E Nabouwalu Fiji 82 H2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.00S 178.43E Nacala Mozambique 123 D3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.30S 40.37E Nadi Fiji 82 G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.47S 177.29E Nador Morocco 116 C4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.12N 2.55W Nstved Denmark 114 I3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.14N 11.46E
Using the index

Nadi (shown in 2.25) would be found on page 82, in the grid of G2. Its latitude and longitude reading is 1747S 17729E.
2.25 Part of the N section in an atlas index
Activities
Knowledge
1 How many degrees of longitude are equal to one hour? 2 How much time in minutes equals one degree of longitude?
Skills
2.26 These clocks show the time of cities in different world time zones.
3 Refer to the map in 2.23. Give the latitude and longitude of: a Ellington (H2) b Vunisea (H1) c Lomaloma (I2). 4 What places would you nd at: a 18S, 179 E b 17S, 180E? 5 Use an atlas table of contents to nd the page number for: a a political map of Asia b a physical map of the world c a settlement map of Australia. 6 Use an atlas index to nd the page number and latitude and longitude of: a New York City b London c Tokyo.
SNAPSHOT
24 hour clocks
There are 24 time zones because the Earths rotation takes 24 hours. Most clocks work on 12-hour periods, from 12 a.m. to 11.59 a.m. and from 12 p.m. to 11.59 p.m. Sometimes 24-hour clocks are used, particularly in airports and in the defence forces. A 24-hour clock is mostly used to avoid confusion between a.m. and p.m. 12-hour clocks versus 24-hour clocks Both 12-hour and 24-hour clocks start a new day at midnight (12.00 a.m. and 0000 respectively). All hour numbers are the same until noon (12.00 p.m. or 1200). For example, 2 a.m. is 0200 on the 24-hour clock. At noon the 12-hour clock repeats the same hour numbers but as p.m. At noon the 24-hour clock keeps adding hour numbers 1300 = 1 p.m., 1400 = 2 p.m., 1500 = 3 p.m., and so on. After 2359 (11.59 p.m.) the 24-hour clock starts again at 0000 (midnight).
Application
7 Use all the information in this unit and the world time zone chart in 2.21 to answer these questions: a What time is it in Sydney when it is 11 a.m. Monday in London? b What is the time in London when it is 3 p.m. Tuesday in Sydney? c What is the time difference between Sydney and Los Angeles? d Jenny is in Sydney and wants to telephone her sister Anne in Los Angeles at 6 p.m. on Sunday Los Angeles time. What time should she call from Sydney? e Anne wasnt home when Jenny rang so she left a message. Anne didnt return Jennys call until 8 a.m. Monday, Los Angeles time. At what time did Jenny receive the call in Sydney? f Dave is ying from Sydney to Los Angeles. The ight leaves Sydney at 2 p.m. on Tuesday and takes 14 hours. What is the day and time when the plane arrives in Los Angeles? 8 Refer to 2.27 and give your answers on the 12-hour clock: a At what time did the rst ight leave Melbourne in 2007? If you had missed this ight, how long would you have to wait before another ight to the same destination? b At what time did EK 407 depart Melbourne? c What time did the last ight depart Melbourne? At what other times could people have own to those destinations? d If you were ying with Jetstar to Bangkok, what time would you have to check in if it is recommended that you check in two hours before your ight departs?
2.27 Part of an international ight schedule for 1 January 2007
Departing Airline Melbourne Malaysia Melbourne Jetstar Melbourne Air New Zealand Melbourne Qantas Melbourne Jetstar Melbourne Cathay Pacic Melbourne Malaysia Melbourne Qantas Melbourne Thai Melbourne Emirates Melbourne Emirates Melbourne Qantas
Flight number JQ 405 NZ 752 QF 093 JQ 029 CX 104 QF 009 TG 982 EK 405 EK 407 QF 029
Destination
Departure time 0045 0840 0930 1220 1410 1540 1540 1710 1730 2030 2225 2359
MH 128 Kuala Lumpur Christchurch Wellington Los Angeles Bangkok Hong Kong Singapore/ London Bangkok Singapore/Dubai Dubai Hong Kong/ London
MH 148 Kuala Lumpur
Surf
39
Mapping the physical and human world

The world around us is made up of physical and human features. Physical features are part of the natural world, such as soils, landforms and living things. Some examples of physical environments are rainforests, mountains, deserts and polar lands. Human features occur where people have changed the surroundings, such as cities like Sydney, New York and London, agricultural land and industrial areas.
THE PHYSICAL WORLD

There are four main elements of physical environments: atmospherethe air and gases, climate and weather hydrospherethe water in oceans, seas, rivers and lakes lithospherethe Earths surface rocks, soils and landforms biosphereliving thingsora (plants) and fauna (animals). Many of the natural features of the world can be mapped on physical world maps. This map displays continents, islands, rivers, mountains and elevation, lakes, deserts, oceans, seas and sometimes ocean currents (see 2.29).
2.29 The physical world map
30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 150 120 90 60 30
2.28 Buildings, roads, jetties and car parks are human features of the environment. The distant mountains and water bodies are natural features.
ARCTIC OCEAN Key Relief (metres)

5000 3000 2000 1000 500 200 Sea-level Under sea-level
Arctic Circle Mt McKinley

60
Ro ck
EUROPE
Alps
ASIA Mt Elbrus
H im
yM ou nta ins
NORTH AMERICA ATLANTIC 30 OCEAN
Atla
sM
tns
AFRICA ATLANTIC OCEAN
Ethiopian Highlands
Challenger Deep 11 022 Ma
r ia
nas
Mt Everest 8850
a lay a
Tropic of Cancer PACIFIC OCEAN Equator SOUTH AMERICA

An
Mt Killimanjaro INDIAN OCEAN

a Gre
0 200 4000 6000 Mountain Ocean depth
de
Permanent ice 30
sM
AUSTRALIA
e
ivid tD
Tropic of Capricorn Mt Aconcagua
t ns
ing Ra ng
Mt Kosciuszko
SOUTHERN OCEAN Antarctic Circle

30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 150 120 90 60 60 30
1500 3000 4500 6000 km
2.30 This is a political map of the world. The countries are coloured so that they can be distinguished from one another. The continents are not labelled, as the map would become cluttered.
30 0 30 60 90 120 150 ARCTIC OCEAN 180 150 120 90 60 30
Key
ICELAND USA RUSSIAN FEDERATION FINLAND NORWAY SWEDEN 44 23 43 24 22 42 BELARUS 26 25 27 28 UKRAINE KAZAKHSTAN 38 37 41 MONGOLIA 36 29 39 FRANCE 35 34 30 40 42 46 47 ITALY NORTH PORTUGAL SPAIN 43 31 TURKEY 45 KOREA 48 33 32 44 JAPAN CHINA SOUTH TUNSIA 14 16 IRAQ AFGHANISTAN MOROCCO IRAN KOREA 15 17 50 18 PAKISTAN ALGERIA LIBYA EGYPT 19 49 WESTERN 53 NORTHERN 51 SAUDI 20 TAIWAN SAHARA MARIANA 52 INDIA ARABIA 21 OMAN Hong Kong MAURITANIA ISLANDS NIGERIA NIGER THAILAND SENEGAL (USA) CHAD SUDAN 12 YEMEN PACIFIC MARSHALL 1 10 PHILIPPINES VIETNAM OCEAN ISLANDS 2 13 NIGERIA CENTRAL FED. STATES OF 3 ETHIOPIA SOMALIA CAMBODIA AFRICAN 4 MICRONESIA GILBERT SRI LANKA 54 MALAYSIA REP UGANDA 5 NAURU ISLANDS KIRIBATI 6 7 8 KENYA DEMOCRATIC SINGAPORE 9 GABON BURUNDI MALDIVES PAPUA CONGO REPUBLIC 11 RWANDA MILLENNIUM I INDONESIA OF NEW SOLOMON IS TANZANIA TUVALU CAMEROON (CAROLINE I.) CONGO GUINEA MALAWI 62 AMERICAN ANGOLA ATLANTIC MOZAMBIQUE SAMOA COOK ZAMBIA VANUATU OCEAN FIJI ISLANDS INDIAN MADAGASCAR FRENCH ZIMBABWE OCEAN POLYNESIA TONGA (NZ) MAURITIUS BOTSWANA NEW NAMIBIA CALEDONIA AUSTRALIA SWAZILAND UNITED KINGDOM IRELAND SOUTH AFRICA LESOTHO
Equator
NEW ZEALAND
0
SOUTHERN OCEAN
1500 3000 4500 6000 km

120 150 180 150 120
ANTARCTICA 30 0 30 60 90
50. BHUTAN 1. GAMBIA 51. BANGLADESH 2. GUINEA BISSAU 52. MYANMAR 3. GUINEA 53. LAOS 4. SIERRA LEONE GREENLAND 54. BRUNEI 5. LIBERIA 55. GUATEMALA 6. CTE D'IVOIRE 56. EL SALVADOR 7. GHANA 57. NICARAGUA 8. TOGO 58. COSTA RICA 9. BENIN 59. PANAMA 10. BURKINA FASO 60 60. HONDURAS 11. EQUATORIAL 61. BELIZE GUINEA CANADA 62. EAST TIMOR 12. ERITREA 13. DJIBOUTI 14. LEBANON 15. ISRAEL UNITED 16. SYRIA STATES 17. JORDAN OF AMERICA 18. KUWAIT ATLANTIC 19. BAHRAIN 30 OCEAN 20. QATAR 21. UNITED ARAB EMIRATES CUBA DOMINICAN 22. BELGIUM REPUBLIC MEXICO 23. NETHERLANDS 61 60 61 HAITI 24. DENMARK 55 59 25. GERMANY 56 VENEZUELA GUYANA 57 26. POLAND SURINAME 58 COLOMBIA FRENCH GUIANA 27. CZECH REPUBLIC 0 28. SLOVAKIA EQUADOR 29. HUNGARY 30. SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO BRAZIL 31. MACEDONIA PERU 32. GREECE 33. ALBANIA BOLIVIA 34. BOSNIA-HERTZEGOVINA PARAGUAY 35. CROATIA 36. SLOVENIA 30 37. AUSTRIA URUGUAY 38. SWITZERLAND CHILE ARGENTINA 39. ROMANIA 40. BULGARIA 41. MOLDOVA 42. GEORGIA 43. AZERBAIJAN 44. ARMENIA 45. TURKMENISTAN 46. UZBEKISTAN 60 47. KYRGYZSTAN 48. TAJIKISTAN 49. NEPAL 60 30 90
THE HUMAN WORLD

Human features of the environment such as towns, cities, roads, factories and monuments do not occur naturally. Humans also change or inuence the natural environment through activities such as farming, shing and mining. Human features, such as boundaries, towns, cities and countries, can be mapped on political maps (see 2.30). A map may also show other human environments including agriculture, industry, mining, settlement or population density, transport, communications or places important in human history. Agriculture and mining are two of the most important human activities as they provide people with a supply of food and some raw materials such as timber, cotton and rubber.
Skills
7 Look at 2.29 and an atlas: Copy and complete the following table.
Continent Mountain range Europe Asia North America South America Australia Africa Highest mountain (name and height)
THEMATIC MAPS
Thematic maps can show physical or human features of the environment such as agriculture, forestry or mining.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What are physical environments? Give some examples. 2 What are human environments? Give some examples. 3 What are the four main elements of physical environments? 4 What features are displayed on physical world maps? 5 What features are displayed on political world maps? 6 What are thematic maps?
8 Look at 2.30 and an atlas: a Name three countries that are coloured green. b Name ve countries in the Southern Hemisphere. c Name ve countries in the Northern Hemisphere. d Name two countries that are found on these continents: i South America ii Europe iii Asia iv Africa.
Application
9 Look at 2.29. Which continent do you think has the highest overall elevation? Why? 10 Look at 2.30. Rank the top ve countries in order of area from highest to smallest. Hint: Remember your work on map projections.
41
Our world heritage
2.31 The Tower of London is part of the worlds cultural heritage.
Our world contains natural (physical) and cultural (human) features that are important and signicant to many people. Some of these features should be protected and conserved for the benet of all global citizens, as they are part of our heritage.
threat to Abu Simbel temples in Egypt (2.33) by ooding from the Aswan High Dam. The group formed was called the World Heritage Committee and it was administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
WORLD HERITAGE
Heritage is: our legacy from the past what we live with today what we pass on to future generations. The idea of forming a group of people for protecting special heritage places in the world was rst discussed early in the twentieth century, after the First World War. However it did not happen until 1972, following the
WHERE ARE THE WORLD HERITAGE SITES?

Since the relocation of the Abu Simbel temples many more signicant world sites have become protected. World Heritage sites belong to all the people of the world, regardless of the country in which the sites are located.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
In 1978 there were 12 World Heritage sites. By 2006 there were 830.
2.32 Location of World Heritage sites, some of which are named
World Heritage Site Tower of London Eiffel Tower Sagarmatha National Park Bam Lake Baikal Mesa Verde Grand Canyon National Park Hawaii Volcanoes National Park Great Barrier Reef Galapagos Islands Rapa Nui National Park (Easter Island) Manu National Park
Hiroshima Peace Memorial Angkor
Petra Abu Simbel Serengeti National Park

N
Kakadu Shark Bay Uluru

2000 4000 km
Tasmanian Wilderness
SNAPSHOT
2.34 Location of Abu Simbel on Lake Nasser in Egypt
Mediterranean
30E
Sea
ISRAEL JORDAN
Alexandria
N
Nile R
iver
Cairo
Suez
30N
100 200 300 km
SAUDI ARABIA
Asyut
LIBYA
EGYPT
Western Desert Esna
Luxor Aswan
Red Sea
Key Cairocapital city city or town Red Sea water body SUDAN country border
Lake Nasser Abu Simbel Wadi Halfa SUDAN
Tropic of Cancer (231 N) 2
2.33 Abu Simbel temples being moved
Abu Simbel temples

Abu Simbel is an archaeological site in Southern Egypt that contains two sets of large and ancient temples. They were built for Pharaoh Ramses II in the thirteenth century BC as a monument to himself and his queen, Nefertari, as well as to impress Egypts southern neighbours. The faade of the larger temple is guarded by four statues that were sculpted from the rock. Abu Simbel is located on the western shore of Lake Nasser, but it nearly ended up being covered by the lake! In the 1960s, when the Egyptian Government was building the Aswan High Dam, people realised that an important part of Ancient Egypts history was in danger. UNESCO helped to move the templesblock by blockto higher, dry ground over a period of four years from 1964 to 1968. This cost about US$80 million, of which interested countries donated half. Countries provided both nancial and technical help to the Egyptian Government for this project. This set the scene for international cooperation in the protection of special sites. Abu Simbel is now part of a UNESCO World Heritage site known as the Nubian Monuments. It is one of Egypts major tourist attractions.
2.35 New location of Abu Simbel on a higher bank of Lake Nasser
43
RESPONSIBILITY FOR WORLD HERITAGE SITES

Managing a protected area often involves many people and organisations. These may be government agencies, rangers and environmental groups. Each of these plays a specic role in the management and protection of World Heritage sites.
and cultural sites that can be on the World Heritage List. The convention sets out the duties of governments in identifying, protecting, preserving and reporting on existing and potential sites.
Governments
The governments of the countries that sign the convention agree to identify and nominate properties in their national territory. They also have to give details on how the site is going to be protected, and devise a management plan. Governments are asked by UNESCO to report on the state of the properties in their territories every six years.
United Nations
UNESCO aims to encourage the identication, protection and preservation of heritage around the world considered to be the most important to humans. UNESCO adopted an international treaty called the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1972. This is an agreement between countries that have signed the convention. It denes the types of natural
Advisory bodies
IUCNThe World Conservation Union (IUCN) is an international organisation that investigates natural and mixed sites, and reports on conservation. ICOMOSThe International Council on Monuments and Sites is a non-government organisation that investigates cultural and mixed sites. ICCROMThe International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property provides advice on how to conserve sites properly. WHCThe World Heritage Committee meets once a year and is made up of 21 member countries. It has the nal say on whether a site will be World Heritage listed or not, and allocates funds and examines reports on the state of conservation of sites already on the World Heritage List. It also decides on sites that need to be on the List of World Heritage in Danger (see unit 2.8 on page 48).
THE WORLD HERITAGE EMBLEM

The World Heritage emblem represents the worlds natural and cultural diversity. The central square symbolises the results of human skill and inspiration and the outside circle represents the gifts of nature. It is round like the world as a symbol of global protection for the heritage of all humankind.
2.36 Process for World Heritage listing
Tentative list
National governments decide on which sites in their country are important natural and cultural heritage and which ones they would like to nominate in the next 510 years and place them on this list.
World Heritage Centre

The le is submitted to the World Heritage Centre for them to review and to check it is complete.
World Heritage List

Once all les and sites have been evaluated the World Heritage Committee makes the nal decision about which ones will go on the World Heritage List. This committee meets once a year.
Nomination le
A le that includes maps and facts about the site is prepared by the government.
Advisory bodies
When the le is complete it is sent to one of the advisory bodies for evaluation. If it is a cultural site the le is sent to ICOMOS. If it is natural the le is sent to IUCN.
Criteria
For the site to be included on the list it must meet at least one of the 10 criteria (see unit 2.7 on page 46). The site must be of outstanding universal value.
SNAPSHOT
SKILLS MASTER
Using photographs to study change
Photographs are an important tool for geographers as they can show the changes that have taken place over a period of time for a particular location or in a feature. Depending on the topic or feature the time period might be weeks, months (see the break up of the Larsen ice shelf on page 81) or years, as in the case of the Sydney Opera House. Make a list of all the changes that you can see or make a line drawing with labels that annotate the changes. Then write a descriptive paragraph about the change that you think has occurred. You could then think about changes that you cannot see, but are likely to have happened, such as changes to the landform, the natural plant and animal life, and/or human activities. 2.37 Bennelong Point, Sydney before 1957
Sydney icon for World Heritage List?

The Sydney Opera House was designed to be built on Bennelong Point close to the Sydney Harbour Bridge by the Danish architect Jrn Utzon. The building took 16 years to complete between 1957 and 1973. On 16 January 2006 the federal Minister for the Environment and Heritage, the NSW Minister for Planning and the NSW Minister for the Arts announced that the Sydney Opera House had been ofcially nominated for inclusion on the World Heritage List. Both governments worked together to prepare a detailed assessment of the universal value of the Sydney Opera House site. This highlighted the architectural and engineering features of the building, human creative genius and its importance as a focus for the arts at a national and international level. The Sydney Opera House was added by the Australian Government to the Tentative World Heritage List in June of 2006. The nomination le was sent to the World Heritage Centre in Paris for initial assessment. It was then sent to the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). ICOMOS carried out a detailed assessment of the nomination, visited the site and prepared a report for consideration by the World Heritage Committee at their annual meeting. The World Heritage Committee meeting, where new world heritage sites are added, will occur in 2007.
2.38 Bennelong Point, Sydney after the construction of the Opera House
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is heritage? 2 What war prompted people to look after special places in the world? 3 What event was the catalyst for the formation of the World Heritage Committee? 4 What does UNESCO stand for? 5 Name six groups who are responsible for managing World Heritage sites. 6 What is an international treaty? Give an example of an international treaty concerning World Heritage. 7 Name the ve main steps in the process of World Heritage listing. 8 Which government departments were responsible for the nomination of the Sydney Opera House as a World Heritage site? 9 What was the role of ICOMOS in the listing of the Sydney Opera House?
Skills
10 Look at the location of World Heritage sites in 2.32. a Where is the greatest density of World Heritage sites? b Where is the least density of World Heritage sites? 11 Look at 2.34: a Describe the location of Abu Simbel in relation to Lake Nasser. b Describe the location of Lake Nasser in relation to Egypt, the Red Sea and the River Nile. 12 Make a line drawing of 2.35 on page 43. (Refer to the Skills Master on page 33.) 13 Look at the photographs in 2.37 and 2.38 and make a list of the changes on Bennelong Point.
Application
14 As a class discuss reasons for countries donating nancial and technical assistance to save the monuments at Abu Simbel. 15 Outline the process of World Heritage Listing of the Sydney Opera House, beginning with the listing on the Tentative List, by drawing a ow diagram.
Surf
45
Criteria for World Heritage listing

Members of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization) decide which sites around the world are special by using criteria or reasons for selection. To be included on UNESCOs World Heritage List a place must be of outstanding value to the world.
Criteria (iii)evidence of a civilisation that has disappeared or which still exists.

The Mesa Verde, Colorado, United States is a large area of American Indian dwellings built between the years 600 and 1200 AD found on a plateau in the south-west of the state. There are villages and cliff-houses built at 2600 metres above sea level.
CULTURAL CRITERIA
A cultural World Heritage site is one that has been created by humans. It must satisfy at least one of the following criteria to be listed on the World Heritage List.
Criteria (i)represents human creative genius.

The Taj Mahal in Agra, India represents the creative genius of the emperor Shah Jahan who ordered this white marble building in memory of his wife and to house her cofn. The emperor was put under house arrest by his son in a castle across the lake where he gazed at the memorial to his wife. The building took 17 years to complete.
Criteria (iv)an outstanding building or landscape that represents signicant stage(s) in human history.
Criteria (v)an outstanding example of human settlement or land use representing human interaction with the environment.
Rapa Nui National Park, Chile, also known as Easter Island. A society of Polynesian origin that settled on the island around the year 300 AD established a powerful, imaginative tradition of monumental sculpture. From the tenth to the sixteenth century this society built shrines and erected enormous stone gures known as moai that continue to fascinate people throughout the world.
g The city of Petra, Jordan was lived in durin the een betw prehistoric times. It is situated Red Sea and the Dead Sea, and was an t important crossroads between Arabia, Egyp into ed carv half, built halfis and Syria. Petra s the rock, and is surrounded by mountain of one is It es. gorg and ages pass y with man . sites the worlds most famous archaeological
tant Criteria (ii)shows impor over ues val exchange of human can It time or over an area. , be displayed in architecture ntow , technology, monuments . ign planning or landscape des
is, France, Banks of the River Seine, Par er, and the including the Louvre, Eiffel Tow lution of evo Cathedral of Notre-Dame. The the and n see Paris and its history can be n tow ced uen in wide squares and streets 0s. 190 the in ld wor planning all over the
Criteria (vi)directly associated with events or traditions, ideas or beliefs.

The Hiroshima Peace Memorial, Japan was the only structure left standing in the area where the rst atomic bomb exploded on 6 August 1945. It is a stark and powerful symbol of the most destructive force ever created by humans. It also expresses the hope for world peace and the ultimate elimination of all nuclear weapons.
NATURAL CRITERIA
A natural World Heritage site is one that has been created by natural processeshumans have not made it. To be listed on the World Heritage List a natural site must full one of the following criteria.
Criteria (x) or Natural (iv) important and signicant natural habitats for conservation of biodiversity. May contain threatened species with value for science or conservation.
The plains of Serengeti National Park, Tanzania comprise 1.5 million hectares of savanna grasslands. The yearly migration to permanent water holes of herds of wildebeest, gazelles and zebras, followed by their predators, is one of the most impressive natural events in the world.
Criteria (ix) or Natural (ii)represents ongoing processes in evolution and development of living things on land and water, developing ecosystems and communities of plants and animals.
Criteria (viii) or Natural (i)represents major stages of the Earths natural history, including record of life, geological processes and landforms.
Lake Baikal in Siberia in the Russian Federation is the oldest (25 million years) and deepest (1700 metres) lake in the world. It contains 20 per cent of the worlds total unfrozen freshwater reserve. Its age and isolation have produced a rich ecology, including some of the worlds most unusual freshwater animals.
The Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, United States contains two of the most active volcanoes in the world, Mauna Loa and Kilauea. Volcanic eruptions have created constantly changing landforms, and the lava ows show surprising geological formations. It contains rare birds and species only found in that part of the world, as well as forests of giant ferns.
Criteria (vii) or Natural (iii)contains natural phenomena or areas of natural beauty and importance.
Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal has dramatic mountains, glaciers and deep valleys and is dominated by Mount Everest, the highest peak in the world at 8850 metres. Several rare species, such as the snow leopard and the panda, are found in the park. The presence of the Sherpa, with their unique culture, adds further interest to this site.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What does UNESCO stand for? 2 What is UNESCOs role in relation to protecting the worlds heritage? 3 How does a place get included on the World Heritage List? 4 What is the main difference between natural and cultural world heritage sites? 7 Classify the photographs in this unit as aerial, oblique or ground-level.
Application
8 What do all the places representing Criteria (i)(vi) have in common? 9 What do the places representing Criteria (vii)(x) have in common? 10 Do you think it is possible for a World Heritage site to contain both natural and cultural features? How do you think a site like this would be classied? Can you think of a world heritage site that contains both natural and cultural features?
Skills
5 Use an atlas to label all the places mentioned on this page on a blank world outline map. Use colour to show the different criteria each site represents. Create a key to link the colours to the criteria. 6 Construct a photo sketch of Serengeti National Park, Tanzania.
Surf
47
Valuing World Heritage
2.39 The city of Bam in Iran before the disastrous earthquake in 2003, which destroyed much of the ancient city
When a site is placed on the World Heritage List the criteria that enabled it to be listed must be preserved. Some sites are in danger as they are not being properly managed or are threatened by natural activity. It is not only the responsibility of international organisations to preserve World Heritage sitesthe actions of global citizens are also important.
WORLD HERITAGE IN DANGER

Because there are threats to World Heritage sites, the World Heritage Committee (WHC) created the List of World Heritage in Danger. The WHC lists sites that are in danger of destruction or degradation. The threats can include rapid urban or tourist development; armed conict; serious res, earthquakes and landslides; volcanic eruptions; changes in water level, oods and tidal waves.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
In 2006 there were 34 sites on the List of World Heritage in Danger.
2.40 Location of the city of Bam
60E TURKMENISTAN
SNAPSHOT 1
AZERBAIJAN
Bamheritage in danger
The city of Bam in Iran was added to the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2004. It is located in a desert environment and its history can be traced back to 600 BC. It was an important city in the trade and production of silk and cotton in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It is a fortied town built with mud layers and was one of the rst cities to use an underground irrigation system. The mud-brick citadel is over 2000 years old. In December 2003, over 26 000 residents of Bam lost their lives in an earthquake. This earthquake also destroyed 90 per cent of the historical city and left 85 000 people homeless. In response to the site being on the danger list, groups of people are attempting to salvage and preserve the heritage of this city.
IRAQ
Tabriz
Caspian Sea
Mashhad Tehran Kermanshah IRAN Ahvaz

30N
an rsi Pe
AFGHANISTAN
Yazd
Bushehr
Bam Bandar Abbas
Key capital city city or town Caspian Sea water body city of interest IRAN country border
Gulf
0 100 200 300 km
SNAPSHOT 2
2.41 This view of the canals in Venice shows that if waters rise a little there could be damage and destruction.
Venicea success story

The city of Venice in Italy was built in the fth century AD and is spread over 118 islands centred on Venice lagoon. It is well known for its canals, and amazing architecture and art. In 1965 the city experienced serious ooding and in 1966 UNESCO decided to run a campaign to save the city from the water surrounding it. This campaign is ongoing, particularly with the threat of rising sea levels due to global warming. UNESCOs Programme for the Safeguarding of Venice has funded the restoration of 100 monuments and 1000 works of art, some of which were damaged in the 1965 oods. The MOSE (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico) is an ambitious project sponsored by the Italian government. It aims to lay 79 inatable pontoons or steel gates across the seabed at the entrances to the lagoon. When the tides are high the pontoons will be raised to act like a wall to block the water. The project is scheduled to be nished by 2011 and aims to protect Venice for 100 years. Other projects in Venice have included dredging the canals of the sediment that has been accumulating there to make way for more water. Some rebuilding and water-proong of the canal sides has also taken place. Sidewalks along the canals are being raised and drainage systems upgraded. Venice has been removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger as a result of all these efforts.
2.42 Location of the city of Venice in northern Italy

8E SWITZERLAND 12E AUSTRIA HUNGARY FRANCE 16E
Milan Genoa
Venice
SLOVENIA CROATIA BOSNIA AND HERTZEGOVINA
44N
Bologna Florence ITALY Adriatic
CORSICA
ALBANIA
Rome Naples
Sea
40N
SARDINIA
Brindisi
GREECE
Key capital city city or town Adriatic Sea water body city of interest ITALY country border
N
SICILY
100 200 km
49
GLOBAL CITIZENS VALUE WORLD HERITAGE

Global citizens can become actively involved in the protection and management of World Heritage sites. Over 30 of the 830 World Heritage sites are in danger and others need to be preserved and managed for the enjoyment of future generations. There are many nongovernment organisations that provide opportunities to volunteer at World Heritage sites. These include the Earthwatch Institute, Sea Shepherd Conservation Society and Rempart.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Why would a site be included on the List of World Heritage in Danger? 2 List some of the threats to World Heritage sites. 3 Why is the city of Bam in Iran on the Danger list? 4 What measures have been taken to protect the city of Venice, Italy? 5 List two or three things you can do as an active global citizen to show that you value World Heritage. 6 List some activities in which volunteers can participate in the protection and management of World Heritage areas.
EARTHWATCH
The Earthwatch Institute is a non-government, nonprot international organisation that aims to conserve the diversity of life sustainably, to meet the needs of present and future populations. Their mission is to interest global citizens in scientic eld research and education. They encourage individuals to work as conservation volunteers.
Application
7 Look at the photograph in 2.43. Explain what the people are doing in this photograph and what types of things they are looking for. 8 Research briey each of the places listed where people can work as an Earthwatch volunteer. Which of these interests you most? Why? Which interests you least? Why?
Here are some examples of where people can work as 9 Complete your Major Task assignment on World Heritage volunteers at World Heritage sites. in the form of a Geography report. (See the Skills Master Lake Baikal, Siberia, Russian Federation opposite.) The Earthwatch volunteers monitor the pollution and contaminants in the lake. The volunteers Surf use nets to take samples of plankton and sh and cruise along the shoreline to observe wildlife. Ischigualasto Provincial Park, Argentina Volunteers can assist with excavating dinosaur remains in the desert region of central Argentina. They sift through sandstone and claystone looking between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries. for fossils of early mammals, dinosaurs and plants. Volunteers can work on three-month projects that Great Barrier Reef, AustraliaCertied scuba include making a welcome centre and museum, divers and snorkelers can volunteer at the Great building boat jetties, educating local people about Barrier Reef to help threatened coral species. heritage, training tour guides or performing research. Carlsbad Caverns National Park, United States Volunteers can participate in cave restoration and research, and can become tourist guides in a network of over 100 limestone caves. There are also many other national parks in the United States that have opportunities for volunteers under the Volunteers-in-Parks program. Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani, United Republic of TanzaniaThis was once a trade centre where gold, 2.43 Volunteers help excavate silver, pearls, crockery and fossils in Argentina other wares were traded
SKILLS MASTER
Using the Internet
The Internet is a worldwide information system made up of a network of computer systems. This means that computer users around the world can link up and share information. One feature of the Internet is the World Wide Web (www). The World Wide Web has an enormous amount of information, which is reached through a web browser such as Internet Explorer. Search engines, like Google and Yahoo, are tools that you can use to nd information on specic topics. You can print the information you have found or download it onto your computer. But remember you must be careful not to use the information as if you have written it yourself. Copyright laws exist so that the information on the website is owned by the person or company who wrote it. Plagiarism is an offence! Make sure you always acknowledge other peoples work.
Writing a Geography report

In Geography, writing is an important skill. A Geography report is a structured piece of writing that is used to describe geographical features or processes. 1 Introductionintroduces the main ideas in the report and denes the main words. Sometimes it includes location as well 2 Bodyis made up of a number of paragraphs depending on the length of the report. (A paragraph consists of a main idea in the rst sentence and a number of sentences that follow to describe, explain and support this idea.) 3 Conclusiona paragraph that draws all your information together. It describes what you have discovered in your research and any implications there may be for the future.
Rening search techniques

It can be difcult to nd information that is relevant and easy to understand, even when you are using a search engine. If you are trying to nd information on World Heritage, try entering words like heritage and world heritage into the search engine. If you do not nd what you are looking for try some of these hints. Use capital lettersWorld Heritage. Put the words in a different orderheritage world. Try to be more specicWorld Heritage List. Try using the + sign in front of all the words you want to appear in the informationworld + heritage + list. See if there are any specic web addresses that you might be able to use from your atlas or textbook. In Google it is possible to select pages from Australia or Images if you are looking for a picture. Some search engines have Advanced search that allows you to narrow down what information is returned. While there is an enormous amount of information on the World Wide Web you do have to be careful. Some of the websites are not updated regularly and the information may be out of date. The content of most web pages on the Internet is not checked so it may not be accurate. Check to make sure that the page you are using is from a reputable source.
Major task: World Heritage Report

Choose a World Heritage site outside Australia from the World Heritage List on the World Wide Web. Prepare a desktop-published document in report style of no more than 600 words that: describes the location of the site, including a map describes the main features of the site, including at least one image explains why your place was selected as a World Heritage site (use the criteria on pages 46 and 47) outlines the impacts of people on this site describes how the site is being managed and who is responsible for the management. Each of the dot points above could be the subject of the paragraphs in the body of your report. Your report must also include a complete bibliography. Use these headings to help you with this.
Questions that may help you decide if a website is a reputable source. If you can answer most of these questions easily then the source is probably reputable. 1 Who wrote the page? Can you nd the authors name? Is it a personal page? 2 What organisation is responsible for the web page? 3 Is the page dated? Is it current? 4 What qualications does the author have? 5 Does the author include sources, footnotes or quotes? 6 Do the links work?
Book sources Author: Date published: Title: Publisher: Place published: Website sources Website address: Name of the site: Date last updated: Person/group who prepared the site: Date you accessed the site: Reliability/evaluation of the site:
51
Galapagos Islands a World Heritage site

The Galapagos Islands are situated in the Pacic Ocean about 1000 kilometres west of Ecuador, South America. They are part of the territory of Ecuador. The location is equatorial at 049S and 91W. One warm and two cold ocean currents meet at this location, and contribute to the diversity of plants and animals.
2.44 One of the giant tortoises found on the Galapagos Islands
2.45 Location of the Galapagos Islands
WHAT IS SPECIAL ABOUT THE ISLANDS?

0
Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) Marchena 0 90

N
San Salvador
Equator 30
The Galapagos Islands are a group of 19 islands and their surrounding ocean. The extreme isolation of the islands led to the development of unusual plant and animal life that is unique to the area. Most of the animals and plants arrived here by swimming, ying or oating. The Galapagos Islands were formed by volcanic activity and are covered in lava rock. They continue to be changed by lava, erupting from the volcanic hot spot of Sierra Negre on the ocean oor. Due to their harsh conditions the islands have not been changed much by humans, so we can get an idea of elements of the natural environment before human contact.
Fernandina Isabela
0 75 km
Santa Cruz
N
San Christobal Santa Maria 90

0 1000 2000 km
60
2.46 Blue-footed boobies are seabirds that inhabit the Galapagos Islands.
Flora
There are about 560 native plants on the islands. Almost one-third of these are endemiconly found on the islands. Examples are Galapagos species of cotton, pepper, guava and tomato. Scalesia, or the daisy tree, is an endangered species and is only found on some islands. Cactus species are common.
Fauna
The Galapagos Islands are renowned for their unusual fauna and complex food webs (see 2.47). There are land and marine iguanas, but the best known of the animals is the Galapagos giant tortoise. In the marine park surrounding the islands there are sharks, whales, seals, sh and the colourful Sally Lightfoot crab. The bird life includes penguins, boobies, frigate birds and nches.
2.47 Food web of the Galapagos
Killer whale Sea turtle
Penguin Squid
Sea lion
Shark
Seal
Fish Seaweed Is eaten by Humpback whale Zooplankton Phytoplankton
Listing as a World Heritage site

The islands were one of the original World Heritage sites. They were among the rst of 12 sites to be added to the World Heritage List by UNESCO in 1978. In 2001 the marine park surrounding the Galapagos National Park was added to the site. The Galapagos Islands meet all four natural criteria (see page 47).
Activities
Knowledge
1 What contributes to the diversity of plants and animals on the Galapagos Islands? 2 Why have the islands not been changed much by humans? 3 Name three examples of plants that live on the islands. 4 How many of the Galapagos Islands ora species are endemic? 5 List as many species of animal found on the Galapogos Islands as you can using all the information in this unit. 6 Which criteria for World Heritage selection do the Galapagos Islands full? 7 How were the Islands formed? Is there any reason to suggest they are still forming? 8 How are groups and individuals helping to protect this World Heritage site?
HUMAN IMPACT
Threats to the Galapagos Islands include tourism, introduced species and population growth. With the increased numbers of people other issues arise, such as waste management, agriculture and overshing. Oil spills from passing ships are another problem as they threaten native fauna.
Protecting the islands

The government of Ecuador has a legal obligation to preserve this World Heritage site. In 1998 the government made a Special Law for Galapagos, restricting the number of people migrating to the islands. A quarantine program has begun to stop the rate at which humans bring introduced species to the Galapagos Islands. Captive breeding programs for giant tortoises collect breeding pairs and eggs for incubation in the reptile laboratory on Isabela Island. Individuals are also helping. People over 18 are able to become volunteers, patrolling the shores with the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society to enforce the Special Law. They do not need experience, but do need basic boating and Spanish-speaking skills and a willingness to learn. Another example of global citizenship includes the campaign to sponsor a tortoise egg or baby through the Galapagos Conservation Trust in London.
Skills
9 Write the latitude and longitude of the Galapagos Islands in words. 10 Refer to 2.45 and name the seven main islands of the Galapagos group.
Application
11 Use the simple Galapagos Islands food chains below and the food web in 2.47 to draw two more Galapagos Islands food chains.
Simple Galapagos food chains

Seaweed Turtle Shark Fish Phytoplankton Zooplankton Squid Penguin Shark Is eaten by
Surf
53
Introducing global environments

The world is made up of global environments, such as rainforests, deserts, oceans, coral reefs, coasts, grasslands, mountains, rivers, tundra, wetlands and polar lands. These large areas are also known as biomes and their locations are strongly inuenced by climate, latitude and typography.
Dry/semi-arid (steppes)
ClimateLow rainfall, cold winters, warm summers LocationMongolia
Moist continental deciduous forest

ClimateLarge seasonal changes, very cold winters, warm summers, abundant precipitation LocationChina
2.48 Map of the world biomes
66 2 N
Taiga/boreal forest
Climate Long, very cold winters, short cool summers LocationRussia
23 2 N
Mediterranean
ClimateWet winter, dry summer with high re danger LocationSpain
0
23 2 S
Dry tropical desert

ClimateHot temperatures, very low humidity, very low precipitation LocationSahara, Chad
66 2 S
1
Key
0 2000
Scale at Equator
4000 km
Mediterranean Wet savanna grassland Dry savanna grassland Desert
Wet/dry savanna grasslands

ClimateA very wet season and a very dry season with hot temperatures LocationTanzania
Tropical moist rainforest

ClimateHeavy rainfall, hot temperatures, high humidity and thunderstorms most afternoons LocationMalaysia
Temperate evergreen forests

ClimateCool, wet winters and dry, mild summers LocationTasmania
Polar ice-cap
ClimateVery cold temperatures and very little rainfall LocationAntarctica
WORLD BIOMES
The world map on this page is a thematic map. The theme is the global pattern of environments or biomes. Plants and animals are inuenced by climate, which in turn is inuenced by latitude, altitude, aspect, prevailing winds and ocean currents. Generally warm, humid and wet environments like rainforests and coral reefs are located near the Equator where insolation is most intense. Cold, dry environments like polar lands and tundra are found near the Poles where insolation is least.
Tundra
ClimateLong severe winter, no true summer Location: Alaska, United States
Dry grasslands (prairie)

ClimateWarm to hot summers, cold winters, small to moderate amount of rain LocationCentral North America, United States
Wetlands
ClimateVariable rainfall, sometimes high rainfall LocationEverglades, Florida, United States
Arctic circle
Coasts
ClimateAny, inuenced by the sea LocationPuerto Rico
Tropic of Cancer
Rivers
ClimateAny, with some precipitation LocationAmazon, Ecuador
Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is a biome? 2 What are biomes inuenced by? 3 Give ve examples of different biomes.
Antarctic circle
Tropical rainforest Temperate forest Taiga/boreal forest Tundra
Mountain zones Coral reef areas Polar ice
Skills
4 Refer to 2.48 and an atlas: a Name two continents where temperate evergreen forest is found. b Name four continents that contain deserts. c Around which line of latitude would you most likely nd tropical rainforest? d What type of global environment do you nd around the Mediterranean Sea? e Name the main types of global environment that make up: i South America ii Africa.
Coral reefs
ClimateWater temperature of 20C to 28C, warm temperatures Latitude25N to 25S LocationGreat Barrier Reef, Australia
Alpine
ClimateCool to cold temperatures, high rainfall LocationAndes, Chile
Application
5 Using the map in 2.48, the World Climate map in 2.19 on page 35 and information in unit 2.3 on page 32, suggest reasons why global environments are located where they are.
55
Polar lands
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTS
Polar lands are located at the northernmost and southern-most points of the Earth. The northern polar lands, or Arctic, have been inhabited by people for thousands of years, while in the southern polar lands, or Antarctica, humans are newcomers to the environment. In the north the Sami of the Arctic are an indigenous group working towards self-determination, while in the south the scientic community works in accordance with a treaty that aims to protect the continent.
Geographical tools
Maps
use various types of maps locate features using latitude and longitude, area and grid references identify physical and cultural features on a map measure distances on a map using linear scale identify scale as written, linear or representative fraction use the points of a compass to determine direction identify and interpret relief construct a sketch map identify and calculate maximum and minimum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images distinguish between oblique, aerial, groundlevel photographs and satellite imagery collect and interpret electronic information design and create a multimedia presentation
Outcomes
A student: 4.1 identifies and gathers geographical information 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.6 describes the geographical processes that form and transform environments 4.8 describes the interrelationships between people and environments 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship.
Photographs

ICT

Definitions
biomesthe worlds major environment types made up of plant and animal communities that are uniquely adapted to the particular environment ice capa dome-shaped covering of ice and snow that covers the mountain ranges of a large area of land indigenous peoplethe people who originally inhabited an area before outside settlement from other nations katabatic windsstrong winds caused when air cooled by the ice caps ows rapidly along valleys towards the coast nomadica lifestyle where people move around an environment to a range of locations, usually related to the seasons and the availability of food pack iceoating blocks of ice that have been driven together to form a large sheet of ice permafrostpermanently frozen subsoil self-determinationthe right of indigenous people to govern themselves and make decisions about the future of their culture taigathe most common land-based biome on the planet, made up of trees adapted to the cold conditions treatya formal agreement between two or more nations (signing a treaty indicates a commitment to the treaty and its contents, ratifying a treaty means bringing it into law in a particular country) tundraa biome of large, boggy, barren areas without trees wildernessareas on Earth where the natural environment remains largely unchanged or uninuenced by human developments or actions
The polar land environment

Polar lands are the harshest and coldest environments on Earth. Their location at the northern and southern tips of the globe limits the amount of the Suns energy that reaches the areas. The Arctic Ocean at the northern end of the globe is the worlds smallest ocean. Antarctica, at the southern end, is the worlds fth largest continent. Indigenous groups like the Sami and the Inuit have lived in the lands surrounding the Arctic Ocean for thousands of years. Antarctica has only recently been visited by people, rstly by explorers, sealers and whalers and more recently by scientists and tourists.
WHERE ARE POLAR LANDS?

The regions surrounding the North Pole and the South Pole remain frozen all year round. A thick ice cap blankets the continent of Antarctica while frozen pack ice forms a continuous sheet of ice that covers the Arctic Ocean.
Two different environments

There are two distinct polar land environments because near the North Pole there is ocean surrounded by land, while near the South Pole there is land surrounded by ocean. The availability of land and milder climate around the North Pole has meant that people could settle the area, while the expanse of cold oceans has made Antarctica the most isolated and coldest continent on earth. At the northern end of the Earth the Arctic Ocean freezes over forming a layer of pack ice between 2 and 6 metres thick. In summer when the ice sheet is at its thinnest, the full Moon causes big tides that can break and tumble the ice. At the southern end of the Earth the ice cap is almost three kilometres thick and is moving at a rate of around 8 metres per year towards the coast of Antarctica.
3.1 Pack ice near the North Pole forms into huge blocks that break and move due to the ocean currents owing underneath.
CLIMATIC EXTREMES
Polar lands are the coldest climates on Earth. This is because of three main factors. Snow and ice reect a lot of the incoming heat from the Sun. The Suns rays have to travel further through the atmosphere to reach the Poles. The shape of the world also means that sunlight at the Poles is spread over a larger surface area than at the Equator (see 3.3). Polar lands have the windiest climates because of the way air is heated and cooled in the atmosphere. A simple air circulation pattern exists between the Equator and the Poles. Air is heated at the Equator causing it to rise. At the Poles the air cools and falls rapidly, creating very strong winds.
3.2 The North Pole (left) and South Pole (right) that form the polar regions of the world
LANDS OF THE MIDNIGHT SUN

North Pole 60N Low angle of incoming sunlight
Another feature of polar lands is that the lengths of night and day vary according to the seasons, or the rotation of planet Earth around the Sun. At the Poles this causes the land of the midnight Sun (see 3.4). For six months of the year the Sun does not set at the Poles, and for the other six GEOGRAPHY months it does not rise above the FOCUS horizon, meaning 24 hours of darkness. The period of the total The Arctic ice sheet is light or dark lessens the further thin enough for ships away from the Poles a place called ice breakers is, such as in northern Finland to travel through where the Sun does not set for a especially in summer. period of 73 days during summer.
30N
Equator
Sunlight directly overhead
30S
Activities
60S South Pole Low angle of incoming sunlight
Knowledge
1 Where are polar lands located? 2 Explain the difference between pack ice and an ice cap.
3.3 The Suns rays affect global temperatures. Polar lands are colder and windier than lands at the Equator.
3 Identify three differences between the North and South Pole. 4 List three factors that cause polar lands to be the coldest climates on Earth. 5 Explain why the Poles are called land of the midnight sun.
March equinox Sun directly over the Equator March 21 Equator June solstice
Skills
6 Refer to 3.4 and complete the table below. Name the month of the year that the North Pole is furthest from the sun. Which season does the South Pole experience during this month? Explain any differences you notice.
Time of year December Solstice North Pole South Pole
June 21
June Solstice
December 21 December solstice September 22 September equinox Sun directly over the Equator
3.4 The Earths tilt and rotation around the Sun causes 24 hours of daylight in summer and 24 hours of darkness in winter at the North and South Poles.
7 With the aid of a diagram, explain why it is hotter at the Equator than it is at the Poles.
Application
8 Use an annotated diagram to explain how the heating of the atmosphere causes polar lands to be the windiest places on Earth. 9 How many hours of daylight would the Poles experience on the September and March equinox?
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The northern polar landsthe Arctic

The area around the North Pole is a frozen and barren wilderness area. As well as the polar biome created by the ice sheet that forms over the Arctic Ocean, there are other complex biomes that make up the northern polar landsthe tundra and the taiga (see 3.6). The plants and animals that are able to live in these environments are well adapted to the harsh conditions.
THE ICE SHEET

The central area of the Arctic Ocean is covered in ice all year round. This is where polar pack ice forms an ice sheet of between three and six metres. Further from the North Pole the pack ice gives way to drift ice. This is an area that is one solid ice sheet in winter, but in the summer months it breaks up into large sections where the ice forms oating sheets that constantly crash and bump into each other.
3.5 Polar bears are well adapted to the polar environment.
3.6 The Arctic biomes

PACIFIC OCEAN
THE ARCTIC TUNDRA

Bering Sea
Arc
tic
e rcl Ci
Moving away from the ice sheet at the North Pole, the rst change in the environment is the tundra. This is an environment where the average winter temperatures are as low as 34C, and the summer temperatures range between 3C and 12C. In this biome the growing season for plants is very short, lasting for between 50 and 60 days. In the tundra the soils are formed very slowly and are saturated with water. Due to the extremely cold temperatures the subsoil remains permanently frozen. This is known as permafrost. In summer the thin layer of topsoil thaws while the subsoil remains frozen meaning water is not able to inltrate the soil; instead it forms boggy, marshy areas. Animal life has adapted to the environment. Polar bears, for example, are able to live on ice as well as land and can swim very long distances in icy waters. The hairs in their fur are hollow to help insulate their skin. Their white fur offers the perfect camouage and they have black skin underneath to absorb the Suns warmth.
North Pole
N N
Greenland
ATLANTIC OCEAN Key Permanent ice cap Maximum sea ice boundary Tundra International boundary Taiga
RO
EU
PE
N N
TH NOR
AM E
RIC A
I A A S
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Alpine tundra exists in areas around the world where mountain ranges cause similar cold climates to the Arctic. The main difference is that Alpine tundra is not as boggy as Arctic tundra.
500
1000 km
Plants that grow in this environment are also highly adapted. Due to the permafrost they need to have shallow roots and be able to tolerate moist, boggy conditions. They are low-growingusually less than 30 centimetres high and dark in colour to absorb sunlight. Some have hairs on their leaves to keep them warm. The plants often grow in clumps for added warmth, and owers tend to follow the Sun as it passes over to trap as much sunlight as possible. There are about 1700 plants that are able to survive in the Arctic tundra area. Examples of these plants include sedges, mosses and grasses, owering plants and lichens.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Read the denition of a biome on the opening page of this chapter. In your own words, describe what it means. 2 Name the three biomes that make up the Arctic region. 3 How does the ice sheet covering the Arctic Ocean change between summer and winter? 4 What is permafrost and what impact does it have on the soils of the Tundra? 5 Describe the features of the polar bear that enable it to live in the Arctic tundra biome. 6 Identify and explain four adaptations of plants to the tundra environment. 7 Where is the taiga biome located? 8 How do the growing seasons of the tundra and the taiga differ? Explain the factors that cause this difference. 9 What is another name for the coniferous forests of the arctic taiga? 10 Describe the adaptations of conifers that make them well suited to the taiga environment.
THE TAIGA
The taiga biome covers the largest land area of any of the worlds biomes, making it the most common vegetation type on Earth. It is mainly located between 50N and 60N, although it does extend in some areas to 70N. The seasons in the taiga consist of short, moist, mild summers and long, cold, dry winters. The length of the growing season is 130 days. The ora of the taiga consists mainly of cold-tolerant evergreen conifers that are well adapted to the environment. These conifer forests (also known as boreal forests) are the most striking feature of the taiga biome. Conifers have long needle-shaped leaves to help reduce water loss and prevent snow deposits from accumulating on branches, thick bark to protect them against the snow, shallow roots suited to thin soils and pine cones to protect seeds until warm weather arrives in the short summer. Animals living in the taiga also need to be highly adapted to the environment and include bears, wolves, foxes and birds such as woodpeckers.
Application
11 Library research activity: Prepare a report on an animal other than the polar bear that lives in the tundra and one that lives in the taiga. For each animal include a picture, a description including its main features and diet as well as any special adaptations it has to live in the environment. Be sure to include a bibliography at the end of your report.
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3.7 The highly specialised plants of the tundra biome
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Living in polar landsthe Sami

The Sami are an indigenous people from the Arctic area of Europe. They have lived in the northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula for over 4000 years in a territory known as Spmi. This territory covers parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia.
3.8 Spmithe territory of the indigenous Sami. It is estimated that 40 000 Sami live in Norway, 20 000 in Sweden, 6500 in Finland and 2000 in Russia.
Sami Territory Hammerfest Tromso
Arctic
Circle
Barents Sea
Alta Kautokeino Pechenga Inari Kola Pe nins ula Kiruna Gllivare Rovaniemi
Norwegian Sea Roros NORWAY
Jokkmokk Arvidsjaur
3.9 Arctic berries

RUSSIA
N
FINLAND Baltic Sea SWEDEN

0 300 600 km
THE CLIMATE OF SPMI

The majority of Spmi lies within the Arctic Circle and therefore has a very cold climate. The average winter temperature is 12C, although the temperature has been known to go as low as 50C in parts of the territory. Winds blow from the Arctic Ocean and bring rain and snow. Snow generally falls from October to May. Summers are short and have generally mild temperatures up to 14C. (See climatic data for Troms in 3.15.)
3.10 Diary entry by a Sami child
Diary entry for a Sami child

Today my father and mother took me on my rst shing expedition into the Barents Sea. We were after cod, which is an important part of our diet. Both my father and mother believe that its very important that I learn about the environment that I live in and the ways I can use the natural resources. Ive come to understand that the Sami are a proud people with a long tradition of surviving in a harsh environment. At the moment my family lives on the coast, but we move around depending on the seasons. Soon we will be moving up the river and then into the mountains as the weather gets cooler. My parents have been trying to get me to understand everything about our way of life, but some parts of it are changing. Recently there have been some other Sami groups coming to the coast from the mountains. They are different to our group because they have very large herds of reindeer that they farm. These large herds are eating the grasses that we normally use to feed our reindeer through the winter months. We only have four reindeer and they provide us with milk, fur and meat. We are starting to trade with the visiting Mountain Sami each year. My father believes that there will come a time when we will trade instead of travelling up into the mountains during winter each year.
THE NOMADIC SAMI

The Sami were a nomadic people who settled in different parts of their territory according to the changes in the land due to the seasons. It was not uncommon for Sami people to have three to four seasonal dwelling places within their own territory. There were several groups of Sami people who adapted their lifestyles to use the resources in the particular environment in which they lived. The Sami groups that lived on the coast caught sh, small whales, seals and walruses in summer and hunted birds, squirrels, foxes and other animals for fur. In autumn they collected wild berries that grow in the tundra (see 3.9). The Sami groups that lived further inland hunted and trapped reindeer, moose, bears and beavers. The reindeer herders are one of the most famous groups of Sami people. The Sami shared ownership of the land and all the resources in it. Sami people did not pass down ownership of the land to their childreninstead parents provided their children with the knowledge they would need to use the resources in the environment around them. Their nomadic lifestyle had a minimal impact on the natural environment as they moved often.
3.12 The nomadic lifestyle of the Sami meant that they had to be able to move their homes and possessions with them.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Sami people were once referred to as Lapps. In the Norwegian language this means patch of cloth and was used to describe Sami clothing. This name is insulting to the Sami today.
3.13 Storage huts were built to protect meat and other foods from wildlife. The supporting pole was often smooth and the access ladder was easily removable for hiding in nearby bushes or a hut.
3.11 Bear traps were constructed by the Sami using materials from the environment they lived in.
Bear trap Bear enters trap to eat bait. Logs and rocks fall on the bear, killing it.
Front part of trap baited with a dead animal.
Logs joined together and weighed down with rocks. Supporting pole Removable ladder Storage hut
Bait placed in here.

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SKILLS MASTER
Climate graphs
Climatic statistics for Bergen, Norway Latitude 6024' N Longitude 519'E
J Temperature C Precipitation mm 2 143
F 2 142
M 3 109
A 6 139
M 11 83
J 13 126
J 16 142
A 16 168
S 13 228
O 9 235
N 6 211
D 3 204
Total 1930
Climatic data for temperature and precipitation at a particular location can be combined into a climatic graph by plotting the data for the monthly averages of temperature and precipitation. 3.14 Climatic graph for Bergen
BERGEN Norway
Temperature is shown by a line graph drawn in red.
60 24' N
Temperature (C) 20
5 19' E
Precipitation (mm) 250
Precipitation is shown by a column graph drawn in blue. Precipitation for each month is plotted by ruling a line across each column.
Temperature for each month is plotted by placing a dot in the centre of each column. The temperature line joins the dots for each month (without using a ruler)a smooth, owing line is preferable.
200 15
150 10 100
The area underneath the graph is shaded to show total precipitation.
5 50
The scale for the temperature graph is shown on this side of a climate graph.
J F M A M J J A S O N D
The scale for the precipitation graph is shown on this side of a climate graph.
Interpreting the graphs Temperature The most useful part of a climatic graph in determining location is the temperature line. From this line it is possible to determine the hemisphere the place is located in. A peak of temperature in June, July, August and a trough in December, January and February indicates a Northern Hemisphere location. A peak of temperature in December, January, February and a trough in June, July and August indicates a Southern Hemisphere location.
A relatively at temperature line indicates an equatorial climate when temperatures are high. Precipitation A clustering of high precipitation months indicates a wet season while a clustering of low precipitation months indicates a dry season. Very little precipitation indicates a desert environment. Important climatic statistics Maximum temperature is the hottest average monthly temperature. It is the highest temperature for the table or graph.
Minimum temperature is the coldest average monthly temperature. It is the lowest temperature for the table or graph. Temperature range is calculated by subtracting the coldest monthly temperature from the hottest monthly temperature. Average annual rainfall is calculated by adding together the average monthly rainfall for each month of the year to get the total yearly average rainfall.
3.15 Climatic data for Troms, Norway, 69N, 19E Sunrise to sunset, Troms 2005
Date Length of time 1 Jan 1 Feb 1 Mar 1 Apr 1 May 1 Jun 1 Jul 1 Aug 1 Sep 1 Oct 1 Nov 1 Dec 5h 10m 9h 35m 14h 02m 18h 47m 24h 00m 24h 00m 20h 53m 15h 23m 11h 08m 6h 32m January February March April May June July August October November December
Temperature Precipitation C mm 4 4 3 0 5 9 12 11 3 1 3 95 87 72 64 48 59 77 82 102 131 108 106

3.16 The Sami relied on reindeer and other animals to make their protective clothing, such as leather boots. Straw was used in boots, hats and other garments to increase their warmth.
September 7
Source: Almanac for Norway 2005
USING THE ENVIRONMENT

Sami people used the resources around them to make their clothes, kitchen utensils, sleds and skis. One of the most important materials to the Sami was wood, especially from the birch tree. Other important raw materials were animal horns, bones and leather from reindeer, elk, sheep, cattle and whales. The weapons they used were made from materials such as animal horns, slate and wood.
Midnight sun and darkness period, Troms 2005
Latitude (N) Troms 69 Midnight Sun 20 May 22 July
Period of darkness Start 25 Nov End 16 Jan

Source: Almanac for Norway 2005
Activities
Knowledge
1 Who are the Sami people? 2 What is the name of the Sami territory? What countries does it cover? 3 How long have the Sami lived in their territory? 4 Describe what is meant by a nomadic lifestyle? 5 Why did the Sami have to lead a nomadic lifestyle? 6 Describe how the Sami diet varied according to their location and the seasons. 7 Describe one way that the Sami used the resources of the environment. 8 Explain how the mountain Sami changed the way of life of the coastal Sami. 9 Write a diary entry for a Sami child who lives with one of the mountain reindeer herding groups as they travel to the coast.
11 Draw a climatic graph for Troms. 12 Use the statistics in 3.15 to calculate the following: a Name the hottest month. b What is the coldest average temperature for Troms? c Rank the months of the year from the hottest to the coldest temperature. d What is the temperature range of Troms? e Name the months when the Sun does not set. f What is the average annual precipitation of Troms?
Application
13 Refer to 3.15. Name the three coldest and the three hottest months for Troms. Use evidence from the climate graph to identify the hemisphere in which Troms is located. 14 A travel agent has approached you to plan a trip for some clients to Troms. Which month would you recommend the people visit? Use information in this unit to support your answer. 15 Sami people passed down information about the land and its resources to their children rather than ownership of land. List the most important information you think that parents would have passed down to their children.
Skills
10 Using the information from 3.8, draw a column graph showing the number of Sami people living in Sweden, Norway, Finland and Russia.
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The changing Sami culture

In the modern world it has been difcult for traditional cultures like the Samis to remain unchanged. Change can come from within the culture itself as a response to the environment. However, over time there will be other inuences such as contact with groups of people who will impact on and change the culture. For the Sami, these changes have occurred over a long time period and have involved many groups.
EARLY IMPACTS ON TRADITIONAL SAMI LIFE

Contact with the Sami from the outside world is rst documented around the year 98 AD. Trade was the main reason. From the year 600 AD, people began to spread northwards from Europe and settle on traditional Sami land. These settlers wanted the best land for farming and the best pastures for the herds of animals they brought with them. As a result the Sami started to lose their traditional lands and were forced to move to harsher lands further north.
3.17 Viking contact with the Sami began around 890 AD.
3.18 The runebommethe ritual drum
The Vikings were the next people to have an inuence on the Sami, around the year 890 AD. The Vikings demanded taxes from the Sami. These taxes were paid in furs, duck feathers and other products that the Sami could gather. The Vikings and the Sami also swapped ideas and there is some evidence that the Sami even helped the Vikings build their boats because the designs from the two different cultures were similar. Even parts of the two languages were inuenced by each other. The next major impact on the Sami in terms of contact with people from outside cultures occured in the 1600s. Missionaries came and converted the Sami to Christianity. The Sami religion had been based on the environment that surrounded them. They believed that the natural environment contained many gods who needed to be worshipped with sacrices. The ritual drum or runebomme (see 3.18) was decorated at the top with pictures of the ruling gods, while the bottom gures showed the life of the Samitheir dwellings, reindeer, neighbours, and the birds and game of the forest. It was made of reindeer calfskin stretched over an oval ring or wooden bowl, with holes for handles.
Drums
Objects for beating the drums
SNAPSHOT
Development of reindeer herding

The traditional lifestyle of the Sami was also changed through an adaptation to the environment. Around 1500 years ago the Sami stopped hunting reindeer and started to herd them. The early reindeer herders continued to be nomadic. They would move to nd good grazing lands for the herds and to escape predators when the reindeer were calving. In summer they would often move to escape the stinging insects that breed in the marshy environment of the tundra. Their completely nomadic lifestyle started to change because herding allowed the Sami to have a constant supply of meat, milk, animal skins and antlers. To gather their herds they chased wild reindeer into large enclosures that they had made. These herds then attracted more wild reindeer, increasing the number of reindeer in captivity.
3.19 The domesticated reindeer could be harnessed to sleds to make it easier for the Sami to move their possessions around.
RECENT IMPACTS ON THE SAMI CULTURE

The Sami have had to deal with the governments of four nations. This, combined with advances in technology, changing lifestyle expectations of the people themselves and the growth in tourism, has impacted on the traditional nomadic lifestyle Sami people once led.
Technology
The convenience offered by a modern lifestyle placed great pressure on the Sami who followed a traditional lifestyle. The hunting equipment and animal traps that were made from materials like bone, stone and wood have now been replaced by ries. The traditional sleigh pulled by reindeer has been replaced by modern snowmobiles. The Sami of today have similar lifestyle expectations to people in most of the rich countries of the world.
Unfair taxes from governments

The governments of Sweden, Finland, Norway and Russia impose taxes on their residents. As the Sami were nomadic across the Spmi territory, some of the Sami groups actually spent time in each of the four countries. This meant they would pay taxes to each of the four governments. The Sami struggled to earn enough income to pay these taxes. The nomadic lifestyle was threatened. By staying in one place the Sami could actually save money.
3.20 Sami people are more likely to use motorised transport today than the traditional skis and reindeer sleds.
Forced Norwegianisation
Norway implemented a program that set out to destroy the Sami culture and make them Norwegian. In the 1950s and 1960s the Sami language was banned in schools and pressure was put on the Sami people to t in with both Norway and Sweden. As the Sami were nomadic, children did not regularly attend the one school so the program initially failed. To solve the problem the Norwegian government built boarding schools and attendance by Sami children increased dramatically as the children stayed in school rather than following their traditional ways.
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67
3.21 Modern technology has been used to build these traditional Sami dwellings, which provide an authentic stay for tourists.
Tourism
Tourism has become the worlds largest industry. To be a part of this growth the countries covering the Spmi territory have developed a tourist industry based around the Sami. Tourists can visit Spmi and experience traditional Sami houses, reindeer herding and events such as weddings and festivals. However, marketing to western tourists has many impacts on traditional Sami culture. For example, some people believe that the souvenirs that are now mass produced have altered the traditional Sami handcrafts and cheapened important cultural symbols. There are both positive and negative aspects of tourism, as summarised in 3.23.
3.23 Impacts of tourism on Sami culture
Economic impacts Positive Work opportunities
Environmental impacts Protection of wildlife and nature More attention to and protection of cultural heritage
Social impacts
More contacts
Higher incomes
Increased knowledge
Greater variety of jobs
Improved self-condence Improved conditions for women and children Better social service benets
Negative
Jobs are only seasonal Higher prices
Erosion
Loss of traditional culture Disneycation to suit tourism Divides people into those for and against
Litter
Increased dependence
3.22 Mass-produced souvenirs are sold to tourists at roadside stores.
Pollution
Costs of development
Noise
HAS TRADITIONAL SAMI CULTURE CHANGED FOREVER?

Whereas once the Sami were nomads, today they tend to live in small settlements and towns, and take advantage of the convenience that items from modern life offers. Many have moved to large cities in Norway, Sweden and Finland. Despite moving to the large cities and adopting modern technology, the Sami largely try to maintain and preserve much of their traditions and culture. The identity of the Sami is being recognised by the governments of the countries their territory covers. For example, in the past Sami culture was banned from schools but today all students learn about Sami life. There is even a course of study in Sami language and culture at the University of Troms in Norway.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Most people think Santa Claus lives at the North Pole. In fact, Santa has his ofce in Korvatunturi, a mountain on the Arctic Circle in northern Finland. A tourist attraction in Smpi territory involves a visit to Santa Claus Park, meeting Santa and the elves, feeding the reindeer and discussing Christmas wishes.
3.24 Today Sami students are allowed to wear traditional dress as a uniform in city schools.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What change occurred in Sami culture around 1500 years ago? What did this change mean for Sami people? 2 What impact did the taxes imposed on Sami people by the governments of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia have on them? Were these taxes fair? Explain your answer. 3 Why was taxation a force that acted against the nomadic lifestyle of Sami people? 4 What is meant by the term Norwegianisation? In what way were the Sami put through this process? 5 Describe two ways that technology has changed Sami culture. 6 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of tourism for the Sami culture. 7 Give one reason why tourists might like to stay in the accommodation shown in 3.21. 8 How has the Norwegian government approach to Sami people changed? 9 Identify two ways the Sami culture is being recognised today. What impact might this have on the Sami and their culture in the future?
Application
10 Prepare a timeline to show the groups or inuences that have shaped Sami culture over the years. Your timeline should include detail of the impacts these contacts had on traditional Sami culture. 11 Prepare a tourist brochure advertising an overnight stay in a traditional Sami village. 12 Why do you think the Sami of northern Finland created Santa Claus Park? What advantages and disadvantages do you think it would have for the Sami? 13 Look at 3.17 and 3.20. Write two paragraphs that explain three of the forces that have changed Sami culture. First identify the change to the culture, then identify the factors that have caused the change and describe the impacts of the change on Sami culture. 14 Organise a class debate. Traditional cultures need to change with the times in order to function in the present.
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The Sami and self-determination

Sami culture has faced many inuences. As the Sami gain rights in the countries they live in, they are seeking control over their future in terms of the land, the resources and their culture. It is an issue that started around 100 years ago and will continue into the future. This is called self-determination and is an important issue to indigenous people in all countries of the world today.
3.25 Sami reindeer herder protesting about the loss of feeding grounds
3.26 Spmi fact le
FACT FILE
Area: Spmi consists of the Kola Peninsula in Russia, the northernmost part of Finland, the coastal and inland areas of northern Norway and the inland part of northern Sweden. Sami population: 70 000 (estimated) Area: 388 350 square kilometres
STEPS TOWARDS SELF-DETERMINATION

Sami people have a strong identity today, despite their homeland covering four different countries. The road to self-determination has gone through a number of steps and involved Sami people, the governments of the countries they live in, and even the United Nations all working together to ensure a future where the Sami culture can continue.
Language: Sami Sami centres: Giron (Kiruna, Sweden), Guovdageaidnu (Kautokeino, Norway) and Anr (Inari, Finland) Currency: Swedish and Norwegian krona, euro and rouble Self-government bodies: Sami Parliaments (Smediggi) in Sweden, Norway and Finland Flag: The common flag was adopted in 1986. The circle design represents a Sun and Moon symbol. The colour for the Sun is red and blue for the Moon. These and the other colours in the flag are traditional Sami colours.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The rst national Sami meeting in 1917 was regarded as the beginning of the process of uniting the groups of four different nations so 6 February was chosen as the Sami national day.
The Sami began to ght for selfdetermination in the early 1900s. They believed that they had a basic right to their traditional lands due to their continued occupation and use of the land for thousands of years. They claimed their ownership predated the territorial claims of the governments of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia.
3.27 The Sami ag uses a SunMoon symbol.
The Sami national day: 6 February Sami national song: Smi soga lvlla (the Song of the Sami Family). The tune and the lyrics were officially adopted in 1986 and 1992 respectively. Religion: Christianity
Main occupations: Reindeer husbandry, handicrafts, hunting, fishing and tourism Exports: Reindeer products, handicrafts and music
National dress: The gkti, a traditional outer garment
SOME CURRENT SAMI STRUGGLES

The struggle for self-determination faces many obstacles. In Sweden, the Sami have been denied access to land for reindeer grazing because they have to cross private farms to get to their traditional grazing lands. Swedish farmers complained that the reindeer damaged their properties when they moved through. In northern Finland, logging is stopping reindeer from completing their annual migration between seasonal feeding grounds. As logging continues, reindeer are losing a lichen that is an important food source during winter months. Organisations such as Greenpeace and the Finnish Association for Nature Conservation have worked with the Sami to map grazing areas that are essential for reindeer survival. Public protests against unfair treatment and limited access to traditional pastoral lands have been organised. Such protests can be broadcast across the globe to create international awareness of the problem.
Sami Parliament in Norway

The Norwegian government enabled the establishment of a Sami Parliament in 1989. The aim of this parliament was to assist the Sami of Norway to safeguard and develop their language, culture and way of life. The Sami vote representatives to this parliament and these representatives can then raise issues in the Norwegian parliament.
Sami Parliament of Spmi, 2005

The rst Sami Parliamentarian Conference uniting all Sami people from Finland, Norway, Sweden and Russia, gathered in Jokkmokk, northern Sweden on 24 February 2005. The parliament recognised that the Sami are one people, united through a common history, culture, language and land area. The parliament set about proclaiming the Sami as a people entitled to their own future and is working towards the governments of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia recognising this.
SELF-DETERMINATION IN ACTION
Sami self-determination has made gains in its 100-year struggle. Representation at government level is a signicant positive step.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The Sami are one of only a few indigenous people who actually live in a World Heritage listed area. Laponia, in Northern Sweden, was listed because of its rich biological diversity, its historical value for Sami culture and its value as a Sami cultural landscape.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is meant by the term self-determination? 2 Name the groups that the Sami have had to negotiate with in their struggle for self-determination. 3 When did the struggle for self-determination begin and why did the Sami believe it was their right? 4 Describe two issues the Sami are currently experiencing in their struggle for self-determination. 5 Why was the year 1989 signicant for the Sami of Norway? 6 Why do you think it was important for the Sami to have a say in the Norwegian Parliament? 7 Why was 2005 an important year for all Sami people in their struggle for self-determination? 8 Why is the establishment of a Sami parliament an important step towards self-determination? b Describe the symbols used on the Sami ag. c Norway was the rst country to develop a Sami parliament. Using the statistics from 3.8 on page 62, explain why it has been easier for the Sami of Norway to be recognised as a group of people than it has for the Sami of Russia.
Application
10 Imagine you are a Sami herder seeking access to winter pastures for your reindeer. A logging company is refusing access for you and your herd to the areas that you have used for thousands of years. Describe two steps you could lawfully take to resolve the situation. 11 As a class make a list of reasons why self-determination is so important to Sami people. Record this list in your notes. 12 Write a newspaper article for an Australian newspaper that accompanies the photograph in 3.25.
Skills
9 Refer to the fact le: a When is Sami national day?
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The southern polar landAntarctica
3.28 At 5140 metres, the Vinson Massif is the highest point on the continent of Antarctica. It is one of the few peaks that break through the Antarctic ice cap.
The South Pole is located on the continent of Antarctica. This continent remained a land of mystery due to its isolation from the rest of the world and fascinates people as the last remaining wilderness on Earth. While classed as a polar land, Antarctica is very different to the northern polar lands and is known as a land of extremes.
CONTINENTAL ANTARCTICA
Antarctica is the fth largest continent on Earth, covering around 10 per cent of the global land surface. In winter, when the Southern Ocean around Antarctica freezes over, it doubles its size. Ice covers 98 per cent of the continent of Antarctica. The thick ice cap covers entire mountain ranges, rising at its thickest point to 4775 metres. Antarctica has the highest average elevation of all the continents at 2300 metres. Antarctica holds 90 per cent of the worlds iceeight times more ice than the Arctic region. It also contains 70 per cent of the worlds fresh water locked up in its huge ice cap. Despite all this water, Antarctica also holds another titleit is the driest continent on the planet in the terms of precipitation.
SNAPSHOT
Continent or ice cap?

Antarctica is covered with 30 million cubic kilometres of ice. If it were all to melt, the global sea level would rise by 65 metres. The average ice thickness is almost 2500 metres. It is the ice that gives Antarctica its altitude. However, much of Antarctica actually lies below sea level (see 3.29). Take away the ice and Antarctica would be considered to be one of the lowest continents on Earth. Davis Sea
Metres 3000 2000 1000 0 1000 2000
3.29 A cross-section of Antarctica shows the land as if it has been sliced in half along 90E and 90W.
TRANSANTARCTIC MOUNTAINS SOUTH POLE Ice sheet
Bellingshausen Sea Location of cross-section line
A A B
90
4750 km
Cross-section along the 90 East and West line of longitude
Vertical scale exaggerated
Activities
Knowledge
1 Prepare a summary of the features of Antarctica that cause it to be classed as a land of extremes. 2 Describe what happens to the size of Antarctica during winter.
3.30 Antarctica is the windiest continent.
3 The Antarctic continent has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Explain why this claim can be made. 4 Antarctica is a desert that holds most of the worlds fresh water. Explain this statement. 5 What would happen to the sea level if the ice in Antarctica were to melt? 6 What is the Drake Passage and why is it very dangerous for shipping? 7 Give two factors that contribute to Antarctica being the driest continent on Earth. 8 Explain why Antarctica is classed as the windiest continent on Earth.
CLIMATE
Antarctica is the driest, coldest continent on Earth. The lowest temperature ever recorded was at Vostok, a Russian scientic base in Antarctica. The temperature was 89.2C. Antarcticas isolation contributes to the cold climate. South America is 1000 kilometres away. Australia is 2500 kilometres away. Africa is 4000 kilometres away. The Southern Ocean completely surrounds Antarctica, allowing a current of cold water to encircle it. The smallest gap that this current has to pass through is the Drake Passage between South America and the Antarctic peninsula. This is a dangerous stretch of water because around 140 million tonnes of water per second travel through the passagethe equivalent of 5000 Amazon rivers. This cold ocean current cools the air above and helps to make Antarctica the coldest continent on Earth. This current contributes to the air in Antarctica being very cold and dense causing it to fall rapidly. This forms a permanent high-pressure system over Antarctica and means there is little chance of precipitation on the continent.
Skills
9 Refer to 3.29: a What is the highest point on the cross section? b What is the lowest point on the Antarctic continent? c What is the difference between the highest point on the ice cap, and the highest point on the land mass that the ice cap covers? d What is the total distance from east to west that the cross section covers? 10 Use the statistics from the tables in 3.31 to complete the following: a Construct climatic graphs for Davis and Casey stations. b Copy and ll in the table below:
Station Davis Casey Temperature range Total average monthly rainfall Strongest wind gust
Winds and the southern latitudes

Antarctica is the windiest continent on Earth. The ice cap cools the air above it causing the air to sink. This dense air then moves quickly towards the coast due to gravity, converging in valleys and causing very strong katabatic winds.
3.31 Climatic data for two Antarctic stations
Davis, 68.6S 78E, altitude 18 metres

Jan Mean temperature, C Mean monthly precipitation, mm Highest recorded wind gust, km/h 1 1 163 Feb -2 4 189 Mar -8 9 163 Apr -13 10 205 May -16 11 187 Jun -15 9 185 Jul -17 8 195 Aug -17 7 198 Sep -17 5 176 Oct -12 4 178 Nov -5 2 169 Dec 0 2 169 Annual 72
Casey, 66.3S 110.5E, altitude 40 metres

Jan Mean temperature, C Mean monthly precipitation, mm Highest recorded wind gust, km/h 0 10 163 Feb -3 16 176 Mar -7 19 241 Apr -12 21 223 May -15 24 215 Jun -14 27 217 Jul -14 28 241 Aug -14 22 221 Sep -14 17 241 Oct -12 16 213 Nov -6 13 184 Dec -1 13 181 Annual 226
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Antarcticas ecosystem
The animals living in Antarctica need to be highly adapted to the environment so that they can survive the harsh conditions. The whole Antarctic ecosystem depends on phytoplankton to convert the Suns energy to sugars that can then be eaten by tiny animals called krill. Krill then forms the basis for a food web that can support some of the largest animals on the planet. While the plants and animals are well adapted to the environment, the slightest change in the ecosystem can totally alter the balance between the animals that make up the Antarctic ecosystem.
Seals
There are four different varieties of seal that live in Antarcticathe Weddell seal, the crabeater seal (that eat krill not crabs), the leopard seal and the Ross seal. Main dieta mixture of squid, sh and krill
THE ANTARCTIC FOOD WEB

All ecosystems rely on the Sun for energy. Plants convert the Suns energy to sugars as they grow. As a plant is eaten by an animal, the energy it contains is passed to the animal. The energy continues to be passed on as one animal eats another, and a food chain is developed. When animals eat a variety of other animals their food chains form a complex food web. Antarcticas ecosystem is best represented through the development of a food web. The sunlight that hits Antarctica is weak and the snow and ice reect almost all of it, making the Antarctic food web very fragile. The following information shows the main diet of animals in the Antarctic ecosystem and will enable you to build up a food web for Antarctica.
Phytoplanktonthe base of the food chain

Despite the lack of sunlight in Antarctica there are still plants that convert the Suns energy through photosynthesis. These plants are called phytoplankton and consist of tiny marine algae. Main dietneed sunlight for photosynthesis
Baleen whales
Non-toothed whales are the blue, southern right and humpback whales. These are baleen whales, named after the huge plates of baleen they have in their mouths enabling them to sieve large quantities of seawater. Whales have been hunted nearly to extinction and some are only now just starting to rebuild their numbers. Main dietkrill
Krillthe building block of life in Antarctica

Krill are tiny shrimp-like animals about ve centimetres long that feed on phytoplankton. Krill are one of the most important animals in the Antarctic food web because all animals rely directly or indirectly on krill as a source of food. High in protein, krill are a valuable resource for humans as well. Main dietphytoplankton
3.32 The Antarctic marine food web
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is phytoplankton and why is it important to the Antarctic ecosystem? 2 Explain why krill is one of the most important animals in the Antarctic ecosystem.
Birds Penguins
Penguins are ightless birds that live in Antarctica. There are ve varieties of penguins in Antarctica. The emperor penguin is the only animal that depends on the ice for breeding and bearing chicks. Main dietkrill and sh Snow petrels and skuas are the common birds of Antarctica. A skua is both a predator and a scavenger. Other birds are migratory, ying from other regions to feed mainly on krill. Main dietskuas eat dead carcasses, penguin eggs and penguin chicks; snow petrels eat krill
3 Describe one way sh have adapted to the icy Antarctic waters. 4 Identify the two categories of whale that are found in Antarctic waters. Explain how they are different. 5 Make a list of the animals of Antarctica and their main diet.
Skills
6 A food web shows the links between plants and animals in an ecosystem. Arrows are used to indicate that one animal is eaten by another animal. Copy the following outline chart into your notebook. Create a food web for Antarctica by adding the animals to the diagram showing which is eaten by which. Then answer these questions: a Name three animals that rely directly on sh for food. b Explain why the killer whale is at the top of the food web. c Describe an impact whaling would have had on the Antarctic food web. d The commercial shing industry is planning to harvest sh and squid from the waters around Antarctica. Predict two impacts this activity will have on the Antarctic ecosystem.
Fish
There are an estimated 120 to 200 species of sh in Antarctica. The icy water means that sh need to be well adapted to the environment. Some sh have glycopeptides in their body these act to stop the uids in the body of the sh from freezing. Main dietmost sh in Antarctic waters feed on krill, some on other sh
Fish and squid
Toothed whales
Antarctica is an important breeding ground for whales. Orcas or killer whales and sperm whales have teeth. Orcas are the top of the Antarctic food web. Main dietsh and squid, except for killer whales, which eat penguins, seals, sh and even other whales
Skuas Penguins Baleen whales Killer whales Sperm whales Sunlight
Krill Phytoplankton Snow petrels Seals
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Human impact on Antarctica

3.33 The US base of Amundsen-Scott located at the South Pole was one of the rst built in Antarcticas inland.
Antarctica remains one of the last areas on Earth that can be classed as true wilderness. Antarctica has had no indigenous group living on it and no permanent human settlementsprobably due to the harshest living conditions on Earth. Its isolation from the rest of the world meant that people did not exploit its riches until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
WHO OWNS ANTARCTICA?

Unlike other places in the world, the harsh conditions combined with no exploration created a situation where a continent and its resources were unclaimed until about 100 years ago. With exploration and technological advances, the resources within Antarcticas waters and even the land itself became attractive for countries to own so nations began making territorial claims over the continent. Starting with the United Kingdom in 1908, seven countries now claim part of Antarctica as their territory, as shown in 3.35.
3.34 Antarcticas wilderness is home to thousands of penguins.
3.35 Territorial claims to Antarctica

150E 180 150W
N
120E
120W
nd d La ime cla r n Un t h e a n
ou
90E
N
SOUTH POLE
90W
N
80S
60W
N
70S
Key New Zealand Chile Argentina United Kingdom Australia France Norway
30E 0 0
60S
30W
1000 km
3.36 Annual catches of whales in Antarctica, 190491

30 25 20 Catch (thousands) 15 10 5 0 1910/11 1920/21 1930/31 1940/41 1950/51 1960/61 1970/71 1980/81 1990/91 Year
3.38 Types of Antarctic tourism, 200203
Blue Fin Sei Minke Sperm
Ships with landings (74%) Ships no landings (14%) Overflights no landings (9%)
Overflights with landings (1%) Land based arrive by air (1%) Sailing vessels/small boats (1%)
ANTARCTICA RESOURCE USERS

As technology improved during the last 200 years, and as global resources started being used up, different groups of people began to have an impact on Antarcticas fragile natural environment.
Tourists
Improvements in modern transport technology have made it possible for tourists to travel to Antarctica by sea. Some airlines even offer special ights over the continent during the Antarctic summer (see 3.38). The main tourist experiences range from sightseeing from luxury ocean liner cruises through to cruises that involve an actual walk on the Antarctic continent. These Antarctic walk visits involve a ship docking on the ice-free sections of the continent. During these times the tourists can impact on the breeding opportunities of the animals of Antarctica that also use the ice-free areas.
Whalers and sealers

The history of whaling and sealing in Antarctica is a bleak one. As seal and whale populations elsewhere on the planet were wiped out, the resources in Antarctica eventually became attractive. Technology also improved, enabling safer and longer sea travel. Whalers and sealers entered Antarctic waters and hunted many species to the brink of extinction. Whaling activities in Antarctica highlight the actions of people and their lack of knowledge of the environment. Initially, certain whale species were targeted. The catch increased dramatically until the whales become fewer in number and harder to catch. So another species was targeted and the cycle continued (see 3.36).
3.39 The Antarctic wilderness is a huge attraction for tourists.
3.37 Whalers strip a whale carcass on the Antarctic island of South Georgia, which was a whaling station from the nineteenth century until 1965.
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77
Scientists
The only communities allowed to live in Antarctica are those conducting scientic research. Scientists now maintain a year-round presence. There are 36 permanent bases in Antarctica. The scientic population remains fairly constant at around 4000 people over summer, dropping to around 1000 in winter.
3.40 Scientic population in Antarctica
Country
Summer population (January) 302 201 13 80 16 352 70 11 100 51 60 106 136 14 10 60 40 28 70 254 80 43 20 192 1378
Winter population (July) 165 75
Year-round Summerbases only bases 6 3 8 2

3.41 The South Pole with ags of the nations that are undertaking scientic research on Antarctica.
Argentina Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Chile China Finland France Germany India Italy Japan South Korea Netherlands New Zealand Norway Peru Poland Russia South Africa Spain Sweden UK US
12
1 1
SNAPSHOT
5
129 33
4 2
Living in Antarctica
Australia has always been interested in investigating and protecting Antarctica and maintains a year-round presence on the continent with its scientic bases. There are three permanent Australian bases on AntarcticaCasey, Mawson and Daviseach of which supports a community that has to be largely self-sufcient once the supply ship leaves. Each base has its own power-generating facility, sewage works, garages for servicing machinery, doctors, cooks and, of course, scientists. Staff at the bases are employed for anything from just a few weeks over summer up to a year-and-a-half. Satellite communications have enabled these communities to maintain links around the world. Life at Casey
1 33 9 25 1 1 1 1* 40 14 1 1 1 3 2
10
1 2 1
Life on Casey station has been compared to living in a ski lodge by the expeditioners who stay there. That is if you are prepared to use your imagination! While there is snow and ice outsidelike a ski lodgethere is not much time for skiing and relaxing with all the research that needs to be done. For expeditioners the local shop consists of a walk-in cupboard where they can browse the shelves for soap, linen and other items. There is no checkout as Casey runs a cashless economy. When blizzards set in and work becomes impossible, there are a range of activities to help expeditioners pass the time. In the main living areathe Red Shedthere is an indoor climbing wall, a home theatre, a gym, a photographic dark room and a library, as well as areas for lounging and relaxing. All expeditioners have roles they play that contribute to the efcient running of the station.
20 102 10
1 6 1 2 1 2 1
39 248
2 3
* The Italian base is a joint operation with France. Some countries run tent camps and build temporary facilities as their summer stations.
SKILLS MASTER
Graph interpretation
Using graphs is one of the essential skills in which a geographer needs to develop condence. There are two graphs in this unit3.36 which is a line graph and 3.38 which is a pie graph.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Why did nations make territorial claims over Antarctica? 2 Which nation has the greatest territorial claim over Antarctica? 3 What were the main reasons whalers and sealers started to look towards Antarctic waters for hunting? What other advancement occurred that enabled them to travel to Antarctic waters? 4 Describe the three types of experience available to tourists who want to visit Antarctica. 5 Which community now maintains a permanent occupation of Antarctica? Why do you think this community is permitted to live on Antarctica? 6 How many permanent bases does Australia maintain in Antarctica? 7 Explain why each base needs to be self-sufcient.
Interpreting graphs
The most important thing to look at rst when studying the graph is the title. The title of a graph explains what the graph is actually showing. The graph in 3.36, for example, shows the number of whales caught each year in Antarctica from 1900 to 1991. The next thing to look at is the axis labels of the graph because they tell you what is being graphed and the units that have been used. In the table in 3.36 the vertical axis of the graph shows the catch in thousands while the horizontal axis shows the year. The nal thing to look for is a key such as the one in 3.36. (Not all graphs will have one.) Once you have looked at these parts of a graph it becomes clear what the graph is actually showing. Figure 3.36, for example, is showing the change of whale catches in Antarctica over time. The type of graph used is also important. Bar and column graphs are used to show numbers or totals. Pie graphs are used to show percentage share. Line graphs are usually used to show change over time.
Skills
8 Look at 3.36: a Name the rst species of whale caught in Antarctic waters. b Name the last whale species caught in Antarctic waters. c How many blue whales were caught in 193031? d How many blue whales were caught in 195051? e In which year did whale catches of n whales rst start to decline? Give a possible reason for the decline. 9 Look at 3.38: a What percentage of visitors to Antarctica are shipbased with no landings? b Name three types of travel to Antarctica that involve landings? c What is the total percentage of types of Antarctic tourism that involve air travel? d What percentage of tourism do sailing vessels and small boats make up? Why do you think this percentage is so small? 10 Refer to 3.40: a Rank the top ve countries by summer scientic base populations. b How many countries maintain summer and winter bases in Antarctica? c What is the total number of year-round bases in Antarctica?
Drawing pie graphs

Figure 3.38 is a pie graph. It shows the percentage share of different types of tourism to Antarctica. To construct a pie graph you need a protractor. As pie graphs show the percentage share of things, there will always be a key to show the categories used in the graph. As a circle is 360 and your graph will represent 100 per cent, each 1 per cent will be shown by 360/100 = 3.6, or in other words 1 per cent will be represented by 3.6.
Constructing a bar graph

A bar graph would be the most appropriate way to show the information in 3.40. Using the information in the Year-round bases column, follow these steps to construct a bar graph. Firstly, identify the number of countries that have all-year-round bases. You will need to draw a vertical axis 17 centimetres high. Divide it into 1-centimetre units to represent each country. Secondly, work out the horizontal scale of the graph. The highest number of bases is 6, while the lowest is 1. Use 1 centimetre per base as the scale. Thirdly, write the name of each individual country on the vertical axis and the number of bases on the horizontal scale, then draw a bar to represent the number of bases for each country. Finally, check that the bar graph has a title and that the axes are labelled.
Application
11 Select ve occupations that would be required to ensure the smooth running of a scientic base and explain why these people would be important to life on the base. 12 Why do you think Casey runs a cashless economy? 13 Imagine you are an expeditioner at Casey station during a blizzard. Write a diary entry describing your day.
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Protecting Antarctica
3.42 Japanese whalers have resumed whaling in the Southern Ocean, which some nations believe is pushing whale populations towards extinction.
Antarctica is the only continent in the world that contains no countries. While seven nations have made territorial claims on Antarctica, no one nation controls any part of the continent. Antarctica is an excellent example of how a continent and its resources can be conserved for the future through international cooperation. For the most part, it is being carefully managed to ensure that it remains a wilderness area.
OTHER PROTECTION MEASURES

In 1982 the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Life Resources, (CCAMLR) was established to conserve marine life in the Southern ocean. This treaty was in response to the increased harvesting of krill and the likely impacts that would have on the Antarctic food web. Fishing was not banned from Antarctic watersthe treaty instead aimed to make the catches and harvesting of resources sustainable. The protection of Antarctic marine animals, the scientic research into these animals and the hunting of them remain controversial issues today. Japan remains one country that continues to conduct whaling in Antarctic waters. The Japanese government says it is their right and they are only completing scientic research on the whales they catch. The Australian government has questioned the Japanese whaling operations while Greenpeace feels that Japan has contravened international law by resuming whaling.
THE ANTARCTIC TREATY

On 1 December 1959, 12 nations signed a treaty that agreed to protect and preserve Antarctica and its environment. It was agreed that, in order to make advances in scientic knowledge, international cooperation in scientic investigation of Antarctica was essential. They also agreed that Antarctica would be used for peaceful purposes. The treaty established the legal framework for the management of Antarctica. The governments of Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, the French Republic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the former Union of South Africa, the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom and the United States were the original signatories to the treaty. There are now 45 treaty member nations representing around two-thirds of the worlds population. Twentyeight of these nations are consultative decision-making members who have demonstrated a commitment to scientic study in Antarctica. The other 17 are nonconsultative members who have still made a commitment to preserving Antarctica by signing the treaty. Since 1964, the consultative nations have developed ve new treaties that are aimed at preserving Antarctica and its resources.
POLAR LANDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE GEOG

The best efforts of nations may not be enough to save Antarctica and the northern polar lands. Global warming may change polar lands forever.
RAPHY FOCUS
Canadian sea ice, which polar bears use as a platform for hunting, is now melting away two-and-a-half weeks earlier than it did 30 years ago, shortening the bears hunting season and leaving them to get by on less body fat.
GLOBAL WARMING HITS GLACIERS

Two separate studies from climate researchers and the US space agency NASA show the glaciers of Antarctica are owing into the Weddell Sea, freed by the 2002 breakup of the Larsen B ice shelf. The teams at NASA and the National Snow and Ice Data Centre at the University of Colorado, and NASAs Goddard Space Flight Centre in Maryland, said the ndings also prove that ice shelves hold back glaciers. It was not clear how the loss of the Larsen B ice shelf would affect nearby glaciers. But soon after its collapse, researchers saw nearby glaciers owing up to eight times faster than before. If anyone was waiting to nd out whether Antarctica would respond quickly to climate warming, I think the answer is yes, said Theodore Scambos, a University of Colorado glacier expert who worked on one study. Weve seen (240 km) of coastline change drastically in just 15 years. The affected area is at the far northern tip of the Antarctic, just south of Chile and Argentina. Temperatures there have risen by up to 2.5 degrees Celsius in the past 60 years - faster than almost any region in the world. In the past 30 years, ice shelves in the region have lost more than 13,500 sq km of area.
Source: Sydney Morning Herald, 22 September 2004
3.43 Collapse of Larsen B ice shelf in Antarctica, January and March 2002
Activities
Knowledge
1 What happened in December 1959 that helped protect Antarctica? 2 What were the two areas of agreement that were the main feature of the 1959 treaty? 3 Which nations were the rst to sign the Antarctic treaty? 4 How many nations are currently signatories to the Antarctic Treaty? 5 Explain the difference between a consultative and a nonconsultative member of the Antarctic Treaty. 6 How many nations have made territorial claims over Antarctica? 7 What is the CCAMLR treaty and when was it introduced? 8 What was the purpose of the CCAMLR treaty? 9 Outline two viewpoints surrounding Japans decision to resume whaling in the Southern Ocean. a Which two organisations have conducted the research into glaciers in Antarctica? b What is the Larsen B ice shelf and where is it located? c When did the Larsen B ice shelf break away from Antarctica? d What environmental factors caused the Larsen B ice shelf to break away from Antarctica? e What impact did the collapse of the Larsen B ice shelf have on nearby glaciers? f What has this research found in regard to ice shelves in Antarctica?
11 Refer to the news article, as well as the satellite images of the Larsen B ice shelf (3.43) and the ice extent in the Arctic Ocean (10.19 on page 238). List three impacts of global warming on polar lands from these sources. 12 Write a geographical report that explains the steps people have taken to protect Antarcticas environment.
Application
10 Read the news article in this unit:
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Coral reefs
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTS
Coral reefs have been labelled the rainforests of the sea because they contain a wide and colourful variety of plants and animals. Located in the warm tropical waters of the world, they are increasingly coming under pressure from human activities and are an environment at risk. Geographers need to study the interrelationships that exist within coral reefs so that they can make recommendations about their management and ensure that these precious ecosystems exist into the future.
Geographical tools
Maps
use various types of maps locate features using latitude and longitude, area and grid references identify physical and cultural features on a map measure distances on a map using linear scale identify scale as written, linear or representative fraction use the points of a compass to determine direction construct a sketch map read synoptic charts identify and calculate maximum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images distinguish between oblique, aerial, groundlevel photographs and satellite imagery collect and interpret electronic information practise ethical behaviour when using email and the Internet
Outcomes

Photographs

ICT

Definitions
archipelagoa chain or cluster of islands atolla circular or ring-shaped coral reef that nearly or entirely encloses a lagoon barrier reefa coral reef that forms to protect a lagoon or coastline from the ocean biodiversitythe variety of all living things calcium carbonatethe chemical compound created by the coral polyp as it grows. (It is the skeleton of the coral and is frequently found elsewhere in nature.) coral bleachingwhere coral polyps expel multi-coloured zooxanthellae from their cells, making coral lose its colour, causing the reef to die fringing reefa coral reef that forms close to an island or coastline hard coralcorals that form calcium carbonate skeletons as they grow, giving reefs their structure soft coralcorals with a small amount of calcium carbonate that they use to attach themselves to the reef symbiotic relationshipa mutually benecial interaction between two living organisms synoptic charta map that shows air pressure across an area, enabling predictions about the weather to be made zooplanktonvery tiny, drifting animals such as shrimp and small sh zooxanthellaealgae that grow in the tentacles of the coral polyp
Coral reefs rainforests of the sea

4.1 Coral reefs are known as the rainforests of the sea because of their rich biodiversity.
Coral reefs are one of the Earths signicant biomes even though they are found in less than one per cent of the worlds oceans. They are one of the most productive global environments, providing homes for a wide variety of marine animals and plants. The coral reef environment is very fragile, needing special conditions to grow and survive.
CONDITIONS FOR CORAL GROWTH

Corals are living animals that require special environmental conditions in order to grow and build into large stretches or reefs. Water depth and clarityCorals require sunlight to grow and so are found only in shallow, clear water where sunlight can lter through to the coral. Corals are usually found to a depth of 2530 metres. They do not grow above the mean tide level because they cannot survive long periods out of the water. Water temperatureCorals will grow where water temperature is above 18C and below 32C. The ideal water temperature is around 26C. These warm water temperatures are found between latitudes 25N and 25S. Water temperatures above 32C cause the coral to die. Salt waterCorals need the salt water of the open ocean in order to grow. This means that corals will not grow near river mouths along the coast because the rivers release fresh water into the ocean.
WHY ARE CORAL REEFS IMPORTANT?

Coral reefs are one of the Earths essential ecosystems. They are important because they: provide habitat for one quarter of all known marine sh species protect the coast from wave attack and erosion are a food source for much of the worlds population contain medicines and cures for disease provide income for many countries of the world through tourism.
4.2 Clear, warm, shallow sea waters provide the right conditions for coral growth.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The plants and animals found on coral reefs have been used to make medicines to treat cancer, HIV, cardiovascular diseases and ulcers. Scientists are currently researching coral varieties for a vaccine against sunburn!
4.3 Global distribution of coral reefs highlighting risk of destruction
Tropic of Cancer
23 2 N
Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
23 2 S
Key Low Medium High
2000
4000 km
LOCATION OF REEFS
The environmental factors required for coral growth cause reefs to be located around the edges of continents and islands within the tropics. Most of the worlds coral reefs are found surrounding only 10 of the worlds nations, as shown in 4.4.
4.4 Geographical location of the worlds top 10 coral reefs
Activities
Knowledge
1 What percentage of the worlds oceans are coral reefs located in? 2 List ve reasons why coral reefs are important. 3 What percentage of marine sh species live in coral reefs? 4 Explain the three environmental factors that inuence the global location of coral reefs. 5 Why do reefs only grow to a depth of 2530 metres? 6 Explain why coral reefs do not grow above the mean tide level. 7 Why are reefs not found where rivers enter the ocean? 8 Why are coral reefs called rainforests of the sea? 9 What percentage of the worlds coral reefs are under threat from human activities? Make a list of the human activities that are placing coral reefs at risk.
Rank 1 2 3 4
Country and geographical location Indonesia Australia Philippines FranceClipperton, Mayotte, Runion, Guadeloupe, Martinique, New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna Islands Papua New Guinea Fiji Maldives Saudi Arabia Marshall Islands India
Reef Percentage (%) area km2 of world total 51 020 48 960 25 060 14 280 17.95 17.22 8.81 5.02
5 6 7 8 9 10
13 840 10 020 8 920 6 660 6 110 5 790
4.87 3.52 3.14 2.34 2.15 2.02
Skills
10 Refer to 4.3. Describe the spatial distribution of the global biome of coral reefs. 11 Refer to 4.4 and answer True or False: a The Philippines has more coral reefs than the Marshall Islands. b Papua New Guinea and Fiji have a larger combined reef area than the Philippines. c Indonesia and Australia have a greater percentage of coral reefs than all other nations of the world combined. 12 Construct a pie graph that shows the share of reef area for countries around the world.
Note: the remaining 32.96% of coral reefs are found in the worlds tropical waters.
Risks associated with location

The location of coral reefs close to coasts brings threats. It is estimated that half a billion people live within 100 kilometres of a coral reef. Worldwide, 58 per cent of the coral reefs are under direct threat from human activities, including building along the coastline, polluted runoff from farming and deforestation, shing, ocean pollution and tourism developments.
Application
13 Use an atlas to locate the coral reefs belonging to France. Select one area and research the region in the library. Include a map of the location, a brief history and any unique features of the area.
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85
Coral reefsplant or animal?

Coral reefs are made up of millions of individual animals called coral polyps. These give reefs their structure. One of the features of coral is the way it is able to get energy from the Sun through algae called zooxanthellae. This is one of the special relationships that exist in all reef environments.
BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE REEF

Coral polyps
The basic building blocks of the coral reef are coral polyps. Coral polyps have clear bodies and white skeletons. The calcium carbonate on coral reefs is actually the skeleton of coral polyps, or GEOGRAPHY more correctly the materials left FOCUS behind by coral polyps as they grow. This calcium carbonate gives the Up to 90 per cent of the coral their shape. The polyps feed nutrients needed by the off zooplankton, tiny animals that coral polyp to grow actually are in reef waters.
come from the zooxanthellae algae that live within it.
4.6 Structure of a coral polyp
Tentacles with stinging cells Mouth
4.5 Soft corals lack the structure of harder corals but still form an important part of the reef ecosystem.
Coral Digestive sac Coral polyps
Zooxanthellae
Zooxanthellae are algae that actually grow in the coral polyp. Algae require sunlight to grow. It is algae that give coral polyps their huge range of colours. Millions of zooxanthellae algae live within just one square centimetre of coral (see 4.6).
Symbiotic relationship builds reef

Nutrients in the waters around coral reefs must be low or else the coral will die. This is unusual because coral reefs are one of the most productive environments on the planet. The way nutrients are cycled around makes coral reefs unique.
Skeleton
Zooxanthellae Tissue linking polyps
Coral polyps and the zooxanthellae have a symbiotic relationship. Each organism benets the otherthe wastes of the polyp are used by the zooxanthellae to grow, and the wastes of the zooxanthellae are used by coral polyps to grow. As zooxanthellae are plants and coral polyps are animals, it is actually the zooxanthellae that are at the base of the coral reef food web.
4.7 Structure of a coral reef
Sea
Reef front
Reef crest
Reef flat
Beach
Depth in metres 0 Compact Small corals corals 5 Seagrass
Heavy branching corals
10 Branching and plate corals
4.8 Hard corals are often named from their shapethe common brain coral and table or plate coral.
Activities
15
Knowledge
1 What is zooxanthellae and why is it important to coral reef ecosystems?
TYPES OF CORAL
There are two different types of coral: soft and hard. Soft corals form in the still waters of the reef ecosystem. They look like plants as they sway in the ocean currents, and are sometimes called sea fans. They secrete small amounts of calcium carbonate that helps them attach to the reef. Soft coral polyps always have eight tentacles. Hard corals are the reef-building type. Hard corals give a coral reef its structure. As the coral polyps grow, they form skeletons of calcium carbonate. Various corals grow differently, and the shape of each different type is often what gives the coral its name. It takes years for the millions of coral polyps that form a colony to build the coral reef. Hard coral polyps can be identied by the number of tentacles they have. It is always a multiple of six.
2 What are coral polyps and what do they feed on? 3 What material is the coral polyps skeleton made out of and why is this important for reef building? 4 What is a symbiotic relationship? 5 Explain the symbiotic relationship between coral polyps and zooxanthellae and describe how important this is to coral reefs. 6 How are calcium carbonate and coral type linked? 7 Compile a table to show the comparison between hard and soft corals using these headings: Features, Polyp tentacles, Brief description. Include a sketch of each type in your table.
Skills
8 Refer to 4.6 to draw an annotated diagram of a piece of coral showing the calcium carbonate skeleton, the coral polyp and the location of the zooxanthellae.
Application
9 Imagine you are a diving instructor about to take a group of tourists into the coral reef environment for the rst time. Using the pictures and diagrams in this unit: a Describe to them what they can expect to see as they enter the water. b Describe how to identify the different types of coral and where to expect to see the corals on the reef. c Explain why the reef will be so colourful.
THE REEFS STRUCTURE

Different types of coral form in particular parts of the reef that are most suited to their features. Compact types, such as the brain coral, are found in areas of high wave energy, while the branching and plate corals are found in deeper water. The smaller, ner corals are found in shallow lagoon areas.
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87
Coral reef formations

4.9 A fringing reef forms a circle around the island of Bora Bora in Tahiti, with the volcanic Mount Oternanu rising 727 metres in the middle of the island.
Coral reefs have existed on Earth for an estimated 350 million years. Todays coral reefs are between 5000 and 10 000 years old. These reefs have had to deal with many changes in the environment including ice ages and sea level changes. As the reef is a living organism, it grows in a particular way.
shelf, they protect the inland water channels and lagoons from the waves of the open ocean. The Great Barrier Reef in Australia is the most famous example and is the largest barrier reef in the world. AtollsForm when islands surrounded by fringing reefs sink into the sea or the sea level rises around them. The fringing reefs continue to grow and eventually form circles that enclose the lagoon. These lagoons are connected to the open ocean by one or more channels. The majority of the coral atolls are found in the Pacic Ocean. Patch reefsSmall, isolated reefs that grow up from the bottom of the island platform or continental shelf. They usually occur between fringing reefs and barrier reefs. They vary greatly in size, and rarely reach the surface of the water. If they do reach the surface, a small coral cay may form (see page 89).
TYPES OF REEF
Geographers classify coral reefs into four main types as shown in 4.10. Fringing reefsGrow near the coastline around islands and continents. They are characterised by a coral reef separated from the shore by a narrow, shallow lagoon or channel. Fringing reefs are the most common type of reef. Barrier reefsLocated parallel to the coastline, but are separated from it by deep, wide lagoons and channels. Usually found along the edge of the continental
4.10 Formation of different reef types around a volcano
FRINGING REEF
Reef Reef
BARRIER REEF
Atoll
ATOLL REEF
Reef
PATCH REEF
Volcanic island
Volcanic island
Atoll lagoon
Volcanic island
Vertical growth Reef Reef
Vertical growth Lagoon Coral sediment Limestone rock
Vertical growth of coral patches
Reef
Volcanic base
CORAL CAYS
When waves break against coral reefs the energy from the waves causes pieces of coral to break off. These coral pieces bump into each other and eventually the pieces are so small that they form coral sand. With the right ocean currents this sand will be deposited on top of the coral reef in the area of still water that is sometimes exposed at high tide. Usually sand deposited on top of the coral reef will be washed away. If the sand does start to accumulate then there is a chance that a coral cay will develop (see 4.12). A coral cay is a sand island located on the top of a coral reef that is usually covered in vegetation. A coral cay develops in the following stages. There has to be a reef large enough to enable sand to start accumulating on the top of the coral reef. There needs to be sufcient ocean currents to bring sand to the reef area so that a sand bank will form on the reef. This sand bank continues to grow until it starts to be exposed at low tide.
Birds start to rest on the island as it is exposed at high tide. Their droppings contain seeds that are able to germinate because of the nutrients in their droppings. Sand continues to accumulate on the island and other plants make their way to the reef on the ocean currents. Vegetation on the island eventually stabilises the sand and a coral cay forms. Coral cays are only just above the high tide mark and during severe storms like tropical cyclones the ocean can wash completely over them.
4.12 Formation of a coral cay
Vegetation colonises the sand bank and a coral island is formed. Coral sand
4.11 A coral cay where vegetation has stabilised the sand
Ocean floor Coral reef
Activities
Knowledge
1 How old are the coral reef ecosystems that exist today? 2 Name two environmental changes that todays coral reefs have adapted to. 3 Name and describe the four main types of coral reefs. 4 What are coral cays and what are they made of? 5 Explain the steps in the formation of a coral cay. 6 What limits the growth of the vegetation on a coral cay?
Skills
7 In your notebook, draw an annotated diagram to explain the features of the following types of coral reefs: a fringing reef c coral atoll b barrier reef d patch reef.
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Animals of the coral reef environment

4.13 Small sh seek cover in staghorn coral as part of the rich biodiversity on the reef.
Coral reefs contain thousands of species of marine plants and animals. As one of the most complex ecosystems on the planet, reefs are home to over 4000 different species of sh and 700 species of coral as well as many other plants and animals. The abundance of different corals provides protection for the smaller sh that make the reef their home.
THE CLOWN FISH AND THE ANEMONE

The clown shmade famous in the 2003 movie Finding Nemohas developed a special symbiotic relationship with the anemone, a close relative of the coral polyp.
Anemones
Like coral polyps, anemones grow best in shallow, sunlit water. They catch small sh by stinging and paralysing them with their tentacles. One of the anemones adaptations is that its stinging tentacles are covered in GEOGRAPHY mucous so that it does not FOCUS sting itself. Connected to It can take up to an hour the reef by a small disc, the for a clown sh to get anemone is capable of moving the coating of mucous very slowly over rocks and that it needs before it coral.
4.14 The anemone provides a safe home for the clown sh in what is one of the most well-known symbiotic relationships on the reef. 4.15 The diet of the parrot sh helps control algae and creates coral sand on the reef.
Clown sh
is fully immune to the anemones sting. One parrot
sh is capable Clown sh get their name of chewing through enough because of their bright orange algae and coral to create and white colours and the fact one tonne of sand per year! that they are always moving. These movements are often mistaken as clowning around when they are actually a very aggressive sh known for defending their territory. While not immune to the stings of the anemone, the clown sh is able to coat itself in the mucous that covers the anemones tentacles. This means that it will not be stung.
How is this relationship symbiotic?

Anemones benet from this relationship because clown sh chase away sh that would bite off pieces of the tentacles. Clown sh also clean up food scraps and other debris from anemones. Clown sh are protected from predators by living in anemones. It is the perfect symbiotic relationship.
PARROT FISH
The parrot sh gets its name because of its bright colouring and its beakor more correctly the teethat the front of its mouth. Parrot sh eat algae that grow on the reef. As they remove the algae, pieces of coral are removed as well which the parrot sh then spits through its mouth and gills. Parrot sh form mounds of white coral sand in areas of the reef as they eat the algae. People once believed parrot sh were destroying the reef, but recent studies have shown that they play an important role in limiting the amount of algae growing on the reef. Without the parrot sh, algae would smother the reef and kill the coral polyps.
SEAHORSES
One of the more unusual reef animals is the seahorse. Living on coral reefs and sea grass beds they are well camouaged in the environment. Camouage is one of the important ways that reef animals are able to protect themselves. Seahorses eat small crustaceans such as shrimp and catch their prey by drawing water and prey into their tube-like mouths. One special adaptation of the seahorse is its ability to change colour to blend in with the background. Another unique feature is that while it is the female that lays the eggs, the male carries the eggs in his pouch and looks after the eggs until they hatch.
4.16 Camouage is an effective defence for the seahorse against its predators.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Where does the anemone live on coral reefs? Explain one way the anemone is different to the coral polyp. 2 Describe how the anemone catches its food. 3 Why is the mucous coating on the anemones tentacles an important adaptation to life on the reef? 4 Explain how one other animal on the reef benets from the mucous coating on the anemones tentacles. 5 Explain why the relationship between the clown sh and the anemone is symbiotic. 6 Describe the physical features of the parrot sh. 7 What would happen to the coral reef if parrot sh were removed? 8 Describe one adaptation of the seahorse that protects it from predators.
URGENT To: Enthusiastic Geography students From: Seascapade Animation Studios Our animators have been working hard to create our new movie The Adventures of the Pink Seahorse. They are having incredible trouble drawing the underwater coral reef environment. As you are studying coral reefs, we need your expert input on four matters before we swing into production of our movie. 1 Please explain five features of coral reefs that would be essential to show in an underwater picture. Well use this list to help our animators as they draw. 2 We would also like you to have some input into the plot of the movie. Wed like you to describe a good story line in a paragraph that we could use for our movie. The central character is to be a seahorse living on a coral reef. 3 Please include a series of three hand-drawn images showing us your ideasone image each from the beginning, middle and end of your story. Somewhere on the three images please label the five essential elements of the underwater coral reef environment you described above. 4 Finally, the film director is not happy with the title of the movie. We want it to be a popular kids movie. Were sure youll have a better idea, so please suggest a new title. Thanks for your help
Application
9 Prepare a report on a coral reef animal. Include the animals features, diet, habitat and any special adaptation that the animal has to living on coral reefs. Some suggestions: cone shell, lion sh, moray eel, stone sh. 10 Prepare a response to the following fax. Hint for completing this task Look back through your notes and the textbook. Study the images and information and make a list of the essential features and animals that live on coral reefs. Then apply your list to the task.
Stephanie Gibson
Director Seascapade Animation Studios
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Human threats to coral reefs

Coral reef ecosystems around the world are under threat. The Pacic Ocean is the safest area for coral reefs with 60 per cent considered to be at low risk of destruction. Outside this area, 70 per cent of reefs are at risk. South-east Asia has the coral reefs with the greatest variety of plants and animals yet more than 80 per cent of these reefs are at high risk (see 4.3 on page 85). Most of the threats are a direct result of human activities.
TRADE IN CORAL REEF ANIMALS

Collection of coral and reef sh for sale to aquarium enthusiasts around the world poses a serious threat to reefs. Cyanide is used to stun the reef sh in the wild so they can be easily removed from the coral. The cyanide kills the coral polyps. The global retail value of marine ornamental sh and aquarium hobby supplies is estimated at US$500 million and consists of over 1000 reef species.
4.17 Dried seahorses, like many other reef animals, are used in alternative medicines.
TOURISM
Tourism is the worlds fastest growing industry. As resorts are built they often lack sufcient planning and environmental controls. Wastes from the resorts may enter the surrounding water and increase the nutrients in the water. This disturbs the balance in the reef and degrades coral reefs. Careless tour operators in boats and other activities also cause damage. Whenever people walk on or stir up sediment in the reef they contribute to coral reef destruction.
FISHING
As the worlds population grows, the demands on the food resources of coral reefs are going to be greater. Fish living around the coral reefs are already a resource under pressure. Overshing removes sh stocks and does not leave a large enough population of sh to restock the area. It also alters the balance of the reef ecosystem. Destructive shing techniques, such as blast shing with dynamite, are used to collect masses of sh quickly, making this a signicant threat to reefs.
4.19 Tourist developments around coral cays threaten coral reefs.
4.18 The result of dynamite shing
COASTAL DEVELOPMENT
The construction of settlements along the coastline impacts on nearby coral reefs. It is estimated that half a billion people worldwide live within 100 kilometres of a coral reef. In the richer countries, coastal developments along coral reefs include canal estates, highrise tourist hotels, apartment blocks and shopping complexes. The growth of large cities along the coast places pressure on reefs as pollution from the urban areas enters the water and people exploit the resources of the reef.
Activities
Knowledge
1 How does the trend for people to have hobby aquariums impact on coral reefs? 2 Why is cyanide used to catch ornamental sh for the aquarium trade? What impact does it have on the reef? 3 What is meant by overshing of sh stocks? What impact does this have on the coral reef environment? 4 Describe two impacts tourists have on coral reefs. 5 Why is there a need for careful management of urban developments located next to coral reefs? 6 List three activities that can lead to soil erosion. How does eroded soil travel to coral reefs? 7 What impact does sediment from rivers have on coral reefs? 8 List the four main causes of coral reef destruction.
FARMING
Farming, logging and land clearing all lead to soil erosion. As it is washed into rivers, soil eventually ends up in the ocean. When rivers ow across farmland and empty into the sea near coral reefs the sediment and nutrients encourage algae and limit the sunlight available for coral polyps to grow, killing the reef.
Skills
9 Refer to 4.20: a What percentage of coral reefs are considered to be at high risk of destruction? b Which category of risk to coral reefs presents the greatest overall threat? c Copy and complete the tables below:
Rank 1 2 3 4 Rank Threat category Medium Risk (%) Threat category High Risk (%)
RISK OF DESTRUCTION
Coral reefs can be classied into three categories according to their risk of destructionlow, medium or high. The risks to reefs can be further broken down into their causes: over-exploitation involves activities such as shing and taking coral coastal development involves building near reefs inland pollution involves runoff from agriculture and towns marine pollution involves shipping debris and oil leaks.
4.20 Threats to the global environment of coral reefs
1 2
Overall risk of coral reef destruction Medium risk 31%

rine
12%
Low risk 42% High risk 27%
10 Look at 4.18 and 4.19 then copy and complete the table below.
Type of photograph Oblique Ground level Figure number
Ma
Categories of risk
d pollution Inlan 22 %
Ov er
ex
1% 11% 10% 12% 26%
plo
19%
on 36% itati
17%
Application
11 Discuss the most likely factors that cause 80 per cent of the coral reefs of South-east Asia to be at high risk.
Low risk Medium risk High risk
4%
Co
Surf
ast al
% development 30
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93
The Great Barrier Reef
The Great Barrier Reef is located off the Queensland coast, stretching over 2300 kilometres from the tip of Cape York to just north of Fraser Island. It is the longest barrier reef system in the world. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is made up of a complex pattern of patch, fringing and barrier reefs. It has an overall area of 348 000 square kilometres and contains the worlds largest World Heritage area.
4.22 Location of the Great Barrier Reef
N
4.21 Tourists from all over the world are drawn to the Great Barrier Reef to look at the wonders of the unique environment.
WHY IS THE GREAT BARRIER REEF UNIQUE?

The size of the Great Barrier Reef makes it the largest continuous collection of coral reefs in the world. It consists of over 2900 separate coral reefs and 940 islands, 300 of which are coral cays. The range of living plants and animals on the reef also makes it unique for its biodiversity, which includes this variety of species:
Cape York
200
400 km
360 types of hard coral one-third of the worlds soft coral species 1500 species of sh
Cape York Peninsula Cooktown
Lizard Island Great Barrier Reef Marine Park boundary
thirty species of marine mammals including the endangered dugong six of the worlds seven endangered turtle species 5000 mollusc species 800 species of echinoderms (starsh, sea urchins) 215 bird species thousands of different sponges, worms and crustaceans.
Cairns
Green Island Hinchinbrook Island
Townsville Whitsunday Islands Location map Mackay
WHAT IS THE REEFS VALUE?

The Great Barrier Reef supports a range of activities that earn money for Australia. The economic value of the reef and related activities has been estimated to be as high as AU$5.8 billion. Tourism alone is worth around AU$4.3 billion per year while commercial shing is worth AU$120 million. The reef also acts as a barrier that protects property from damaging ocean swells. Also, some of the reefs plants and animal species contain medicines that could one day provide cures for diseases.
Rockhampton Gladstone
Capricorn Islands
4.23 The Great Barrier Reef is the largest World Heritage area on the planet and is often referred to as the only living organism that can be seen from space. This is only partly true, as the reef itself is actually made up of many millions of tiny organisms called polyps.
PROTECTING THE GREAT BARRIER REEF

The Great Barrier Reef is an environment that is worth protecting for the future. The process of protection has been inuenced by government decisions. Between 1970 and 1974 a royal commission investigated the possibility of oil mining on the Great Barrier Reef. The results recommended against oil exploration, instead nding that the area should be protected through the establishment of a government authority to manage the reef. As a result of this, on 20 June 1975, the Australian Government formed an organisation called the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA). This organisation has managed the reef environment ever since.
The importance of this reef environment and its careful management has made the Great Barrier Reef globally signicant. A precious resource like this is worthy of World Heritage listing and in 1981 the area was added to the World Heritage List. The management of activities within the area is a complex task. There are a range of activities around the reef that inuence it as well as a range of groups who want to use the area. The aim is to ensure a balance between humans using the reef and maintaining the areas natural and cultural features.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Whitehaven Beach is a 9-kilometre stretch of pristine, pure white silica sand fringed by brilliant blue water. It is one of the 74 islands of the Whitsunday group in the Great Barrier Reef close to Proserpine on the mainland.
4.24 Whitehaven Beach is considered to be one of the most beautiful beaches in the world.
Coral reefs
95
4.25 This concept map shows the range of activities that inuence the Great Barrier Reef and highlights why it needs protecting.
Indigenous heritage
The Indigenous heritage of the Great Barrier Reef is an important aspect of its World Heritage listing. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have built a lifestyle around the marine environment and have a great deal of knowledge about the resources offered by the animals and plants of the area. Today more than 50 traditional owner groups live along the coast and islands from Bundaberg to Cape York Peninsula.
Urbanisation
The climate, scenery and lifestyle along the coastal strip of Queensland attract both tourists and permanent residents. The growth of cities such as Cairns has placed increasing pressure on the reef as a result of pollution and the number of people who use the reef as a recreation area.
Tourism
Over 85 per cent of visitors to the reef go to the offshore areas around Cairns, Port Douglas and the Whitsunday islands, which make up less than 10 per cent of the total marine park. This means that tourism is concentrated in a small area of the reef. Tourism operators are one of the key groups aiming to manage the reef in a sustainable way.
Scientic research and management

GBRMPA plays an important role in the management of the reef. An essential part of their work is to ensure that they learn about the interactions that occur within the reef environment. Only with increased scientic knowledge can geographers make plans for the management of the reef into the future.
HUMAN ACTIVITY IN THE GREAT BARRIER REEF REGION
Shipping
The Great Barrier Reef is located on an important shipping route and unwary captains can cause damage to the reef. The grounding of ships on the reef and oil leakages into the waters continue to occur. Strict rules are in place to ensure that ships have only a minimal impact.
Agriculture
Cattle grazing in the headwaters of the rivers that ow to the coast and sugarcane farming along the coastline pose a threat to the Great Barrier Reef. Runoff containing soil smothers the reef. Fertilisers and pesticides used on the farms change the balance of the nutrients in the water.
Commercial shing
The commercial shing eet on the Great Barrier Reef catches around 24 000 tonnes of seafood valued AU$120 million per year.
4.26 Runoff from agriculture can destroy coral reefs.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Describe the spatial dimensions of the Great Barrier Reef. 2 Name the three types of coral reefs that form the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. 3 Why is the Great Barrier Reef a globally signicant environment? 4 Give four examples that highlight the level of biodiversity found in the Great Barrier Reef. 5 What is the total estimated value of the Great Barrier Reef to the Australian economy? 6 Describe four ways that the Great Barrier Reef is considered to be of value to the people of Australia. 7 What activity did a royal commission investigate for the Great Barrier Reef between 1970 and 1974? Why do you think the royal commission recommended against the activity? 8 What was the outcome of the royal commission in 1975 and what impact did this have on the management of the Great Barrier Reef? 9 When was the Great Barrier Reef added to the World Heritage List? Give two reasons why you think it was added to this list. 10 Construct a two-column table titled Groups who use the Great Barrier Reef. Name the left column User group and the right column Impacts. Use the information in the concept map in 4.25 to write a brief description of the way these groups impact on the reef. 11 Explain why the management of activities within the Great Barrier Reef area is such a complex task.
Skills
12 Use 4.26 to create a sketch map of the area shown. You will need to include the river, the river mouth and the sediment in your map.
Application
13 Class debate: The money-making opportunities from the reef environment are more important than any impact these activities might have on the coral reef. 14 Community meeting: Set up the classroom to hold a public meeting using the following scenario: GBRMPA is currently developing a management plan for an area of the reef. The Authority has called a public meeting to get ideas and concerns about the use and management of an area that is to be rezoned from a highly protected area with only a few human impacts to an area that will be developed and allow unlimited access. All interested groups have been invited to attend the meeting. First appoint a chairperson representing the GBRMPA to run the meeting and to decide on the rezoning of the area once the meeting has nished. Next divide the class into the groups listed in 4.25. Research the issues and benets of your group using the reef. Prepare a short presentation. Each group will be given a three-minute time slot to present their opinion. After the presentations the meeting will debate the issues that arise before a nal decision is made by the chairperson.
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Natural threats to coral reefs
As well as the human threats to coral reefs there are also some natural threats that put the reef environment at risk. This unit examines two of the natural threats to the Great Barrier Reef.
4.28 Percentage of reefs in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park with crown-of-thorns starsh outbreaks
4.27 Damage caused by the crown-of-thorn starsh. In order to eat coral polyps, the crown-of-thorns starsh forces its stomach out through its mouth and releases a special enzyme that breaks down the polyp. After four to six hours the polyp is absorbed, the stomach is retracted back through the animals mouth and the starsh moves on.
Reefs affected (percentage)
20 15 10 5 0 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Year Total outbreaks
PEST INFESTATIONS
Another type of natural threat to reef environments comes from plants and animals that threaten areas by growing to plague proportions. One of the animals found on many coral reefs of the world is the crown-of-thorns starsh. The starsh are a normal part of reefs. However, at times there has been an outbreak of them, causing severe damage. One theory on the cause of these infestations is that changes in the balance of the reef ecosystem occur when nutrients from urban areas, septic tanks and agricultural activities enter the water. These nutrients encourage the growth of algae, which is the favoured diet of the crownof-thorns starsh. This increased food supply causes starsh numbers to increase. When this happens it does not take too long before parts of the reef are destroyed due to the starshs preferred diet of coral polyps.
4.29 Synoptic chart for March 2005

140E 145E 150E 10S
Cape Grenville Aurukun Tropical Cyclone Ingrid

Cape Melville 996
Cooktown Gilbert Cape Tribulation River Port Douglas Cairns Burketown Karumba Innisfail Cardwell
Cape Flattery 1000

1004 1008 1012
15S
TROPICAL CYCLONES
A tropical cyclone is a natural hazard event. Cyclones form over the warm oceans of the tropical regions of the world. They are intense tropical storms that create large waves and big tides that are sometimes large enough GEOGRAPHY to wash completely over FOCUS coral cays. Tropical Cyclone Ingrid occurred in March Each crown-of-thorns 2005 and threatened the starsh eats between Great Barrier Reef. 5 and 6 square metres
of coral per year.
Townsville
N
Ayr Bowen Prosperpine Mackay St Lawrence
20S
1016
200
400 km
1020
Map issued 8 March 2005
Yeppoon Rockhampton Gladstone
1020
STUDY REVEALS CYCLONE DAMAGE TO CORAL REEFS 100 KILOMETRES FROM EYE OF CYCLONE
We investigated the impact of seven types of cyclone damage to the reef: coral breakage, movement of massive corals, stripping of soft corals, coral sand movement, scarring of coral by debris, algal blooms, and removal of plants from the reef. These surveys examine how wave damage to coral communities differs between sheltered and exposed sites. The corals on outer reefs appear to be more resistant to breakage compared with the more fragile inshore reefs. The reef provided its own protection from wave damage, leaving many corals in the protected areas intact. These surviving corals will help restore the worse affected areas, Dr Fabricius said. Corals at the outer edge will probably take 23 years to recover, those at ground zero were stripped bare and could take up to two decades to bounce back. Estimates from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology suggest that wind speeds reached at least 250 kilometres per hour and wave heights as high as 10 metres occurred within the Great Barrier Reef area.
4.30 A section of the Great Barrier Reef before Tropical Cyclone Ingrid
17 August 2005
When Tropical Cyclone Ingrid crossed the far northern Great Barrier Reef it left a trail of destruction to 260 coral reefs across a path over 200 kilometres wide. Researchers from the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS), such as Dr Katharina Fabricius, were keen to nd out about the level of damage.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is another name for the intense tropical storms that cause damage to coral reefs? Describe why these storms are so destructive to the reef. 2 Read the newspaper article and study the synoptic chart in 4.29: a How many coral reefs were damaged by the cyclone? b Name the seven types of cyclone damage to reefs the researchers investigated. c What role will the surviving corals play in repairing the damage to the reef caused by the tropical cyclone? d What was the wind speed and wave height caused by the cyclone? Why would these have caused damage to the coral reef? e Compare the date when Tropical Cyclone Ingrid formed over the Great Barrier Reef and the date the newspaper article was written. Explain why they are different. f Estimate the air pressure on 8 March at Cairns, Townsville, Mackay, Aurukun, Cardwell St Lawrence and Yeppoon. g Estimate the latitude and longitude of Tropical Cyclone Ingrid on 8 March 2005. 3 Name the three sources of nutrients that are believed to cause the outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starsh. 4 Describe how increased nutrients in seawater are believed to cause an increase in the crown-of-thorns starsh numbers. 5 Describe the way the crown-of-thorns starsh eats the coral polyps.
Skills
6 Refer to 4.28: a What was the total outbreak of the crown-of-thorns starsh in 1992, 1998 and 2002? b Which year did the total outbreak have the least impact on the reef? c Which year did the total outbreak have the greatest impact on the reef? d Rank the years in order from greatest percentage of reefs affected to least percentage of reefs affected in terms of the total outbreak of the crown-of-thorns starsh.
Surf
Coral reefs
99
Global warming the end of coral reefs?
Global warming could bring an end to coral reefs. It is causing the temperature of the oceans to increase and the sea level to rise. It does not take much of a temperature change to upset the delicate balance that exists on coral reefs. When corals die, it is called coral bleaching.
4.31 Bleached coral is white and lifeless.
Effects of climate change

Many scientists suggest that some reefs could disappear completely by 2020 due to coral bleaching and that the entire global environment of coral reefs could be destroyed over the next 100 years due to sea temperature rises.
4.32 Climate change variations in Antarctica over 150 000 years
Temperature change (C) Depth (metres)
EVIDENCE AND EFFECT OF GLOBAL WARMING ON REEFS

The line graphs in 4.32 show that increases in carbon dioxide and methane gases in the atmosphere follow the same shape as the temperature of Antarctica and sea level change. It is not just the increase in temperature that is causing the problem for coral reefs, it is the speed at which the temperature change will occur. Coral reefs growth relies on the symbiotic relationship between the zooxanthellae and the coral polyp. This in turn relies on sunlight, clear oceans and warm water. When the water gets too hot, the coral polyp spurts out the zooxanthellae and this essential relationship is broken. Other plants and animals start to die because of the break in the food chain, and the reef dies. Bleached coral reefs are like white graveyardsall that is left is the coral skeleton. It takes years for reefs to recover. Some reefs may never recover. If the sea temperature continues to rise, corals around the world will be threatened.
2 0 2 4 6 50 100 150 300 250 200 700 600 500 400 300 150
Past sea level
Methane (ppbv) Carbon dioxide (ppmv)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Mass coral bleaching in 1998 and 2002 was caused by a change in sea temperature of less than 1C. Scientists are predicting sea temperature changes of 2 to 6C in the future.
When did this threat occur?

Widespread coral bleaching was rst noticed in 1998. High sea surface water temperatures caused the bleaching of reefs around the world. The second worst year on record was 2002.
Methane (CH4)
100 50 Age (thousands of years ago)
ppmv parts per million by volume or parts per million in the atmosphere ppbv parts per billion by volume or parts per billion in the atmosphere
4.33 Top 10 coral reef hotspots
EUROPE ASIA
10
NORTH AMERICA 7 1
Tropic of Cancer
8 2
AFRICA 6 3
INDIAN OCEAN
9
Equator PACIFIC OCEAN
SOUTH AMERICA
Tropic of Capricorn
4 5
AUSTRALIA
Key
1 2 3 4 Philippines 5 Eastern South Africa Gulf of Guinea 6 Northern Indian Ocean 7 Southern Japan, Taiwan Sundra Islands and Southern China Southern Mascarene Islands
2000
4000 km
8 Cape Verde Islands 9 Western Caribbean 10 Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
In addition, a rise in the sea level will cover some coral cays. This could mean that whole island communities in the Pacic Ocean will have to relocate. Some residents of Pacic atolls and cays have already had to move their homes to higher ground and are leaving the islands altogether, as in the case of Tuvalu. Climatic change will also mean more frequent tropical cyclones which are very destructive to the coral reef. Cyclones are a natural threat that reefs are able to recover from but global warming will cause the number of tropical cyclones to increase, placing additional stress on reefs. Add to this the bleaching of reefs and their ability to recover from these events will be severely reduced. Nature can cope with change over thousands of years but humans cause change in decades.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What two impacts of global warming threaten coral reefs? 2 Why is water temperature important to coral reefs? How does a change in it destroy the reef ecosystem? 3 What will be the end result of global warming on coral reef ecosystems? 4 How long is it predicted to take before global warming affects all coral reefs? 5 Describe the impact global warming will have on island communities of the Pacic Ocean. 6 In what way will global warming cause tropical cyclones to have a greater impact on coral reefs? 7 What activity creates the most greenhouse gases? What is likely to happen to this pollution source in the future?
SOLUTIONS TO CORAL BLEACHING

While the 10 reefs most at risk shown in 4.33 can be protected from local threats, it will take a global approach to solve the coral bleaching issue. Electricity generation is the biggest source of greenhouse gasesthe pollution that is causing global warming. Existing world energy consumption is predicted to increase by 50 per cent in the next 20 years and the future for coral reefs cannot be assured. Countries and individuals need to think about how energy is used and the sources that it comes from. (This concept is explored further in chapter 10.)
Skills
8 Refer to 4.32: a What is the relationship between the temperature change graph and the methane and carbon dioxide gas graphs? b Approximately how many thousands of years ago was the rst rise in sea level? c What is the trend for the temperature graph over the past 100 years? Do you expect this trend to continue? d What relationship exists between sea level, temperature change and increases in methane and carbon dioxide?
Skills
Coral reefs
101
Coral reef destruction a global issue

The destruction of coral reefs is a worldwide problem that the global community has to address. Responses come from all levels. At the global level the United Nations acts to protect and preserve these environments. There is also action from national governments and from international organisations.
GLOBAL TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS

Two treaties administered by the United Nations are: The World Heritage ConventionTwenty World Heritage sites contain coral reefs. The unique nature of corals is being protected in an attempt to protect all types of coral reef and as much biodiversity as possible. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)Member nations watch and monitor the trade in reef species. This is especially important considering the trade in seahorses has led to a 25 per cent decline in seahorse numbers and as the aquarium hobby increases the illegal trade in live coral and reef sh species also increases.
4.35 Protecting areas of the worlds coral reefs in marine parks is an essential step in ensuring that they exist in the future. 4.34 Protests can be an effective way to raise awareness of the need to protect coral reefs.
GOVERNMENT PROTECTION
At the regional level countries cooperate to protect and preserve coral reefs. A part of this is the formation of protected marine parks. They are similar to national parks except that they are in the sea (see Snapshot).
NGOs
Non-government organisationscommonly known as NGOsalso get involved in preserving coral reefs. These organisations rely on people to take action at a variety of levels including the local level. The forms of action vary and can involve email campaigns, letter writing and even protests. If protests are planned wisely, they can attract media attention from around the world with the potential to raise pressure from nations as well as individuals. NGOs can also receive government funding for research activities.
Midway Islands Pacific Ocean Pearl and Kure Hermes Atoll Atoll National Pioneer monument Bank boundary
Pa
O ic ci f
USA
cea
n
Lisianski Is Laysan Is
Gardner Pinnacles Necker Is
Raita Maro Reef Bank St.Rogation Banks
Nihoa Honolulu Brooks Banks

N
INDIVIDUAL ACTION
Learning about the coral reef environment and the threats to it are the rst steps towards exercising your rights as a global citizen. Geographical knowledge used the right way can be a powerful tool that can move countries and their organisations towards using the worlds resources sustainably. Taking action in an informed way on environmental issues is one of the important things geographers do.
French Frigate Shoals
Pacific Ocean
500 km
0
Size comparison to USA
SNAPSHOT
SKILLS MASTER
Writing an email or letter
Email is rapidly taking over global communications and is an effective way to lobby leaders for global change. NGOs have email campaigns that you can easily be a part of to inuence the future of the world, its people and its resources. Why not have a go at writing your own. Pick an issue, work out who is responsible then get writing! Write to the organisations leader or a representative of the group. This information can usually be found on a website. Your email or letter does not have to be long but it should follow this four-paragraph outline. 1 AttentionWhat are you concerned about? (Put in some facts and gures that highlight the issue.) 2 InterestWhy are you involved in this action? What is your interest? 3 DesireWhat would you like to see happen? What solutions or actions need to happen to improve the situation? 4 ActionWhat do you require the organisation to do? Make sure you spell all words correctly and that you use formal language. The rest is up to you. Why not take what you learn in Geography and use it to make the world a better place?
Regional protection of marine areas

On 15 June 2006 the President of the United States signed a document that created the worlds biggest marine reserve. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument covers an area of 363 000 square kilometres of the Pacic Ocean, stretching from the Islands of Hawaii to Midway and Kure atolls in the Pacic Ocean. It is one of the worlds most isolated marine sanctuaries. The park itself consists of largely uninhabited islands and contains 70 per cent of the United States shallow water coral reefs that provide a habitat for 7000 marine species and 14 million seabirds. Part of the protection of the area will involve controlling all human activitieseven people wishing to visit parts of the sanctuary to snorkel and take photographs will need to get a permit. While its isolation remains the largest factor that will protect the marine reserve, other regulations have been put in place. All shing will be banned, as will the removal of animals, especially coral. The main aim of creating the reserve was to signal that the area needed to remain a totally natural environment.
Activities
Knowledge
1 At what scale does the United Nations act to protect coral reefs? 2 Describe how global conventions help protect coral reefs. 3 Describe one way countries can act to help protect coral reefs. 4 What are NGOs? List three forms of actions they may organise to protect coral reefs.
7 Read the following email a student wrote supporting the creation of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument marine park. Explain why you think this email would not be effective.
To: President of the United States CC: Subject: You Beauty m8
Hi Pres Just hrd that u made the NWHINM marine park, thats gr8. Ppl told me it was > the GBRMP and I LOL Jst hrd, its tru ;) Cul8r
Skills
5 Read the snapshot: a Describe the location and size of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument marine park. b What types of marine species will be protected by the creation of the marine park? c What activities have been banned from the park?
Application
6 How can a well designed protest attract the attention of people in other countries? How effective do you think this form of action is in raising awareness of global issues?
8 Write another email following the attention, interest, desire and action format to the president about his or her decision to create the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument marine park.
Surf
Coral reefs
103
Mountains
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTS
Mountain environments occupy 24 per cent of the Earths surface and are home to 10 per cent of the worlds population. However, their inuence extends far beyond their physical boundaries. Nearly half the worlds population relies on mountains as a source of water, hydroelectric power, timber and mineral resources. The mountain environment contains unique plant and animal species, and is rich in biodiversity. Mountain inhabitants are highly adapted to their specic local environment, leading to great cultural diversity within and between mountain ranges. As these areas become more accessible and population pressures increase, sustainable management is essential.
Geographical tools
Maps
use various types of maps locate features using latitude and longitude, area and grid references identify physical and cultural features on a map measure distances on a map using linear scale identify scale as written, linear or representative fraction use the points of the compass to determine direction identify and interpret relief construct a sketch map identify and calculate maximum and minimum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images distinguish between oblique, aerial, groundlevel photographs and satellite imagery collect and interpret electronic information design and create a multimedia presentation
Outcomes
Photographs

ICT

Definitions
aspectthe direction a slope faces cirquea steep-sided, deep bowl-shaped hollow in a mountainside, may contain a small lake called a tarn conuencethe meeting point of rivers coreEarths metallic centre fold mountainsmountains caused by the buckling of the Earths crust at a convergent boundary hanging valleya tributary valley with the oor high above the main valley lavamolten rock that reaches the Earths surface magmamolten rock beneath the Earths surface mantlethe layer between the Earths crust and core mountaina large landform that stands out from its surroundings and generally over 600 metres plate tectonicsa theory that explains the building of landforms by movements of the Earths crustal plates pyroclastic owa ow of hot volcanic ash, cinders and rock relative reliefthe difference in height between the base and summit of a landform transhumanceseasonal movement up and down mountains to graze animals U-shaped valleysteep-sided, at-oored valley caused by glaciation volcanoa mountain formed by an eruption of material through the Earths crust
Mountain landforms
A mountain is a landform that stands out from its surrounding area. It is generally higher and steeper than a hill. However, the use of the terms mountain and hill depends on local custom rather than height measurements. A relative relief of 600 metres or more is often used to dene a mountain.
5.1 Mount McKinley in Alaska is commonly known as Denali, which means the great one in the local language. It is also the ofcial name currently recognised by the state of Alaska.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOUNTAINS

Mountains are found on every continent in the world. In some places they are individual peaks like Mount Kilimanjaro in East Africa, but usually they are found in groups known as ranges, or in the case of the Andes mountains in South America, a cordillera. A massif is a distinct mountain body within a mountain range.
5.2 Mauna Kea lies mostly underwater with only its summit breaking the surface.
The highest mountain in the world is Mount Everest, 8850 metres above sea level. Located on the border between Nepal and Tibet it is one of only 14 peaks found in the Himalayas range that are over 8000 metres. However, these are not the biggest mountains on Earth when measured from base to summit. Mount McKinley in Alaska has a greater relative relief than Mount Everest. Everests base sits on the Tibetan Plateau at about 5000 metres, giving it a relative relief of 3800 metres. The base of McKinley sits on a 600-metre plateau, giving it a relative relief of over 5500 metres. However, the mountains in Hawaii break all the records. Mauna Kea measures 10 205 metres from its base on the oor of the Pacic Ocean to its summit. Its close neighbour Mauna Loa, only 36 metres shorter, holds the record for volume. It is so massive it would ll the Grand Canyon 18 times.
5.3 The highest peak on each continent
Height of Mauna Kea (from ocean floor) 10 205 m Relative height of Mt Everest 8850 m
Continent Asia South America North America Africa Europe Antarctica Australia
Peak Mount Everest/ Sagarmatha/Chomolangma Mount Aconcagua Mount McKinley/Denali Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Elbrus Mount Vinson Massif Mount Kosciuszko
Elevation (metres) 8850 6960 6194 5895 5642 4897 2228
5.4 The worlds surface mountain ranges and the winding underwater path of the Mid-Ocean Ridge
30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 150 120 90 60 30
ARCTIC OCEAN
Arctic Circle Mt McKinley 6194

Ural Mountains
EUROPE
Mt Blanc Alps 4807
Atlas Mtns
ASIA
Coast Mountains
NORTH AMERICA
Rocky Mountains Appalacians
60
Mt Elbrus 5642
Zagros Mountains
Tien Shan Himalaya
Mt Everest 8850 Tropic of Cancer
Sierra Madre
ATLANTIC OCEAN
30
AFRICA
Ethiopian Highlands
PACIFIC OCEAN
Equator
0
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Mt Killimanjaro 5895
INDIAN OCEAN
AUSTRALIA
Great Dividing Range
SOUTH AMERICA
Brazilian Highlands 30
An
de
sM
tns
Tropic of Capricorn Mt Aconcagua 6959
Drakensberg
Key
Relief (metres) 5000 3000 2000 1000 500 200 Sea-level
Mt Kosciuszko 2228
SOUTHERN OCEAN
2000
4000 km
60
30
30
Mountain Mid-ocean ridge
Correct at the Equator

120 150 180 150 120 90
Antarctic Circle
60 30
MOUNTAIN RANGES
Like the mountains of Hawaii, the worlds greatest mountain range lies mostly under the ocean. The Mid-Ocean Ridge extends 64 374 kilometres from the Arctic Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean, around Africa, Asia, and Australia, and under the Pacic Ocean to the west coast of North America (see 5.4). Iceland is one of the few places where it appears above the surface. The worlds greatest land mountain range is the Himalayas, covering an area of 3.4 million square kilometres. Nine of the worlds 10 highest mountains are found in the Himalayas. The Andes on the western edge of the South American continent is the longest mountain range stretching for 7250 kilometres. It contains the highest active volcano, Guallatiri.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is a mountain? 2 Explain the term relative relief. 3 How high is Mount Everest? 4 Name a mountain that has a greater relative relief than Everest. 5 Which mountain is the tallest in the world when measured from base to summit? 6 Which mountain is the highest in South America? 7 Where is the worlds greatest mountain range found? 8 Which is the greatest land mountain range?
9 Where are nine of the worlds 10 highest mountains? 10 How long is the Andes mountain range?
Skills
11 Draw a pictogram to show the information in 5.3. 12 Use 5.4 to identify the mountain range at each of the following locations: a 30N 90E b 30S 30E c 45N 110W d 46N 08E e 20S 67W. 13 Find the name of a mountain in Africa that lies on the Equator.
Surf
Mountains
107
Plate tectonics
It is now accepted that the Earths crust is broken into pieces called plates and that these plates oat on the molten layer beneath them. Earthquakes, volcanic activity and mountain-building all occur along plate boundaries. The theory of plate tectonics has taken centuries of observation and research to develop. Geographers from many different elds have all had a role to play in advancing our knowledge, starting with a cartographer in the sixteenth century through to modern-day oceanographers.
5.5 Oldoinyo Lengai in the Great Rift Valley, eastern Africa
STRUCTURE OF PLANET EARTH

The Earths structure is shown below. The core is the metallic centre. It is made up of the outer core, which is so hot that the metal is always molten, and the inner core, where the pressure is so great that although the temperature reaches 3700C the metal does not melt.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The idea that the continents have not always been in the same position was rst suggested in 1596 by a Dutch mapmaker Abraham Ortelius. He put forward a theory that the Americas were torn away from Europe and Africa by earthquakes and oods. At that stage there was no evidence other than they seemed to t together due to their shapes. The theory was raised again in 1912 by German meteorologist Alfred Wegener who supported his claims with fossil evidence (see 5.7). He used continental drift to explain the fossil tropical plants found in Antarctica suggesting the continent had moved from nearer the Equator, but he was unable to provide any explanation as to how this movement occurred.
5.7 The location of certain fossil plants and animals on the present-day, widely separated continents would form denite patternsshown by the bands of coloursif the continents were rejoined.
5.6 The Earths structure
Continental crust 1070 km
Oceanic crust 510 km
Aesthenosphere Mantle Outer core Inner core
Lystrosaurus Triassic land reptile AFRICA
INDIA
SOUTH AMERICA ANTARCTICA Cynognathus A Triassic land reptile about 3 m long Mesosaurus Fresh water reptile
Glossopteris Fossils found in all southern continents, show that they were once joined AUSTRALIA
Between the core and the crust is a layer known as the mantle. The asthenosphere is the soft, easily deformed outer layer of the mantle that moves due to convection currents produced by the high temperatures at the Earths core. Scientists believe that it is this layer that generates the forces responsible for plate tectonics.
5.8 Continental drift. A super continent, Pangaea, split up about 225 million years ago into two continents, Laurasia and Gondwanaland. These then split further and the continents drifted into their present-day positions.
Permian225 million years ago
Sea-oor spreading
Exploration in the 1950s provided the explanation for continental drift. Oceanographers found that new crust is formed by magma welling up under the sea oor, forming a mid-ocean ridge (see 5.9), and that the pattern of rocks either side of the ridge is symmetrical. From this they concluded that the sea oor was spreading outwards from the ridge. As the Earth is not growing, it then followed that somewhere on the Earths surface crust was being destroyed. This destruction was found to take place in subduction zones where the oceanic crust descends into deep ocean trenches around the Pacic Ocean rim to be recycled in Earths mantle. The discovery provided the basis for the current theory of plate tectonics that states that Earths major landform features are the result of plate movements, driven by convection currents in the mantle. The way in which the plates move relative to each other determines the nature of those landforms (see 5.9).
E
P A N
A
Tethys Sea
Equator
Triassic200 million years ago
LAURASIA
Equator
Tethys Sea
G
N
O
DW
Jurassic135 million years ago
AN
AL
AN
L A U R A S I A
Equator
PLATE BOUNDARIES
Cretaceous65 million years ago
There are three types of plate boundaries: convergent (plates move toward each other) divergent (plates move away from each other) transform (plates slide past each other). Each plate boundary can be further classied as: oceanic to continental oceanic to oceanic continental to continental.
5.10 Comparison of oceanic and continental crust
Equator
India
Today
NORTH AMERICA
ASIA
AFRICA SOUTH AMERICA
Oceanic crust
Equator
AUSTRALIA
Continental crust Found under continents 1070 km thick Mostly granite Density of 2.8g/cm3 34 billion years old Does not sink into mantle
Continental Continental rift zone crust (young plate boundary)
Found under ocean basins Less than 510 km thick Mostly basalt Density of 3.3g/cm3 Less than 200 million years old Recycled in mantle
ANTARCTICA
5.9 The theory of plate tectonics

Convergent plate boundary Divergent plate boundary
Convergent plate boundary
Strata volcano
Shield volcano Lithosphere Hot spot
Oceanic crust
Asthenosphere
Subducting plate
Mountains
109
5.11 Tectonic plates, major mountain ranges, and zones of volcanoes and earthquakes
ARCTIC OCEAN
EURASIAN PLATE 5 5
Ridge
ATLANTIC OCEAN 2
ari anas
AFRICAN PLATE 3
African Rift System
ARABIAN PLATE SOMALI PLATE
PHILIPPINE PLATE M
Trench
IRANIAN PLATE
PACIFIC OCEAN
COCOS PLATE
CARIBBEAN PLATE
Rid ge
10 PACIFIC PLATE INDIAN OCEAN 7 INDO-AUSTRALIAN PLATE 1
17 SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE
East Pa cific
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Mid Atlantic
18
NAZCA PLATE
dg
Southwest I
a ndi
i nR
uth
7
eas t Ind
3 2
ANTARCTIC PLATE
ian Rid g
e
6
ANTARCTIC PLATE
SOUTHERN OCEAN
2000
4000 km
Destructive plate boundary Constructive plate boundary
Conservative plate boundary Rate of plate movement (cm per year)
Direction of plate movement
MOUNTAIN BUILDING
The relationship between the worlds major mountain ranges and plate boundaries can be seen by comparing 5.4 and 5.11. Most mountain building (orogenesis) takes place when: plates are moving away from each otherdivergent plate boundaries plates are moving towards each otherconvergent plate boundaries.
5.12 The Great Rift Valley in eastern Africa has been created through the rifting (tearing apart) and separation of the African, Arabian and Indian tectonic plates.
EURASIAN PLATE
Gu
lf
ian
Location map
AFRICA
ARABIAN PLATE
Re dS ea
ile
Divergent plates
Divergent boundaries are areas where two plates are moving away from each other, pulling the crust apart. They are marked by large rift valleys where magma forces its way up to the surface through ssures in the crust. The lava erupting along the rift builds mountain ranges on either side of the valley. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, stretching for nearly 10 000 kilometres below the Atlantic Ocean, is part of the worlds longest mountain range. Along the centre of the ridge lies a vast rift valley up to 3 kilometres deep. In eastern Africa the Great Rift Valley is 5000 kilometres long and varies in width from 30 to 100 kilometres (see 5.12).
AFRICAN PLATE (Nubian)

Ol Doinyo Lengai
RN
Gulf
of Ad
en
AFRICAN PLATE (Somalian) Key Plate boundaries Eastern African Rift Zone Active volcano
Lake Victoria
500
1000 km
Mid Atlan tic
JUAN DE FUCA PLATE
NORTH AMERICAN PLATE
e Ridg
So
rs Pe
INDIAN PLATE
Convergent plates
There are three types of convergent plate boundaries, all involving the collision of the earths crustal plates. Where a less dense, mostly granite continental plate meets a younger but denser oceanic plate, the oceanic plate sinks into the mantle at a subduction zone, marked by a deep ocean trench (see 5.13). The descending plate is subjected to enormous heat and pressure and eventually melts. Magma is forced upward under the continental crust forming the backbone of a new volcanic mountain range. This can be seen where the Nazca plate sinks below the South American plate resulting in the Peru Chile trench and the Andes cordillera.
5.13 Oceanic and continental plates converge
Trench Volcanic arc
When two continental plates meet, neither is subducted because the crustal material is less dense than the mantle below. The collision results in the plates buckling and crumpling, creating towering fold mountains. This process is responsible for the formation of the European Alps and the Himalayas, and is described in detail in unit 5.7 on page 126.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Ocean trenches are curved because it is not possible to form a straight depression in the curved surface of the Earth. (Try pushing in the surface of a ping-pong ball with your thumbthe edge of the depression is always curved.)
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is the difference between the Earths inner and outer cores? 2 What is the outer layer of the mantle called? 3 What causes the asthenosphere to move?
Oceanic crust
Lithosphere
Continental crust Lithosphere
4 Which two types of plate make up the Earths crust? 5 Which type of plate has the oldest rocks? 6 When was the idea of the continental drift rst suggested? 7 How did Wegener support his theory of continental drift? 8 What is sea-oor spreading? 9 What are divergent plates?
Asthenosphere Direction of plate movement
5.14 Two oceanic plates converge

Trench Island arc
10 What are the three types of convergent plate boundaries?
Skills
11 Refer to 5.11 and 5.12: a Name three major continental plates.
Oceanic crust Lithosphere Continental crust Lithosphere
b Name three major oceanic plates. c What type of boundary is found between each of these plates: i Pacic and Indo-Australian ii Pacic and North American
Asthenosphere Direction of plate movement
iii African and Indo-Australian? d Where is the fastest plate movement recorded? e In which direction is the Indo-Australian plate moving? f In which direction is the Nazca plate moving? g Approximately how long is the Great Rift Valley? h How many active volcanoes are there in the valley? i j Name the major lake in the valley. In which direction are the Nubian and Somalian plates moving?
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The deepest known point on Earth is at the bottom of the Mariana Trench, a depression in the oor of the western Pacic Ocean, just east of the Mariana Islands.
Where two oceanic plates meet it is the older and denser plate furthest from its origin at the mid-ocean ridgethat will sink (see 5.14). Over millions of years submarine volcanoes are built up until they eventually reach the surface as islands. These islands are found in arcs parallel to a deep ocean trench.
Surf
Mountains
111
Earthquakes and volcanoes

The Ring of Fire is the name given to the almost continuous belt of volcanic activity that circles the Pacic Ocean and is caused by the movement of the Pacic plate relative to other plates. The greatest concentrations of volcanoes as well as 90 per cent of the worlds earthquakes are found within this belt.
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are the shaking of the Earths crust that occurs as a result of plate movements or volcanic activity. The underground centre of the earthquake is the focus and the point on the Earths surface directly above the focus is the epicentre. The seismic wavesshock wavesradiating from these are measured on the Richter scale (see 5.18). The instrument used to measure them is a seismograph.
5.16 The Pacic Ring of Fire 5.15 A street in one of the worst affected areas of the earthquake in Kobe
ASIA Japan
NORTH AMERICA
5.17 Japans volcanoes

RUSSIAN FEDERATION CHINA NORTH KOREA
Hokkaido
AUSTRALIA
SOUTH AMERICA
SOUTH KOREA
Honshu Tokyo Kobe Kyushu

N
2000
4000 km
500 km
Japan, an archipelago within the Ring of Fire, contains 10 per cent of the worlds active volcanoes and is one of the countries most at risk of earthquakes. Threequarters of the land surface is mountainous and the highest mountain, Mount Fuji, is a volcano that has been dormant for 300 years but could still erupt. A disastrous earthquake occurred in 1995 in Kobe on the island of Honshu (see 5.17).
TAIWAN
PHILIPPINES
Key Japanese volcanoes Non-Japanese volcanoes Major city
5.18 The Richter scale is used to measure the size of earthquakes.
6.4 India: 1993 5.7 Assisi: 1997
7.2 Kobe: 1995
8.2 San Francisco: 1906 8.8 Lisbon: 1755
6.9 San Francisco: 1995
7.8 Mexico City: 1995
5
Richter S cale
6
District shaking. Poorly built houses collapse
Normally only detected by instrument
Faint tremor, little damage
Structural damage to chimneys
Major earthquake large concrete buildings destroyed
Ground seen to shake, fissures open up
KOBE EARTHQUAKE
On 17 January 1995 at 5.46 a.m., an earthquake measuring 7.2 on the Richter scale (see 5.18) caused widespread devastation around the city of Kobe. The area lies above a destructive plate margin (see 5.11) where the more dense oceanic Philippine Plate is being subducted under the less dense continental Eurasian plate at a rate of about 10 centimetres per year. The focus of the earthquake was very shallow, only 16 kilometres below the surface and the epicentre on Awaji Island was just 32 kilometres from the city centre. The shaking lasted 20 seconds and during that time the ground moved 50 centimetres horizontally and 1 metre vertically. The primary effects that occurred as a direct result of the earthquake included: 200 000 buildings collapsed 1 kilometre of elevated Hanshin Expressway collapsed 120 of the 150 quays in the port were destroyed 5000 people died. The secondary effects which continued after the earthquake included: 300 000 people made homeless res occurred due to damaged gas pipes and electricity mains trafc chaos occurred due to road and rail damage industries had to close leaving people out of work. It is estimated that the earthquake caused $250 billion damage to infrastructure including roads, railways, water and sewage pipes, phone and communication lines. In January 1999, 134,000 housing units had been constructed but some people were still having to live in temporary accommodation. Earthquakes are not only found within the Pacic Ring of Fire, they occur at all plate boundaries. One of the more recent earthquake disasters happened in Kashmir.
SNAPSHOT 1
5.19 The Kashmir earthquake in 2005 caused widespread destruction
Kashmir earthquake
On 8 October 2005 a 7.6 magnitude earthquake struck the disputed Kashmir mountain region between India and Pakistan. The region frequently experiences earthquakes, as it is where the two tectonic plates that have created the Himalaya mountain range collide. The earthquake caused widespread damage to houses and buildings in both countries leaving as many as 3.5 million people homeless, up to 80 000 dead and 80 000 wounded. The situation was made worse by landslides that were triggered by the earthquake. These blocked the mountain roads making relief efforts slow and dangerous. The approach of winter meant that people were in urgent need of shelter but it was difcult to get emergency supplies, including clothing and tents, to those most in need. The scale of the disaster was huge. Five times as many people were made homeless by this earthquake than by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Fortunately the winter was milder than expected and many of the people walked down from their isolated villages to nd shelter in the temporary camps. By the end of winter the worst of the crisis had passed but the rebuilding will take many years. Mountains
113
VOLCANOES
Volcanoes are caused by great heat and pressure in the Earths mantle. Magmamolten rockis forced upwards through lines of weakness in the crust and emerges through ssures or explodes through a single hole or vent. Once on the surface, magma is known as lava. The composition of the lava determines the shape of a volcano, as shown in the three examples in 5.20. In some places lava is very runny and ows quickly over a large area producing a shield volcano, like Mauna Loa in Hawaii, which is wide with shallow sloping sides. At subduction zones the molten rock is sticky and eruptions are usually explosive. Clouds of steam, ash and pyroclastsrock fragmentsare ejected as well as lava, producing a composite volcano, like Mount Fuji in Japan.
SNAPSHOT 2
Mount Fuji, a composite volcano

Mount Fuji, on the island of Honshu in Japan, is a classic composite volcano. Its symmetrical cone shape is built up of layers of lava, ash and cinders which have erupted from a central vent over three different periods of volcanic activity. It is a dormant volcano, which means that although it has not erupted since 1708 it could still become active in the future.
Ko-Mitake 2400 m 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 Ashitakayama 2300 m
The Ko-Mitake and Ashitakayama volcanoes became inactive about 100 000 years ago.
Metres
About 200 000 years ago
5.20 Three types of volcano
Fissure volcano Basaltic lava gentle slope
Fissure
4000 3000 2000 1000 0
Ko-Mitake
Ko-Fuji 2700 m
Ashitakayama
About 25 000 years ago
The Ko-Fuji (Old Fuji) volcano that forms the base of the current Mount Fuji was active between approximately 100 000 and 10 000 years ago. Activity by the ShinFuji (New Fuji) volcano, which created the mountains current shape, began about 10 000 years ago.
Metres
Ko-Mitake Shin-Fuji 3776 m
Ashitakayama 1550 m
Magma
Metres
4000 3000 2000 1000 0
About 10 000 years ago present
Shield volcano Magma
Vent Basaltic lava gentle slope

35 23'N 138 44'E
2000 1000 0 10 km
Suruga-wan Bay
N
5.21 Contour map of Mount Fuji (left) translates into the side view shown in the photograph (below).
Composite volcano Ash Lava
Vent Magma Branch pipe
DECADE VOLCANOES
The United Nations declared the 1990s as the International Decade of Natural Hazard Reduction. One initiative in this period was the Decade Volcano project. This identied 16 active volcanoes near centres of high population that had a history of explosive eruptions. The aim of the project was to gain a better understanding of these volcanoes and the dangers they present.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Write a paragraph describing the Pacic Ring of Fire. 2 What is an earthquake? 3 What is the difference between the focus and the epicentre of an earthquake? 4 What are seismic waves? 5 How are earthquakes measured? 6 Describe the damage caused by an earthquake measuring 8 on the Richter scale. 7 What was the main cause of the earthquake in a Kobe b Kashmir? 8 Name three types of volcano. 9 What type of volcano is Mount Fuji? 10 Explain what is meant by the term Decade Volcano. 11 List the criteria for and the characteristics of a Decade Volcano.
Criteria for a Decade Volcano

A Decade Volcano must have the following characteristics: represent more than one volcanic hazard, such as lava ows, explosive eruptions and mudslides be active in recent history and to be very likely or certain to erupt again in future be located in a populated area be politically and physically accessible for study have local support for the research work.
SNAPSHOT 3
Application
12 Use Snapshot 1 combined with your own research to write a report of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. 13 You are working for the United Nations and you have been given the task to research one of the Decade Volcanoes. Complete a report describing the risk the volcano presents to the local people. (Refer to Snapshot 3.)
5.22 This house has been destroyed by the pyroclastic ow.
Skills
14 Draw a fully labelled diagram of a composite volcano. 15 Refer to Snapshot 2: a How high was Ko-Mitake 200 000 years ago? b Which volcano had grown over Ko-Mitake by 25 000 years ago? c How old is the new Mount Fuji? d How high was Shin-Fuji 10 000 years ago? e What happened to the height of Ashitakayama during the period shown? 16 Refer to 5.21: a What is the contour interval on the map? b Write the scale of the map in words and as a ratio. c Which direction is Suruga-wan Bay from the summit of Mount Fuji? d How high is the summit of Mount Fuji? e Are the slopes steeper above or below 2000 metres? f How far is it from the summit to the nearest point on Suruga-wan Bay? g How wide is the volcano at 2000 metres?
Mount Unzen, Kyushu, Japan

One of the Decade Volcanoes is Mount Unzen, which was dormant from 1792 until November 1989. From then until 1995 it was almost continually active. For a year there was increasing earthquake activity with the focus points moving up towards the summit. Due to the threat of a violent eruption 12 000 people were moved from their homes. On 3 June 1991 the volcano erupted and a pyroclastic ow spread out 4.5 kilometres from the crater burying houses and killing 43 people, mainly scientists and journalists observing the eruption. From 1991 to 1994 there were about 10 000 small pyroclastic ows. In total, about 2000 houses were destroyed. From 1993 onwards, the activity declined and eruptions came to an end in 1995. Since then, heavy rains have frequently saturated the pyroclastic material producing lahars (a kind of mud ow). Dikes have been constructed in several river valleys to channel lahar ows away from vulnerable areas, and warning systems and evacuation plans have been developed. Lahars can be extremely dangerous, because of their energy and speed. They behave like solidifying concrete when they stop moving.
Surf
Mountains
115
Pyramidal Peak
Glaciation
Arte Bergschrund Cirque glacier Steep back wall of cirque
5.23 The Matterhorn, Switzerland
Mountains are constructed by tectonic forces, but they are shaped by the agents of erosionwind, water and ice. Glacial processes are responsible for many of the distinctive features that are associated with mountain landscapes, such as pyramidal peaks, cirques, artes, hanging valleys and U-shaped valleys.
5.24 Formation of glacial ice
THE SNOWLINE
In high-latitude polar regions and high-altitude mountain regions, the precipitation generally falls as snow during winter due to the low temperatures. In some places the snow does not melt in summer so there is permanent snow cover. The snowline is the level above which there is permanent snow. It varies from sea level at the Poles to around 4800 metres at the Equator. It is above the snowline that glaciers form and begin to carve out distinctive landscapes through glacial processes.
5.25 Cross-section showing formation of a cirque
Snowflake Snow subject to freezing and thawing changes it to granular ice.
Bergschrundlarge crevasse where ice is pulled away from back wall

Nv Glacier ice Pressure of layers of snow and ice above, cause compaction becomes denser. Over many years further compaction leaves only minute air bubbles in ice which then has blue colour.
Frost shattering action loosens rocks Snow Crevasses form where slope becomes steeper
n atio Rot
lm
ove men
t of ice
Ice moves do
wn slo pe
Firn
Debris carried by ice
Abrasion
Lip
5.26 Formation of a cirque, arte and pyramidal peak
5.27 Formation of a U-shaped valley
Start of glaciation
Snow collects in hollows on shady side of the mountain
Before glaciation
Tributary
River meanders around interlocking spurs
During glaciation
Frost shattering
Knife-edge ridge between two cirques (arte) During glaciation
Debris carried by glacier
Valley filled with ice
Ice Cirque
Ice
Ice
After glaciation
Pyramidal peak Arte After glaciation Waterfall Truncated spur
Mountain tarn occupies cirque
Lateral moraine
Ribbon lake
GLACIAL PROCESSES
There are three main erosion processes involved with the formation of glacial landforms in mountain regions. Frost shatteringA type of weathering most active in rocks that contain cracks and in areas where the temperature uctuates around 0C. During the day when it is warmer, water lls the cracks. At night the water freezes and expands, widening the crack. The alternate freezing and thawing eventually causes pieces of rock to shatter from the main body. Where this occurs on steep slopes the shattered material collects as a scree slope. PluckingOccurs when ice sticks to shattered rock and pulls fragments away from the main body as it moves. Frost shattering often provides the loosened material that can be removed in this way. The features produced are usually rough and jagged. AbrasionThe wearing away of rock by the scouring (rubbing) action of the angular debris carried in the ice as it moves. It produces rounded features with deep scratch marks called striations.
FEATURES OF GLACIAL EROSION

In mountain regions snow lasts longest in hollows on the side of the mountain facing away from the Sunthe south side in the Southern Hemisphere and the north side in the Northern Hemisphere. As the snow accumulates it turns to ice and starts to ow downhill gouging out an amphitheatre-shaped feature known as a cirque (see 5.26). When snow accumulation continues for many years the ice owing out of the cirque will extend beyond the snowline and become a glacier. Glaciers follow existing river valleys, straightening, widening and deepening them into a U shape as they slowly erode their way downhill (see 5.27). Their advance is halted when they reach a point where the temperature is high enough to melt the ice. The Andes, European Alps and Himalayas are still being shaped by glaciers. In other mountain regions the results of glacial erosion that took place during the last Ice Age, 10 000 years ago, can be seen in the current landscape. The Lake District in the north of England has all the classic features of glacial scenery (see 5.28).
Mountains
117
SKILLS MASTER
Interpreting contour patterns and topographic maps
Contour lines are used on a map to show the height of the landthe topography. Each contour line joins places of equal height above sea level. Contour lines form the basis of all topographic maps, such as the one opposite. The difference in height between contour lines is known as the contour interval. The closer together contour lines are, the steeper the slope. Landforms on a topographic map can be recognised from their contour patterns. Some of the landforms found in mountain regions have the patterns of contours shown below.
5.28 Red Tarn and Striding Edge in Englands Lake District
Trig point Shows the exact height, Steep slope usually at a summit Contour lines close together 365
Contour patterns
Gentle slope Contour lines wider apart.
a b
500
c
80 0
400
300
25
800 859 700 600 500
200 100
40
20
0
15 0
Mountain
100
River valley e
100 200
Glaciated valley f
70 0
50
10 00
300
Contour interval The difference in height between the contours is 50 metres
Contour line All places on this line are 50 metres above sea level
30
0 20 0 10 0
500
400
Cirque
Spur
Cliffs
Activities
Knowledge
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Name three agents of erosion. What is the snowline? Describe the process of frost shattering. What is a scree slope? Explain the difference between plucking and abrasion. Where does the snow last longest in mountain regions? Describe the processes by which snow turns into glacier ice. Name an area in England where glacial scenery can be found. 11 Is Patterdale Common in AR 3615 on a steep or gentle slope? Is Willie Wife Moor in AR 3312 on a steeper or gentler slope than it? 12 Give the GR or AR for an example of each of the six features in the contour pattern diagrams above. 13 Draw the contour pattern in AR 3314 and label a valley and a spur. 14 Red Tarn in AR 3415 occupies a cirque. What glacial landform is Striding Edge? (See also photograph 5.28.) 15 What glacial landform is Brown Cove in AR 3415? 16 Identify another cirque. 17 What type of peak is Catstye Cam in AR 3415? 18 What evidence is there that Grisedale Valley in AR 3715 has been glaciated? 19 Which direction does Red Tarn Beck ow in AR 3516? 20 The photograph in 5.28 was taken from the memorial at GR 345149. Which direction was the photographer facing?
Skills (Refer to 5.29)

9 What is the highest point in AR 3415? 10 How high is each of the following features? a the summit of Raise in AR 3417 b The Cape in AR 3613 c the stream junction at GR 357168?
5.29 Topographic map for Helvellyn in the English Lake District 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
19
19
18
18
17
17
16
16
15
15
14
14
13
13
12 31
5 0
12 32
1
33
2
34
3
35
4 Kilometres
36
SCALE 1:50 000
37
38
ROADS AND PATHS

Service area S Junction number Unfenced A 470 Primary route under construction Footbridge Main road A 493 Main road under construction Secondary road B 4518 A 855 Bridge Road generally less than 4 m wide Other road B 855 Narrow road Road generally more than 4 m wide 1 Motorway under construction Dual carriageway Primary route under construction M1 Elevated Motorway (dual carriageway)
LAND FEATURES
Electricity transmission line (pylons shown at standard spacing) Pipe line (arrow indicates direction of flow) Buildings Bus or coach station Place of worship with tower with spire, minaret or dome without such additions Chimney or tower
OTHER PUBLIC ACCESS

Other route with public access National/Regional Cycle Network Surfaced cycle route RAILWAYS Track multiple or single Track under construction Light rapid transit system, narrow guage or tramway Bridges, Footbridge Tunnel a Station, (a) principal Light rapid transit system station Level crossing
Heliport Trig pillar Mast Wind pump/wind generator Windmill with or without sails LC
HEIGHTS 50 144
Contours are at 10 metres vertical interval Heights are to the nearest metre above mean sea level Heights shown close to a trig pillar refer to the ground
PUBLIC RIGHTS OF WAY

Footpath Road used as a public path
Mountains
119
Mountain climate
5.30 Temperature inversions create amazing effects.
Mountains are second only to oceans in terms of the inuence they have on climate. Their high altitude accounts for the sub-zero temperatures and snow found at the Equator. Their valleys experience temperature inversions and produce strong local winds, many of which are so well known they have names. In all mountain areas the weather can change quickly.
MOUNTAIN VALLEY WINDS

During the day valley slopes are heated by the Sun and the air above them becomes warm and rises. By early afternoon when it is hottest a strong upslope anabatic wind begins to ow. Later in the evening the valley cools and the air begins to sink back down the valley sides producing a katabatic wind.
ASPECT AND ALTITUDE

The aspect of mountain slopes is a key factor in determining weather conditions. Those facing the Sun are much warmer than those in shadow. Slopes that face moisture-laden winds may receive regular heavy rainfall while the other side of the range could be dry. Air at high altitude has less air above it than air at sea level so there is less air pressure. As a result, rising air expands and cools. The rate at which temperature changes with height is called the lapse rate. The lapse rate varies according to local conditions from around 1C per 100 metres to 1C per 1000 metres.
TEMPERATURE INVERSION
When cold air sinks down into a valley at night the less dense warmer air is pushed upwards so that the temperature is coldest on the valley oor and warmer higher up. This situation is known as a temperature inversion because the normal pattern of temperature decreasing with height has been reversed or inverted. Any moisture in the sinking air cools and condenses producing mist or fog down in the valley. Moisture in the warmer air remains as vapour, leaving the mountain tops clear (see 5.30). In the morning when the valley once again warms up the mist will eventually evaporate.
5.31 Average monthly temperatures for two towns in Ecuador near the Equator one is on the coast and the other is in the Andes 2800 metres above sea level.
Jan Guyaquil C Quito C 26 13
Feb 26 13
Mar 27 13
Apr 27 13
May 26 13
Jun 25 13
Jul 24 12
Aug 24 13
Sep 24 12
Oct 25 13
Nov 25 13
Dec 26 13
5.32 Lifezones in the Rocky Mountains of the United States

Moss gentian Weasel Moss campion Engelmann spruce Aspen spruce Mountain goat Red-tailed hawk Scarlet paintbrush ALPINE
ALONG THE RIVERS
Marmot
Boreal toad 3660 m Mountain alder SUB-ALPINE Cottonwood
Snowshoe hare
Ponderosa Mountain pine mahogony Moose
Grizzly bear Pine squirrel
3050 m Stellars jay MONTANE Mallard duck 2400 m Western bluebird Water birch
Jack rabbit
Larkspur
Pronghorn antelope FOOTHILLS Sagebush
Beaver
Collared lizard Juniper tree Arrowleaf balsam root
1500 m
RAINFALL PATTERNS
When moist air is forced to rise by a mountain barrier the air cools and the moisture condenses, forming clouds. This leads to heavy precipitation (relief rainfall) on the windward side of mountains. On the leeward side the air sinks and warms producing a rain-shadow area where conditions can be so dry that deserts are found. (See page 163 for a diagram of relief rainfall.)
VEGETATION ZONES
One of the main factors that determines the ora (vegetation) and fauna (animals) in an area is the climate. In mountain regions climate is inuenced by both aspect and altitude. As a result mountains have distinct zones each with their own plants and animals, as shown in 5.32. The lifezones depicted are specic to the Rocky Mountains, but similar plant and animal groupings occur in other mountain areas.
Activities
Knowledge
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 What is the aspect of a slope? What is relief rain? What is a rain shadow? Which is the leeward side of a mountain? What is the lapse rate? Describe the difference between anabatic and katabatic winds. How do temperature inversions form? What would you see in a valley if there was a temperature inversion?
a Use months on the horizontal axis and temperature on the vertical axis, and two different coloured lines. b Which place has the higher average monthly temperatures? c Which place is located in the mountains? Explain. 10 Draw a fully labelled diagram to show relief rainfall (see page 163). 11 Challenge: Using the information in the text and the temperature data in 5.31, work out the average lapse rate near the equator in Ecuador.
Application
12 Explain why there are fewer plants and animals at high altitudes than lower down.
Skills
9 Plot the data in 5.31 as two line graphs on the same axes.
Surf
Mountains
121
Mountain tourism
Tourism is the worlds largest industry and mountain tourism makes up nearly 20 per cent of the global total. Tourists provide many opportunities for the economic development of mountain regions but they can also have serious environmental and cultural impacts. As mountain regions become more accessible it is essential that the development of tourism is managed sustainably.
5.33 Trekking is a popular form of mountain tourism but it can lead to land degradation.
SNAPSHOT 1
5.35 Location of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Bulema
CONGO
Buhoma
Location map
Butogota Kanungu Kitahurira
5.34 Mountain gorilla
Bwindi Ruhija Impenetrable National Park
0
N
10 km
Ikumba
Gorillas in Uganda
There are only 630 mountain gorillas left in the word and half of them live in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), a World Heritage site in Uganda. In other areas mountain gorillas are being forced higher up the mountains as population pressure leads to clearing of their forest habitat. Gorilla tourism is proving to be a great success in Uganda. Trekkers are led along forest paths by local guides to watch the gorillas in their natural surroundings. They are only allowed to stay with the gorillas for an hour and have to remain at a distance to avoid passing on disease.
UGANDA
Lake Mutanda Kisoro Kabale
The government, conservationists and the local community are working together on this project and sharing the prots. Bwindis environment has been protected, 50 local people have been employed within the national park and 12 per cent of the prots are being invested in local community projects, such as school buildings and clinics.
SNAPSHOT 2
A CHOSEN LIFESTYLE
Victor Englebert is a photojournalist based in Allentown, Pennsylvania, United States While we were with the Uros, Peruvian and foreign tourists invaded the islets two or three times. They took snapshots, bought embroidered souvenirs, andto the Uros dismay sank repeatedly through the tortora oor. They were back to their motorboat and gone within fteen minutes, as ignorant
5.36 Uros handicraft on display outside traditional reed houses
The Uros of Lake Titicaca

The Uros Islands are 70 islands on Lake Titicaca, 3800 metres high in the Andes mountains on the border between Bolivia and Peru. The Uros people wove the islands from the tortora reeds that grow on the edges of the lake. They are home to several hundred people whose descendants ed there from the Incas in the thirteenth century. The Uros people have intermarried with Ayamaras and Incas but their traditions have continued. They live by hunting water birds and shing, and they cook by building res on piles of stones. The tortora reeds are used not only to build their islands but also their homes, furniture and boats. During the rst half of the twentieth century the Uros culture and traditions could have been lost. Puno Baywhere the islands are situateddried out during a severe drought. The reeds shrivelled up, the sh died and the birds ew away. Many of the young people moved away to nd a better life on the mainland. Once the water level rose again the Uros resumed their former way of life and some of those that left returned. Tourism has provided the people with a new source of income but the tourists that buy their beautiful woven and embroidered handicrafts pose a threat to the culture they have come to photograph.
and arrogant as ever. You know, an informed Frenchman told me during one of those landings, there are no more Uros. The Puno chamber of commerce brought these people here to promote tourism. That same group included a Peruvian farmer who asked a Uro if he and his friends would like to harvest rice in a few months. Though he offered insulting wages, the Uro nodded and asked me to jot down the farmers name and address. When I later handed him the page, he crumpled it and threw it away in disgust. I asked him if he had changed his mind. No, he smiled. I never meant to work for him. I am happy here, and to get my help that man will have to wait for the next drought.
Adapted from www.worldandi.com/public/2001/may/uro5.html, Victor Englebert, A Chosen Lifestyle
Uros (floating) Islands PERU
Location map
5.37 Location of Lake Titicaca and the Uros Islands
Puno
N
Lake Titicaca BOLIVIA
25
50 km
La Paz
Mountains
123
MOUNTAIN EXPOSURE
Mountain communities were once isolatedthe hostile environment kept visitors away and exposure referred to the ill effects of the extreme cold that could lead to hypothermia. Today previously secluded valleys are being exposed to the stampede of mass tourism as people from the lowlands ock to the mountains for clean air, relaxation and adventure.
Grindelwald, Switzerland
The valley of Grindelwald, in the Swiss Alps, has 4000 residents. On busy days in summer and winter, they are host to up to 20 000 tourists from all over the world. Traditionally a farming community, 90 per cent of the economy is now based on tourism. However, 80 per cent of the land is still used for agriculture so overdevelopment has been avoided. In the early nineteenth century Grindelwald was a declining community. Alpine farming was very hard and produced little reward. As in other rural communities there were few opportunities for young people and many poor families left looking for a better life in newly industrialised urban areas both in Switzerland and abroad. In the second half of the nineteenth century, mountaineering became fashionable and Grindelwald became one of the rst tourist centres in the European Alps. Development was rapid. Although it created employment for locals, control was in the hands of outsiders motivated by prot. There was little regard for traditional culture or the environment. Tourism slumped during the two world wars leaving the valley once again to the locals. Although there was a post-war tourist boom after the 1950s, the community recognised that to achieve a balance between traditional farming activities and sustainable tourism, control of development must be kept in the hands of local people. Throughout the Alps there are many examples of overdevelopment leading to negative impacts not only on the environment but also the culture of small, previously rural communities. The race to capture tourist dollars has seen multi-storey apartment blocks, shopping centres and car parks constructed with little regard for sustainability. Grindelwald stands out as an example of what can be achieved when indigenous people keep control of the decision-making process. Alpine farming can exist alongside tourism. It provides the foundation of traditional culture and the well maintained environment that attracts the tourists. Combining the two activities ensures economic success in this mountain region.
SNAPSHOT 3
5.39 Location of Grindelwald

Location map
GERMANY FRANCE
LIECHTENSTEIN
Berne
Lake Geneva s
A l p
SWITZERLAND
AUSTRIA
s Grindelwald A l p
N
ITALY
0 50 100 km
5.38 Traditional (top) and modern parts (bottom) of Grindelwald
While tourism provides the main income, farming traditions have maintained a strong sense of community in Grindelwald. Research conducted by the Institute of Geography at Bern University has found that this combination has enabled Grindelwald to retain its identity while other Swiss resorts have been swamped by the urban culture brought by tourism.
PAPUA NEW GUINEA SAVING KOKODA

Broadcast: 04/04/2006 Reporter: Steve Marshall FINAL STORY SERIES 15 EPISODE 27
SNAPSHOT 4
the Kokoda Trail

5.40 Trekkers on the Kokoda Trail
Synopsis 60 years on from the Second World War, the Kokoda Track, site of arguably the most important battle in Australias history, has become part of our national psyche. Until recently very few visitors made it along the 96 rugged kilometres of the Track. Thats now changing amid the publication of numerous books documenting the Diggers heroicsthat herald Kokoda as the Forgotten Gallipoli. Last year, more than 3000 Australians took up the challenge. A backpacker trafc jam of corporate bonding sessions, footy tours, and high school excursions all walking and payingto relive the legend of the Aussie Diggers. Trekkers are swamping the locals and their often meagre facilities. Impressed by their new-found trekking wealth, village elders are also signing away logging rightsas another new money spinnerdespite warnings from environmentalists. Balanced against the problems are the perceived benets of the Trek. As the industry growsmoney is owing into the rugged region as never beforeproviding valuable jobs and hard currency in an otherwise chaotic PNG economy. The PNG Government response has been to create a bureaucracy: The Kokoda Trek Authoritywhich extracts a large fee from each trekking group.
5.41 Location of the Kokoda Trail

Location Map PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Soloman Sea
Kokoda
Trail
OWEN
Kok o da
STAN LEY
Port Moresby
Coral Sea
RA N
GE
30 km
Activities
Knowledge
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 What is the worlds largest industry? What proportion of tourism is mountain tourism? How many mountain gorillas are left in the world? Where are mountain gorillas found? Outline three benets of gorilla tourism in Uganda. Where are the Uros islands? Describe the traditional culture of the Uros people. How many people live in Grindelwald? How many tourists visit Grindelwald? What is the main source of income in Grindelwald? Where is the Kokoda Trail? How many Australians walked the Kokoda Trail in 2005? 14 Why do you think mountain regions are becoming more accessible to tourists? 15 In a small group brainstorm the reasons people visit mountains. Record your results in concept map format. See page 131 for an example of concept map style. 16 Hold a class debate: Tourism is good for mountains.
Skills
17 Line drawings are different from pictures. They are drawn to show the main features of a landscape. They are black and white, not colour, and the features are clearly labelled. Draw a line drawing of the traditional view of Grindelwald shown in 5.38. Start with the frame and the main outlines, then add details and labels. Remember to print labels neatly and use ruled lines to point to features. Give your drawing a title. (See page 9.)
Application
13 Explain what is meant by the term cultural impacts.
Surf
Mountains
125
Khumbu land of the Sherpa
5.42 Mount Everest and the Khumbu ice fall
In the north-east of Nepal lies the remote Khumbu region, home to a community of 3000 Sherpa people. The rugged terrain of high mountains, glaciers and deep river valleys is a harsh environment, but one to which the Sherpa are well adapted. Their traditional lifestyle of farming and trading continued unchanged for centuries until the conquering of Mount Everest in 1953 opened them to outside inuences.
5.43 The Himalayas are fold mountains originating between 40 and 50 million years ago when the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate. Continental plates are less dense than the mantle and do not sink. They are compressed and folded upwards into towering peaks. The Himalayas are still rising due to plate movements and it is estimated that Everest is growing at a rate of about 2.5 centimetres per year. Mountain range
THE KHUMBU ENVIRONMENT

Tectonic forces are responsible for the high altitude of the Khumbu region, part of the great Himalayan mountain range. The mountains forming the rim of the valley are over 6000 metres above sea level. At the head of the valley lies Mount Everest, the worlds highest mountain at a height of 8850 metres.
5.44 The Khumbu region of Nepal
Location map
CHINA SAGARMATHA NATIONAL PARK

Gokyo
KHUMBU REGION
Dud
Everest Base Camp
Mt Everest 8850 m
NEPAL
Imja Kho la
h Ko si
Bhote Kosi
Continental crust Lithosphere
Thamo
N
Pangboche Tengboche Namche Bazaar
Key Trekking route National Park boundary International border River Town/settlement
Aesthenosphere Direction of plate movement
10 km Rimijung
Dudh Kosi
5.45 Climate graph for Namche Bazaar
5.47 Vegetation zones in the Khumbu region of Nepal

South facing slope
Temperature (C) 40 30 20 10 0 10 J
Precipitation NAMCHE BAZAAR (mm) Altitude 3 600 m Latitude 27 51N, Longitude 86 47E 800 600 Maximum 400 200 0 F M A M J J Months Minimum A S O N D
Bare rock,snow and ice Snow line Sub-nival zone
6000 m Lichens, mosses, dwarf grasses, sedges, alpines and cushion plants 5500 m Grassland, herbs and dwarf shrubs
Upper alpine
Everests pyramidal peak with three imposing faces and three distinct ridges has been carved by glaciers (see 5.26 on page 117). The Khumbu glacier ows down the south side of the mountain over the famous Khumbu ice fall into the valley, extending to an altitude of 4500 metres. Below this level glaciers are replaced by rivers as the main agents of erosion. The Dudh Kosi river and its major tributary the Bhote Kosi ow southwards swollen by meltwater from the glaciers. Their conuence south of Namche Bazaar at an altitude of 3000 metres marks the southern limit of the region. From here the Dudh Kosi ows through a narrow 300-metre deep gorge into the Pharak region. Khumbu lies between latitudes 27N and 28Ncloser to the Equator than Sydney, which is 35Sbut with an altitude varying from 3000 metres to over 7000 metres, the region experiences much more extreme climatic conditions. The surrounding high mountains offer some protection from freezing winds that blow from the north across the Tibetan plateau but temperatures can still reach 20C in winter. During the summer monsoon season from June to September temperatures can rise to 20C. This is also the wet season with precipitation falling as snow on the higher ground. The mountains to the south create a slight rainshadow effect limiting the annual precipitation to around 1000 millimetres. Climate and vegetation vary with altitude, as shown in 5.47.
5.46 Part of the Dudh Kosi valley
Lower alpine Treeline Upper sub-alpine Subalpine
4500 m Scrub juniper, grows at half a centimetre a year. Dwarf rhododendron. 4000 m Birch, rhododendron forest 3600 m Forests of blue pine, fir, hemlock 3000 m
Activities
Knowledge
1 Describe the location of the Khumbu region. 2 Which geographical processes formed the Himalayas? 3 What are the two main agents of erosion in the region? 4 Where are the glaciers found? 5 Which two rivers meet south of Namche Bazaar? 6 Why is Khumbu so much colder than Sydney? 7 When is the wet season in Khumbu?
Skills
8 Refer to 5.45: a What is the latitude and longitude of Namche Bazaar? b What is the maximum monthly temperature in May? c What is the minimum monthly temperature in January? d Which two months receive more than 200 millimetres of precipitation? e Describe the pattern of precipitation. 9 Refer to 5.47: a Name the vegetation zone found between 3000 and 3600 metres. b Where is the sub-nival zone? c Which plants are found in the upper alpine zone? d Where are the scrub juniper and dwarf rhododendron plants found? e What is the height of the treeline?
Mountains
127
Living in the mountain environment Sherpa people

Sherpa people are believed to have migrated to the Khumbu region 500 years ago from Tibet. The name Sherpa, meaning Easterners, reects their origin. In Nepala country that is predominantly Hindi they are a Tibetan-speaking, Buddhist minority with a strong religious connection to the mountains that they regard as sacred.
ADAPTATION TO THE ENVIRONMENT

Sherpa people are highly adapted to their environment. The air at high altitude is much thinner than lower down so each lungful of air contains far less oxygen. The people have special characteristics that enable them to live and work in the mountain environment. They increase their oxygen content by breathing faster. They absorb more nitric oxide, which enlarges the blood vessels and increases blood ow. They are immune to the effects of increased nitric oxide, which normally causes tissue damage.
5.48 These Sherpa women live high in the Khumbu region of the Himalayas mountain range.
TRADITIONAL LIFESTYLE
The traditional farming lifestyle of the Sherpa is highly seasonal and inuences their pattern of settlement. There are three types of village, each with a different agricultural purpose. The main village in which the Sherpa live for about six months of the year is where they grow crops of buckwheat, barley and potatoes on the surrounding terraced hillsides. Lower down on at land alongside the rivers are the gunsa. The Sherpa move here in winter as these riverside settlements are more sheltered and have a milder climate than the higher villages. The at land is used for crops and potatoes that can be harvested earlier than those higher up. After the harvest the yaks are brought here. In summer the Sherpa take their yaks to the high pastures for grazing, just as the Swiss move up to the high alps. This transhumance herding is the only way farmers can support a herd with such limited agricultural land and a short growing season. Temporary houses make up settlements known as yersa.
5.49 Yaks are long-haired oxen that thrive in high altitudes.
The Sherpa economy was for a long time based on trade. They used yaks to carry grain from the lower regions of Nepal over the high mountain passes to Tibet and returned with salt and wool. Freezing winter temperatures and the summer monsoon limited this to two seasons late spring and autumn. The Sherpa use yaks for cloth, meat, milk and transport. Their dung is used as fertiliser, their hair is used for tents, and their hide can be turned into leather for shoes and boots.
CHANGING RELATIONSHIPS IN SHERPA LIFE

In the 1950s, two events took place that changed the Sherpa way of life forever. In 1953 Nepal opened its borders to outsiders and Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay became the rst people to reach the summit of Mount Everest. In 1959 the Chinese occupied Tibet, causing the disruption of trade.
5.50 Sherpa people are Buddhists and each village has a gompa (monastry) where their spiritual leaders, monks and lamas live. A Chorten is a Buddhist spiritual monument.The eyes on each side of this chorten guard the village from evil spirits.
Growth of tourism
Without trade the Sherpa had to nd another way to supplement their income. They were able to do so because of the growth in tourism that followed the ascent of Everest. The Sherpa became renowned mountain guides and porters. Their homes were converted to lodges and tea houses as more and more trekkers came to Khumbu. In only a couple of generations the Sherpa economy has been transformed from subsistence farming and trading to tourism. In 1953 there were no schools or hospitals and no communication technology. Now there are airstrips and a hydro-electric power station. Namche Bazaar is a tourist hub with Internet cafes where children from local schools can access the web.
Increasing Sherpa wealth has led to a change in building style. Tin roofs and glazed windows change the outward appearance while on the inside many houses now have electricity, and some have TV and satellite phones. Property prices have soared as people move into the area to nd employment in the tourist trade. Traditionally houses were only built on the sunny south facing slopes; since 1995 north facing areas have been developed. In Nepal, where many people still live on little more than a dollar a day, Sherpa people are wealthier than most. However there are still many villages away from the main trekking routes that receive little income from tourism. Also, a large percentage of the millions of dollars spent annually by tourists goes to foreign companies that market the treks and mountain equipment.
5.51 Namche Bazaar, altitude 3440 metres
Mountains
129
INTERNET IN THE EVEREST REGION

the dreams for Tsering is to raise the level of education within It may sound odd, but Internet access in Khumbu is faster than the Khumbu by means of the Internet and to also keep those most Internet cafes in Kathmandu.The Linking Everest Internet educated minds in the region to help it grow and prosper. Cafe in Namche Bazaar not only has wireless accessibility but has a high-speed satellite connection. Tsering Gyaltsen, who runs the cafe is really passionate about providing Internet access to schools. He has already set up Internet access in the school of a nearby town, Thame, and hopes to expand in the future. Through a series of bridges and antennas, the satellite-based Internet connection in Namche is relayed to the nearby school where students utilise the connection to learn with a broader curriculum. Twenty-ve per cent of the proceeds from the Namche cafe go to the teaching project. The school project has so far been mainly funded by Tsering and his business. Tsering was educated in India and returned to Namche, where his family is originally from. Many others who have left the Khumbu for 5.52 The Linking Everest Internet Cafe in Namche Bazaar is making higher education have not returned. One of
an important contribution to communication.
Cultural impacts
The pressures of tourism are being felt by many Sherpa families. Men are often absent for long periods on treks, leaving the women to do all the farming work, a situation that is contributing to family break-ups. Young people now educated and with access to the outside worldare moving away leaving an ageing population. Some people fear for the decline of Sherpa culture but others believe that tourism has brought an increased awareness and appreciation of their traditions. Religious festivals have increased in popularity. As modern communication becomes more accessible in Khumbu, its potential to promote Sherpa culture worldwide and encourage more young Sherpas to stay in the region is being recognised.
5.53 Sherpa Tsering Gyalzens grandfather was a porter on the 1953 Everest expedition. Tsering Gyalzens temporary Internet cafe at Everest base camp operates in spring and autumn when hundreds of trekkers and mountaineers visit. Proceeds go to the Sagarmatha Pollution Control Committee, which educates people on the advantages of keeping the mountain clear of garbage and pollution.
RESPONDING TO CHANGE
In 1976 Khumbu became part of the Sagarmatha National Park. Originally the Sherpa were opposed to this, as control of their land was taken over by the government. Today it is recognised that the involvement of local people is essential in environmental management and the Sherpa are increasingly involved in decision-making and community-based development projects.
5.54 Management issues in Sagarmatha National Park
Environmental impacts Deforestation Cutting of juniper scrub for fuel Soil erosion Degradation of walking trails Pollution Garbage
Strategies put in place by national park Made rewood selling illegal Required all trekking groups to use kerosene or gas Opened up nurseries to restore native forests Regulated free felling of timber Made efforts to educate locals and visitors Introduced a waste bond system, money refunded if waste removed
SNAPSHOT
Sacred Site Trail

Sacred Sites Trail is a community initiative launched in 2003 with the nancial support of the Mountain Institute. It is a circular tourism trail created to encourage tourists to visit six lesser-known sacred sites and villages in the Khumbu area. The program hopes to encourage the preservation of local cultural skills and traditions and distribute tourism benets more widely by encouraging tourists to visit villages off the established trekking trails and to stay longer.
Social
Ruralurban migration Keeping families together
Economic
Raising income levels Balancing traditional agriculture with tourism
Cultural
Promoting Sherpa culture Maintaining religion
FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR THE SHERPA COMMUNITY
Political
Land rights Involvement in decision making
Environmental
Reducing erosion Tackling deforestation
Technological
Internet access Gaining technological skills
Activities
Knowledge
1 What does the word Sherpa mean? 2 Where do the Sherpa live? 3 How is a Sherpas body adapted to high altitude? 4 Describe the three types of Sherpa settlement. 5 Why are yaks important to the Sherpa? 6 What did the Sherpa trade with Tibet? 7 When were the two trading seasons? 8 What is a chorten? 9 What two events in the 1950s changed the Sherpa way of life? Describe the changes that have taken place since then. 10 Outline one strategy being used to distribute the benets of tourism.
Skills
11 Draw an annotated diagram of a yak showing what each part of the animal is used for.
Application
12 Copy the mind map on future challenges for the Sherpa community. For each box, add another challenge. 13 Imagine you are a Sherpa from Namche Bazaar who was on the 1953 Everest expedition. Write an account of the changes you have seen in your lifetime. 14 Use a variety of resources to research the work of Sherpa porters. Find out about some of the following: pay, loads they carry, distances they travel, jobs they do at camps, dangers of the job and benets of the job. 15 Hold a class debate: Tourism is benecial to the Sherpa people.
Surf
Mountains
131
Rainforests
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTS
Rainforests are the most biologically diverse ecosystems on our planet. Rainforests are important in maintaining global air quality. They contain more than 50 per cent of the worlds living things and much of the fresh water. The 300 million people who inhabit rainforests are highly adapted to their environment. The impact of human activities on the rainforest is increasing due to population expansion and the overuse of resources, highlighting the need for sustainable management of the rainforest environment.
Geographical tools
Maps
use various types of maps locate features using latitude and longitude, area and grid references identify physical and cultural features on a map measure distances on a map using linear scale identify scale as written, linear or representative fraction use the points of a compass to determine direction identify and interpret relief identify and calculate maximum and minimum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images distinguish between oblique, aerial, groundlevel photographs and satellite imagery collect and interpret electronic information design and create a multimedia presentation
Syllabus outcomes
Photographs

ICT

Definitions
biodiversitythe variety of all living things carbon sinka storage area where carbon is trapped and not released into the atmosphere decomposersorganisms that break down leaves and other organic material into nutrients ecosystema community of organisms interacting with one another and with the environment in which they live epiphytea plant that grows on another plant, using it for support insolationthe amount of solar energy received on the Earths surface leachinga process where water removes nutrients from the top layers of rock or soil and carries them away nomadica lifestyle where people move around an environment to a range of locations, usually related to the seasons and the availability of food poachingthe illegal killing of animals for body parts or meat producersplants that use the Suns energy, water and carbon dioxide to produce food or energy for consumers sustainableusing resources in a way that does not degrade them temperate rainforesta rainforest that grows outside the tropical zone and has high levels of rainfall and humidity, but has lower temperatures tributarya small stream or river that ows into a larger waterway tropical rainforesta rainforest that grows between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer and has an equatorial climate
Rainforest environments
6.1 Cool temperate rainforests have no vines, few epiphytes and many tree ferns.
The rainforest environment covers about 6 per cent of the Earths surface, although this used to be over 14 per cent. Rainforests are one of the worlds most signicant biomes. Covering parts of at least 60 countries, they support an enormous variety of living things including about half of the worlds known plant and animal species.
Montane forestsgrow in mountainous areas between 900 metres and 1800 metres above sea levelwhere the atmosphere is cooler, but still moist and misty. They contain smaller trees, mosses, lichens and ferns and large amounts of leaf litter on the forest oor. The mountainous regions of the Congo contain montane forests. Cloud forestsgrow at higher altitudesabove 1800 metreswhere mist gives way to thick cloud and fog. They are gloomy and dark, and the tree trunks have thick ferns and mosses covering them. Venezuela and Madagascar have cloud forests. Swamp or ooded forestslocated in low-lying areas where they are ooded for all or part of the year. Palm trees and other plants have adapted to having their roots in water and are found in this type of forest. Poorly drained areas near the Amazon River have this type of rainforest.
WHAT ARE RAINFORESTS?

Rainforests are global environments that are characterised by thick vegetation with a canopy structure, humidity and heavy precipitation. They develop in regions where there is high rainfall and good sunlight all year round. The huge variety of plants, including trees, vines, ferns and mosses, supports a vast array of animals, fungi and bacteria in an intricate ecosystem.
Tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforests are named this way because they grow between the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer. They are also known as equatorial rainforests as they are close to the Equator. Tropical rainforests have a hot and wet climate all year. There are different types of tropical rainforest but most do not have clear-cut boundaries and gradually merge with each other. Lowland rainforeststhe most recognised, typical forest of tall trees, dense and luxuriant growth and little leaf litter on the forest oor. These forests experience high levels of rainfall and steamy, oppressive conditions. The forests of Central Africa and the central Amazon are examples of lowland forests (see 6.3 on page 136).
Temperate rainforests
Temperate rainforests grow in cooler regions, either south of the Tropic of Capricorn or north of the Tropic of Cancer. They are characterised by lower temperatures but still have high humidity and rainfall, and dense vegetation (see 6.1).
WHERE ARE RAINFORESTS LOCATED?

Tropical rainforests are located within the tropics, but grow best near the equator. They are found on the continents of South America, Africa, Asia and Australasia. Temperate rainforests are found in Asia, Australasia, North America and South America, as shown in 6.2.
6.2 The spatial distribution of rainforests throughout the world. The largest area of tropical rainforest is the Amazon in South America.
EUROPE ASIA
Pacific temperate rainforest

Tropic of Cancer
NORTH AMERICA
ATLANTIC OCEAN 23 2 N
1
AFRICA Madagascan rainforest
Foja Mountains Sumatran rainforest AUSTRALIA Daintree rainforest
Congo rainforest
N
Tropic of Capricorn
Amazon rainforest
SOUTH AMERICA
23 2 S
1
INDIAN
OCEAN
Key
0 2000 4000 km SOUTHERN OCEAN 180
Original rainforest areas

66 2 S
1
Correct at the Equator Antarctic Circle 0 0
Why are rainforests located in these regions?

Plants need light, heat and moisture in order to grow. These elements must be in abundance to create the right conditions for luxuriant growth. The area between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn receives the most insolationthe greatest intensity of light and heat from the Sun (see unit 2.3 on page 32). This heat drives the hydrological cycle causing high rainfall (see unit 1.4 on page 14).
7 Use an atlas to identify two countries that contain rainforest on each of the following continents: a South America b Africa c Asia. 8 Use the following data to construct a column graph that shows the amount of rainforest in each country.
Country Brazil Area of rainforest (million hectares) 533.0 135.2 105.0 69.8 65.2 60.9 30.6 19.3 11.7
Data sourced from: Mongabay.com
Activities
Knowledge
1 How much of the Earths surface is covered by rainforest? 2 Describe the main features of the rainforest. 3 What are the main differences and similarities between temperate and tropical rainforests? 4 What do you think the difference is between rainforests and other types of forest? 5 Why do rainforests grow in equatorial regions?
Democratic Republic of Congo Indonesia Angola Peru India Papua New Guinea Malaysia Madagascar
Skills
6 Refer to 6.2. Describe and estimate the latitude and longitude of the centre of the following rainforests. Hint: All of the rainforests are found between the latitudes of 0 and 23 north and south. a Amazon rainforest c Sumatran rainforest b Congo rainforest d Daintree rainforest.
Application
9 Explain with the use of a diagram why rainforests grow where they do.
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Rainforests
135
How the Amazon rainforest works
6.3 The Amazon is a tropical lowland rainforest.
The four spheres of the natural environment are the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), lithosphere (land) and biosphere (living things). Geographical processes occur within and between these spheres in all global environments, including the tropical lowland forest of the Amazon Basin. The Amazon rainforest contains onethird of all known species and is thought to be the oldest tropical forest at 100 million years old.
ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES
The atmosphere is the air surrounding the Earth extending to 100 kilometres or more. Specic conditions occur in the lower level of the atmosphereup to about 10 kilometresin the areas where rainforests are located.
Photosynthesis and respiration

Rainforests help to maintain the natural balance of gases in the atmosphere. During daylight hours trees and other plants carry out the process of photosynthesis by taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen needed by all living things. The rainforest acts as a carbon storage area known as a carbon sink.
SIZE AND LOCATION OF THE AMAZON RAINFOREST

The Amazon Basin of South America contains the largest rainforest on Earth. It has nearly one-third of all remaining rainforest in the world and covers an area almost half the size of Australiaabout 5 million square kilometres.
Climate of the Amazon

In tropical regions the Sun shines for approximately the same time and intensity every day, all year round. Due to its latitude sunlight shines on the Amazon at about a 90 angle, resulting in intense solar energy. This means that it is usually warmranging from 20C to 34Cand there is little variation in temperature throughout the year. The Amazon also experiences high rainfall of 210 metres per year. The heat from the Sun also evaporates water from the oceans, rivers and lakes, which further contributes to the moisture held in the atmosphere. The slow release of this moisture affects cloud cover and weather patterns for thousands of kilometres. This makes the Amazon an important natural environment to areas outside the continent.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Studies show that the Amazon absorbs half to one tonne of carbon per hectare per year. One tree in the Amazon can transpire or release 760 litres of water into the atmosphere every year.
The Amazon Basin is the worlds largest drainage basin and covers about 40 per cent of the South American continent. The area drained by the Amazon River and its 1100 tributaries is shown in map 6.4. Most of the rainforest is found in Brazil, but it also covers parts of Ecuador, Venezuela, Colombia and Peru. It is centred on the Equator extending from 10N to 15S.
6.4 The rivers, sources and cities of the Amazon Basin
10 N
40 W
Caribbean Sea
80 W
60 W
VENEZUELA
500
1000 km COLUMBIA
GUIANA HIGHLANDS
Rio N
GUYANA FRENCH SURINAME GUIANA
0
n
Equator
Key Rainforest Cities Border River mountains or highlands
Japur
EQUADOR
egro
Am
azo
Belm
AMAZON Manaus RAINFOREST

Ja
S
A NDE S MOU NT A INS
Ma
de
Iquitos
A N
D
rua
ira
10 S
CENTRAL BRAZILIAN PLATEAU
Location map
NORTH AMERICA
PERU
O U N T A
BRAZIL
N
S
BOLIVIA
SOUTH AMERICA
PACIFIC
PARAGUAY
Tropic o
23 2 S f Capricorn
ATLANTIC OCEAN
OCEAN
CHILE
ARGENTINA
CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL
The Amazon creates its own rainfall. The heat and light from the Sun encourage strong plant growth and cause evaporation and evapotranspiration. Water vapour, created by evaporation, rises and expands because of the warmth. As the air rises through the atmosphere it cools, and the moisture condenses to form cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds. Heavy rainfall occurs when the atmosphere cannot hold any more moisture. This is called convectional rainfall.
6.6 Convectional rainfall
Height (km) 12 Wind
Cumulonimbus cloud
Cold air
Warm air (releasing heat) Insolation Insolation
6
Freezing level
Downdraught (cold, possible hail)
Cool air
Condensation
Evapotranspiration Evaporation
Surface heats
6.5 Cumulonimbus clouds bring convectional rainfall.
0 Heavy rain, thunder and lighting
Ocean
Rainforests
137
6.7 Climate graphs for the city of Iquitos, Peru and Belm, Brazil in the Amazon Basin. Note the high levels of rainfall and the warm, constant temperature.
Amazon River
Temperature (C) 40
IQUITOS Peru
BELEM Brazil
Precipitation (mm) 520 480 440
Conuence (not mixing)
30
400 360
20
320 280
10
240 200
Rio Negro
160 120
10
80 40
20
6.9 The conuence of two rivers where the Rio Negro ows into the Amazon River near Manaus. The Amazon is very silty, while the Rio Negro is dark but clear. The waters of the two rivers do not mix for several kilometres.
Temperature
Precipitation
HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES
Because the Amazon Basin contains 20 per cent of all of the Earths fresh water and the river carries the highest ow of any in the world, hydrologic processes are relatively constant.
Seasons in the Amazon

The climate in the Amazon is warm, humid and wet (see 6.6 and 6.7). There are two basic seasonsthe wet season from December to May and the not-so-wet season from June to November. Some parts of the Amazon are wetter than others, with the western, more mountainous region having the greatest rainfall.
Amazon River
The Amazon ows from west to east, emptying fresh water and enormous amounts of silt from the forest oor and mountains into the Atlantic Ocean at Belm, where the mouth of the river is 400 kilometres wide. The Andes Mountains, Guiana Highlands and Central Brazilian plateau are the rivers sources (see 6.4).
Daily weather
An average day in the Amazon is very warm and humid. Days are typically cloudy and rain usually falls in short but heavy convectional showers in the afternoon, often accompanied by thunderstorms.
Flooding
In the wet season vast amounts of precipitation fall, raising the levels of many rivers, ooding forests and villages. This can be benecial to some plants, which disperse seeds when they are wet. Flooding often occurs between January and May.
6.8 Climatic data for Manaus, Brazil and Sydney, Australia. Manaus is located in the Amazon rainforest. Compared to Sydney it receives a much higher rainfall and has a constant temperature, with a noticeably drier season and a wet season.
Manaus, Brazil Average Rainfall (mm) Temperature C Sydney, Australia Average Rainfall (mm) Temperature C
J 264 26
F 262 26
M 298 26
A 283 26
M 204 26
J 103 26
J 67 27
A 46 27
S 63 27
O 111 27
N 161 27
D 220 27
Year 2082
J 100 22
F 113 22
M 125 21
A 131 18
M 125 16
J 128 13
J 107 12
A 80 13
S 70 15
O 80 18
N 77 19
D 80 21
Year 1216
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
The Amazon Basin was formed more than 200 million years ago. The age of the region means the soils are not naturally fertile, but has also resulted in amazing biodiversity. The forested areas on the oodplain are more fertile, where silt and soil transported from the volcanic Andes Mountains are deposited.
6.11 The leaching of nutrients, minerals and organic material through the soil horizons or layers
Rainfall/moisture High rainfall is either absorbed by plants or rapidly drains through soil.
Lots of vegetation and decomposing materials Leaf litter
Soils
Even though there is thick vegetation in the rainforest, Amazonian soils are poor in nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus. The constant precipitation causes a process called leaching. Heavy rainfall dissolves nutrients in the topsoil and the constant downward movement of water washes them into the lower layers of the soil. If the vegetation is cleared, leaching is accelerated.
6.10 The roots of trees and other plants compete for nutrients in the top layer of the soil. They are very tangled and close to the soil surface.
0 horizon Water washes 1m nutrients from A horizon to B horizon Weathered rock B horizon Soil containing leached materials and weathered rock. A horizon Topsoil of organic matter and nutrients. Best for growth
The decomposing leaf litter and organic material on the surface results in a high concentration of nutrients in the topsoil. If plants do not use these nutrients then they are available to be leached into lower soil layers.
Variable depth
C horizon Bedrock
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name the four spheres of the natural environment. 2 What is the area of the Amazon rainforest? 3 Why is the rainforest so warm, humid and wet? 4 How does the Amazon rainforest affect the climate of other places? 5 Why does it usually rain every day in the rainforest? 6 What are the sources of the Amazon River? Where does it ow into the ocean? 7 Why is the rainforest soil quite infertile? 10 Using the climatic data in 6.8 calculate the following for Manaus and Sydney: a maximum temperature b minimum temperature c total annual rainfall d average annual temperature e rank the months in terms of highest rainfall. 11 Construct a climatic graph for Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and Manaus, Brazil using the data provided.
Application
12 Refer to 6.7 Interpret the climatic graphs for Manaus, Belm and Iquitos. Which city receives the most rainfall and highest temperatures? Why do you think this is?
Skills
8 Using 6.4 estimate the latitude and longitude of: a Manaus b Belm c Iquitos 9 Name some of the Amazon Rivers tributaries shown in map 6.4.
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Average J Rainfall (mm) Temperature C 268 26
Surf
F 254 26
M 323 26
A 301 26
M 267 26
J 208 26
J 163 25
A 166 26
S 190 26
O 231 27
N 249 27
D 258 27
Year 2878
Rainforests
139
Living things of the Amazon

The Amazon rainforest contains communities of the most diverse living things of any environment on Earth. The ora and fauna are dependent on each other for survival and have made adaptations to suit the environment in which they live. The system formed by the interactions of all living things, together with the physical environment in which they live, is called an ecosystem.
OPERATION OF THE AMAZON RAINFOREST ECOSYSTEM

Rainforest ecosystems are intricate. Complex relationships exist between climate, water, soil and living things, and each depends on the others. If one aspect of the ecosystem is changed the others could be thrown out of balance.
6.12 Buttress roots provide support for trees with shallow roots. Drip tip leaves are also visible here.
NUTRIENT CYCLING
Because the soils in the rainforest are poor, the recycling of nutrients is essential for the growth of plants. Fungi and bacteria are called decomposers as they break down leaves that fall to the forest oor. They convert leaves and other organic materials into compounds that plants can use, like nitrogen and phosphorus (see page 15). High rainfall and temperatures ensure that decomposers work quickly. Trees and other plants absorb the recycled nutrients through their roots. Trees can also stock up on nutrients with the help of nitrogen-xing bacteria that are linked to the roots. They can take nitrogen from the air and also from lightning.
Thunderstorms are common in tropical areas
Rainforest Nitrogen is stored in tree until it dies and is recycled by decomposers
Earths atmosphere Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 21%
Lightning Begins a reaction between oxygen and nitrogen making nitrogen oxide which is carried by rain to the roots of trees
Nitrogen fixing bacteria take in nitrogen oxide
6.13 A decomposer called parasol fungus is used by Indigenous people to treat diarrhoea.
6.14 Nutrients like nitrogen are scarce in soils of the rainforest. Nitrogen from the air and from lightning is absorbed by rainfall and is taken up by bacteria in the roots of the trees for use in growth.
6.15 The bromeliad plant is the centre of a rainforest ecosystem in which there are many interactions. It is also known as a microhabitat.
Atmosphere Photosynthesis takes place during daylight hours when carbon dioxide is changed into oxygen for use by living things. Blue Morpho Butterfly Lizard eats the spider and the butterfly. Amazon wood lizard
The amount of precipitation will affect the amount of water in the centre of the bromeliad. Spider eats the butterfly.
Wolf spider
Butterfly drinks the water.
Snake eats the frog and the lizard.
Poison arrow frog Poison arrow frog leaves its tadpoles in the water to protect them from predators.
Water The Bromeliad collects water in a pool in the centre, from rainfall (up to 9 litres).
Forest pit viper
Soil The Bromeliad is an epiphyte anchored to a tree and does not need much soil. It lives on nutrients from leaves that drop in it from above.
Key sunlight precipitation is eaten by
6.16 The layers of the rainforest
Emergents The tallest trees are the emergents, reaching up above the canopy more than 60 metres above the forest floor. Sunlight is plentiful. The animals found here include eagles, monkeys, bats and butterflies.
Canopy This layer forms a roof over the rest of the rainforest and grows at a height of 2545 metres. It stops much of the light reaching the lower layers and protects the soil from erosion. Many animals including snakes, monkeys, tree frogs and sloths are found here.
Understorey The understorey is made up of small trees, vines, ferns and shrubs that do not grow to be very high. There is little sunlight so plants grow larger leaves to reach it. Many indoor plants come from this layer. Jaguars, frogs and many insects live here. Forest floor The forest floor is dark due to all the trees above it and almost no plants grow. The soil is covered in a layer of leaves, seeds, fruits and dead plants that decay quickly like a compost pile. Giant anteaters, invertebrates and micro-organisms live in this layer.
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ANIMALS
Plants, including the leaves, stems, roots, fruit and seeds, become food for animals and are called producers. Animals that eat plants are known as herbivores or primary consumers. In the Amazon these include the common iguana, the three-toed sloth, toucans and thousands of species of insects, birds and mammals.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The worlds smallest mammal, the hognosed bat, is only three centimetres long and lives in the moist forests of Thailand.
6.17 Rafesia, the worlds largest single ower is found in the rainforests of South-east Asia.
Animals that eat the meat or eggs of other animals are known as carnivores, and those that eat insects are insectivores. These animals are known as secondary consumers. In the Amazon, harpy eagles, jaguars, giant anteaters, birds, snakes, monkeys and insects represent secondary consumers.
PLANTS
The climate in the tropics allows for rapid and diverse plant growth. One hectare of the Amazon could contain 750 types of trees and 1500 species of other plants. The types of plants that grow are trees such as ebony and mahogany, vines, lianas, palms and ferns. Epiphytes grow on branches of other plants.
Examples of animal adaptations

Reticulated poison arrow frogs lay eggs on land. Once the eggs hatch adults piggyback the tadpoles on their backs up into the canopy. They nd a bromeliad plant lled with water for each tadpole to mature in, protecting them from predators on the forest oor. Thorn bugs have camouage that helps them to blend into their surroundings. They look like thorns from a distance, but up close the red colour warns predators that they are poisonous. The 6.18 The reticulated shape of the bug is also difcult for poison arrow frog. The birds to swallow. The three-toed sloth of the Amazon is that it is poisonous. slow-moving and lives in the canopy feeding on leaves. In the wet conditions algae, beetles and moths grow on its fur, which also provides the sloth with camouage as it turns slightly green.
Layers of the rainforest

In the Amazon vegetation grows in layers, as shown in 6.16.
Plant adaptations
Rainforest plants have made specic adaptations to their environment. Some trees grow buttress roots above the ground for extra support, so they are less likely to fall over. This is because they have shallow underground roots that only grow in the topsoil where the nutrients are (see 6.12). Drip tip leaves encourage water to easily fall off them due to their shape. This means that plants are less susceptible to fungal or bacterial infection. Strangler gs start as seeds that animals take into the canopy. Seed tendrils grow down and around host trees. When they reach the ground they grow roots, using the hosts for support and nutrients until they are strangled and the gs can stand on their own. Plants in the understory grow larger leaves to reach scarce sunlight.
red colouring indicates
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
One single tree in Peru was found to have 43 species of ant living in it, which is approximately the total number found in all of the British Isles.
6.19 The threetoed sloth
SNAPSHOT
Boxwood fruit is a producer. The parrot is a primary consumer (also known as a herbivore). It cracks the fruit open and drops the seed out.
The nutrients that are recycled by fungi and bacteria can be used by the boxwood again.
The lizard is a secondary consumer and is also known as an insectivore.
The weevil is also a primary consumer. It eats the seed that the parrot dropped. The laughing falcon is a secondary consumer. It is also a predator. is eaten by
The falcon dies and is decomposed by bacteria and fungi.
The venomous coral snake is also a secondary consumer. It is known as a carnivore. The snake eats parrot and lizard eggs.
6.20 A food web of the Amazon rainforest
Amazonian food web

Food webs are a complex series of overlapping food chains. A food chain is simply a sequence of organisms eating. Due to the amazing variety of living things that live thereand therefore the large choice in food for most speciesthe Amazon has some of the worlds most complicated and intricate food webs. The biosphere is dependent on the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. Atmospheric processes cause a part of the year to be much wetter than other months. Young trees grow in this wetter season due to the availability of water. Insects eat more vegetation in the wet season because the new leaves have not yet developed poisonous chemicals. Giant anteaters eat termites in the not-so-wet season because they need the moisture the termites contain.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is an ecosystem? 2 What do decomposers do? Why do they work so quickly? 3 How many plant and tree species could one hectare of the Amazon support? 4 Make a list of all the plant adaptations you can nd in the unit. List the plant and the adaptation it has made. 5 Outline the difference between producers, primary consumers and secondary consumers. 6 What is the worlds largest single ower? Where does it occur naturally? What is interesting about this ower?
Skills
7 From 6.16 construct a line drawing of rainforest layers.
RAINFOREST RECORDS
Some species of bamboo growing in the rainforests have been found to grow up to 91 centimetres per day. The trees of a tropical rainforest are so densely packed that rain falling on the canopy can take 10 minutes to reach the ground. The rainforests of South-east Asia are home to the worlds largest single ower, Rafesia. It measures up to 90 centimetres across and can weigh 11 kilograms. When in ower it releases an extremely foul smell like rotten esh.
Application
8 Write a paragraph explaining how the nitrogen cycle shown in 6.14 recycles nitrogen. 9 Refer to 6.15. Outline the relationships between the four spheres that make up the natural environment in the case of the bromeliad plant. Draw a food chain from the diagram. 10 Explain how the extinction of the coral snake may affect the other organisms in the Amazonian food web in the Snapshot. 11 If a particular species of bamboo can grow 91 centimetres per day, how many days would it take to reach your height?
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Indigenous people of the Amazon

People have been living in the Amazon rainforest for up to 20 000 years. The traditional indigenous groups include the Yanomami and the Kayapo peoples. These communities live in harmony with the natural environment, only taking from it what they need. Recently the rainforest has come under enormous pressure from deforestation, agriculture and growing populations.
THE YANOMAMI
The indigenous Yanomami are spread over a large area of the Amazon rainforest of southern Venezuela and northern Brazil (see 6.23). There are approximately 15 000 people who live traditional lifestyles of shifting cultivation, hunting and gathering. Their traditions are shaped by a belief that nature creates everything and is sacred.
6.21 A Kayapo chieftain wears the traditional botoque through his lower lip. The plate is made out of balsa wood, and is a sign of courage meant to frighten the enemy.
How the environment inuences the Yanomami

Yanomami people live in villages of 40 to 300, deep in the forest. They are grouped in families around a large communal shelter known as a shabono. They hunt and sh over a large area and grow gardens that include crops such as sweet potato, bananas and sugar cane.
6.22 Yanomami gather products from the rainforest and plant small gardens. Several families work and live together in a group.
Warfare is a signicant part of Yanomami life. Conict between villages is usually about capturing women or territory. Women can be traded as wives for goods that a village needs and marriage arrangements are made between villages to keep the peace. Women often have a pre-arranged marriage and marry at a young age. Because they live so deep in the forest, the Yanomami have had very little contact with outsiders until recently. They have been able to retain their culture and identityunlike other indigenous peoples of the Amazon. Traditionally men and women have specic rolesmen are hunters and women are gatherers.
6.23 The Yanomami territory is found on the border between Brazil and Venezuela.
Yanomami Territory VENEZUELA COLUMBIA

n Amazo
ATLANTIC OCEAN
er Ri v
N
ECUADOR BRAZIL PERU

0 1000 km
BOLIVIA PACIFIC OCEAN
Key Yanomami territory river
How the relationship is changing

Since 1987 the Yanomami have lost about 10 per cent of their entire population because of massacres and disease. Gold was discovered on Yanomami territory in the 1980s causing miners to rush to these lands. The noise made by mining scares the animals and makes hunting difcult. Mercury is used to separate gold from rock. This heavy metal pollutes rivers and creeks and poisons animals and humans, particularly children. Brazil is experiencing rapid population growth and widespread poverty. The government is managing this by developing mining, roads and highways in the middle of the Amazon forest. People are encouraged to move out of the overcrowded cities and clear the forest to raise cattle and to grow food. The land is not suited to agriculture and within a few years becomes degraded and infertile. People moving from cities have displaced the Yanomami and exposed them to diseases that they have no immunity against.
SNAPSHOT
The Kayapo
The Kayapo are another indigenous group that live traditionally in the Amazon. They used to be considered very dangerous. They killed timber workers and gold miners who ventured onto their territory. The government tried to get rid of the Kayapo by throwing blankets infected with smallpox out of planes. Now the Kayapo are encouraged to keep hold of their customs and traditions and have the largest area of indigenous reserve in Brazil (see 6.21).
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name two groups of indigenous people who live in the Amazon rainforest. 2 Describe where the Yanomami live. Refer to 6.23. 3 Explain how the Yanomami gather food. 4 Why have the Yanomami been able to retain their culture more than other indigenous groups? 5 What activities threaten the Yanomami way of life? 6 How are the Yanomami responding to changes in their traditions? 7 How did the indigenous Kayapo respond to other people coming into their territory?
Response to these changes

Yanomami culture has changed since the miners arrived. Many now wear western clothing and use metal pots and pans. Some make handicrafts for tourists, while others trade with people in the cities. Yanomami no longer solely rely on the rainforest for food although most still have traditional gardens where they grow fruit and vegetables. On the positive side, the Yanomami territory was demarcated in 1992. The government now recognises 62 per cent of all Yanomami land rights claims and they are trying to limit the gold prospectors in Yanomami territory.
6.24 Tourists cause disruption to the Yanomami lifestyle but also bring some income. This Yanomami man wears Western clothing.
Skills
8 Look at 6.24 and suggest the effects that tourists are having on the environment. Suggest ways that they could change to become more ecologically sustainable. 9 Construct a graph from this table of Amazonian tribes and their populations. Choose an appropriate format.
Tribe Bara Guarani Kayapo Ticuna Yanomami Population 39 000 34 000 7 000 33 000 15 000
Application
10 Look at 6.21. Of the decorations the chief is wearing, which came from the physical environment? 11 Look at 6.22. Describe what the picture is showing. 12 Do you think that the Yanomami have a bright future? Why or why not? Write a paragraph to explain your answer.
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The Congo rainforest and its community
6.25 The Democratic Republic of the Congo became the rst country to create a national park in 1925. This park is Virunga National Park, home to the mountain gorillas, which was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1979 and is now a tourist attraction.
The Congo rainforest is the second largest area of tropical rainforest in the world. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)known as Zaire until 1997has the largest area of rainforest in Africa of 110 million hectares. This environment covers 47 per cent of the nation. The Congo rainforest also covers parts of Central African Repulic, Republic of the Congo, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.
6.26 Location of the Congo rainforest highlighting the Ituri forest
THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

The Congo River is the fth longest river on Earth. The rivers source is near Lake Tanganyika and it crosses the Equator twice. Its ow is the second largest after the Amazon River and it receives rain in the catchment all year round (see 6.27). At the end of its journey the Congo River ows into the Atlantic Ocean. The African forest contains a rich diversity of ora and fauna. The numerous species of plants support spectacular wildlife. Animals of the Congo include white rhinoceros, mountain gorillas, okapis, elephants, chimpanzees and pygmy hippopotamus.
10E CAMEROON EQUATORIAL GUINEA 0 GABON
20E CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
UGANDA Ituri Forest REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

N
KINSHASA Democratic Republic of Congo

4 18' S 15 18' E
RWANDA BURUNDI Lake Tanganyika DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO

0 500 km
Temperature (C) 25
Precipitation (mm) 250
6.27 Climatic graph for Kinshasa, capital of the DRC, located on the Congo River.
20
200
Location map
15
150
AFRICA
ANGOLA Key Congo rainforest border body of water
10
100
50
THE MBUTI COMMUNITY

SNAPSHOT 1
The indigenous Mbuti community live in the Ituri rainforest in the north-east corner of the DRC. They are also known as Pygmies because they have an average height of less than 150 centimetres. This enables them to move around the forest efciently. The Mbuti live in bands of 1570 people and are nomadic, moving several times a year. They are peaceful and avoid conict. They live by hunting and gathering, and trading with the Bantu, a group of people who live in villages and grow crops.
Interaction with the environment

6.28 The okapi is a rare species.
The okapi
Okapis are only found in the DRC rainforest. The okapi is the only relative of the giraffe and is also known as the forest giraffe. It is a very quiet animal that is rarely seen. Its distinctive coat, which is a little like that of a zebra from behind, gives it camouage.
The Mbuti refer to the forest as mother or father, acknowledging it as a source of food and shelter. They only hunt when they need to eat or trade. When hunting the men drape nets made from vines between the trees and women and children ush animals such as antelope towards them. Men also harvest honey. They exchange their catch with the Bantu for vegetables, grains and other goods. The Mbuti change camps regularly. Women carry re and build the shelter for the family as well as gathering fruit and vegetables. They clear the undergrowth and pull young trees from the forest to assemble shelters. The canopy is left intact to protect the families from the Sun and leaves are used on the roof to stop rain falling through.
6.30 Satellite image of part of the Ituri rainforest region of the Congo Basin that is now facing the pressures of development.
SNAPSHOT 2
Initiation
Initiation of Mbuti boys occurs when they are between nine and 12 years old. They wear traditional dress, have daily whippings to toughen them up and must remain silent during the initiation period. They clamp stick skewered leaves in their mouths. The girls show support for the boys by painting their bodies with white clay.
6.29 Mbuti women build the shelter for the family and gather fruits and vegetables from the rainforest.
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THE WAY THE RELATIONSHIP IS CHANGING

The DRC is one of the worlds poorest countries and the population is growing at a rapid rate. The average life expectancy is only 55 years. There is much hunger and 80 per cent of people live in absolute poverty. This results in a high demand for wood for cooking and land for growing food, increasing the pressures on the rainforest (see 6.30 and 6.33). The Congo rainforest has one of the highest rates of deforestation in the world. The Mbuti are losing land and traditions to logging and mining companies. Most Mbuti continue to live a traditional life, but some seek work with logging companies. They hunt food for miners, poach animals or work as farm labourers. War in the countries surrounding the DRC has had a devastating impact on the environment. In 1994 one million refugees from neighbouring Rwanda camped in the Virunga National Park, near 350 gorillas. These refugees cut down 36 million trees for fuel and shelter and killed gorillas and hippopotamuses for meat.
ADDRESSING THE PROBLEMS: INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS AND GOVERNMENTS

The DRC has huge debts to other countries and organisations such as the World Bank, which has placed some pressure on the DRCs unstable government to increase timber exports to pay off some of the countrys debt. DRC law states that if you cut down one tree you should replant two trees. The problem is that no one enforces this law. Wildlife groups such as the World Wildlife Fund and the Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation monitor animals in the national parks. Workers with these organisations are limited in what they can do as they are paid very little and need to work at other jobs to earn extra money.
SNAPSHOT 3
Bushmeat
Trade in bushmeat has increased beyond sustainable levels. Bushmeat, including the esh of monkeys and gorillas, hippopotamuses and chimpanzees, is a delicacy in the cities. In the capital Kinshasa it is possible to purchase the meat of almost any forest animal. In Australian dollars, 1 kilogram of elephant meat costs $1.50, a whole smoked chimpanzee costs up to $30, a whole gorilla is up to $200, a pouched rat is $1 and a monkey $7.50.
6.32 Mbuti lands are under threat from violence and war. Children are sometimes kidnapped from their villages and forced to ght. 6.33 Comparison between Australia and the DRC using demographic indicators
Indicator
6.31 The cost of bushmeat in Kinshasa
Australia
Democratic Republic of the Congo Kinshasa 15% 4.1 0.523 (137th) 55.3 US$771 92% 1.7
250 200 Australian dollars (Au$) 150 100 50 0 Whole pouched rat Whole Whole monkey chimpanzee Species Whole gorilla
Capital city Urban population Fertility rate (average number of children per woman) Human development index and rank in the world Life expectancy (years) GNI per capita (gross national income in US dollars divided by population) Adult literacy rate Population without access to improved water source Doctors per 100 000 people Infant mortality per 1000 live births
Canberra
0.955(3rd) 80.3 US$27 070
100% 0% 249 6
57.3% 61% 5 69
Community response to change

Communities that live in the Ituri rainforest are responding to the problems of deforestation and debt with the help of both government and non-government organisations. Future solutions to the threats that the environment faces could include larger areas for conservation and exploring the idea of ecotourism. Five thousand square kilometres of the Ituri forest has been set aside for the okapi under the Okapi Conservation Project and as a hunting reserve for the Mbuti. As well as okapi it contains elephants and 13 species of monkey. The project provides clean water, education, medicines and food for people living in the forest. Ecotourism is tourism that is not harmful to the environment. If managed correctly, the money raised from tourists visiting the Virunga National Park to watch gorillas could fund all the wages of workers in national parks in the entire DRC.
Activities
Knowledge
1 In what countries is the DRC rainforest found? 2 What is another name for the Mbuti? Why do they have this name? 3 Who are the Bantu? What is their relationship to the Mbuti? 4 Outline the threats to the DRC rainforest. 5 Name three groups of people who have an interest in managing the DRC. 6 What is important about Madagascars fauna? 7 What threat faces the lemurs of Madagascar?
Skills
8 Use an atlas to estimate the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the DRC and Ituri forests. Hint: tropical rainforests are found between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn and Africa is mainly in the Eastern Hemisphere. 9 Refer to 6.30: a What do you think the following features on the satellite image represent? i dark green colour ii white, brown and orange straight lines iii meandering dark green lines b Describe the impact that people have had on the physical environment of the Ituri forest.
SNAPSHOT 4
Application
10 Draw up a table to show the differing roles of Mbuti men and women. 11 Refer to the human development indicators in 6.33. Describe the differences between the two countries. Explain why you think the statistics are like this. 12 Use the information in 6.31 and 6.33. Compare how much money you could be paid for a gorilla with how much money people in DRC receive in income in a year. 13 Copy and complete the following table.
Previous name of the DRC
6.34 This Madagascan rainforest has been logged so that only bare land is left.
Area of rainforest in DRC Percentage of forested area in DRC Fifth longest river on Earth Ocean that the Congo river ows into Two examples of animals in the DRC Ituri forest indigenous community Average life expectancy of people in DRC Example of a wildlife group working in DRC
Disappearing Madagascan rainforest

The large island of Madagascar off the east coast of Africa is unique. It was once mostly covered in rainforest, but logging in the past 50 years has destroyed much of it. Most of Madagascars fauna is endemicit does not occur anywhere else in the world. For example, much of the habitat for lemurs has been destroyed and they are now an endangered species (see page 340).
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The Daintree Australias tropical rainforest
6.35 The Daintree rainforest borders the Coral Sea.
The Daintree rainforest is located along the eastern side of the Great Dividing Range in eastern Queensland between latitudes 15S and 16S and along longitude 145E. Port Douglas and Mossman are towns located near the forest. It is one of the few places in the world where the rainforest meets the ocean.
HUMAN IMPACT ON THE DAINTREE

There have been different groups who have inuenced the Daintrees natural environment. Traditional inhabitantsThe Indigenous Kuku Yalariji people have lived in the Daintree for thousands of years. They used the plant and animal products of the environment in a sustainable way so that no place became degraded. Today Aboriginal tour guides educate tourists about traditional uses and culture in the rainforest. EuropeansFrom the 1880s to the 1980s the Daintree was extensively logged. After an area had been cleared, settlers arrived and cleared the remaining forest for growing sugarcane. Gold and tin were found in the area and miners also moved in, sometimes creating conict with the Kuku Yalariji.
DAINTREES IMPORTANCE
The Daintree is part of the Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage area. It contains amazing biodiversity. It makes up only 0.01 per cent of Australias surface area but contains 36 per cent of Australias mammal species, including the tree kangaroo and the sugar glider. Fifty per cent of Australian bird speciesincluding Australias second largest bird, the cassowaryand 60 per cent of buttery species are also found in the Daintree. Many of these species are endemic (only found here).
6.36 Location of Queenslands Daintree rainforest
15 S
N
146 E
Cooktown
Location map
6.37 An Aboriginal tour guide shows tourists the ora of the Daintree.
Key rainforest city town highway
Daintree rainforest Atherton Tableland

Hw y
Cairns
Mt Bartle Frere
Kenne
100
200 km
dy
Townsville
6.38 The Daintree is the habitat for the cassowary.
ConservationThe Daintree GEOGRAPHY was declared a national park FOCUS in the 1980s. This means that people are not allowed The Cooktown orchid to log or mine the area nor of the Daintree is clear it for agriculture. the state ower of Hunting is also prohibited, Queensland. even for the Kuku Yalariji. In 1983 the Bloomeld Track was bulldozed through the rainforest causing much controversy. The conservationists who were against the track lost this case, but the Daintree was nominated for World Heritage listing by the Australian government, with resistance from the timber industry, in 1987. TourismThousands of tourists visit the Daintree and nearby Great Barrier Reef every year. To cater for increasing numbers of tourists an international airport was built at Cairns in 1984 to take direct ights from overseas, particularly Japan. There are over 100 tour companies operating in the region.
6.39 Boardwalks help to conserve the rainforests by stopping people trampling plants.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What does sustainable mean? 2 Why was the Daintree made a World Heritage site? Who resisted this listing? 3 What affect do you think having an international airport at Cairns would have on the Daintree and its people? 4 Why was an international airport built at Cairns?
LOST WORLD FOUND

A team of international scientists announced this week they had discovered a lost world untouched by humans in the Foja mountains of West Papua. The teams scientic leader, Stephen Richards of the South Australian Museum, said the 300 000 hectare paradise, 15 to 20 days walk from the nearest village, was teeming with new species, giant owers and rare wildlife showing no fear of humans. Britains The Guardian described the wilderness as being as close to the Garden of Eden as is possible. Bruce Beehler of Conservation International to National Geographic magazine: It really was like crossing some sort of time warp into a place that people hadnt been to.
Source: The Weekend Australian, 11 June 2006
Application
5 Read the news item Lost World Found: a Where are the Foja Mountains? b Why do scientists think they are important? c How big is the area of the lost world? d How far was the walk from the nearest village? e Why do you think the wildlife showed no fear of humans? f Why did The Guardian newspaper reporter think it was as close to the garden of Eden as is possible?
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SKILLS MASTER
Topographic mapping
If you need to brush up on your topographic map Skills turn back to unit 1.3 on pages 1013 and unit 5.4 on page 118. Answer the following questions using the topographic map opposite. 1 The latitude and longitude of Port Douglas is: a 1629E, 14528S b 1629S, 14528E c 14528S, 1629E d 14528E, 1629S. 2 The area reference for Trinity Bay is: a AR 3318 b AR 3418 c AR 3319 d AR 1833. 3 Give the area reference for: a Struck Island b Port Douglas c Cape Tribulation. 4 What would you nd at these grid references? a GR 335174 b GR 331194 c GR 334211. 5 Give the grid references for: a Thornton Peak b Lemon Tree lookout mine (near China Camp) c Devils Thumb in AR 3118. 6 Find and list three physical features and three human features of the Daintree environment. Give the grid reference for each. 7 Find any evidence of the following and provide an area reference for each: a tourism b mining c logging. 8 Use the linear scale to measure the straight-line distance between: a the heliport at Cape Tribulation and China Camp b the ferry crossing in AR 3220 to the spot height at Thornton Peak in AR 3221. 9 Measure the distance along the road from the Ferry crossing to Dayman Point in AR 3318. 10 Express the scale of the map as a: a linear scale b ratio c fraction. 11 State the direction of: a China Camp from Duncans Flat b Thornton Peak from Pinnacle (AR 3219) c Black Mountain (AR 3018) from Thornton Peak. 12 State the difference in relief between: a Thornton Peak and Allanton Hill (AR 3220) b Thornton Peak and Thornton Beach. 13 Describe in two or three sentences the location of Daintree township (AR 3220) in relation to its surroundings including the rainforest, the river the ocean and the mountains.
Key to topographic map opposite
SCALE 1:250 000

5 0
sealed unsealed
10
15
20 Kilometres
Principal road; Built-up area; Locality Secondary road; Bridge; Causeway Minor road (access & condition not assured) Vehicle track (access & condition not assured) Dual carriageway; Distance in kilometres Principal road; Route marker; National Gate; Stock grid Embankment, cutting Airport; Landing ground; Heliport Multiple track railway; Station or siding Single track railway; Bridge; Tunnel Powerline (110kV and over) Homestead; Building/s; Ruin Fence; Levee; Open cut mine Mine; Windpump; Yard;
Contour with value; Depression contour Horizontal control point; Spot elevation Sand; Sand ridges Forest, wood or scrubland
25
0
904
23
Pine plantation; Urban recreation parkland

C123
Orchard, plantation or vineyard: Windbreak Watercourse (presence of water not implied) Perennial Lake; Non-perennial lake
Bore or well; Spring; Tank or small dam Subject to inundation; Swamp Saline coastal flat; Wreck, bare or awash Foreshore flat; Lighthouse; Shoal ;Tidal ledge or reef; Mangrove; Rock, bare or awash Breakwater; Wharf; Jetty or pier Reserved area boundary
6.40 Topographic map of part of the Daintree rainforest area of northern Queensland at 1:250 000
30
31
14515'E
32
33
22
22
21
21
1615'S 20
1615'S 20
19
19
18
18
1630'S
1630'S
17 30 31 14515'E 32 33
17
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The future of rainforests
6.41 Logged rainforest timber oats down a river to a factory in the Philippines.
Throughout the world rainforests are being destroyed for the prots they yield, mostly by harvesting resources such as timber and clearing the land for cattle and crops. But it is now estimated that rainforest communities could make 510 times more money harvesting natural products than they can from the current landuses.
Timber
Timber or wood is used by the people living in and near rainforests as fuel for cooking and heating. On a much larger scale, rainforests are logged for their valuable timbers such as mahogany and ebony, which are used to make expensive furniture that is exported around the world. In Australia approximately 13 per cent of timber comes from rainforests, mainly in South-east Asia. In poorer developing and forested countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Brazil the percentage of rainforest timbers used is much higher. Timber productsthat also come from plantationsare used in packaging, making paper and for other general purposes.
THREATS TO RAINFORESTS
The impact of humans on the rainforest environment is substantial and widespread. Many activities contribute to the loss of rainforests, including logging, subsistence and commercial farming, hunting, settlements, mining oil and minerals, hydroelectric projects, pollution, res and even war. These all result in deforestation, which is increasing globally.
6.42 Many plants of the rainforest have medicinal qualities, including the guarana.
Agriculture
Subsistence farmers of the forest clear it by a method called slash and burn. This is the cutting down and burning of vegetation. The ash from the re acts as a fertiliser, adding nutrients to the soil. After 35 years the soil begins to lose fertility and the people move on so the soils can recover. It is a relatively sustainable practice because it is done on a small scale. Commercial farmers use land and forest resources in order to make a prot. They clear rainforests using the same slash and burn techniques, but on a much larger scale than the subsistence farmers. Cash crops such as coffee, cocoa, tea, rubber, bananas and citrus fruits are cultivated. After a few years the nutrients are leached out of the soil and the land becomes less productive. Fertilisers can be used for a few more years before the land becomes useless for crops. Cattle grazers may then move in.
Impact of deforestation
When the vegetation of the rainforest is removed the soil dries out. This allows the heavy rainfall to wash the soil away, which in turn reduces plant regeneration. Topsoil is transported with the water into the river channels. The channels ll up with sediment and therefore cannot carry as much water and ooding is more likely. The Amazon forests alone absorb half to one tonne of carbon per hectare per year. If deforestation occurs there are fewer trees to absorb carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. Carbon is a major component of trees and when they are burned carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. This contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect, which in turn is leading to a warmer global climate (see chapter 10).
6.43 Causes of deforestation
Other activities including war, settlement, mining, hydroelectricity and fire Commercial farming (for profit)
Subsistence farming (not for profit)
Logging
Biodiversity
Rainforests contain great biodiversity, providing habitats for more than half of the worlds known species of plants and animals. Rainforest vegetation protects fragile soils and inuences global climate.
Food
Many foods in our diet originated from rainforest species, for example the avocado, coconut, g, orange, lemon, grapefruit, banana, guava, pineapple, mango, tomato, corn, potato, rice, cocoa, ginger, sugarcane, coffee, vanilla, brazil nuts and cashews.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Why should global citizens protect rainforests? List several reasons for protection. Can you think of any reasons why people shouldnt protect rainforests? 2 Why are rainforest soils more susceptible to erosion when they are cleared?
Skills
WHY RAINFORESTS NEED PROTECTING AND MANAGING
3 Refer to 6.43. What percentage of deforestation is caused by agriculture (both subsistence and commercial)? 4 Use the following data to construct a pie graph:
State of degradation Forever lost Lost by 2100 Percentage (%) 46 17 15 11 11 100
Medicine
Some rainforest species become important ingredients for modern medicines. For example, guava is used to give energy and quinine to treat malaria. Over 2000 rainforest plants have been identied as having cancerghting properties. New drugs for HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, arthritis and Alzheimers disease may benet from rainforest plants, and around 100 pharmaceutical companies are researching indigenous plant knowledge.
Indigenous heritage
Indigenous rainforest groups hold important knowledge of the environment and its management. Traditional practices are generally sustainable. There is growing recognition that Indigenous people are the best custodians of the rainforest. In the past indigenous rights were often disregarded in the interests of economic growth but there is now an increasing recognition of their claims.
Lost in 10 years Degraded forest Pristine protected forest Total
5 Look through all the photographs in this chapter and write down the page number of an example of each of the following: a ground-level photograph b oblique aerial photograph c satellite image.
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Deserts
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTS
Deserts are stark but spectacular environments, portrayed in books and motion pictures as places of adventure and mystery. They have very little precipitation and high levels of evaporation, leading to scattered vegetation and highly adapted ora and fauna. Almost one third of Earths land surface is classied as arid or semi-arid desert. This global environment is located on every continent except Europe. Geographers study the geographical processes in desert environments and the adaptations people have made to live in them.
Geographical tools
Maps
use various types of maps locate features using latitude and longitude, area and grid references identify physical and cultural features on a map measure distances on a map using linear scale use the points of the compass to determine direction identify and interpret relief construct a sketch map identify and calculate maximum and minimum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images distinguish between oblique, aerial, groundlevel photographs and satellite imagery collect and interpret electronic information design and create a multimedia presentation
Syllabus outcomes
Photographs

ICT

Definitions
aeolianprocesses to do with the wind arableland that is capable of growing crops ariddry, parched climate or land atmospheric pressurethe weight of the air on the Earths surface deserticationthe spread of desert lands and land degradation across more arable land ecosystema community of organisms interacting with one another and with the environment in which they live evaporationthe process by which water turns from liquid to vapour nomadica lifestyle where people move around an environment to a range of locations, usually related to the seasons and the availability of food oasisan area in the desert where groundwater is close to the surface and plants can grow playaa at basin in the desert that is covered in water every so often salinisationthe process by which soil and water become salty due to salts moving in soils semi-aridthe transition zone between desert and grassland that receives an average 250500 millimetres of rain per year subsistencecrops or food grown to satisfy a community and not for sale subtropicalclimates close to the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn but not between them sustainableusing resources in a way that does not degrade them wadia stream or river course in a valley of a desert xerophytea plant adapted to living in the desert or in drought
World deserts and their people

Deserts cover about 30 per cent of Earths land surface and their area is increasing. They cover parts of at least 40 countries. All deserts have low rainfall but they are not all the same in appearancethere are different types of deserts. People have always lived in the desert environment and there are communities associated with specic desert locations.
WHAT ARE DESERTS?

Deserts are environments that receive very low rainfall. Deserts can be hot or cold, but they are always dry. They support sparse and specialised vegetation and limited populations of animals and people. A desert environment can be classied as: extremely aridwhere there might be no precipitation for years, for example the Atacama Desert of Chile, South America aridwhere there is less than 250 millimetres of rain per year, for example the Sahara of northern Africa semi-aridwhere there is between 250 and 500 millimetres of rain annually and usually in a distinct wet season, for example the Tanami Desert in the Northern Territory, Australia.
7.1 A Berber woman of the Sahara
TYPES OF DESERTS
There are six main types of deserts, as summarised in the table below.
7.3 Main types of desert environment
WHERE ARE DESERTS LOCATED?

The world map in 7.4 shows the global distribution of deserts. Deserts are not restricted by latitude, longitude or height above sea level, but in general the typical hot, dry deserts are located between 20 and 30N and between 20 and 30S due to global patterns of air circulation.
7.2 Deserts receive little rainfall and therefore vegetation is sparse.
Name Hot, dry desert or trade wind desert Mid-latitude or semiarid desert Rainshadow desert
Location Close to or between 20 and 30N and 20 and 30S Between 30 and 50 from the Equator On the leeward side of tall mountains
Examples Sahara, Simpson, Great Victoria, Kalahari, Rub al-Khali Sonoran, Gobi, Negev, Sinai, Patagonian, Kara Kum Peruvian, Taklimakan
Coastal desert
Located close to seas Atacama, Namib, Great Sandy or oceans with cold currents Near the Tropics of Capricorn or Cancer Polar lands Thar, Rajasthan, Tanami Antarctica, Northern Siberia
Monsoon desert (wet season in summer) Polar desert
7.4 The global distribution of desert environments
Kara Kum Syrian Negev

1 23 2N
Sahara Desert Libyan Desert
Gobi Desert Taklimakan Thar Desert Rub al-Khali Nubian Desert Great Sandy Desert
INDIAN OCEAN
ATLANTIC OCEAN
232S
Namib Desert Kalahari Desert

662S
1
Chihuahuan Desert Great Basin Sonoran Desert Mojave Peruvian Desert PACIFIC OCEAN Desert SOUTH AMERICA Tanami Desert Atacama Desert Simpson Desert Sturt Stony Desert
N
Tropic of Cancer Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
Gibson Desert Great Victoria Desert
Patagonian Desert
SOUTHERN OCEAN
Antarctica Key Hot dry desert Mid-latitude desert Rainshadow desert Coastal desert Monsoon desert Polar desert Cold Ocean 0 currents
2000
Antarctic Circle
4000 km
7.5 Deserts (excluding polar lands), their people and area
Rank Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Sahara Gobi Patagonia Rub al-Khali Kalahari Chihuahuan Great Victoria Kara Kum Taklamakan Great Sandy Tanami Gibson Atacama Mojave Namib
Location North Africa
Communities of people Taureg, Berber, Nubian
Area
( 1000 km2)
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is the denition of a desert? 2 How much of Earths land surface is covered by desert? 3 Where are typical hot, dry deserts generally found? 4 Name the six main types of deserts. 5 What is the largest desert in the world? Where is it located and what communities of people live there?
9065 1295 673 650 582 455 349 348 272 267 184 156 140 65 34
Mongolia and Mongol China Argentina Saudi Arabia Southern Africa Mapuche Bedouin, Qashquai !Kung, San
Skills
6 Use an atlas and 7.3 to name 10 countries that contain deserts. 7 Refer to 7.4. Draw a column graph to show the area of the six largest deserts.
United States; Huichol Mexico Australia Mandjindja
Application
8 Refer to 7.3. Describe with reference to the map the location of: a hot, dry deserts b mid-latitude deserts c polar deserts d rainshadow deserts. 9 Refer to 7.4. Write down your observations of the relationship between cold ocean currents and the location of deserts. 10 Describe the appearance of the Berber woman in 7.1, including clothing and headwear. Explain how these and other personal objects could help survival in the desert environment.
Turkmenistan Turkmen China Australia Australia Australia Chile Unites States Namibia Khumpa Kokatja Warlpiri Mardu Atacamenos Navajo, Apache, Paiute Himba
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Processes in the desert atmosphere

The atmosphere is the air surrounding the Earth extending up about 100 kilometres in the upper layer. Processes in the atmosphere can be important in determining the location of different types of environments. Specic atmospheric conditions occur in the areas where deserts are located.
WHAT PROCESSES CAUSE HOT, DRY DESERTS?

The circulation of air between the hot Equator and the cold Poles creates areas of different atmospheric pressure known as pressure belts. Low-pressure belts are found near the Equator where the air is warmed by the sun, forcing it to rise. The air cools and starts sinking as it moves towards the Poles. When the air reaches the subtropical latitudes of about 2530N and 2530S it sinks, causing high air pressure on Earths surface. The sinking air is dry because the moisture has already been released over the tropical rainforests at the Equator. High-pressure systems bring ne, calm and sunny conditions and very little rainfall the typical atmospheric conditions in deserts.
7.6 In summer, dust and sand from the Saharan and Arabian deserts form dust storms over the Red Sea.
7.7 The circulation of air around the globe creates areas of high pressure near the Tropics, bringing ne, stable conditions and little rainfall.
Cooler air from poles Dry Clouds form and drop moisture near the equator (keeps temperature moderate). L H H Tropic of Cancer 1 23 2 N
In the upper atmosphere warm, Most intense solar radiation dry air moves towards the poles cooling as it goes. Cooler air from poles Dry
Cooler air sinks creating high air pressure around 20N 30N. H
Warm air rises creating low pressure at Earths surface . at the equator. L L L L H Tropic of Capricorn 1 23 2 S H H
Warm humid wet weather

Equator 0
Cooler air sinks creating high air pressure around 20S 30S.
Fine sunny conditions, low humidity
Fine sunny conditions, low humidity
DESERT CLIMATE
The hottest and driest places on Earth are located in the desert environment. Winds and dust storms are also atmospheric processes that are characteristics of deserts.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What type of weather is associated with high pressure? 2 Why are hot, dry deserts located in the subtropical regions between 2030N and 2030S? 3 Why are the winds over deserts dry? 4 Why are there large variations in temperature in deserts?
Temperature
The air temperature at the surface in hot deserts can reach over 50C in the daytime. There are large variations in temperature due to the lack of plants, cloud cover and moisture, which would normally trap heat near the surface. The temperature can drop 30C in a few hours.
7.8 The graph shows day and night temperatures for desert regions compared to a hot summer day and a cold winter day. Hottest temperatures are experienced during the day, while the coldest temperatures are usually experienced at night.
Skills
5 Construct climatic graphs from the following data:
Timbuktu, Mali, 16N 3W J C F M A M J J A S O N D
60 50 40 Hot summer day 30 20 Sahara Great Sandy Cold winter day 10 Mojave Atacama 0 10 20 30 Temperature in C(Celsius) Gobi
20 23 26 30 33 33 32 30 30 29 25 21 1 4 19 62 79 33 3 0 0
mm 0.1 0.2 0.2
Arica, Chile, 18S 70W J C mm F M A M J J A S O N D
22 22 21 19 18 16 16 16 16 17 19 21 0 0 0 0 0 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0 0 0
Precipitation
Deserts are dened by their lack of precipitation. The desert environment has less than 500 millimetres of rain in a year. Extremely arid places can go for 12 months or more without precipitation. When rain does occur it is usually a torrential downpour. (See unit 7.3.)
6 Use the information in the tables above and the climatic data for Sydney on page 138. Calculate the following for each of Timbuktu, Arica and Sydney: a maximum temperature b minimum temperature c total annual rainfall d average annual temperature. 7 For each place above rank the months from highest to lowest rainfall with 1 being highest and 12 lowest. 8 Refer to 7.6 and an atlas: a What are the countries that surround the Red Sea? b What deserts are found in this region? c How can you tell there is a dust storm in this image?
Winds shape the desert

Wind is the movement of air that is caused by the uneven heating of the Earths surface. Generally winds will blow from areas of high air pressure towards areas of low air pressure until the two areas have the same air pressure. Deserts that occur in subtropical regions experience high air pressure and are quite windy. Winds in the subtropical region are highly variable. In one day they can range from a gentle breeze to violent gusts of up to 300 kilometres per hour. The winds are mostly dry because they travel over thousands of kilometres of land, cold oceans or high mountain ranges. Aeolian processes are the action of winds on landforms. (See unit 7.3.) Dust and sand are moved by wind in the direction of the prevailing wind. Silt-sized particles can be carried as dust suspended in the air and look like a haze above the surface of the ground. When deposited these small particles are known as loess.
Application
9 Using the climatic graphs you constructed in activity 5 suggest reasons for the differences in precipitation and temperature. 10 Refer to 7.7 then write a paragraph explaining the weather and pressure patterns experienced in deserts. 11 Use 7.8 to describe the difference in temperatures between the Gobi, Sahara and Australian deserts. Suggest reasons for this.
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Processes in the hydrosphere and lithosphere

The hydrosphere is all the water on Earth and the lithosphere describes the solid outer shell of Earth including the crust and part of the mantle. Processes in the hydrosphere and lithospherealong with those in the atmosphere and biosphereshape and transform environments, including deserts. The characteristics of the hydrosphere and lithosphere are quite distinctive in deserts.
7.9 Deserts are large areas of very low rainfall and are sometimes covered by sand dunes.
THE DESERT HYDROSPHERE

Deserts are places that experience very low levels of precipitation but the rain that does fall often occurs in storms. There are also other features of the hydrosphere that are particular to the desert environment.
7.10 Features of the desert landscape
9 Wadi 8 Badlands
Playa lake 5 Butte 7 Pedestal rock Dust storm
2 Longitudinal dune
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The fastest land speed achieved in a motor vehicle occurred in the Black Rock Desert in Nevada in the United States. The land speed record set was 1228 kilometres per hour.
4 Mesa
6 Arch Oasis
1 Barchan dune 3 Star dune
Storms and ash ooding

Storms can drop a lot of water very quickly, so there is very little time for it to inltrate into the ground. The water runs off immediately and stream channels that are normally GEOGRAPHY dry can ood suddenly. The water FOCUS drains so quickly and violently More people drown in that it carries boulders and stones deserts than die of thirst! downstream, sometimes for several hundred kilometres.
Aquifers
Groundwater ows under many deserts in layers of rock known as aquifers. Water enters the aquifer in areas of higher rainfall and can ow underground for thousands of kilometres. In places this water ows close to the surface forming an oasis as shown in 7.11. Australia has the largest natural underground storage of waterthe Great Artesian Basinowing under its deserts.
Rivers
Evaporation in deserts is high and rivers do not ow often, but when they do they can carry large amounts of sediment. Some rivers, such as the Nile in Egypt, have enough water to maintain the ow through the desert, and deposit sediment in the ocean. In hot deserts where rivers dry up, they leave behind a wide, attened hard river bed known as a wadi.
7.12 Relief rainfall can be rare in some deserts due to the rainshadow effect and cold ocean currents.
Windward side Warm, moist wind High rates of Warmer evaporation ocean Rainfall
Clouds cannot rise over mountain
Leeward side
Dry air Desert
Desert lakes
Lakes form in deserts if there is enough rainfall, groundwater ow (water owing under the ground) or melting snow. They are generally shallow, temporary and salty. When they dry up they leave a at salt crust or hardpan known as a playa. Examples are Lake Eyre in Australia and Utahs Great Salt Lake, which make good runways and tracks for racing.
Prevailing wind Very little evaporation Cold ocean current
Mountain range
Dry air therefore no rain
Desert
Rainshadow (no rain makes it over the mountain)
Sand dunes
7.11 In some places the groundwater in aquifers ows close to the surface and creates a small damp area known as an oasis.
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163
THE DESERT LITHOSPHERE

There are also features of the desert lithosphere that are distinctive.
Rocks are blasted with loose sand particles, causing abrasion. Wind also deposits sand, forming features such as sand sheets, ripples and dunes. Desert landforms are shaped by wind. For example, Sturts Stony Desert in Australia continues to be formed by wind removing ner particles and leaving behind small rocks. Abrasion creates distinctive shapes in rocks. Windsculpted landforms known as yardangs can be kilometres long and tens of metres high.
7.14 Types of desert landforms
Sand dunes
Many people believe that deserts are made up entirely of sand. In fact sand only covers about 20 per cent of deserts. Sand landforms include dunes, ripples or at sand sheets. Dunes are not static, but travel in the direction of the prevailing wind. Some of the worlds fastest moving dunes are in the Western Desert in Egypt, travelling up to 100 metres in one year. Dunes have gentle upwind slopes and steep downwind slopes known as slip faces. There are several types of sand dune formations that depend on wind direction, as listed in 7.13.
7.13 Main types of desert sand dune
Name of Number in Process of landform diagram 7.10 formation Mesa Butte Arch Pedestal rocks Badlands 4 5 6 7 8 Water erosion Abrasion Abrasion by sand blasting Abrasion by sand blasting Erosion of hills and mountains
Description Flat topped hills eroded out of desert rocks Columns of rock worn away by desert sand Rock arches Rocks which have a mushroom structure Landscape of dry gorges and ridges
Type of dune Barchan/ crescent Longitudinal
Number in Wind diagram 7.10 direction 1 2 Winds blow in one direction Winds generally come from 2 directions Winds come from many directions
Description These are the most common dune Linear dunes can be up to 160 kilometres long and form sets of parallel ridges Three or more arms radiate from a high centre in a star dune
Wadi
Star
Flat plain-like area Sediment between eroded deposit from river or stream landscapes
Soils Stony plains

Fifty per cent of deserts are plainsat landwhere ne particles and sand have been removed, and gravels and pebbles are left behind. Gibber plains are stony deserts that form on clay soils where the soil expands when it rains and shrinks when dry, pushing rocks to the surface. The clay is hard and compact so little vegetation grows on the plain. One of the best examples of a stony plain is found in the Syrian Desert of Iraq. Soils in deserts are generally high in minerals, but low in organic matter and nutrients. Many soils have distinct salt layers including sodium chloride. Very little grows in desert soils because there are no clouds or shade to protect the ground surface. The soil surface can get very hotup to 75C.
DESERT RECORDS
The largest desert on Earth is the Sahara, which would cover the equivalent of almost the entire area of Australia. Rub al-Khali desert in Saudi Arabia contains the largest area of continuous sand in the world. The Atacama is the driest desert in the world averaging only 0.8 millimetres of rainfall in a year. A little extra moisture comes from the regular morning fog that rolls in from the sea, where it forms as warm air and is cooled by a cold ocean current. Sand dunes can reach heights of 300 metres. Dust from the Sahara has been carried as far away as Germany and the United Kingdom.
Rock formations
Thirty per cent of desert lands are made of exposed rock, soil and river deposits such as alluvial fans and playas. Over thousands of years water and wind have carved the desert landscape. Soft layers of rock wear away more quickly than hard layers making strange and unusual shapes, such as the Badlands of Death Valley, United States.
Desert landforms
Aeolian processes are the action of winds on the landforms. Winds erode, transport and deposit materials. Winds remove loose and ne-grained particles of soil and sand, and wear down land surfaces with a grinding action.
Activities
Knowledge
1 How does rain generally fall in deserts? 2 Why does most of the water run off quickly? 3 What is a wadi? 4 How does an oasis form? 5 What percentage of a desert is made up of sand? 6 Explain how stony or gibber plains are formed. 7 Explain why very little vegetation grows in desert soils. 8 What is the driest desert in the world and how low is its average precipitation in parts? 9 How high can some sand dunes reach? 10 Explain why a desert area in Arizona got its name of Painted Desert. What factors contribute to the landscape colour? 11 Name two indigenous groups of the Painted Desert and one of their activities that attracts tourists.
Skills
12 Draw a line drawing of the oasis in 7.11. 13 Draw a pie graph showing the proportion of desert landforms made up of sand, stony plain and rocky landform. Hint: use the information in The desert lithosphere section.
7.15 An indigenous Navajo displaying handicrafts in front of one of the spectacular desert rock formations that have been shaped by wind and water. The craft colours reect the colours of the Painted Desert, Arizona.
Application
14 Refer to 7.9 and 7.10 to explain why there is very little rainfall in coastal, rainshadow and hot, dry deserts. 15 Draw up a table on a poster using the column headings listed below. List each of the nine types of desert landforms that are shown in 7.13 and 7.14. In the illustration column draw a diagram of the landform by referring to the features in 7.10. The rst one has been done for you. 16 Use an atlas to locate the Painted Desert region. Draw a sketch map of its area in relation to the state of Arizona, two other US states and the Colorado River.
Landform Barchan dune Description of landform Crescent-shaped dune. The most common type Illustration
The Painted Desert, Arizona

The Painted Desert stretches across most of the northern part of the state of Arizona in the United States, with its western end lying close to the Grand Canyon. It consists of bright red and layered rocks, hardened sand dunes and hills that famously turn into shades of purple, blue and red at sunset and sunrisehence its name. Landforms include dunes, badlands, mesas and buttes and there is a large variety of desert ora and fauna including the rattlesnake, coyote and saltbush. The desert is continually changing as the actions of water and wind cause erosion. The outstanding colours and layered rocks come from mud, sandstone and volcanic ash. Decaying plant and animal matter from 220 million years ago when a conifer forest covered the area, as well as minerals, also cause the bright colours. The Navajo and Hopi people have lived in the region of the Painted Desert for at least 1000 years. Today the Navajo people use the red clay of the desert to make handmade pottery to sell to tourists. Coal and petroleum is also mined.
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Processes in the desert biosphere

The availability of water (hydrosphere), extreme temperatures (atmosphere) and the type of soil (lithosphere) combine to determine the types of ora and fauna (biosphere) that live in deserts. They all interact with each other to form the desert ecosystem.
7.16 The desert scorpion eats insects in the desert and in turn becomes food for mammals, birds and reptiles.
PLANTS
Some plants do manage to grow in deserts, though they are generally small and scattered. Desert ora needs to be able to survive long periods of time without rain. Plants have made adaptations to tolerate and cope with little or no moisture and extreme temperatures, as summarised in the table below. Drought-resistant plants are known as xerophytes.
7.17 Many plants have made adaptations to live in the desert.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
latitudes. This The latitudes of 30S and 30N are known as the horse little rainfall. is there and le variab and is because the winds are weak had to often ago years 200 about Sailors on wind-powered ships es. latitud these at water rve throw their horses overboard to conse
Name Saguaro cactus
Desert Sonoran
Photo
Adaptations Spikes protect the cactus from animals Shallow widespread root system collects water over great distances Fleshy stem stores water No leaves, preventing water lossthe chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis is in the stem Body shape expands when it rains
Sturts Desert Pea
Great Victoria
Survives in the form of seeds which grow when there is rain Only survives a few weeks, during which time it owers, produces seeds and dies Red owers for rapid pollination by insects
Inara melon
Namib
Seeds only germinate when the Namib receives rain Sends roots several metres down to the water table Branches are green and photosynthesise, replacing the role of leaves and reducing water loss to evaporation
INSECTS
Thousands of species of insects live in deserts. They feed on plants and other insects, and pollinate owers after wet seasons to help them reproduce. They provide food for spiders, scorpions, toads, lizards and small mammals. Some examples of desert insects are ants, termites and scorpions. Some insects have symbiotic relationships where one depends on the other, and vice versa. For example, the yucca moth is very important to the yucca plant because it helps pollinate it, and the yucca plant is the only place the moth will lay its eggs. Other insects have made adaptations to deserts, including moths that can go without food for a long time.
ANIMALS
There are very few large mammals that live in deserts because most are not capable of storing enough water and withstanding heat. Deserts provide little shelter from the sun and little food to eat. Small vertebrates such as reptiles and mice, and other highly adapted fauna, dominate in the desert ecosystem. Most desert animals are small and nocturnal, which minimises moisture loss and heat gain. Many live in burrows and cracks throughout the day, and come out at night to hunt. Others hibernate or become dormant during the driest times. Some examples are given in 7.18.
7.18 Many animals have made specic adaptations to the desert environments in which they live.
Name Bactrian (double-humped) camel
Desert Gobi
Photo
Adaptations Fat, padded feet to prevent sinking into the sand Very little sweat and moisture loss Stores body fat in its humps, which it can live off for up to six months Nostrils and ears can be shut against the sand Eyelashes give protection from the sun, sand and dust Woolly coat to keep warm on cold winter nights
Spadefoot toad
Sonoran
Digs a hole when it is dry and covers itself Stays in the burrow until the next rain When it rains it breeds quickly and lays eggs Eggs hatch quickly, become tadpoles and toads before the waters dry up
Namib sand snake
Namib
Side winding means only two parts of the body touch the hot sand at one time Gets its moisture from the animals it eats Can bury itself in the sand to keep cool
Thorny devil
Australian deserts
Camouage to blend in and can change colour according to sunlight and surroundings False head to confuse predators Long, sticky tongue for catching ants Spiny skin for protection Dew forms on skin, then grooves lead water to the mouth Inates with air when threatened, making it hard to swallow Digs a shallow cave to sit in during very hot days Lays eggs underground to keep them at an even temperature
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FOOD CHAINS AND WEBS

Food chains and food webs in the desert are generally less complex than those in other environments. This makes them more fragile and vulnerable to disturbance. Many of the animals eat only one or two things and may have no alternative sources of food. Producers are plants that use the Suns energy, water and carbon dioxide to produce food or energy for consumers in the form of leaves, roots, stems, fruit or seeds. Animals that eat plants are primary consumers or herbivores. In the desert these may include species of insects, small mammals, reptiles and birds. Species that eat the meat or eggs of other species are known as secondary consumers. Species that eat animals are known as carnivores; those that eat insects are insectivores, and they are both predators. In deserts these predators may include badgers and other mammals, eagles and other birds, and rattlesnakes and other reptiles. Animals that eat both plants and animals, such as coyotes and humans, are known as omnivores. A simple food chain in the Namib Desert of south-western Africa is: producer: inara melon which is eaten by primary consumer: gerbil which is eaten by secondary consumer: namib sand snake which is eaten by secondary consumer: cape fox. A more complex food web is shown in 7.20 below.
7.20 A food web of deserts in the United States
SNAPSHOT 1
7.19 The roadrunner is a secondary consumer in the United States.
Roadrunner
The roadrunner is a bird found in the Mojave, Sonoran, Chihuahuan and Great Basin deserts of the United States. Rather than ying, roadrunners prefer to walk or runthey save energy by not ying. The roadrunner has specic adaptations to living without much water, including re-absorbing water from its faeces and eliminating salt through its nasal gland. It also has these features that help its survival in the harsh desert environment. It can run up to 30 kilometres per hourfast enough to catch and eat rattlesnakes. It has a long tail, which allows it to change direction and brake. It has a sharp beak for stabbing insects, lizards and snakes. The roadrunner mainly eats other animals, making it a secondary consumer.
SNAPSHOT 3
Large predators Hawk Rattlesnake
Secondary consumers
Tarantula
Scorpion
Lizard
Rodent
Roadrunner
7.21 The beavertail cactus is a producer in the deserts of the United States.
Primary consumers
Beavertail cactus
Ant Primary producers Beetle Grasshopper
The beavertail cactus found in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts of the United States is so named because its leaves resemble the shape of a beavers tail. The owers of this cactus are bright red to purple to attract insects to pollinate it. The beavertail is a smaller prickly pear cactus only growing to about 60 centimetres. It is eaten by a range of insects, and the fruit is occasionally eaten by the coyote.
Key is eaten by
Cacti Annual flowers Creosote bush
SNAPSHOT 2
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is an ecosystem? 2 What conditions determine the ora and fauna that grow in deserts? 3 Outline some of the adaptations that plants make to live in deserts. 4 Outline the specic characteristics of the Saguaro cactus that help it to survive in the desert environment. 5 Name the insects mentioned in this unit. 6 Outline some of the adaptations that animals make to live in deserts. 7 What are producers? 8 What is the main difference between a primary and secondary consumer? 9 How has the roadrunner adapted to living without much water?
7.22 The sidewinder rattlesnake
Sidewinder rattlesnake
The sidewinder rattlesnake is so called because of the way that it moves sideways with an S-shaped curve. It lives in the Mojave and Sonoran deserts of the United States. The snakes venom helps in catching prey, but it also provides a defence. Rattlesnakes are generally heavy-bodied and slow-moving, unable to chase down their prey or kill it by constriction, so they need another means to make themselves competitive predatorstheir venom. It is produced like saliva and the chemical kills by stopping the normal cellular processes in a bitten victim. Venom also aids in the digestion of prey by breaking down its tissue. A rattlesnake also contains a rattle in its tail to warn other creatures away. The rattle probably developed as a means to alert the other animals sharing the snakes habitat to its presence, and thus protect it from being stepped on. Rattlesnakes prey on small mammals, birds and reptiles. The snakes are, in turn, preyed upon by various mammals, such as coyotes and badgers, birds of prey and humans.
10 What is the prey of the sidewinder rattlesnake? 11 Outline three characteristics of the beavertail cactus that make it a unique species.
Skills
12 Refer to 7.20: a What three species does the sidewinder rattlesnake eat? b What three species eat the ant? c Name the two producers in the food web. d Name the three primary consumers in the food web. e Give two examples of secondary consumers in the food web. f Give an example of an insectivore. g Give an example of a carnivore.
Application
13 Refer to the thorny devil in 7.18. Draw your own annotated thorny devil by using the description in the last column as labels. Place the labels around the devil with connecting lines to the part of the animal they apply to. (See Skills Master on page 9 in unit 1.2 for an example of annotated photographs.) 14 Consider the adaptations that ora and fauna have developed to live in the desert. Create your own new desert plant based on the characteristics of real ones. Annotate your plant with labels pointing to the parts that show its adaptations. 15 Research what animals of the desert eat. Create a food chain or web from your research. Conduct further research into two of the animals or plants in your food chain or web and prepare a brief multimedia presentation outlining the unique characteristics of these species.
A CHANGE IN BALANCE
If one aspect of the ecosystem is changed then the other aspects can also become unbalanced. For example, if one species in 7.20 becomes extinct, then other species and the environment may be affected. If rodent populations were to drop then there would also be fewer of their main predator, the rattlesnake. There may also be an increase in beetles because there are fewer rodents to eat them, and an increase in lizards because they would have less competition for food. These changes in turn would affect other species in the web.
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Human impact on the desert environment

7.23 Irrigation in the Wadi Rum in Jordan. The soils are rich in nutrients and elements and water is drawn up from between 30 and 400 metres below the surface. Each circle is approximately 78 hectares of land.
Humans have lived in and used desert environments for thousands of years. Traditional hunter-gatherers such as the San of the Kalahari and Aboriginal groups in Australia were able to nd enough food and water to survive in the harsh desert environments. More recently people have used the desert for the other resources it provides, including minerals, tourist attractions and large spaces.
7.24 Desert resources that are mined
Resource mined in the desert Common salt Sodium nitrate Borax
Location Great Basin Desert, California Atacama Desert, Chile Great Basin Desert, California
Uses Food seasoning Explosives and fertilisers Glass, ceramics, enamel manufacturing, agricultural chemicals, water softener Building materials
USING THE DESERT

There are a number of human uses of desert areas that take resources from the environment or put pressure on it.
Mining
In many deserts there are rich mineral resources. Some minerals are formed and preserved in arid lands. Minerals and salts that are leached by water and deposited in playa lakes are the most common minerals, and include common salt, sodium nitrate, borax and gypsum. There are many rich resources that are extracted from deserts, as shown in 7.25. Other valuable minerals include copper, iron, lead, zinc, gold, silver and uranium. Revenue from mining is high and is important to the economy. Some developing countries rely heavily on it.
Gypsum Diamonds Oil and natural gas
Atacama Desert, Chile
Kalahari and Namib Expensive jewellery deserts, Southern Africa and industrial use Arabian Desert, Middle East Fuel and energy
7.25 An open cut mine and renery in the Atacama Desert descends to a depth of 800m.
Agriculture
In some deserts arid land can be transformed into arable farmland with irrigation. Along the length of the Nile in Egypt and in Israels Negev, irrigated crops produce food for the local population and for export. In many arid and semi-arid deserts where there is vegetation cover and access to water the land is used to graze animals, for both subsistence and commercial purposes.
Tourism
Increasingly people are travelling to deserts to view wildlife, interesting landforms and traditional lifestyles, and for recreation. In Central Australia, local and overseas visitors travel to Uluru, Kata Tjuta and Alice Springs. In the Kalahari and Namib people join safaris to view wildlife. Social and sporting events such as horse and car races, including the Dakar Rally in the Sahara, are also held in deserts.
7.26 The Dakar rally is held in parts of the Sahara.
Nuclear testing and space

The sheer emptiness of many deserts, as well as clear skies and lack of rainfall, make deserts a practical place to research outer space and to test weapons. Nuclear weapons have been tested in the Woomera region of South Australia as well as in other deserts around the world.
DESERTIFICATION
In developing desert countries, such as those in the Sahara of northern Africa, human populations are increasing rapidly. This places pressure on the already scarce resources of deserts. Around waterholes land has been overstocked and overgrazed in an effort to feed growing populations. Demand for rewood has also increased causing the removal of vegetation. These uses lead to desertication. (See unit 13.3 on page 292.) Deserts are constantly moving and changing. On the fringes of the desert a fragile, delicately balanced ecosystem may be easily disrupted by human activities. If too much vegetation is removed the poor soils and sands of the desert begin to take over previously arable land.
7.27 These houses in the Gobi desert are threatened by an encroaching sand dune.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name four human uses of deserts. 2 Why are there rich minerals in deserts? 3 Name seven minerals and three energy sources found in deserts. 4 How can desert lands be made arable? 5 What is desertication and what is causing it? 6 How can desertication be managed or prevented? 7 What happened in the Great Plains, USA in the 1930s? Why?
Recovery and prevention

Well-managed lands can recover from droughts and can prevent desertication. Dunes can be protected with large rocks, petrol, sand fences and by planting native trees and shrubs. These solutions can interrupt the wind and prevent sand from moving. Efcient use of water and crop rotation can help to limit salinisation and desertication.
SNAPSHOT
Skills
8 Look at 7.23, 7.25, 7.26, 7.27 and 7.6 on page 160. Classify them as aerial, aerial oblique, satellite image or ground level photographs.
The Great American Dust Bowl

During the 1930s parts of the Great Plains in the United States turned into a huge dust bowl as a result of drought, overgrazing and poor farming practices. The sharp hooves of sheep, cattle and horses disrupted the soil structure and much of the soil blew away in large dust storms. Many people had to abandon farms and livelihoods.
Application
9 Construct a mind map to show the human uses of the deserts and the problems these uses may cause.
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A desert community the San of the Kalahari

About 4 per cent of the worlds people live in deserts. Many of these people are nomadic such as the San (also known as the !Kung) of the Kalahari Desert in southern Africa. There are about 85 000 San living today in the remote reaches of the desert. The San way of life had not changed for thousands of years, but recently their culture has come under threat as a result of landlessness and dispossession. A minority of San people still live the traditional, nomadic lifestyle but many now live in cities or work on farms.
LOCATION AND GEOGRAPHY OF THE KALAHARI

The Kalahari is an arid to semi-arid desert located in the countries of Botswana, Namibia, Angola, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
7.28 San children and their grass hut 7.29 Location of the Kalahari in southern Africa
ANGOLA
N
20 E
ZAMBIA
O k av an
30 E
go
Zambe zi River
HOUSING
The traditional San live in small villages of a number of families, each family with their own grass hut. The huts are made from a dome of light sticks, thatched with grass and twigs. The hut is used for sleeping, shade and storage.
20 S
Okavango Delta
Reitfontein Windhoek
Tropic of Capricorn
Ghanzi New Xade
Twighlight
Corridor 17 K A L A H A R I DESERT
Ri v
er
ZIMBABWE
Molapo BOTSWANA Mothomelo
Gabarone Pretoria Johannesburg

iv l R er
San area 1000 years ago Today City Village waterway Border National Park
NAMIBIA Welkom
Witdraai SOUTH AFRICA Schmidtsdrift

an Or
Vaa
200
400 km
Kimberley
Rive
r
ge
LESOTHO
The Kalahari is a hot, dry desert that experiences some reliable rainfall in a summer monsoon season. (See the climatic data for Mariental on page 175.) This allows people, plants and animals to store water during the wet season for use during the dry. The Kalahari is known for its wide variety of animals such as the meerkats, lions, ostriches, oryx and springboks.
7.30 The Kalahari is a habitat for the meerkat.
San interaction with the environment

San people have an uncanny ability of knowing where to nd water and food in their harsh environment. They take only what they need, leaving the rest to regenerate or for another time. This is a sustainable way of life. Men and women have different roles. Women gather roots, berries, grubs, insects and small animals such as tortoises, frogs and lizards for food, as well as collecting rewood and water. Men hunt with poison-tipped spears, and bows and arrows for larger game. The poison comes from snakes, scorpions and spiders, and causes paralysis in animals. Water is the most important element to the San. Only in drought do they live close to a reliable water source. At other times they suck up water owing under the soil through straws made from hollow reeds. In the wetter months they collect water in ostrich eggshells and bury it underground for use in dry times.
7.31 San men hunt with bows and arrows dipped in poison.
SAN ADAPTATION TO THE KALAHARI GEOGRAPHY

Traditionally the San are FOCUS huntergatherers and do The San speak a language of not keep animals. They strang e clicking sounds. These are nomadic and until differe nt clicks are written as !, recently they collected / and // which are basically just everything they needed letters in the San alphabet. The from the desert by clicks are made with the tongue. hunting and foraging. San people are quite short but can eat enormous amounts, storing excess body fat in their stomachs and buttocks. This serves as a source of energy in drought when there is little food available. They have strong legs and lungs, giving them endurance and the ability to run fast.
CENTRAL KALAHARI GAME RESERVE

The Central Kalahari Game Reserve covers an area of 60 000 square kilometresabout the size of Tasmania. It was established in 1961 to protect the natural environment from human development and exploitation. It is the worlds second largest conservation park. The park sustains a great biodiversity of animals. Herds of springbok and gemsbok, blue wildebeest, eland, red hartebeestanimals that are well adapted to the very dry conditionsroam freely. The movements of the herds are determined by the rare rains and the rush of short-lived grasses they bring. Many of these animals also extract water from the dew-covered nighttime plants, deep-rooted succulents, the wild cucumber and the tsamma melon. In turn, the antelopes provide food for the carnivores of the desertcheetah, lion, leopard, hyena and wild dog. There are also populations of giraffe, ostrich, meerkat, bat-eared fox, honey badger, jackal and many other species. As in most desert biomes, there are snakes and other reptiles but also a great diversity of bird species.
7.32 A San girl drinks water from an ostrich eggshell. This water is collected in the wet season and stored underground for the dry.
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HOW THE RELATIONSHIP IS CHANGING

San people can survive without obvious surface water. This allowed them to live for a long time where other people could not. In the 1950s water wells were introduced to the Kalahari. This meant that other people such as farmers were able to move into and fence off traditional San lands. The San were dispossessed and left without land and animals for hunting. Today many San have adopted the customs and lifestyles of the western world and have begun to lose their traditional culture. They have moved into cities and are learning to read and write so they can get jobs. Many have work on the farms, mines or game reserves that now take up their traditional land. Most wear western clothing.
ADDRESSING THE PROBLEMS: INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS AND GOVERNMENTS

Some governments, such as the government in Botswana, have encouraged the San to move into permanent villages where there is artesian water, schools and houses and a government resettlement bonus of ve cows and 15 goats per person. The government provides food and pensions to the San and encourages children to go to schools by serving them food if they attend classes. Government ofcials call it progress, but many San say that resettlement threatens their culture. Several groups have been formed to improve the quality of life for the San and to preserve their traditions. The Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa tries to negotiate deals between the San and tourist operators. Another organisationFirst People of the Kalaharicampaigns for the Sans rights to the Central Kalahari Game Reserve in Botswana (see page 173). In South Africa the South African San Institute (SASI) is attempting to reclaim tracts of land in Northern Cape Province and helps to elect and guide the San community leaders in managing the land. In 2000 SASI was instrumental in the South African government handing over a parcel of land to San community leaders.
The San are responding to these changes

Increasing tourism in the Kalahari Desert is providing some hope for San people. The erection of replica villages and traditional San activities for tourists to participate in can bring a steady income. But there are problems for the San. Intu Afrikaa white-owned game reservefeatures a San community, but most prots remain with the Intu Afrika business. Many San have moved to the outskirts of cities where there is the promise of schools, fresh water and health facilities. Many depend on government relief and cash from the sale of crafts and GEOGRAPHY souvenirs. Today only a small part of the population still FOCUS depends on the traditional hunt The San are thought to and produce from gardens and be the oldest culture in gathering.
the world, dating back over 100 000 years. Now only 3000 San follow the hunter/ gatherer lifestyle.
SAN SURVIVAL
Today San people live on: 40% from government food relief 30% from cash from craft sales, pensions and wages 20% from traditional hunting 10% from gardens and gathering.
7.33 San children at a relocation camp
SNAPSHOT
Taureg of the Sahara

The Sahara covers an area about the size of Australia9 million square kilometres. It is famous for its sand dunes, but these actually only cover one-tenth of the desert. The rest is made up of bare rock and stony desert. The Taureg are nomadic herders who live in the Sahara. The Taureg travel constantly looking for water and pastures for their camels, goats and sheep. They wear loose robes to keep cool. Men keep their faces veiled against the sand and sun with a garment called a tagilmust. Women and children fetch water, rewood and cook food. The Taureg live in tents made of goatskin or build grass shelters near wells. The Taureg men trade in salt for other goods across the Sahara. They load camels that are tied together in long caravans. They use the Sun and stars to guide the caravans across the desert, nding water and food along the way in oases, wells and in aquifers under the sand.
7.34 Taureg salt caravans travel across the Sahara desert to trade for other goods. The distinctive blue veil-like garment called a tagilmust protects the Taureg from the harsh desert conditions.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name the countries that contain sections of the Kalahari Desert. 2 In what ways have the bodies of the San people adapted to living in the desert? 3 What is interesting about the San language? 4 Outline the differences in roles for males and females in the San community. 5 Why has the traditional San way of life come under threat? 6 How are the San responding to changes in their way of life? 7 How are groups and governments inuencing change in the San way of life? 9 Estimate the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the Kalahari desert using 7.29. Hint: hot, dry deserts are found close to the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer at 23 north or south of the Equator. Most of the continent of Africa is East of the Prime Meridian. 10 Use the information on Mariental below to plot a climatic graph for the Kalahari. What are the similarities and differences between the graph that you construct with the climate graph for Sydney, Australia (see page 138). 11 Construct a pie graph to show how the San survive today using the statistics in the feature box.
Application
12 How are the Taureg people of the Sahara similar and different to the San of the Kalahari?
Skills
8 If the world population is 6.7 billion at the start of 2008 and 4 per cent of the worlds population live in deserts, estimate how many people live in deserts. What percentage of these people are San of the Kalahari?
Mariental, Namibia, 24 S, 17 E J Average temperature C Average rainfall mm 23 33 F 22 48 M 21 43 A 19 14 M 16 3
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J 13 2
J 13 2
A 16 0
S 19 4
O 22 6
N 23 11
D 23 15
Average 19 15
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Deserts in Australia
Australia is the second driest continent behind Antarctica. Over 70 per cent of mainland Australia is a desert environmenteither arid (annual precipitation less than 250 millimetres) or semi-arid (annual precipitation of 250500 millimetres).
7.35 Much of Coober Pedy is located underground due to the extreme temperatures.
Activities
Knowledge
1 How did Aboriginal people convey knowledge about the location of food and water? 2 What economic activities are important in Australias deserts? 3 List some problems that human use might cause in Australian deserts.
HUMAN USE
Aboriginal people have inhabited Australia for between 40 000 and 100 000 years. Traditionally Aboriginal tribes were nomadic, moving from place to place. Knowledge about the location of food and water sources in deserts and rules for living sustainably were passed on through songs, stories and dances. About 45 per cent of Australias deserts are now owned or managed by Aboriginal people. A small number still live a traditional lifestyle. Some of the worlds largest sheep and cattle stations are in Australias desert regions. Mining is also an important economic industry. Minerals include gold, silver, lead and zinc. Energy sources are natural gas, oil and coal. Coober Pedy in the Great Victoria Desert is the worlds largest producer of opals. While mining has displaced some Aboriginal groups, there are mining companies working positively with Indigenous land owners. Ecotourismwhere tourism does minimal damage to the environmentis becoming more popular in deserts. Renewable energy solutions like solar, wind and geothermal power are being explored in desert regions. The increasing use of underground water has led to unnatural increases in the populations of kangaroos, emus and introduced species like rabbits, horses, foxes and camels. In 1901 the rabbits were such a problem the Western Australian Government erected the rabbit proof fence, which extended 1800 kilometres from north to south across the desert to try to stop them spreading from the east.
Skills
These questions are based on the topographic map in 7.36. 4 Give the four-gure area reference for: a Five Mile Mine b Opal Valley Diggings 5 What cultural (human) feature/s would you nd in these area references? a AR 4977 b AR 4877 c AR 4978 6 What natural feature/s would you nd in these area references? a AR 4777 b AR 4778 7 Give the six-gure grid reference for: a Jasper Gully Mine b Eight Mile Waterhole 8 What would you nd at these grid references? a GR 488773 b GR 498767 9 What features on the map suggest that Coober Pedy is in a desert? 10 Measure the straight-line distance between Mt Brady (AR 4976) and Leonard Rise (AR 4677) 11 What is the direction of these places? a Leonard Rise from Sixteen-Mile Waterhole b From Eight-mile swamp bore to Leonard Rise 12 What is the local relief between Mt Brady and the spot height in AR 4678?
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7.36 Topographic map for Coober Pedy, South Australia
46
47
48
49
50
29S 79 79
78
78
2910'S
77
77
76 46 13440'E 47 48 13450'E 49 135E 50
76
SCALE 1:250 000

5 0 5 10 15 20 Kilometres sealed unsealed
Principal road; Built-up area; Locality Secondary road; Bridge; Causeway Minor road (access & condition not assured) Vehicle track (access & condition not assured) Dual carriageway; Distance in kilometres Principal road; Route marker; National Gate; Stock grid Embankment, cutting Airport; Landing ground; Heliport Multiple track railway; Station or siding Single track railway; Bridge; Tunnel Powerline (110kV and over) Homestead; Building/s; Ruin Fence; Levee; Open cut mine Mine; Windpump; Yard;
Contour with value; Depression contour Horizontal control point; Spot elevation Sand; Sand ridges Forest, wood or scrubland
25
0
904
23
Pine plantation; Urban recreation parkland

C123
Orchard, plantation or vineyard: Windbreak Watercourse (presence of water not implied) Perennial Lake; Non-perennial lake
Bore or well; Spring; Tank or small dam Subject to inundation; Swamp Saline coastal flat; Wreck, bare or awash Foreshore flat; Lighthouse; Shoal ;Tidal ledge or reef; Mangrove; Rock, bare or awash Breakwater; Wharf; Jetty or pier Reserved area boundary
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Changing global relationships

The world today seems to be getting smaller due to advances in technology. These changes have caused some countries to have wealth and power while others lack the basic necessities of life. Large companies have grown to be so big that they can be more powerful than many nations. Geographers investigate these changing global relationships to manage the impacts they have and help create more equality between people and nations.
Geographical tools
Maps
use an atlas identify and use elements of maps, including legend, direction, title, scale, border distinguish between different types of map projection identify and calculate maximum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar column, line, climatic and proportional graphs collect and interpret photographic images practise ethical behaviour when using email and the Internet
GLOBAL CHANGE

Syllabus outcomes
A student: 4.1 identifies and gathers geographical information 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.5 demonstrates a sense of place about global environments 4.7 identifies and discusses geographical issues from a range of perspectives 4.9 describes differences in life opportunities throughout the world 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship
Photographs

ICT competencies
Definitions
culturethe values and customs of a particular country as expressed in the music, food, interests, dress, language, religion and sports of that country developed countrya rich country of the world where most people enjoy a high standard of living developing countrya poor country of the world where many people have a low standard of living exporta good or service sent from one country to another globalisationa process caused by advances in technology, which involves the web of interrelationships that have formed between countries, companies, people, resources, cultures and money Gross Domestic Product (GDP)a measure of the total value of all the goods and services produced in a country over a year, also referred to as Gross National Income (GNI) importa good or service received by one country from another international tradethe movement of goods and services between countries nationstatea term that is sometimes used to describe a country quotaa trade restriction on the amount of a good that can be imported into a country subsidiarya foreign ofce or factory of a transnational corporation, usually located in a country outside the country where the companys head ofce is located subsidya payment to a producer of a good by the government to assist the producer in making their product sweatshopa factory unit where the products of transnational corporation are produced tariffa tax put on an imported good by the government of the country that the good is imported into tradethe movement of goods and services from one country to another transnational corporation (TNC)a large company that has a head ofce in one country and subsidiary ofces in other countries
The globalisation process

The world has always had a total surface area of about 509 600 000 square kilometres. It is not the physical size of the globe that has become smaller, but the speed by which we can communicate and move between places.
ITS A SMALL WORLD

The space that separates countries in terms of the time it takes to communicate or travel between them has become rapidly less than it was 100or even 50years ago. It is in this way that the world is getting smaller. The term global village is used to describe the way technology can enable the global population of nearly seven billion people to communicate as if they were in a small village. Technology has enabled a series of links to develop between countries, companies, people, resources, cultures and money. As technology has improved, these links or interconnections have caused globalisation.
8.1 The symbols of globalisation are everywhere.
TNCs AND GLOBALISATION

Globalisation has created some winners and losers. The most obvious winners are the TNCsthe global companies that have been able to use the worlds resources to make large protsand the people who like and use their products. While companies have been able to prot from globalisation, some of the people in the poorer countries of the world have been open to exploitation as they produce cheap goods for sale in richer countries. Child labour and low wages are just two of the results of globalisation. These poorer countries would be the most obvious losers from the globalisation process. This is illustrated in 8.2, which compares the earnings of selected TNCs to the total earnings of some of the countries of the world.
GLOBALISATION AND THE WORLD TODAY

Globalisation is not a totally new concept as nationstates have always traded goods. What has changed is the way this trade occurs. Technology allows a wider variety and larger quantity of goods and servicesas well as ideas, information and moneyto be exchanged between countries faster than at any other time in history. Globalisation is the major process causing change in the world today. It lets companies make prots on clothes that are made in Indonesia and sold in England. It can change cultures through television shows and sporting events that are beamed around the world. It can even inuence peoples tastes through the location of fast-food restaurants in distant countries. The most important factors that have brought about globalisation are: improvements in transport that allow quicker trade and travel between countries advances in communications technology advances in computer technology growth of very large companies or transnational corporations (TNCs) changes to the organisations that control trade between countries.
8.2 The wealth of selected TNCs and countries

160
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 GDP or Total Sales ($US billions)
lo So
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a r Fo l-M a W Country or Corporation
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8.3 The world is getting smaller.
Travel times: England to Australia

1788 1960 2005
Travel time
5900 hours
636 hours
24 hours
Activities
Knowledge
1 Describe what geographers mean when they say the world is getting smaller. 2 Explain how the world is now viewed as a global village. 3 In your own words explain what is meant by the process of globalisation. 4 Refer to 8.3 and explain how travel times have changed peoples view of distance. 5 Describe three ways global trade has changed. 6 Outline two impacts of globalisation. 7 Identify ve factors that have enabled the globalisation process to occur. 8 Select two images from 8.1 and explain why they are considered symbols of globalisation. a Survey your friends and family by asking them if they have products of the following brand names. Then record the item the person has and the country the item was made in. By law the country the item was made in must be printed on the label. Once you have collected your results, combine your information with others in the class.
Global brand Nike Adidas Puma Billabong Human Quiksilver Item (eg, shoes, pencil case, T-shirt, etc) Country made in
Skills
9 Look at 8.2: a Use the denitions list on the front page of the chapter to dene the term GDP. b What was the GDP of New Zealand? c What were the total sales of General Motors? d Rank the countries on the graph according to their GDP. e Calculate the difference between the total sales of General Motors and the GDP of Thailand. 10 Class survey on globalisation For each global brand in the table opposite investigate the place of manufacture of a range of items.
Putting it all together b Which global brand proved most popular? Suggest one possible reason for this. c In which country were the majority of the items made? d Graph your results.
Application
11 Briey outline two examples of the impact globalisation has on your life. 12 Look at 8.1. Collect images from magazines or the Internet and create a globalisation collage that contains images of global companies. 13 Conduct a survey of your local shopping centre and record evidence of the impacts of globalisation. Changing global relationships
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Advances in communications technology

Advances in the way people communicate between countries range from the satellite network that now covers the entire globe to the bre optic cable network that links continents under the sea. These networks provide fast, reliable and cheap communications between countries.
THE FIBRE OPTIC CABLE NETWORK

One bre optic cable is as thin as a human hair and is able to carry large amounts of digital information over very long distances. Fibre optic cables are the best method of handling the high volume of phone calls and information ows between different places all over the globe. The bre optic cables that are laid around the world are made up of thousands of individual cables. A huge network of these cables connects the worlds major cities. They have enabled the development of the telephone, cable television and Internet network that we have today. The network is laid on land and on the sea oor across most of the worlds oceans, as shown in 8.5. The only continent not connected by bre optic cable is Antarctica.
8.5 The sea oor bre optic cable network 8.4 Individual bre optic cables are put together to form cables capable of carrying large amounts of information over very long distances.
A recent advance in communication technology is the growth in broadband technology. Digital les are sent through telephone lines, bre optic cables, wireless networks and satellites. The future challenge for the optical bre cable network will be to increase the amount of data that can be transmitted through the cables as the size of the les increases and more of the worlds population use the network. Broadband has all but replaced dial-up Internet accounts because it is faster and can handle large amounts of information.
2000
4000 km
Key Underwater fibre optic cables
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
With the development of the rst wireless technology at the end of the nineteenth century came the difculty of sending these communication signals over long distances. As signals do not bend along the Earths curved surface, satellites were developed to overcome this problem. They are able to record and send information as they orbit high above the earth. Today, there are hundreds of satellites in operation around the world. These satellites are used for communications, weather forecasting, television broadcasting, radio communications, Internet access and defence, as well as other things, such as global positioning systems (GPS). Most communication satellites in use today are in a geostationary orbit. This means that the satellite remains over the same position of the Earths surface and stays xed in the sky from any point on Earth. Geostationary satellites can be spaced at intervals of up to 120 degrees longitude. In this way as few as three satellites are able to link all the inhabited regions of the world, providing an effective global communications network, as shown in 8.6. Satellites are the best method of mobile communications for ships and planes as well as for people who are in areas that lack good communication networks.
8.7 Global growth in mobile and xed telephone use

Worldwide subscribers (millions) 6 500 projected 6 000 Fixed telephone lines 5500 5000 Mobile phone subscribers 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is a bre optic cable and why are they used for communication between countries? 2 People talk of the bre optic cable network. Explain what this term means and describe the information that is sent over the network. 3 Explain the future challenge that exists for the global bre optic cable network. 4 Why has broadband technology replaced dial-up Internet? 5 Explain the advantage that satellite communications have over wireless communication networks. 6 Name six different uses for satellites today. 7 Refer to 8.6 and explain how three satellites in a geostationary orbit can provide a global communications network. 8 List three situations where satellites are preferable as a means of communications over the bre optic cable network.
8.6 Geostationary satellites provide an important link as the signal is beamed to and from satellites in order to travel around the globe.
180 120 W 120 E
9 Outline two types of communications technology that could be used by scientists living in Antarctica attempting to communicate with school students in the United States.
Skills
60 W 0 60 E
10 Look at 8.5: a Identify the continents that have the most linkages to the global bre optic cable network. b Identify the continents that have the fewest linkages to the bre optic cable network. c Give one possible reason for Antarctica not being connected to the bre optic cable network. 11 The graph in 8.7 shows the growth in mobile and xed telephone use: a What was the total projected number of phone subscribers for xed and mobile phones in 2007? b Estimate the number of mobile phone users in 2006. c In what year did the number of mobile phone subscribers overtake xed telephone line users? d Identify one trend in phone use shown by the graph.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
A typical satellite is able to transmit 27 680 000 pages of typed text in just 90 seconds while the bre optic cable that links the United States and Japan across the Pacic Ocean is capable of handling 320 000 telephone calls at any one time.
183
Motorolaa telecommunications giant

Motorola is an example of a modern transnational corporation (TNC). Two brothers started the company with a product designed to run a household radio. It was the rst company to develop the mobile phone and today it is recognised worldwide as a global telecommunications giant.
8.8 A Motorola phone produced in 2006
MOTOROLA TODAY
Global headquarters: Schaumburg, Illinois, US Motorola company shares are listed on New York, Chicago and Tokyo Stock Exchanges 2004 net sales of US$31.323 billion Approximately 68 000 employees worldwide 320 production facilities in 73 countries.
TIMELINE OF DEVELOPMENT
1930 Galvin Manufacturing
1920 1930 Corporation introduces one of the rst car radios. The brand name Motorola is introduced when the company developed the car radio. 1940
1955 Motorolas stylised M symbol is introduced. This eventually becomes the global symbol of the Motorola brand.
1928 Paul and

Joseph Galvin purchase a battery eliminator business in Chicago, Michigan, US. They have ve employees and sales are US$63 000. 1950
1960
1973 Motorola demonstrates a design for the portable radio telephone. This is the worlds rst portable telephone and uses a radio technology called cellular.
1970
1983
The worlds rst hand-held cellular phone is produced, the Motorola DynaTAC phone, which becomes available to consumers in 1984.
1949 Motorola establishes a small research and development operation in Phoenix, Arizona, US.
1967 Motorola expands into many countries, including Australia, Canada, France, Hong Kong, Israel, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, Puerto Rico, South Korea, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and West Germany.
1980
1990
1976
Motorola sets up its international headquarters in Chicago, US.
2004 Motorola receives the 2004 Award for Corporate Excellence for the companys activities in Brazil. The award recognises good conduct, corporate responsibility and innovations in overseas operations.
2000
2001 Motorola
introduces its rst metal mobile phone that has Internet access, text messaging capabilities and voice-activated dialling. It quickly becomes a worldwide best seller.
2010
8.9 The battery eliminator was a tool that enabled battery-operated machines to be plugged directly into the household electricity supply.
2005 Motorola introduces the Ojo personal video phone. It transmits full-motion video with synchronised audio over a high-speed Internet connection.
8.11 Motorola sales by region, 2004
MEET THE MAN WHO INVENTED THE MOBILE

By Jano Gibson
Japan
3%
Other markets 6% Asia-Pacific 7%
It was April 3, 1973 when Martin Cooper made a phone call that would change the world. Cooper worked for what was then a little-known company called Motorola and he had just developed the worlds rst hand-held cellular telephone. The phone weighed almost two kilos and was about the size of a brick. The battery lasted somewhere between 10 and 20 minutes, he says. Cooper knew the rst call he ever made on that stateof-the-art phone would be a moment of history. So he rang Joel Engel, the head of research at Bell Labs, part of the telecommunications giant AT&T Motorolas direct competitor. These people at AT&T could not understand how a tiny company like Motorola would dare to tell them, the largest company in the world, how to run their business. At the time, the thought of millions of people around the world owning their own mobile seemed like a pipe dream to Cooper. Keep in mind that the rst [mobile] telephone cost millions of dollars to make. Ten years later we produced the rst commercial phones and those phones sold for US$4000, which would be closer to US$10 000 or US$15 000 today. So the idea of a billion and a half people having cell phonessome of which are literally given to them for nothingwas a really long reach.
Sydney Morning Herald, 25 March 2005
Latin America 9% China Europe 9% 19%
United States 47%
Activities
Knowledge
1 When was the company name Motorola introduced and why? 2 In what year did Motorola expand its operations into other countries? 3 What city does Motorola control its international operations from? 4 When was the symbol of the Motorola company rst introduced? Why do you think it is important for a large company to have a recognised symbol for its products. 5 What award did Motorola win for its operations in Brazil? What did the award recognise? 6 What limitations were there on the rst mobile phone call ever made? 7 Why was the phone call that Martin Cooper made in 1973 one that would be a moment in history? 8 Why do you think Martin Coopers rst phone call was to a direct competitor? 9 How much did the rst mobile phone cost in todays terms? 10 Why was the development of the mobile phone such an important achievement for Motorola as a company? 11 Describe two changes that have occurred in mobile phone technology since the rst call in 1973.
Skills
12 Look at 8.11: a What percentage of Motorola sales are made in the United States? b Use the graph and the information in the fact le to calculate the total value of sales made to China in 2004.
Surf
8.10 The Motorola retail store in Chicago, United States
185
Computers and the World Wide Web

After the radio was invented in 1895 it took 40 years for the audience in the United States to reach 50 million. After personal computers were rst generally available in 1981 it took only 15 years to develop an audience of 50 million. After the Internet was introduced to the general public in 1995, it took just four years before 50 million Americans were regularly online. We accept technology quickly into todays society.
TECHNOLOGY AND COMPUTERS

Computers continue to rapidly increase in speed and power while becoming more compact and user-friendly. They have become important business machines as well as entertainment and educational tools. The development of the Internet has meant that computers have become an essential item in many homes around the world. In 1990, just 22 countries were connected to the Internet. Today all the countries of the world are connected. These technologies have changed the way the world operates. A range of different-sized companiesnot just large onesare now able to advertise at a global level, money can be transferred around the globe quickly and easily, and information can be accessed from a wide variety of sources.
8.12 The Internet has become an essential global communication.
WHAT IS THE INTERNET?

During the 1950s the average computer would have been as big as a lounge room. Due to the size and cost of early computers only governments owned them. At the Pentagon, the headquarters of the US Department of State, there was concern that their computers could be destroyed by a nuclear bomb. To protect their computers and the information contained within them, the authorities set about designing a computer system where information could be accessible from any computer, even if one part of the system was destroyed. An early type of military Internet began in 1969. Work continued until a computer network used by universities, colleges and US military researchers was launched in 1987. Over the years a lot of small networks were developed. In 1995 the term Internet was being used to describe the World Wide Web, as more and more networks joined together and access to the Internet was offered to private companies. This marked the start of the Internet as we now know it.
8.14 The worldwide Internet population projections from a 2004 base of 934 million
8.13 Growth in Australian computer ownership and access to the Internet
%
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Internet access Computer access
Projection for 2005 1.07 billion
Year
8.15 Australian computer and Internet use for children aged 514
Activities
Knowledge
1 Complete the table below using statistics from the text.
Device Time taken to reach 50 million users in the United States
%
100 80 60 40 20
Internet use Computer use
Radio Personal computer Internet
2 Name three areas where computers are important.

0 58 911 1214
Age group
3 What advantage has the development of the Internet had for both large and small companies? 4 What was the name of the government organisation that was responsible for developing the Internet?
SKILLS MASTER
Unlocking the WWW
With the growing size of the World Wide Web it is useful to know a little about the information sources that are available, and to know that anyone can publish anything on the Web at any time. It is essential that you assess any sources you use from the Web in terms of their validity and reliability. The biggest clue about the information source is in the URL or website location. Table 8.16 gives an overview of the types of organisations that publish resources on the Web. 8.16 Web addresses: unlocking the URL
5 What was the main reason behind the development of the computer system that marked the start of the Internet? 6 Name the organisations that were rst to use computer networks. 7 When was the term Internet rst used? What does the Internet actually describe?
Skills
8 Refer to 8.13: a What percentage of Australian households had access to computers in: i 1998 ii 2002 iii 2003? b Calculate the percentage change in access to the Internet between 1998 and 2003. c What percentage of people who had computer access in 2003 did not have access to the Internet? 9 Refer to 8.15. What percentage of Australian children aged 58 use the Internet? Give one possible reason why this percentage is less than the 1214 group. 10 Using the Internet as a research tool, list three websites that you think would be useful to study each of the following aspects of globalisation: what globalisation is large transitional companies protests about globalisation. List the websites you nd under the following headings: web address; name of institution, organisation or company; type of information available.
URL URL example Host sufx
Characteristics of host
.edu
http://www. une.edu.au
Indicates a school, An educational college or university institution, generally a reliable source A government or government department, generally a reliable source A nongovernment organisation, generally reliable Ideas on private pages vary greatly and need checking for reliability
.gov
http://cia.gov Indicates a government institution or organisation http:// redcross. org.uk Indicates a nonprot organisation
.org
Application
11 Class discussion: Why is society quick to adopt new technology? 12 Organise a class debate on the following topic: The Internet is the greatest source of information in the world.
.com http://nike. com
Indicates a commercial institution, company or privately purchased Web space
Surf
187
Transport technology and globalisation

Advances in transport technology have changed the way people view travel and the distance between countries. As a result there has been a huge rise in the movement of people, goods and services over the globe. There are more goods traded now than ever before. This has been an important part of the process of globalisation.
HOW HAS SHIPPING CHANGED WORLD TRADE?

International shipping involves the movement of goods between countries. The type and volume of goods that can be shipped between countries has increased dramatically due to technological advances. The development of the supertanker made it easier to move oil and liquid cargo and the containerisation of cargo made shipping faster and more efcient than in the past. Today around 90 per cent of global trade is carried by sea. The structure of the international shipping eet is shown in 8.19.
8.17 Super tankers are able to carry large quantities of any liquid, although their main cargo is oil.
8.18 Dock workers used to load and unload cargo from ships piece by piece in what was a time-consuming and labour-intensive activity.
8.19 International shipping eet, 2005
Type of ship General cargo ships Tankers Bulk carriers Passenger ships (ferries and cruise ships) Container ships Other vessels (tugs, icebreakers and research vessels) Total ships in world trading eet
Number in Example of cargo international eet 18 150 11 356 6 139 5 679 Some agricultural products and other goods Oil and chemical products Coal, iron ore and other minerals Tourists, cars and commercial vehicles Manufactured goods and products
3 165 1 733
46 222
Containerisation
Container ships carry dry cargomostly manufactured goods. There has been a steady growth of containerised cargo since the rst container ships were built in the 1960s. These ships are now able to carry more than 8000 containers at a time. Whereas cargo in the past was loaded and unloaded using cargo nets, cranes and substantial labour (see 8.18), today the process involves a large, specially designed port with cranes and storage areas for containers as shown in 8.20.
countries. While there are some quarantine concerns and restrictions that will always limit trade, as it gets cheaper in the future air transport is likely to continue to increase in its overall importance in terms of total trade movement. The idea that the world is getting smaller is an important part of the globalisation process. While air transport has increased in importance and offered new opportunities for trade in perishable items, the growth of tourism into the worlds largest industry has been able to occur largely as a result of improvements in air travel. Many countries have sought to develop tourism facilities in order to attract international visitors. Airline companies are presented with interesting dilemmas as they plan for the future. In 2005, when purchasing new aeroplanes for the Sydney to London ight, Qantas had to choose between two different planes. The plane they chose and the reasons why are outlined in the newspaper article on page 190. Improvements in air travel have also offered advantages to large companies. They are increasingly able to send their workers around the world quickly and cheaply. Company personnel can travel between ofces all over the world to help run the business. Buyers can travel the globe to purchase the goods a company wants at the best price. Business travel is now an important component of global tourism.
8.20 Modern dock facilities and containerised cargo have contributed to the growth of world cargo movements.
Large companies have been quick to change to containerised cargo. In 1980 containers represented just 6.3 per cent of world trade. By 2004 they accounted for 26.6 per cent. World container trade is growing at an average annual rate of around 9.3 per cent per year and is expected to continue to rise. Many cities have developed modern port facilities with containerised cargo facilities to cope with this trend.
THE LOW COSTS OF MARINE TRANSPORT

Due to continuous improvements in technology and efciencies, maritime transport costs are very competitive: The typical cost to a consumer in the United States of transporting crude oil from the Middle East, in terms of the purchase price of petrol at the pump, is about half a US cent per litre. The typical cost of transporting a tonne of iron ore from Australia to Europe by sea is about US$12. The typical cost of transporting a container carrying over 20 tonnes from Asia to Europe is about the same as an economy airfare for a single passenger to travel the same distance.
8.21 Typical ocean freighter costs from Asia to the United States or Europe
TECHNOLOGY AND AIR TRANSPORT

Aircraft movements have increased dramatically since the 1950s. Technology has enabled the development of larger, faster planes that can travel longer distances. These advances have made the movement of goods and people around the world faster, more efcient and cheaper. The speed of air travel has provided many opportunities for the movement of goods. While it is expensive for large items like televisions and other manufactured goods to be own from country to country, air travel has become very useful for trading perishable agricultural products and even sh and marine animals between countries. For countries like Australia, fast, efcient planes combined with efcient cargo-handling facilities and custom operations at airports can mean that perishable items like fresh owers can be traded easily between
Item TV DVD/CD player Vacuum cleaner Coffee Biscuits
Unit 1 set 1 unit 1 unit 1 kg Tin
Typical shelf price $700.00 $200.00 $150.00 $15.00 $3.00
Shipping cost $10.00 $1.50 $1.00 $0.15 $0.25
189
8.22 World air travel by distance, 19502003
8.23 World air freight carried, 19502003
Billion passenger-kilometres
3 500
140 Billion ton-kilometres 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
In 2003, 20 of the worlds top 30 container ports (by cargo shipped) were located in Asia.
NON-STOP TO LONDON A REALITY
8.24 The Airbus A380 is the worlds largest airliner with a 500-seat capacity.
By Alexandra Smith,Transport Reporter
At last, non-stop ights between Sydney and London could be realitybut only if Boeing can persuade the national carrier to buy its newest plane. Boeings latest aircraft, the 777200 long range, ies in to Sydney today. The aircraft manufacturer has a clear agenda to sell this jet to Qantas or risk surrendering to its nemesis, Airbus. Qantas is one of three leading international airlines (the others are Emirates and Singapore) to order 12 of the new super jets, the double-decker 500-seat Airbus A380 The A380, the biggest advance in commercial air travel since Boeings 747 about 30 years ago, was due to enter service early next year, but it has been delayed by at least six months. But despite its commercial appeal, the A380 will not provide Qantas with what it calls the holy grail of air travel
non-stop ights between Sydney and London, or between Sydney and New York. The A380 may allow Qantas to increase the number of passengers it carries into congested airports such as Heathrow, but the Boeing jet would avoid stops in hubs such as Singapore or Bangkok. The 777200LR was rst slated as a London to Sydney direct option, with the reverse route unlikely because of tail winds. But it is understood that Boeing is close to improving its new jets range. A spokeswoman for Qantas, Jodie Taylor, said that the airline was looking at Boeings long-haul options as it would with all new aircraft. But it is understood that Qantas is looking at the 777200LR with renewed interest.
Sydney Morning Herald, 18 July, 2005
8.25 Reasons for international tourism, 2005
8.26 Methods of travel for international tourism, 2005
Leisure, recreation and holidays 50%
Visiting friends and relatives, health, religion, other 20% Air 45%
Road 43%
Not specified 8%
Business and professional 16%
Water 7%
Rail 5%
Activities
Knowledge
1 Explain what international shipping involves. Use 8.19 to list some of the goods moved by ships. 2 How important is the international shipping eet to global trade? 3 Name the most common type of ship in the international eet. State the cargo these ships carry. 4 How has the containerisation of cargo changed the way cargo is loaded and unloaded? What advantage does this have in terms of international shipping? 5 Name three ways improvements in air transport have beneted the movement of goods and people around the world. 6 How has air travel enabled the trade of perishable goods between countries? 7 What restrictions will Australia need to consider as the trade in perishable items increases? 8 What is the largest industry in the world today? How have large companies beneted from the growth of this industry? 9 Name the jets that Qantas has ordered. 10 What is the holy grail of air travel mentioned in the newspaper article? 11 What advantage would the 777200LR have over the A380 aircraft for Qantas passengers? 12 State the two aircraft manufacturing companies mentioned in the article.
Skills
13 Refer to the feature on page 189: a Calculate the cost of transporting 1000 tonnes of iron ore from Australia to Europe. b What is the difference in the shipping costs for a TV set and a DVD/CD player? Give a reason for your answer. c What percentage of the typical shelf cost of a TV set would the shipping costs be? 14 Refer to 8.22: a State the total air travel by distance in 1990 and 2000. b Calculate the increase in world air travel by distance between 1990 and 2000. c Compare the trend in world air freight carried for the period 1970 to 1980 to the period from 1990 to 2000. 15 Refer to the graphs in 8.25 and 8.26: a Name the most common reason for international travel in 2005. b What would business and professional travel involve? Why has this form of tourism been an important part of globalisation? c Why can road travel be a component of international travel? d Which method of travel would you expect to increase the most in the future? Give a reason for your answer.
Application
16 Discuss the best form of transport for trade between countries in Europe. What are the advantages and disadvantages of road, rail, shipping and air transport?
191
Transnational corporations and globalisation

The technological advances in communications and transport have made it is easier to move goods, people, information and money around the world. These advances have encouraged the growth of very large companies called transnational corporations or TNCs, which have become a major force in the globalisation process.
TNCs
A TNC is a huge company that has its head ofce in one country and subsidiary ofces in other countries. Technological advances have enabled TNCs to operate this way because they can communicate cheaply and effectively and move their products quickly between locations at a global level. The growth of TNCs is one of the main forces contributing to the process of globalisation. Some examples of TNCs include Billabong, Rip Curl, Nike, Adidas, Nestl, Cadbury, Ford, Seiko and Mattel. These transnational corporations are able to make and market their products at a global level, where their potential workforce and customers number nearly seven billion people.
The operation of TNCs

TNCs are able to make decisions that transcend (go beyond) national boundaries. As the companies are run at a global level with many ofces and factories located around the world, decisions about the running of their company are made in one country that will inuence people in other countries. For example, marketing companies run from New York use workers in India to telephone customers in Australia and sell them products made in China. This has given TNCs a lot of power. In some countries they can inuence governments who are desperate to earn money and attract industry. Governments often provide incentivessome have been known to build power plants and ports, offer lower tax rates to companies and even change environmental laws in an effort to attract TNCs.
8.27 Billboards in Times Square, New York, advertise some products of the worlds TNCs.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Fifty of the largest 100 economies in the world are TNCs.
TNCs have very complex structures. They take advantage of the resources the world has to offer. A simplied model of a TNCs structure is shown in 8.29. In reality there are numerous factory sites around the world and complex information ows. TNCs ask many questions when they work out how they will operate at a global level. Where is the cheapest labour located? Where are the facilities to produce our products in the most cost-effective way? Which country offers the best tax deal? Which country has the friendliest government? Where is the cheapest land or electricity available? Where will we sell our product?
8.28 The worlds 30 largest TNCs
Rank Company (country) 2003 2002 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 6 10 9 8 4 7 23 12 11 5 18 17 Mizuho Financial Group (Japan) Citigroup (US) Allianz (Germany) UBS (Switzerland) J.P. Morgan Chase (US) 1 HSBC Holdings (UK) Deutsche Bank (Germany) Fannie Mae (US) Mitsubishi Tokyo Financial Group (Japan) Credit Agricole (France) BNP Paribas (France) ING Group (Netherlands) Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group (Japan) Bank of America (US) Royal Bank of Scotland (UK)
Fiscal 2003 assets $US million 1 282 589 1 264 032 1 178 643 1 118 553 1 097 475 1 034 216 1 011 991 1 009 569 992 695
Rank Company (country) 2003 2002 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 14 19 15 16 21 20 25 22 26 13 24 27 28 29 30 Freddie Mac (US) Barclays (UK) Credit Suisse (Switzerland) UFJ Holdings (Japan) HBOS (UK) ABN Amro (Netherlands) Socit Gnrale (France) American International Group (US) Fortis Group (Belgium/ Netherlands) Bayerische Hypo Bank (Germany) Morgan Stanley (US) AXA (France) Merrill Lynch (US) Commerzbank (Germany) Lloyds TSB Group (UK)
Fiscal 2003 assets $US million 803 449 792 743 770 418 764 752 730 418 705 758 679 250 678 346 658 929 603 778 602 843 565 719 494 518 480 530 450 706
989 863 986 128 980 706 951 724 936 680 814 227 25 26 27 28 29 30
8.29 A simplied model of the global organisation of a TNC
Head Office Rich, powerful city
Unstable government Few environmental laws
Information and production flows Factory Cheap labour Factory Modern port with facilities and cheap power
Subsidiary office
Regional office City with good communications network
193
SNAPSHOT
Unileverthe TNC youve never heard of

Unilever is one of the TNCs involved in the food industry. Its global turnover in 2004 was US$48.4 billion. Even though you may not have heard of the company, chances are you use their products every day. The company employs 234 000 people in 150 countries. It sells over 150 million products per day and has 365 manufacturing sites across six continents. Unilever owns over 400 global brands spread across three main product areas: foods such as Continental, Streets Ice Cream, Magnum, Lipton, Flora home care such as Domestos, Omo, Surf personal care such as Lynx, Rexona, Dove, Sunsilk.
8.30 The range of Unilever brands available in Australian supermarkets
8.31 Globalisation and the making of a family car

BELGIUM Tubes, seat pads, brakes, radio NETHERLANDS Tyres, paints final assembly DENMARK Fanbelt NORWAY Exhaust flanges SWEDEN Hose clamps, cylinder bolt, down pipes GERMANY Locks, pistons, front disc, cylinder head gasket, battery SWITZERLAND Underbody coating, speedometers AUSTRIA Radiator, heater hoses ITALY Cylinder head, defroster grill
BRITAIN Rocker arm, clutch, distributor, flywheel, ring gear, heater, fuel tank, steering wheel
CANADA Glass, radio
FRANCE Alternator, master cylinder, clutch release bearings
JAPAN Starter motor, alternator, cone and roller bearings, windscreen washer pump
UNITED STATES Valves, hydraulics, tappets
SPAIN Air filter, mirrors SOUTH AFRICA Clutch case, suspension bushes BAHRAIN, KUWAIT, OMAN, QATAR, SAUDI ARABIA, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES, Petroleum
BRAZIL Oil pump, distributor, body panels INDONESIA Seat stitching, hose clamps, switches, weatherstrips MEXICO Wheel nuts, lamps, steering wheel
MAURITIUS Windscreen washer pump
INDIA Carburettor, suspension bushes, steering shaft and joint
8.32 If shopping in Australian supermarkets, the Unilever brands would typically give you the following number of item choices:
8.33 The regional turnover for Unilever in 2004, in US dollars
2004 Turnover $48.4 billion Europe $21 billion 43% Asia/Africa $12 billion 25%
8.34 Sales growth for Unilever
% sales growth, excluding acquisitions, disposals and exchange rate movements 5 4
Lipton Continental Streets Flora Dove Sunsilk Rexona Omo
13 different products 30 different products 16 different products 8 products 29 products 15 products 12 products 8 products
The Americas $15.4 billion 32%
3 2 1 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Typical growth rate for markets and categories in which Unilever operates 24%
Activities
Knowledge
1 In your own words, explain what a transnational corporation is. 2 What factors in the globalisation process have made it possible for TNCs to operate the way they do? 3 Give three examples of TNCs other than those listed in the text. 4 Explain how a TNC runs its operation with a head ofce, subsidiary ofces and factories. Refer to 8.29. 5 In what way does the operations of TNCs transcend a countrys boundaries? 6 Name two methods the government of a poor country could use to attract TNCs. 7 What advantages, as a poor country, might there be in attracting a TNC? 8 List six questions a TNC would ask when deciding if it will locate in a particular country. 9 What is Unilever? List its three main product areas. 10 How many countries does Unilever operate in? Would Unilever change the way it advertises its products from one country to another? Explain. 11 Develop a company prole of Unilever. Your prole should include the company logo, their global earnings, global locations, product areas and range of brands.
Skills
12 Construct a pie graph to show the regional turnover of Unilever in 2004. 13 In what year did Unilever have the largest percentage growth in sales? 14 Which year had the lowest percentage of sales growth? 15 Which ve-year period covers the lowest period of sales growth for Unilever? 16 Refer to the family car in 8.31. List the items for a family car made in India, Spain and Indonesia. 17 Which country or countries produce the following: radio, body panels, petroleum, hose clamps? 18 In what way does 8.31 demonstrate globalisation of the family car?
Application
19 Study the table in 8.28 listing the worlds largest TNCs. How many companies do you recognise? Discuss possible reasons for your answer. 20 Conduct a survey of Unilever products you have in your home. Record your results in a table showing the number of products against each brand. If you have few or no Unilever products, explain the reasons for alternative products being in the house. What alternative products or brands are available? What inuences your family to purchase these products?
Surf
195
The globalisation of sport

Globalisation has changed how sport is viewed and played. Sports stars have become global identities as sport is broadcast live around the world. With the rise of the global audience, the opportunity to promote different sports at a global level has arisen. Transnational corporations (TNCs) benet from this growth in sports popularity through broadcasting rights and the manufacture of sporting clothes and equipment. Global sporting superstars are paid to wear clothing and use equipment that TNCs then market to fans. The sports items are produced in factories in developing countries. The prots made by the TNCs are used to further fund their involvement in sport through activities such as sponsorship. The globalisation of sport has also meant that athletes are recruited for teams from all around the world. Players move not only between teams in one competition, but also between countries, drawn by lucrative contracts to play professional sport.
8.34 David Beckham became a global sporting superstar as a member of Manchester United, Real Madrid and LA Galaxy.
CHANGES CAUSED BY THE GLOBALISATION OF SPORT

Globalisation has given sport the opportunity to attract a global audience. Sporting events such as the Tour de France cycling race and sporting competitions like American national basketball (NBA) are broadcast worldwide, raising the popularity of the sport at a global level. The growth in popularity of a sport then attracts money. This happens in two ways. TNCs buy the broadcast rights to sporting events, which then provides income for the sporting organisations that run the sport, for example the International Olympic Committee (IOC) or Fdration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA). This income is used to develop the sport further at a global level.
SNAPSHOT 1
Australian basketball talent takes on the world

Lauren Jackson is arguably the best Australian womens basketball player of all time and is recognised as one of the worlds best players. At 19 she entered the world stage, helping the Australian Opals to a silver medal at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Her skills as a player were televised to the global audience during the Olympics. As a result, talent scouts from the WNBA, the US national basketball competition, lured her to play in the United States. The following year she was the number one draft pick in the WNBA and was selected by the Seattle Storm. As an elite athlete playing at the highest level in her selected sport her success has been considerable. In 2003 she was voted the Most Valuable Player in the WNBA. Globalisation of sport has enabled her to play the game all around the world.
8.35 Lauren Jackson is an example of how the globalisation of sport can benet Australian sports stars.
SNAPSHOT 2
The 2004 Olympic Games

The Olympic Games are the biggest global sporting event. Athletes from over 200 nations come together to compete in a spirit of peace, respect and competition.
The Athens 2004 Olympic Games attracted a global audience of 3.9 billion television viewers from 220 countries. This was the largest-ever audience for the Olympics (3.6 billion viewers watched the Sydney Olympics in the year 2000). The Athens 2004 Olympic Games televising rights generated US$1476.9 million, paid to the IOC. The funds helped pay for the Olympic Games and the continued work of the Olympic committee.
8.36 The organisations who paid for the rights to televise the 2004 Athens Olympic Games and the revenue that was generated.
Country/Territory United States Canada Latin America Puerto Rico Caribbean Asia-Pacic Japan Arab States Chinese Taipei Korea Europe Australia New Zealand Africa
Broadcaster National Broadcasting Company (NBC) Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) Organizacion de la Television Iberoamericana (OTI) Telemundo of Puerto Rico (WKAQ) Caribbean Broadcasting Union (CBU) Asia-Pacic Broadcasting Union (ABU) The Athens Olympic Japan Consortium (AOJC) Arab States Broadcasting Union(ASBU) Chinese Taipei Athens Pool (CTAP) Athens Olympic Korea Pool (AOKP) European Broadcasting Union (EBU) Seven Network (Seven) TV New Zealand (TVNZ)
Rights Fee US$793 million US$37 million US$17 million US$1.25 million US$350,000 US$14.5 million US$155 million US$5.5 million US$3.65 million US$15.5 million US$394 million US$50.5 million US$3.5 million N/A US$9.25 million US$3 million
Union of Radio and Television Nations of Africa (URTNA) South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) Supersport International (SSI) Total Athens 2004 Olympic broadcast revenue US$1,476,911,634
Activities
Knowledge
1 How has globalisation enabled sports to attract a global audience? 2 Describe two ways that broadcast rights earn money for sporting organisations. What is this money used for? 3 Name three sporting events that attract a global audience. 4 Why do TNCs pay global sporting superstars to wear their clothing and use their equipment? 5 Refer to the information on the Athens Olympics 2004: a What was the total global audience of the Athens Olympic Games? b How did the IOC generate an income from the running of the Olympic games in Athens? c In what way can the Olympics as a global sporting event be seen to pay for themselves? 6 How has globalisation of sport changed the way players can be recruited for teams? What advantages are there for players moving from one country to another to play sport? 7 Read the snapshot on Lauren Jackson:
a At what global sporting event was Lauren Jackson rst noticed? b What is a talent scout? 8 Make a list of the benets of the globalisation of sport for: a elite athletes like Lauren Jackson b supporters of sports that can draft players from around the world to their game c companies that sponsor elite athletes.
Application
9 List three sports in Australia that have attracted foreign players. 10 The majority of the SocceroosAustralias mens soccer teamplay professional soccer for overseas teams in England and Europe. Discuss the likely reasons for their decision to play overseas rather than in the Australian soccer competition. 11 Discuss the reasons why LA Galaxy chose David Beckham to play in the American Soccer competition.
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The sweatshop side of globalisation
TNCs often use the cheap labour available in developing countries to produce sports equipment, shoes and sports clothing. The factories where these goods are produced have become known as sweatshops due to the poor working facilities and low wages paid to the workers.
8.38 Some TNCs produce items in factories that have become known as sweatshops, such as this one located in Indonesia.
8.37 Using child labour is not uncommon in developing countries.
ABUSE OF WORKERS RIGHTS

There are some TNCs in the sporting industry that have been guilty of human rights abuses. These companies subcontract the making of clothing and sporting equipment to factories in developing countries. The manufacture often involves a complicated web of materials and production links that ends in products on the shelves of the sports stores in developed countries. These factories have been labelled sweatshops. Examples of the human rights violations from these sweatshops include paying less than minimum wages to workers, employing child labour in the factories, incorrect payment or failure to pay for overtime worked, harassment of workers by management, as well as poor environmental, safety and health conditions in the workplace.
8.39 Oxfam Australia organised a protest against sweatshops in Martin Place, Sydney. It aimed to raise awareness of human rights violations in sweatshops.
SNAPSHOT
Indonesian workers paid well below minimum wage

On 6 April 2005, FNPBI, a respected labour rights group in Indonesia, reported that workers at a Nike contract factory had gone on strike to protest about being paid wages that were far below the legal minimum wage, violating both Indonesian labour law and Nikes Code of Conduct. Workers at the factory Didachi Makmur Abadi, owned by South Korean investors, were protesting against the starvation wages. The workers were producing 40 pairs of shoes per hour for the Nike and Puma corporations and were paid US$47 per month for the work. The minimum wage for this work at that time was US$72 per month. Unfortunately this is not a rare case. One week after this information was publicised, Nikes Corporate Responsibility Report stated that in 2550 per cent of Nikes partner factories (between 175 and 300 factories) workers are paid less than the legal minimum wage. As a response to these human rights concerns, Nike released a 2004 Corporate Responsibility Report. Nike already lists its most up-to-date code of conduct on its website. The company aims to have all its factories comply with its code of conduct. To help ensure this, Nike has listed each of its factory locations and aims to have all of them inspected to check for human rights violations. It is a huge task due to the complex production web of a transnational organisation. Nike is concerned that bad publicity and poor production factory locations could harm its global brand.
8.40 Selected location of Nike factories worldwide. This graph shows the number of factory units Nike had operating in 2004.
China
Scale
This height represents 20 factories.
Thailand USA Portugal Turkey India Vietnam Sri Lanka Malaysia Indonesia Mexico Brazil Korea Japan
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is meant by the term sweatshop? 2 Where are these sweatshops located and why? 3 Outline some of the human rights violations that occur in sweatshops. 4 Refer to the snapshot of Indonesian workers conditions. a What law has been broken by paying workers less than the minimum wage? b What is the name of the factory mentioned in the article? c How many pairs of shoes do the workers make each hour? d What is the minimum wage for this type of work? e How much less than the minimum wage were the workers paid? f Is the payment of less than the minimum wage unique to this factory? g How has Nike responded to these ndings? h How does Nike plan to ensure that minimum wages are paid in all Nike factories?
Skills
5 Look at 8.40: a List the top ve countries for Nike factory locations. b List the two continents that have the greatest concentration of Nike factories. c Explain possible reasons for the global pattern of Nike factory locations shown on the map.
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Cultural impacts of globalisation

The globalisation of culture is a force that inuences us all. Some people argue that globalisation is moving the world towards one giant global culture where music, entertainment, foods and even language are the same. This is because many cultural aspects are easily exported due to the globalisation process. Transnational corporations (TNCs) are largely responsible for this movement towards one global culture. While it is easy to see how and where these cultural inuences enter a country, the changes they make to the culture of the country are harder to identify because they happen slowly.
FAST FOOD TASTES AND CULTURE

McDonaldisation is a term rst used in 1996 by US sociologist George Ritzer. It describes how North American TNCs are extending their inuence into many countries of the world. Some of the big brand names in fast food besides McDonalds include KFC, Subway, Burger King, and coffee shops such as Starbucks and Gloria Jeans. These stores are located around the globe and have an increasing presence in Australia.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
McDonalds is the leading global food service retailer with more than 30 000 local restaurants serving nearly 50 million people in more than 119 countries each day.
8.41 McDonalds and other fast food chains have spread throughout the world, creating a uniform global cuisine.
8.42 Theme parks are one force shaping global culture.
ENTERTAINMENT AND CULTURE

The spread of television, movies and music across the world has meant that entertainment interests across countries have also come together in what is known as pop culture. Powerful global media organisations spread pop culture. Companies such as AOL/Time Warner, Walt Disney and Sony now control most of the lms, television shows, televised sports events and magazines that we consume. They market their product across the world and export the values of the country they are located in with the entertainment they distribute. Popular entertainment companies such as Disney have a tremendous global reach in terms of their audience. Once Disneyland was unique to California, but as tourism and the inuence of Disney has spread, the empire has expanded and Disneylands have been opened around the globe.
GLOBAL MEDIA STARS THROUGH ANIMATION

An American family taking on the world
In some cases the values of a country where a TV program originates can conict with the local religion or culture of places it will be viewed, so adaptations are needed. The Simpsons is an example. As the program expanded into the Middle East it had to adapt to Arabic and Islamic cultureHomer changed into Omar, Bart into Bodr, and the show is called Al Shamshoon. Other cultural aspects of the show also had to be changed so that it would not offend the local audience.
The spread of Japanese culture

Pokmon, a cartoon show developed out of a popular Japanese computer game, was created primarily for Japanese audiences. It became a worldwide cultural inuence when Nintendo created a computer game based on the Japanese concept. With increasing popularity of the computer game around the world came the opportunity to sell the cartoon to other countries. To do this it became popular around the world as the show was translated into other languages for the global audience.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
In 1982 there were 50 major media companies that dominated the global market. Today there are fewer than 10. These companies produce the music, television, news and entertainment seen around the world. It is estimated that the daily global audience of news network CNN international is in excess of 1 billion people.
Activities
Knowledge
1 In what way is the world moving towards becoming one giant global culture? 2 Why are the changes to a countrys culture made as a result of globalisation often hard to identify? 3 Who rst used the term McDonaldisation? What does it refer to? 4 What does pop culture refer to? 5 Name three global media TNCs.
SNAPSHOT
6 How do large media companies inuence the global culture that is emerging? 7 Why do some television programs need to adapt to other cultures as they spread across the globe? 8 What changes have been made to The Simpsons as it is being televised into the Middle East? 9 The number of global media organisations has been steadily falling since 1982. Do you think this is a good thing? Explain your answer. 10 Who started the Disney Corporation? What has been the result of the venture since it was formed?
Global Disney
Walt Disney and his brother started the Disney Corporation in 1923 as a small animation studio. Today it has grown into a giant transnational corporation with a global income of US$31.9 billion (2005). In 1955 Walt Disney opened the rst and original Disneyland theme park in Anaheim, a suburb of Los Angeles in California. It quickly became a global attraction as people travelled there for the Disneyland experience. The success of Disneyland is something that the corporation has been keen to export. Today there are ve Disneyland resorts located around the globe that attract millions of visitors each year: Disneyland, Anaheim, California, USAopened 1955 Walt Disney World Resort, Lake Buena Vista, Florida, USAopened 1971 Tokyo Disney Resort, Urayasu, Chiba, Japan opened 1983 Disneyland Park, Marne-la-Vallee, Paris, France opened 1992 Hong Kong Disneyland Resort, Hong Kong, China opened 2005.
Application
11 As a class develop a list of the advantages and disadvantages of having one large media company such as AOL/Time Warner control so much of the entertainment available to the global audience. 12 Use an atlas to map the location of the Disneylands around the world. 13 What do you think the Disneyland experience mentioned in the snapshot would involve?
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Globalisation winners and losers
Conditions for people across the world are unequal the gap between rich and poor countries in the world gets wider each year. Globalisation is singled out as one of the main causes of this global inequality.
8.43 African farmers have to compete with cheap imported farm products as a result of subsidies paid to farmers in the European Union.
agricultural subsidies, which help pay farmers to grow food. These subsidies have increased since 1997 by 25 per cent. Tariffs are also used to control trade. For agricultural imports, such as sugar, rice and dairy products, some rich countries have tariffs of up to 900 per cent. This situation has been made worse by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) requiring the poor countries to remove tariffs in order to get loans. Another example of unfair trade practices can be seen in the European Union (EU). The EU pays its tomato farmers a minimum price higher than the price on the world market. As a result EU tomatoes dumped into West Africa now make up 80 per cent of the local supply and have nearly destroyed the African tomato industry. There are a number of global organisations set up to manage these impacts of globalisation. They are working to change trade rules GEOGRAPHY and give loans to poorer countries to help them FOCUS develop in an effort to More than a trillion US dollars is reduce global inequality. The turned over each day on global changes they have made so currency markets. Measured far have involved lowering as a stack of thousand dollar tariffs in an effort to increase notes, a million dollars would be trade, bringing wealth into 20 centimetres high. A trillion the country. However, rich dollars (a million million dollars) countries have been slow to would be over 386 kilometres remove their trade barriers, high or more than 40 times further worsening the higher than Mount Everest. growing inequality.
AN UNEQUAL WORLD
The growing gap between countries is highlighted by the following statistics. 54% of global income goes to just 10% of the worlds people, while 40% receive just 5% of global income. The richest 50 people on Earth have a combined income greater than the combined income of the poorest 416 million people. There are 2.5 billion people in the world today living on less than US$2 a day. According to current trends, 827 million people will live in extreme poverty in 2015. The largest 500 transnational corporations account for over 70% of world trade.
WHY IS THE GAP GROWING?

Trade practices are one of the causes of this growing inequality. The broad pattern of world trade is that the poorer countries export raw materials or agricultural crops while the rich countries export these and a range of expensive manufactured items. The other feature of world trade is that it is not all fair. Rich countries protect their local industry through a number of different methods, including tariffs, quotas and subsidies. They spend up to US$1 billion a day on
8.44 Organisations involved in the globalisation process
The United Nations was established at the end of the Second World War. It has become a promoter of globalisation, arguing that individual states have a dual role with responsibilities to both their own citizens and to the world.
Established in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference, the World Bank provides loans to poor countries for development projects. These include projects such as water and sanitation facilities, natural resource management, and education and health improvements.
The World Bank is located in Washington, DC. The logo can be seen at the entrance to the building.
Established after the Second World War in 1946, the International Monetary Fund now has 182 member countries. It aims to promote international cooperation on nance, encourage proper systems for exchanging money between countries and provide temporary assistance for countries with high debts.
MANAGING THE IMPACTS OF GLOBALISATION
The World Trade Organization was established in 1995 to administer the rules of international trade agreed to by its 123 member countries. These rules have been ratied by the parliaments of all members. The WTO aims to promote the growth of world trade by the lowering of barriers to trade such as tariffs and import quotas.
8.45 Tariffs, quotas and subsidies at a glance
Tariffs A tariff is a tax on an imported good. Governments impose tariffs so that their local businesses can compete with cheaper imports. local farmers grow bananas Local bananas at a cost of $1.20 a kilogram Bananas Imported + tariff imposed of bananas cost 30% = $1.30kg $1.00kg Result: The local product sells first giving farmers their income. Quotas A quota is a limit on the number of items imported into a country. Local farmers produce 3000kg of oranges. Locals will buy 4000kg of oranges before price falls too low for farmers to earn enough income. Government imposes import quota of 1000kg of oranges to maintain price of oranges for farmers.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Describe the broad pattern of international trade. 2 List three statistics that suggest the world is an unequal place. 3 Give a brief explanation of tariffs, quotas and subsidies and explain why they are considered to be barriers to trade. 4 Outline one example of the impacts these barriers to trade have on agriculture in the world today. 5 Suggest some possible reasons why the rich countries of the world resist removing their trade barriers. 6 Identify the four global organisations involved in managing globalisation and give a brief explanation of their role.
Application
7 Discuss the reasons for a country imposing a tariff on an imported product. List the reasons in your note book. 8 Organise a class debate on this topic: The solution to world poverty is for all countries to remove tariffs, quotas and subsidies. 9 Imagine you are a tomato farmer from West Africa. Write a letter to the leader of one of the EU nations explaining the impact their subsidies are having on you.
Result: Local farmers remain profitable. Subsidies To keep farmers producing their products governments pay them money. This is called a subsidy. This brings their costs down and lets them sell their products on the world market at a cheaper price. Result: Farmers remain profitable. There are arguments for and against protecting industry through these three methods; however, they remain unfair to people in poorer countries of the world.
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Global inequality
In the world today many people do not have adequate access to food, shelter, water, health care and education. While there are enough resources on Earth for everyone, the way these resources are shared is unequal. Geographers divide the countries of the world into two groupsdeveloped and developingaccording to the resources they use. The life opportunities of people around the world vary greatly. Geographers help reduce inequality by developing strategies to promote human rights and ecological sustainability.
Geographical tools
Maps
use an atlas identify and use elements of maps, including legend, direction, title, scale, border distinguish between different types of map projection measure distances on a map using linear scale construct a sketch map identify and calculate maximum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs distinguish between oblique, aerial, groundlevel photographs and satellite imagery collect and interpret photographic images use email for a specific geographical purpose practise ethical behaviour when using email and the Internet
GLOBAL CHANGE
Syllabus outcomes
A student: 4.1 identifies and gathers geographical information 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.5 demonstrates a sense of place about global environments 4.7 identifies and discusses geographical issues from a range of perspectives 4.9 describes differences in life opportunities throughout the world 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship
Photographs

ICT

Definitions
democracya form of government where people elect their representatives and can inuence the decision-making processes Demographythe study of the characteristics of human populations such as size, birth rates and death rates diarrhoeaan illness that can cause dehydration, which means the body lacks enough uid to function properly ecological footprinthow much land and water area a person in a particular country needs in order to produce their energy requirements and dispose of their wastes ecological sustainabilityuse of the worlds resources by the present generation in a way that will not limit the ability of future generations to meet their needs fossil fuelsthe ancient remains of plants and animals that are stored underground in the form of coal, oil and natural gas Gross Domestic Product (GDP)a measure of the total value of all the goods and services produced in a country over a year, also referred to as Gross National Income (GNI) Gross Domestic Product per capitaGDP divided by the total populationrepresents the per person money value of all goods and services a country produces in a year Human Development Index (HDI)a statistic that combines income, life expectancy and literacy levels of a particular country infant mortality ratethe number of child deaths per 1000 babies born lobbyingpressuring government and other groups to change through actions like email and letter-writing campaigns malnutritionwhere the body lacks the vitamins, nutrients and energy needed for normal, healthy development natural resourceanything in nature that can be used to satisfy a human want or need non-renewable resourcea natural resource that is consumed by use renewable resourcea natural resource that is regenerated within a short period of time sanitationa means of hygiene, includes washing and sewage facilities squatter settlementan unplanned housing area where people have no legal ownership of the land and build houses out of materials they can nd or scavenge, also known as a shanty town
Accessing the necessities of life fresh water

In order to survive, human beings have three basics needs of water, food and shelter. However, the world today is an unequal place where peoples quality of life varies greatly. Some have full access to the basic necessities while others struggle just to stay alive. As you read this unit and the next, consider the access to food, water and shelter that you enjoy.
9.1 Collecting water from wells and bores is hard work.
WHAT IS THE WORLD LIKE TODAY?

The quality of life refers to all aspects of a persons life. At one level it includes the basic human needs such as the amount of food available, access to a reliable water supply and the type of housing a person has. Other thingsrelated to the standard of livingadd to the quality of life. For example, the availability of medical care, the ability to vote, the value of womens roles and the amount of schooling available are all important in creating better living conditions for people and improving their standard of living. People around the world do not enjoy the same levels of all of these things. Some people have better access to them than others.
9.2 Poor drainage and sanitation affect peoples access to clean water.
ACCESS TO FRESH, SAFE WATER

Fresh water is one of the most important requirements for life on Earth. People use water to drink, cook, wash and water crops. It is important for peoples health that they have access to a sufcient quantity and quality of water. In some parts of the worldmuch of Africa, for exampleaccessing water means walking long distances to collect it in containers every day. This job is typically done by women and girls who spend many hours collecting water from rivers, wells and bores (see 9.1). These water sources are sometimes polluted, leading to disease and even death. Where mosquitoes breed in stagnant, polluted water they spread waterborne diseases, which further add to deaths from lack of safe, clean drinking water. In areas that lack a fresh water supply there is frequently a lack of drainage and sewage system. When it rains and the water runs over the surface of the street it collects other waste as well, such as GEOGRAPHY rubbish and animal waste. This FOC US water runs into rivers that become contaminated. In poor countries Diarrhoea caused by many people take water directly contaminated water has from rivers, unlike richer countries killed more children in where water is stored in reservoirs the past 10 years than and treated before it is pumped all the people lost to through supply taps to peoples armed conict since the homes and other buildings.
Second World War.
Global inequalities in water availability

The maps in 9.3 show how access to fresh water for domestic (household) use has changed since 1950 and predicts what it will be like in 2025. In rich countries like Australia a person typically uses 300400 litres per day. In poorer countries a person is considered to have access to fresh water if they are able to obtain just 20 litres per day within one-kilometre walking distance of their household. Access to fresh water as an issue is explored in greater detail in chapter 11.
9.3 The changing access to fresh water for the countries of the world shows that regions of Africa and Asia face critical water shortages into the future.
Activities
Knowledge
1 State the three basic human needs. 2 In what way can a persons quality of life be viewed on two levels? How do these two levels differ from each other? 3 List some of the factors that can be used to determine a persons standard of living. 4 Why is access to fresh, safe water such an important issue for people? 5 What two aspects of water supply are most important in maintaining a persons health? Why are both of these aspects important? 6 Explain the role women play collecting water in many parts of the world. 7 How does the water supply in rich countries differ to poor countries? 8 Under what circumstances can using a river as a source of water lead to the spread of disease? 9 Under what conditions are people in poorer countries of the world considered to have access to a water supply? How does this compare to people in rich countries like Australia? 10 How would a sewage system stop disease spreading?
1950
Skills
1995
11 Refer to 9.3: a In 2025 how many cubic metres of water will there be per person in Australia? b Copy and complete the table below. You may need to refer to an atlas to assist you as you complete this activity.
Country Global water availability (thousand cubic metres per person per year) 1950 1995 2025
India Egypt USA
2025
c Which country listed in the table above experiences the greatest change in water availability between 1950 and 2025? d List ve countries where the water availability will be catastrophically low by 2025.
Application
12 Draw a diagram that explains how drinking water in rivers can become polluted and unsuitable for drinking. 13 Australia is a rich nation of the world. As a class discuss the access to the necessities of life that you have as an Australian citizen.
Cubic metres of water per person per year (in thousands) <1.0 =catastrophically low 5.110 =middle 1.12 =very low 10.120 =high 2.15 =low >20 =very high
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Accessing the necessities of life food and shelter

An adequate diet is essential for life. Poor diet causes malnutrition. Without a healthy body, malnourished people face a greater risk from infections and other diseases. Adequate shelter in houses is another essential requirement for people. Shelter allows people to live together in family groups in the safety of a home. Without shelter people face ill-health and harm.
9.4 Shanty towns are a feature of all cities in the poorer countries of the world.
ACCESS TO FOOD
All people need enough nutritious food to grow and stay healthy. Malnutrition is where the body fails to develop because it lacks the essential vitamins and energy for growth. It is a problem facing much of the worlds population. Around 850 million people worldwide are considered to be malnourished, and most of these live in the poorer countries of the world (see 9.5). Over 9 million people die each year from hunger and malnutrition. Out of these, 5 million are children.
Many children die from a few treatable infectious diseases including diarrhoea, pneumonia, malaria and measles. They would survive if their bodies and immune systems had not been weakened by hunger and malnutrition.
Is there enough food?

World agriculture is very efcient and the crops grown today produce large amounts of food. In fact there is 17 per cent more energy available per person per day from the foods we grow today than there was 30 years ago. This means there is enough food grown worldwide to feed GEOGRAPHY everybody. The issue is not one FOCUS of the amount or quality of the food produced, but how the In the world today, a food is shared around. While child dies every three hunger is a problem in the poor seconds as a direct world, being overweight is a result of the poverty they are forced to live in. major problem in many of the worlds richest countries.
9.6 Share of children who are underweight and adults who are overweight, selected countries, mid-1990s
9.5 Global undernourishment
Country Bangladesh
Share Country underweight (%) 56 53 48 40 39 34 United States Russian Federation United Kingdom Germany Colombia Brazil
Share overweight (%) 55 54 51 50 41 36
Key Percentage of population undernourished 35% 2034% 519% 2.54% Source: United Nations less than 2.5% World Food Programme no data
India Ethiopia Vietnam Nigeria Indonesia
THE HUNGER CYCLE

Hunger is related very much to poverty. Poverty traps people in a downward spiral or cyclea lack of food which leads to poor health, which leads to being unable to work, which leads to even greater poverty, and the cycle continues.
ACCESS TO SHELTER
Many of the worlds cities are now growing at such a rapid rate that it makes it difcult for proper housing to be provided. Poor peoplemany of whom have moved from country areas in search of workare unable to afford adequate housing. They build squatter settlements or shanty towns from whatever materials they can get on whatever piece of vacant land they can nd. These towns are known as slums. Most lack access to basic services such as water, sewage and electricity. Many are routinely cleared by the people who own the land they are built on. To avoid being cleared, shanty towns often develop on rubbish tips and other less favourable areas of a city. Disease and sickness are often common in slum areas. These issues are explored in greater detail in chapter 12.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
More than three billion people now live in cities. Of these it is estimated that around one billion live in slums. This is around a third of the worlds total population living in cities. By the year 2030, the gure is expected to grow by another billion.
9.7 In poorer countries malnutrition affects many children.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is malnutrition? 2 What impact does malnutrition have on the development of the human body? 3 What impact does hunger and poor nutrition have on the worlds population today? Why is this impact greater on children? 4 Name four diseases that children commonly die from and explain the role malnutrition plays in these deaths. 5 What has happened to food production from agriculture over the last 30 years? 6 Explain the link between poverty and hunger. 7 What problems does food consumption cause in: a the poor world b the rich world? 8 What is meant by shanty towns or squatter settlements? Where are they located? 9 Describe the living conditions of the people living in slums. 10 How many people live in slums worldwide? How will this gure change in the future?
a What percentage of Australias population is undernourished? Name two other countries that have the same level of undernourished population. b What percentage of Chinas population is undernourished? c Which continent has the highest percentage of its population undernourished? 12 Refer to 9.6: a Name the country that has the highest percentage of children underweight. b Name the country that has the highest percentage of adults overweight. c How much higher is the percentage of children underweight in India than Ethiopia? d Construct two column graphs to represent the information in 9.6.
Application
13 Make a list of the items you could scavenge around your school that could be used to construct a shelter. Once you have a list of building materials, design a shelter making sure it is protected from wind, sun and rain. Estimate the size of the shelter, and the number of rooms. 14 Construct a diagram to show the operation of the hunger cycle described in this unit.
Skills
11 Refer to 9.5:
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Other aspects of the quality of life

While access to water, food and shelter are essential for human life, there are other aspects that affect the quality of life of people. The things that people are entitled to as part of living in a community are called human rights. Examples are equality between women and men, being free to elect the government and access to education and medical care.
ROLE AND STATUS OF WOMEN

The roles that women are allowed to play in a particular society affect their quality of life. Women do not share access to the same rights as men everywhere in the world due to barriers built by customs, traditions and religious beliefs. For example, girls are often denied access to education, which can affect their literacy levels.
9.8 Some governments want to control any opposition groups and use the military to stop protests and demonstrations.
9.9 Females do not have the same level of literacy as males in many countries.
Countries with the lowest literacy levels

Female youth literacy rate (%) 2002 Average annual rate of change % 19882002 0 1 2 3 5 Number of years needed to reach 95% 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Literacy is the ability to be able to read and write. Although there are 57 million young men aged 1524 in poorer countries who still cannot read or write, there are 96 million young women in the same position. Without these skills it is difcult to take an active part in community life or gain work opportunities (see 9.9). In some societies women and girls are subject to violence, denied access to education and the broader world because of their place in society. Some countries do not allow women to participate in government matters. This locks women out of ever achieving change that may promote their position in that society (see 9.10).
Niger Bangladesh Mauritania Burkina Faso Pakistan Benin Senegal Mozambique Nepal Guinea-Bissau
14.9 41.4 41.8 25.7 44.2 35.8 44.3 49.2 46.0 47.4
TYPE OF GOVERNMENT
Many of todays national governments are either democracies or are moving towards this. Democracy is where all adult people are allowed to vote and have a say in the way they are to be governed. Governments are accountable to the people for their actions through fair elections. If they fail to act in the interests of the country then they could be voted out at the next election. Not all countries allow democratic elections. Some people have very little say in how they are governed or in who governs them. In these countries even speaking out against the actions of the government can be enough to have you imprisoned or even killed.
9.10 Some countries are approaching equal representation of women in their governments. In 1995, only 8.7 per cent of elected ofcials were women; by 2004 it averaged 15.4 per cent worldwide. In 22 countries women now make up more than 25 per cent of those in government.
Women in parliament, selected countries, May 2004
Rwanda
Sweden
Cuba
South Africa
9.12 Tiananmen Square, China, 1989. A peaceful protest by hundreds of Chinese university students ended when the government sent in the army, killing hundreds of students.
Bulgaria
Australia
Uganda
China
Activities
Knowledge
United Kingdom US Tunisia Brazil
1 Name three examples of human rights. 2 How can a lack of education affect a persons quality of life? 3 Name three areas where inequality exists between males and females. 4 What is meant by democracy? Why is it seen as the ideal type of government by many people? 5 What role do fair elections and voting systems play in ensuring governments act in the interests of the people? 6 List three benets of advances in medical technology. 7 How does access to medical care vary across the globe? 8 Describe two statistics that can be used to determine the quality of health care available in a particular country.
ACCESS TO MEDICAL CARE

Advances in medicines and medical technology have enabled people to live longer, reduce deaths related to child birth, and improved the overall quality of life of people. Access to medical care is not equal across the globe. Rich countries are developing the latest medical technology, and people can easily access doctors and hospitals with the best facilities. Evidence of this inequality can be seen in the child mortality ratethe number of children who die per thousand child births, or the under-ve mortality rate the number of children who die before the age of ve. Poor access to health care and medical facilities leads to higher mortality (or death) rates for children in the poorer countries of the world (see 9.11).
9.11 Under-ve and infant mortality rates, by World Health Organization region, 2003
180 160 Rate per 1000 births 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Infant mortality Under-five mortality
Skills
9 Look at 9.9: a Name the two types of graphs used to show the data. b Describe what each of the three graphs shows. c Which country has the highest female youth literacy? d What percentage of Nigers female youth is illiterate? e Which country had the highest average annual rate of change in literacy from 1988 to 2002? f How many years will it take for Burkina Faso to reach a literacy rate of 95 per cent? 10 Look at 9.10: a Record the symbol and colour that is used to show the percentage of women in parliament. b Which country has the highest percentage of women in parliament? c List the three countries with the lowest representation of women in parliament.
Surf
Africa Americas Eastern Europe South-East Western Mediterranean Asia Pacific
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The world and its resources
9.13 Turbines on a wind farm produce energy from a natural resource.
The world contains enough resources to feed, clothe and house the current population. However, resources are not shared equally and often the way people use them destroys the environment. Geographers study the patterns of resource use across the globe to promote ecological sustainability as well as reduce poverty and hunger.
Coal and natural gas are also important energy sources. Coal, like oil, has many uses and forms a component in many everyday products (see 9.14). The uses of coal and natural gas include being used as a fuel source to produce electricity, to manufacture in industry and for heating and cooking.
9.14 Products made from coal
WHAT ARE NATURAL RESOURCES?

Natural resources are things from the physical environment that can be used to satisfy human needs or wants. They include elements of the environment such as water, soil, forests and air. Some natural resources are used to produce energy, including: fossil fuelsoil, coal and natural gas environmental factorssunlight, wind, tides and waves, and geothermal energy.
Coal tar products Insecticides Fungicides Moth balls Paint thinner Batteries Wood preservative Disinfectant Varnish
Coal products Fuel Gas Carbon dioxide Soda water Acetylene Synthetic rubber Charcoal briquettes Articial silk
Other products Carbolic acid Fire insulation Food preservatives Billiard balls Medicines Perfumes Ammonia Baking powder Paint pigment Sulfur TNT explosive Linoleum Sugar substitute
FOSSIL FUELS
Fossil fuels are the ancient remains of plants and animals that are found underground. They are a store of the Suns energy and are very efcient fuel sources when burnt. Oil is one of the most important resources on the planet. From oil, petrochemicals are made that are used as fuel in engines and to manufacture many products including diesel, plastics, fertilisers, pesticides, cosmetics and even medicines.
All fossil fuels are non-renewable. This means that they are consumed by use. For this reason the world has a limited supply of these fuel sources (see 9.15). Burning fossil fuels also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which adds to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Coal is becoming less favourable as an energy source because of this.
9.15 Estimated reserves of fossil fuels
Fossil fuel alternatives

The use of environmental factors such as the Suns solar energy and the wind (see 9.13) are seen as the most suitable alternative for future energy needs because they are renewable resources that are not consumed by use. Wind power is a natural resource that has been developed into a renewable energy source. Large towers support propellers that turn in the wind. The turning of the propeller moves a generator that produces electricity. It is a clean fuel source that is ecologically sustainable. Some people argue that wind farms are visual pollution and the propellers have been known to interfere with television and radio waves, as well as harm bird life. Another alternative to fossil fuels is uranium, which is a naturally occurring element. Its use is gaining popularity around the world because it is thought of as clean energy. Producing electricity from uranium does not add to greenhouse gases and global warming. While it is an efcient fuel source, power production has the risk of leaking radiation. There is also the problem of the radioactive waste it produces, which remains harmful to humans for thousands of years.
Estimated years of use at current exploitation levels (1998)

250 200
Reserves by location Oil

Kuwait 9.2% Iran 8.5% Rest of World 37.5% Iraq 10.7% Saudi Arabia 24.8%
Years
150 100 50 0 Oil Natural Coal gas
United Arab Emirates 9.3%
Coal
Australia 9.0% India 8.0%
Natural United Arab Emirates gas

4.1% Qatar 5.8% Saudi Arabia 4.0%
China 12.0% Russia 16.0%
Rest of World 30.0% USA 25.0%
Iran 15.7%
Rest of World 37.5% Russia 32.9%
9.17 Power productionnuclear v coal
Fuel consumption
9.16 Steps have been taken to reduce the pollutants released from coal-red power stations.
Waste products About 7 million tonnes of waste per year carbon and sulphur dioxide gases released into the atmosphere and solids including ash and sulphur
About 3 million tonnes of coal per year
1000 Mw coal fired power station About 25 tonnes of uranium each year. With reprocessing, about 1 tonne of high level radioactive waste which can be solidified for greater safety and disposal
1000 Mw nuclear power station
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WHO USES THE WORLDS RESOURCES?

Humans have used energy since they learnt to make re. We all continue to use energy, but our energy appetite is increasing (see 9.18). Resources are not used equally across the globe. In terms of energy consumption there are some countries that produce very little yet consume great amounts. Japan ranks as one of the richest nations in the world and is a large energy consumer, yet it produces very little of its own energyit imports almost all of its energy requirements. Fossil fuels are mined in one country and then exported to another, creating an interesting global pattern of energy production and consumption, shown in 9.19.
HOW SUSTAINABLE IS THE USE OF THE WORLDS RESOURCES?

The worlds resources are being used faster than they can be replaced. To work out the impact that different people have on the planet the concept of an ecological footprint was developed. This footprint measures how much land and water area a person in a particular country needs in order to produce their energy requirements and dispose of their wastes. Today the global footprint is 2 per cent larger than the world. In other words: we need 123 per cent of the worlds resources in order for the population to live the way they currently do the world takes one year and two months to regenerate what we use in a single year.
9.18 Individual energy consumption

Energy consumed in the form of food Domestic: energy for cooking, heating etc. Services: Energy for ofice work, trade, teaching Energy for industry and agriculture Energy for transport Technological humans 1950 AD
350 300 250 200 150 100
We cannot keep living this way. Geographers attempt to improve this situation by promoting ecological sustainabilityusing resources in a way that will not destroy the environment for future generations.
Gigajoules per person per year
9.20 The ecological footprints of the worlds continents
10
Global hectares per person
Industrial human 1875 AD Primitive farmer 5 000 BC Developed farmer 1400 AD
8 6 4 2 0
319 390 337 520 334
Primitive 50 human 1 000 000 BC 0
Hunter 100 000 BC
North America Western Europe Central and Eastern Europe Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and Central Asia Asia-Pacific Africa
Today 28% of the worlds population consumes 77% of the worlds energy production.
Or 3 4 of the worlds population uses less than 1 4 of the energy produced
3 407 Population (millions)
810
9.19 Global energy production and consumption
United States of America Canada Latin America and Caribbean United Kingdom France Germany Rest of Europe Russia Rest of former Soviet Union South Africa Rest of South Africa Middle East India China Japan Republic of Korea Rest of Asia and Pacific
Oil production Oil consumption
250
500
750
1000 1250 Million tonnes of oil
1500
1750
2000
2250
Mineral Coal
Country
Rank 1 2 3 4 5
Oil
1 2 3 4 5
Natural gas
9.21 Animal waste is collected and processed by people into dung cakes to be used as a biogas fuel source. This reduces the ecological footprint by minimising pollution from animal dung and reducing timber loss from forests that would have been used for fuel.
1 2 3 4 5
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is a natural resource? 2 Explain the difference between a renewable and a nonrenewable resource. 3 What are fossil fuels and how is their energy released? 4 List three products made from coal that you use. 5 Name the global issue that is caused by burning fossil fuels. 6 Why are environmental factors such as solar energy and wind power seen as important energy sources for the future? 7 What role might uranium play in meeting future energy needs? 8 Why has uranium been an unpopular fuel source to develop? 9 Refer to 9.17 and copy and complete this table:
Fuel source Uranium Coal Advantages Disadvantages
16 Look at 9.15 and estimate how long it will be before world reserves of oil, natural gas and coal run out if used at current rates. 17 Refer to 9.18: a For the hunter in 100 000 BC which individual energy consumption was greatest? b For technological humans which individual energy consumption is greatest? c Describe the growth of energy needed for transport from the hunters to technological humans. 18 Look at 9.20: a What is the population of the AsiaPacic? b What is the footprint in global hectares for a person in North America? c Estimate the difference in the ecological footprint for a person in Africa compared to a person in North America. d Calculate the global footprint in global hectares required for the entire population of Africa.
Application
19 Describe why uranium is increasingly being viewed as an environmentally friendly fuel source. 20 Design a pamphlet explaining to people the importance of reducing their energy consumption. 21 Write a report on one of the following topics: a The global inequality in resource use. b Promoting ecological sustainability is essential for the future of the planet. c Renewable energy versus fossil fuels. 22 Refer to 9.19. Discuss the inequalities that exist between global production and consumption of oil.
10 How can the wind be used to generate electricity? Name two problems caused by wind farms. 11 How is Japan able to produce its energy requirements? 12 What is an ecological footprint? What is the current global ecological footprint? 13 What is meant by ecological sustainability? 14 Why is it essential that geographers promote ecological sustainability when using the worlds resources?
Skills
15 Copy and complete the table following by using 9.15 to rank the top ve countries reserves of coal, oil and natural gas.
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Measuring inequality between countries
9.22 The income of the shanty town residents in the foreground would be considerably less than for the richer residents in other areas of the city yet the GDP per capita is averaged across all of the population.
Geographers have generally classied countries according to the income they earn. In the past, countries were given labels such as developed or underdeveloped, or First World, Second World and Third World. Today countries are classied as being either developed or developing.
WHAT ARE THE DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING WORLDS?

At the start of 2008, the worlds population was approaching 7 billion. However considerable inequality exists in terms of people having equal access to the worlds resources. In the developed world people enjoy high standards of livingtheir quality of life is very good. In the developing world there is considerable variation in the standard of living, but it is generally low for many people compared to the developed world.
9.23 Population of the developed and developing world
QUALITY OF LIFE IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD

In the year 2000 the worlds population reached 6 billion, of whom: 5.3 billion lived in developing countries 1.3 billion lived on less than US$1 per day 3 billion lived on under US$2 per day 2 billion had no access to electricity 1.3 billion had no access to clean water 3 billion had no access to sanitation nearly 1 billion were unable to read a book or sign their names.
10 8 6 4 2 developed world 0 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 Year 2000 2050 2100 2150
Population (billions)
2000 6.1 billion

developing world
MEASURING DEVELOPMENT
Geographers measure the level of economic development of a country using either Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or Gross National Income (GNI). The gure is calculated by working out the value of all the goods and services produced in a country per year. In 2005 the GDP of Australia was US$640.1 billion. When the total GDP for a country is divided by the number of people who live in that country a new statistic is calculated. This gure is called GDP per capita.
It shows the money value of all goods and services produced in a country per person. GDP per capita is a more useful statistic because it enables geographers to study how income per person changes over time, as well as compare income per person between countries.
IS GDP THE BEST MEASURE OF DEVELOPMENT?

GDP and GDP per capita are useful but they do not always show the standard of living that people enjoy. Reasons for this include the following. GDP for countries that produce expensive goods such as oil or diamonds will be very high while countries that produce cheaper items such as food will have a low GDP. GDP per capita does not tell us how the money is shared within the country. One person might be very wealthy and the rest very poor. GDP does not include subsistence farmers who grow their own foodthe country might have a low GDP, but the people might be well fed.
9.24 If people make goods such as cars the value of the cars is used to calculate GDP. For people such as teachers or accountants their salaries or fees are used. The total is calculated for the entire country and then divided by the entire population to produce GDP per capita.
$ Total value of goods and services Number of people

Teacher Sales person
TV maker
Mechanic
$ GDP per Capita

Fruit grower Business person Builder Nurse
Despite these problems with GDP, it is still used as a measure of development. Countries are generally considered to have a high level of development if they have a GDP per capita of more than $10 000 while the poorest countries have a GDP per capita of less than $2000.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What two classications do geographers use to describe countries today? 2 What is the standard of living like for people living in the developing world? Use statistics to support your answer. 3 Why do you think people sometimes refer to the developing countries as the majority world? 4 Name two statistics that measure economic development. 5 Explain how Gross Domestic Product is calculated. 6 Explain the difference between GDP and GDP per capita. Which is the more useful statistic to geographers and why? 7 Describe two ways geographers use GDP per capita. 8 Outline three criticisms of GDP per capita as a measure of the level of development of a country. 9 What level of GDP per capita is needed for a country to be considered rich or poor?
Skills
10 Refer to 9.23: a What was the total population of the world in 1950? How many of these people lived in developing countries? b What was the total population of the world in 2000? How many of these people lived in developing countries? c What is the total world population projected to be in 2050? How many people will live in the developed world? d Calculate the percentage of the worlds population living in the developing world for 1950, 2000 and 2050. e Describe the trends in population growth for the more developed and developing countries of the world from 1950 to 2050. 11 Construct a line drawing of the image in 9.22.
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The Human Development Index
9.25 Education is a key to improving the quality of life.
The limitations of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a true indicator of a countrys level of development caused geographers to look for other measures. They wanted to be able to show more accurately the quality of life of people in a particular country.
What are the statistics other than GDP in the HDI?

Other than GDP per capita, these two measures are used in calculating the HDI. Life expectancy is the average age that people can expect to live to. It is an important indicator of the quality of life because the longer that people live, the better their diet, housing and access to health care must have been. The combination of literacy and education plays an important role in a person being able to work and participate in their community, so this is another essential indicator of the quality of life.
9.26 The UN needs an accurate measure of the quality of life in countries such as the Philippines, where these children gather oating waste for recycling to earn money.
THE UNS CLASSIFICATION OF DEVELOPMENT

The United Nations (UN) needs an accurate measure of the quality of life that people lead in a particular country. This helps them develop the programs and assistance needed in order to improve the standard of the living conditions in certain areas. To do this they use a range of different statistics. One measure that is favoured as a true indicator of the quality of life is called the Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI takes into account three key areas of peoples lives: income as measured by GDP per capita life expectancy literacy and education levels. The factors combined in the HDI are thought to give a much better indication of the quality of life of people than GDP per capita.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
In 2006 the three countries with the highest HDI were (in order) Norway, Ireland and Australia.
9.27 Human Development Index world map, based on UN statistics from 2002
Key High Medium Low No value
2000
4000 km
WORST TO BEST FROM 0 TO 1

The HDI value is calculated to be between 0 for the lowest value or poorest quality of life and 1 for the highest value or best quality of life. The statistics that are collected and the values that are calculated are completed by highly specialised geographers called demographers. Demography is the study of human population.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name the statistic the UN uses to measure development. 2 Why does the UN need an accurate measure of the quality of life for countries around the world? 3 List the three factors that are taken into account when calculating the HDI. 4 Explain why life expectancy and literacy levels are regarded as good indicators of the quality of life. 5 What is a demographer? What role do demographers play in developing HDI? 6 Compare how government and non-government organisations would use the HDI gures.
HOW IS THE HDI USED?

The HDI was created because people and their lives should be the crucial measure for the level of development of a country. The HDI covers more than just how much a country is able to produce as measured by GDP.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
In the 2006 HDI report the UN listed Niger in Africa as the country with the lowest HDI at just 0.311.
The HDI can be used by governments to target the areas that need attention such as health care, schooling or creating jobs. Non-government organisations (NGOs) can also use the index to develop programs to help improve the quality of life for people in a particular country.
Skills
7 Refer to 9.27: a Which continent has the majority of the low HDI values? b Name ten countries with a high HDI value. c How many countries in South America have a medium HDI value?
Application
8 Discuss the usefulness of GDP per capita statistics and the HDI. Why has the HDI largely replaced GDP per capita as the measure of a countrys level of development?
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SNAPSHOT 2
Life opportunities throughout the world

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a useful measure that enables the quality of life between countries to be compared. In reality there are many aspects to a countrys standard of living that need to be considered.
9.29 A family from Mali
DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS
There are statistics called development indicators that can be used to determine the quality of life of the population. These include access to fresh water, population per physician, seats in parliament held by women, Internet use, type of government and the infant mortality rate. These snapshots of three different countries will help give you an insight into the quality of life of people in India, the United States and Mali. The proles show some of the development indicators as the three countries were entering the twenty-rst century.
Thirty-nine-year-old Soumana Natomo has eight children, and his wives, Pama Kondo, 28, and Fatouma Niangani Toure, 26, will likely have more. How many of these children will survive is difcult to tell, as infant mortality is high. Some of the familys possessions are not included in this photographanother mortar and pestle for pounding grain, two wooden mattress platforms, 30 mango trees, and some old radio batteries that the children use as toys.
SNAPSHOT 1
Quality of life in India

Indiadevelopment indicators Population 1 billion Population density 318 people per square kilometre Total fertility rate 3.0 children per woman Population doubling time 36 years Percentage urban/rural 28% urban, 72% rural Per capita electricity use 561 kilowatt hours Infant mortality 66 deaths per 1000 births Life expectancy 62 (male), 64 (female) Adult literacy rate 68% (male), 45% (female) GDP per capita US$2670 HDI 0.595 Internet users 7 million Doctors 51 per 100 000 people
9.28 A family from India
At age 25, Mashre Yadev is already mother to four children. Each morning at their home in rural Uttar Pradesh, she draws water from a well so that her older children can wash before school. She cooks over a wood re. Her husband Bachau, 32, works roughly 56 hours a week, when he can nd work. In rough times, family members have gone more than two weeks with little food. Everything they own appears in this photograph.
Quality of life in Mali

Malidevelopment indicators Population 12 million Population density 9.1 people per square kilometre Total fertility rate 7 children per woman Population doubling time 23 years Percentage urban/rural 26% urban, 64% rural Per capita electricity use 63.55 kilowatt hours Infant mortality 117 per 1000 births Life expectancy 47 (male), 50 (female) Adult literacy rate 53% male, 40% female GDP per capita US$1000 HDI 0.3 Internet users 25 000 Doctors 4.4 per 100 000 people
SNAPSHOT 3
9.30 A family from the United States
Rick and Pattie Skeens 148-square-metre house lies in a cul-de-sac in Pearland, Texas. Rick, 36, works for a phone company while Pattie, 34, is a school teacher. Most of the familys possessions are shown in the photograph, except for the refrigeratorfreezer, camcorder, woodworking tools, computer, glass buttery collection, trampoline, shing equipment and the ries Rick uses for deer hunting.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Write a brief description of what the following statistics would measure: a infant mortality rate b life expectancy c doctors per 100 000 people d Internet users. 2 Choose three statistics other than the HDI and say how they represent the quality of life of a person living in a country. 3 Copy and complete the table below.
Statistic HDI Total fertility rate Infant mortality rate Physicians per 100,000 people Life expectancy M Internet users F M F M F United States India Mali
Quality of life in the United States

United Statesdevelopment indicators Population 292 million Population density 29 people per km2 Total fertility rate 2.1 children per woman Population doubling time 116 years Percentage urban/rural 78% urban, 22% rural Per capita electricity use 13 241 kilowatt hours Infant mortality 6.7 deaths per 1000 births Life expectancy 74 (male), 80 (female) Adult literacy rate 97% (male), 97% (female) GDP per capita US$35 750 HDI 0.946 Internet users 165 million Doctors 548 per 100 000 people
4 Calculate the difference in life expectancy between the United States and Mali for males and females. 5 Write a report comparing the quality of life of people living in the United States, India and Mali. Include statistics to support your response.
Application
6 Compare the photographs of the average family from each country. Describe some of the differences in life opportunities that the children of these families would experience.
7 As a UN representative you have been asked to compare the level of development of India and Mali. Identify the country you would recommend as the most in need of outside aid. 8 Imagine you are one of the people in each of the three photographs. For each person write a diary entry describing a day in your life. 9 Discuss the factors that you consider are most important when working out a persons quality of life. Can all these factors be measured?
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Reducing global inequality
9.31 Children receiving food aid
The United Nations (UN) is made up of member countries. The UN promotes positive relations between nations and tries hard to improve the quality of life of all people. They are taking action to reduce global inequality. At the turn of the millennium the UN set eight development goals that nations need to work towards.
Development Goals. The member nations of the UN have agreed to work to achieve these goals by the year 2015. In order to achieve these targets the richer countries of the world are expected to give support to the poorer countries in three main ways: provide aid to poorer countries allow free trade by removing restrictions such as subsidies and tariffs that advantage rich countries provide debt relief to poor countries who owe rich countries large sums of money. One method the UN is using to educate people about the Millennium Development Goals is the Internet (see 9.32 and 9.33).
THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

The UN Millennium Declaration was made in September 2000. It recognised the commitment of the worlds population to helping countries on the path to development. The declaration laid out the Millennium
9.32 Millennium Development Goal 1 aims to improve the income of the poorest 20 per cent of the worlds population.
9.33 If the Millennium Development Goals are not achieved there will be an enormous human toll.
Millennium Development Goals

These targets are based on the way the world was in 1990 and are to be achieved by 2015. Goal 1Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger TargetHalve the percentage of people living on less than one dollar a day and the people who suffer from hunger. Goal 2Achieve universal primary education TargetBy 2015 children everywhere are to be able to complete primary school. Goal 3Promote gender equality and empower women TargetEqual numbers of boys and girls are to complete primary, secondary and tertiary education. Goal 4Reduce child mortality TargetReduce by two thirds the number of children under ve who die each year. Goal 5Improve maternal health TargetReduce by three quarters the number of women who die in childbirth. Goal 6Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases TargetHave stopped the spread of HIV/AIDS, malaria and other major diseases. Goal 7Ensure environmental sustainability TargetReduce by 50% the number of people who do not have access to safe drinking water and sanitation and improve the conditions for at least 100 million slum dwellers. Goal 8Develop a global partnership for development TargetImprove aid for poor countries, make debt manageable for poor countries, ensure that free trade between countries occurs.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What are the aims of the UN and who belongs to the organisation? 2 What did the UN commit to at the turn of the new Millennium? 3 What are the richer nations of the world expected to do as a part of the Millennium Declaration? 4 Make a brief list of all the Millennium Development Goals. 5 Why was it important that targets for each of the Millennium Development Goals were set? 6 What were the targets for each goal based on and when are they to be achieved?
Skills
7 Look at 9.32: a In the year 2000 what percentage of the worlds population earned less than US$1 a day? b What percentage of global income did the richest 20 per cent of people earn in the year 2000? 8 Look at 9.33: a Which of the Millennium Development Goals does the graph relate to? b What is the UN goal for deaths of children under ve for the year 2015? c What will the number of deaths be for children under ve in the year 2015 if current trends continue? d By how many deaths will the world miss the UN target in 2015 at current rates of deaths of children under ve? e Describe how the world is progressing towards achieving the target for this goal. 9 Look at 9.34: a What is ODA? b Which of the Millennium Development Goals does the graph relate to? c List the nations that have met the UN set goal for ODA. d List the nations that give less than 0.25% in ODA. What do you notice about these nations? e Describe how the world is progressing towards achieving the target for this goal.
9.34 Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) given by rich countries. The UN has set a goal of 0.7 per cent of Gross National Income (similar to GDP) to be given as aid to the poorer countries of the world. Few rich countries offer this much assistance.
Per cent of GNI given as ODA
1
0.87 0.85 0.77
Application
0.74 0.7% UN goal 0.63
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
Germany
Canada
Spain
Australia
Austria
New Zealand
Greece
Japan
United Kingdom
United States
Norway
Luxembourg
Denmark
Sweden
Netherlands
Portugal
France
Belgium
Ireland
Switzerland
Finland
Italy 0.15
10 Part of the reason the Millennium Development Goals have not been met is because rich countries are slow to give aid to the poorer countries. Study 9.34. Choose a country that is giving aid below the UN target and write a letter to the ambassador of that country in Australia explaining the need for aid and their commitment to the Millennium Development Goals.
0.84
0.42
0.41
0.39
0.37
0.36
0.35
0.28
0.26
0.26
0.25
0.24
0.23
0.23
0.19
0.16
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The importance of action
9.35 Live 8 concerts took place in 2005 in England, Scotland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, South Aftrica, Canada and the United States.
This chapter has focussed on the global inequalities that exist between countries and regions. You will have noticed that the poorest continent on Earth is Africa. Bob Geldof is a person who has used his fame to help the people of Africa. His actions are a good example of the difference an active global citizen can make to the quality of life for some of the worlds people.
biggest-selling single of all time in the United Kingdom. All the money from the records sale went to providing food and medicines for the famine victims in Ethiopia. In 1985 the Live Aid rock concerts occurred. These featured 16 hours of music from the top artists of the time across two main performance stages in England and the United States. The venues were linked by satellite communication, and one artist, Phil Collins, even appeared live at both concerts, making the transatlantic ight in the super fast Concord jet. Live Aid raised over US$100 million for famine victims.
BAND AID AND LIVE AID IN 1985

In 1984 a documentary lmmaker produced a video about a devastating famine in Ethiopia. Irish rock singer Bob Geldof was so moved by the images that he became determined to raise money for the famine victims in Ethiopia. He organised a supergroup of popular music artists from the time called Band Aid and released the single Do They Know its Christmas?. The song became the second
9.36 Bob Geldof, principal organiser of Band Aid and the Live Aid concert in 1985 and, 20 years later, the Live 8 concerts
2005 LIVE 8
In 2005, with things getting worse in Africa, Bob Geldof was once again approached to do another Live Aid concert aimed at changing the system that locked these people into poverty rather than raising money for aid that just eased the poverty for a time. The concerts had three aims: more and better aid debt cancellation fairer trade.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The G8 nations (listed alphabetically) Canada France Germany Italy Japan Russia United Kingdom United States
The Live 8 concerts involved action. People put pressure on the leaders of the eight richest and most powerful nationsthe G8. The concert was called Live 8 for this reason. The concerts were free and broadcast worldwide. Concertgoers and viewers sent 31 million email and other messages all seeking change in the system. Another 250 000 people marched in Edinburgh to the G8 summit all with one aimto Make Poverty History.
IF THE G8 KEEP THEIR PROMISES AS A RESULT OF THE LIVE 8 CONCERTS IT COULD MEAN:
290 million people will be freed from debt slavery Malaria deaths will be halvedsaving over half a million people each year 9 million people will have AIDS treatment drugs by 2010 12 million orphans will get proper support Every child will have access to free primary education Africa will get US$25 billion more aid every year
Activities
Knowledge
9.37 A Make Poverty History poster
RESULTS OF LIVE 8
The concerts had a global audience of three billion people. The G8 leaders could not ignore what the world was saying to them. A number of promises were made at the G8 summit including the complete cancellation of the debt for 18 of the poorest countries of the world.
SNAPSHOT
Cricketer helps children

Other popular artists such as Bono from the group U2, Australian cricketer Steve Waugh and actor Angelina Jolie are making a contribution to the global inequalities issue. Steve Waugh has used his fame to improve the quality of life of others. As a cricketer he travelled the world and saw the poverty and suffering of people. After an invitation to visit Udayana place outside Kolkatathat looks after the children of leprosy patients, he decided more needed to be done. Since that rst visit he has been back many times. He became the patron of one of the Udayan projects and put his time and energy into raising funds for the organisation. Through his efforts the quality of life of over 400 children in India has been improved. You can see the results of his work at the Calcutta Foundation website.
1 Who is Bob Geldof and what made him interested in raising money for the people in Africa? 2 What country featured in the documentary that started the Live Aid phenomena? 3 What event took place in 1985 to raise money for aid to Africa? Where did the event occur and how much money was raised? 4 What was the situation in Africa in 2005? Had the 1985 aid helped the people of Africa? 5 How were the concerts of 2005 different to those in 1985? 6 Why was the 2005 concert called Live 8? List the three aims of the Live 8 concerts. 7 List the nations that make up the G8. Why is the G8 important? 8 How did the concertgoers and viewers target the G8 leaders to get a fairer deal for the people of Africa? 9 What did the G8 leaders commit to as a result of Live 8? 10 Which approachLive Aid or Live 8was best in helping the people of Africa ght poverty? Why?
Application
11 Using the information in the text and the quote below discuss the change in approach between Live 8 and Live Aid. What Live Aid did, joyously and enthusiastically, was open up the avenues of possibility. Finally Live 8 invites you to walk down them. (Bob Geldof) 12 Look at 9.37. Explain how this poster is effective in communicating the Make Poverty History message. 13 Design your own poster to highlight the need to improve the quality of life for the majority of the worlds people.
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Global organisations
9.38 Protests at Kakadu National Park helped focus media attention and raise awareness about uranium mining in a World Heritage area.
There are organisations that operate at a global level to reduce poverty, improve access to health care and education, improve the status of women in society and preserve the environment. These organisations vary in the way they are set up, but they play an important role in promoting human rights and ecological sustainability.
NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS
Governments control the way a country shares and uses its resources as well as promoting human rights. Non-government organisations (NGOs) work to ensure governments do this fairly. They use a variety of methods to improve the environment and the quality of life of the world and its people. Many NGOs take donations and organise volunteer workers from people in more wealthy nations and develop programs to assist people in poorer countries of the world. They work in three main areas: improving human rights improving the status of women protecting the environment. These groups use a variety of methods to help people and inuence government actions. These include: providing aidfor example, directing money and technology into building a well for a village can improve the quality of life educationfor example, health education programs can help break the cycle of disease lobbying governments and other international organisations for changefor example, organising demonstrations as well as letter-writing and email campaigns can add to pressure raising awarenessfor example, media campaigns and Internet sites can get huge public support.
9.39 In September 2000 rock musician and human rights campaigner Bono handed over the worlds largest petition to the United Nations, which called on rich nations to release poor nations from their debts. Bono said: What will our generation be remembered for? The Internet? Yes. The war on terror? Yes. Wouldnt it be great if we were also the ones that set about making poverty history?
SNAPSHOT
Activities
Knowledge
1 What are NGOs? 2 List the three main areas that NGOs work in.
Examples of methods used by the organisations

Greenpeace Greenpeace uses the media effectively in its ght to promote environmental issues. Through high-prole actions it is able to get its message across to the global audience. Greenpeace also effectively uses email and letter-writing campaigns that get people to lobby global organisations and leaders to ensure the environment is used sustainably. World Vision World Vision uses direct aid to reduce poverty. Gifts of money, development programs to build schools and houses, and activities such as child sponsorship are some of the methods this NGO uses in the ght against global poverty. Oxfam Some aid groups like Oxfam combine aid with educational programs. In this way a community might be taught about new farming methods and at the same time given farming equipment and seeds. This will enable them to produce food for their requirements.
3 Explain four methods NGOs use to bring about change in order to improve peoples quality of life. 4 Dene the term lobbying. 5 Outline one example of an NGO and the methods it uses to improve global inequality or the sustainable use of the worlds resources.
Application
6 Use the information in this chapter to design a poster that educates people about global inequality and promotes a fairer world. 7 Organise a class debate on the following topic: The world has a future not because of government leaders, but because of the NGOs. 8 Write a newspaper article on actions people can take to bring about a better world.
Surf
9.40 An indigenous Quechua woman from Ecuador is able to run a small market garden and sell the products through help from Oxfam. She can now send all her children to school and one is at university.
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Climate change
Climate change is a hotly debated issue that is frequently misunderstood. Sensational media reports often confuse individual extreme weather events with global warming. Climate change occurs naturally and has done so in cycles throughout the Earths history. The current concern is that human activities are changing the composition of the atmosphere and triggering climate change. The rate at which this is happening, its impacts on the planet and our responses to climate change predictions are important issues for geographers.
Geographical tools
Maps
use an atlas use various types of maps: physical, political, topographic, thematic locate features on a map using latitude and longitude use geographical instruments collect and record data in the field identify and calculate maximum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs use a range of digital images, maps, sound and other appropriate multimedia sources to develop a multimedia presentation or web page
Fieldwork

Syllabus outcomes
A student: 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information
ICT
GLOBAL ISSUES AND THE ROLE OF CITIZENSHIP
4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.7 identifies and discusses geographical issues from a range of perspectives 4.8 describes the interrelationships between people and environments 4.9 describes differences in life opportunities throughout the world 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship
Definitions
boreal forestconiferous forests of the northern latitudes climatethe pattern of weather including averages and extremes based on observations over a 30 year period or longer Dendrochronologythe study of tree rings eccentricityvariations in the Earths orbit around the Sun ethanolfuel produced from the fermentation of sugars fossil fuelsancient remains of plants and animals that are stored underground in the form of coal, oil and natural gas glacial perioda cold era when ice advanced over a large part of the Earths surface greenhouse effecta natural process by which the atmosphere traps heat energy greenhouse gasesgases in the atmosphere that absorb heat energy interglacial perioda warm era when ice retreated malariaserious tropical disease spread by mosquitoes meteorologista geographer who studies the weather precessionthe wobbling of the Earth on its axis protocola set of formal rules ratifya country formally adopting an international treaty renewable resourcea natural resource that is regenerated within a short period of time temperature rangethe difference between the maximum and minimum temperature tiltthe angle of the Earths axis weatherthe condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time
Climatic records
Weather and climate are dynamicthey are always changing. Sometimes the changes are sudden and dramatic making them easy to observe. Other changes happen very slowly over a long period of time, making them difcult to detect. As ofcial climate records exist for only a very short period of the Earths long history other evidence is needed to study change.
WEATHER OR CLIMATE?
To examine the issue of climate change it is essential to understand the difference between weather and climate. Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a given place over a short period of time. It includes elements such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed and cloud cover. The weather changes seasonally, daily and even from hour to hour. Climate is the normal pattern of weather for a given place. It describes the average weather conditions and also the extremes measured over a 30-year period. Climate varies around the world, from hot, wet climates at the Equator to cold, dry climates at the Poles. Between these extremes, mountains, deserts and monsoon lands all have different climates. (See unit 2.10 on page 54 for a more detailed description of the global pattern of environments.) Seasonal variations occur within climates. The temperature does not vary much at the Equator but there are wet and dry seasons. The term monsoon comes from an Arabic word meaning season and refers to a climate with a marked seasonal pattern of rainfall. Away from the Equator and particularly in the centre of continents, temperature ranges can be considerable.
10.1 The rings inside a tree trunk
Climatic conditions stretching back millions of years leave records of a different kind. Plants and animals are associated with particular climatic conditions. By examining fossils and pollen found in ancient lake and ocean sediments, much information can be gained about past climates. Trees and ice sheets also store valuable climatic information.
Tree rings
Trees are accurate environmental indicators. In years of drought they produce narrow growth rings and in good years the rings are wider. By counting the rings from the middle of the trunk, and studying the width of the rings, scientists can reconstruct an approximate calendar of wet and dry years. The study of tree rings is called Dendrochronology.
10.2 Tree rings provide evidence of past climates.
Bark
MEASURING CLIMATE
The elements of the weather are recorded regularly even in remote areas using equipment, including satellites, linked to high-powered computers (see unit 1.7 on page 20). Meteorologists are able to calculate averages and ranges from the data as well as the frequency of weather events, building up an accurate picture of climates all around the world. Recording instruments have only been available for the past 150 years and even in that period data has not been available for all parts of the world. Therefore other sources of information have to be used to discover the nature of past climates. These include written records such as ships logs, diaries and letters, as well as old photographs, drawings and paintings.
Annual rings Harsh growing conditions
Good growing conditions Latewood Earlywood Pith
DENDROCHRONOLOGY
Dendrochronology is the term given to the study of tree growth rings. Every year trees add a new layer of wood to their trunk and branches. In wet years the rings are wider than in dry years so they provide a permanent record of climate during the trees life. The bristlecone forests of California contain trees that are among the oldest in the world. Some of them have lived almost 5000 years. These trees can therefore provide a long record of local and global climate data. Information gained in this way is often compared with that from ice cores.
Ice cores
Ice sheets contain a record of hundreds of thousands of years of past climate, trapped in the ancient snow. Scientists recover this climate history by drilling cores in the ice, some of them over 3500 meters deep (see 10.3). Researchers can examine the annual layers of ice like rings on a tree to determine environmental conditions at the time it was formed. Lighter bands represent clear ice and colder seasons; darker bands indicate warmer periods. More complex research involves looking at three different aspects of the ice composition, as shown in 10.4.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Cherrapunji in India has an average annual rainfall of over 11 metres! Less than 100 millimetres fall in January and over 2500 millimetres fall in June.
10.3 Drilling ice cores
Activities
Knowledge
Solids
Dust, salt and pollutants in the ice are indicators of different environmental conditions.
1 In your own words describe the difference between weather and climate. 2 What does the term monsoon mean? 3 Describe how climates vary around the world. 4 List the sources of information about past climates. 5 Describe how tree rings and ice cores can be used to gain information about past climates.
Air bubbles
Fieldwork
6 Visit an area where there are tree stumps that you can examine, such as a local forest, woodland, bush reserve, park or even your own school grounds. a Choose one tree stump and photograph or sketch the tree rings. b Identify the wet and dry seasons. (Refer to 10.2 to help in the identication process.) c If possible compare the pattern with the rings on another tree stump. d After your eld trip, go to the Bureau of Meteorology website to nd records of rainfall for your area and see if they match your observations. e Present the ndings of your eldwork.
Air bubbles trapped in the ice when it is formed are time capsules of past atmospheric conditions.
Water
The chemical composition of the frozen water indicates the temperature when it was frozen.
10.4 Three aspects of ice provide evidence of past climate.
Surf
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Natural climate change

Putting together evidence that has been collected from all the sources described in the last unit, researchers have established that throughout the Earths 47-million-year history natural climate change has occurred in a series of cycles without any human interference.
CLIMATIC CYCLES
The cycles of warmer and cooler climatic conditions throughout the Earths history are known as glacial and interglacial periods, and are shown in 10.6.
10.5 Volcanic eruptions can alter the climate.
10.6 The Earths climate has gone through a series of cycles.

Average global temperature 22C 17C 12C
All of the causes of these climatic changes are still not fully understood. However, as the climate is powered by energy from the Sun, change in the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth is known to be one of the factors involved. Early last century a Serbian climatologist, Milutin Milankovitch, identied three cycles in the Earths orbit that cause incoming radiation to vary (see 10.7): eccentricitythe shape of the Earths orbit around the Sun becomes slightly more and then less oval every 100 000 years. precessionthe Earth wobbles on it axis as it spins, completing a full wobble every 23 000 years. tiltthe angle of the Earths axis varies between 21.5 and 24.5 degrees every 41 000 years.
Millions of years B.P.
0 650.01
TODAY PLEISTOCENE
Cool
651.8
TERTIARY
Warm 13565
CRETACEOUS
Cool 250205
JURASSIC
10.7 The three ways the Earths orbit changes
Warm 250205 290250 355290 410355 438410 505438 545505 5000 545
TRIASSIC PERMIAN CARBONIFEROUS DEVONIAN SILURIAN
P A
G
Eccentricity
A A E
Precession
Cool Warm Cool
Sun
Tilt
ORDOVICIAN CAMBRIAN
Warm
PRECAMBRIAN
Cool
22C 17C 12C Average global temperature
The amount of radiation reaching the Earths surface also varies according to the amount of energy generated by the Sun, which is not constant (see 10.8). Further variation can be the result of volcanic activity, producing dust and changes in the natural levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
10.8 The Sun has an 11-year cycle of activity. Periods with fewer sunspots correspond with cooler temperatures. Between 1645 and 1715, in a period known as The Little Ice Age, very few sunspots were observed.
SNAPSHOT
Volcanic dust
Scientists at the US Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California believe that large volcanoes spurt ash so high into the atmosphere that the dust can block the Suns rays for months and even years. This has the effect of cooling the seas surface temperature, causing changes to the climate of coastal areas that can last up to 100 years. Models were made of the huge volcanic eruption that took place on the Indonesian island of Krakatoa in 1883, which sent 25 cubic kilometres (almost 3 x 3 x 3 kilometres) of ash and rock into the atmosphere. The explosion was the loudest sound ever recorded. The cooling of the worlds oceans that followed due to the blocking of sunlight lasted for decades afterwards.
The Sunspot cycle 19001993 250

Sunspot Number
200 150 100 50 0 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide occurs naturally in the environment as a result of volcanic eruptions, decaying plant matter, evaporation from oceans and wild res. The amount has varied throughout the Earths history and shows a cyclical pattern similar to that of average global temperature. During glacial periods levels fell, while in the warmer interglacials they rose, as shown in 10.9.
10.9 Carbon dioxide and temperature cycles
Activities
Knowledge
1 What are glacial and interglacial periods? 2 Describe the three ways in which the Earths orbit varies. 3 Do sunspots make Earth warmer or cooler? 4 Explain in your own words how volcanoes affect climate.
360 Temperature variation C ppmv CO2 320 280 240 0 4 8 400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 Years before 2000 200
5 Describe the relationship between carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and average global temperature.
Skills
6 Refer to 10.6: a In which periods were temperatures the coolest? b In which period was temperature the highest? c What happened to the temperature at the end of the Jurassic period? d What happened to temperatures during the Permian period? e What was the coolest temperature in the Cretaceous period? f Which two periods were warm all the time? g What is the temperature range shown on the graph? 7 Refer to 10.8: a What was the maximum number of sunspots? b What was the minimum number of sunspots? c How many sunspots were there in 1900? d How many sunspots were there in 1990? 8 Look at 10.9 and describe the pattern of temperature and carbon dioxide shown in the graph.
2000
SNAPSHOT
Ocean currents
In the North Atlantic, cold salty water sinking at high latitudes pulls water poleward from the Equator. This creates a warm ocean current. The warm current brings mild conditions to coastal areas in western Europe. An increase in fresh water owing into the ocean from rainfall or melting ice makes the ocean less salty and as a result the water is less dense and does not sink. Without the large scale sinking of salty water in the North Atlantic, the warm ocean current is switched off resulting in much cooler climatic conditions.
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The greenhouse effect
10.10 Human activities add gases to the atmosphere.
Climate has changed in the past due to natural processes beyond human control. The current concern about climate change is not about these cyclical changes but about the possible future changes that could take place if humans continue to alter the composition of the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect and global warming are not the same thing. In order to understand why the composition of the atmosphere is so important it is essential to understand the greenhouse effect.
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that maintains the Earths average surface temperature at around 15C. Without it the temperature would be like that experienced on the moonat minus 18C it is too cold to support life. The atmosphere allows shortwave radiation from the Sun to pass through and heat up the Earths surface. The Earth then radiates longwave heat energy into the atmosphere where it is absorbed by greenhouse gases. Some of this heat is stored in the lower atmosphere and some is radiated back to Earth as shown in 10.11.
10.11 The greenhouse effect
Sun
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that results from greenhouse gases trapping the Earths radiant heat energy. It maintains temperature within a range that supports life Short wave radiation from the Sun passes through the atmosphere
SPHERE
Some lost to space
Some reflected back into space
ATMO
Some absorbed
Greenhouse gases water vapour carbon dioxide methane nitrous oxide EARTH
Most absorbed by greenhouse gases, then radiated in all directions heating the Earths surface and lower atmosphere
Short wave radiation absorbed by the Earths surface
Earth radiates long wave infrared heat energy
10.12 Solar radiation wavelengths
43%
Suns energy spectrum
Energy
X-rays
UV
Visible light
Infrared radiation
Microwaves
Radiowaves Wave profile

100
Longwave Flux (W/m2) 210 320
400 nm 700 nm 1 mm Shortwave radiation Wavelength
1 km 100 km Longwave radiation
GREENHOUSE GASES
There are four main greenhouse gases that absorb longwave radiation: water vapour carbon dioxide methane nitrous oxide. All of these gases occur naturally in the environment, but human activities have a signicant impact on the amount of some of these now being added to the atmosphere.
10.14 Longwave (infrared) radiation, which we feel as heat, is energy with longer wavelengths than visible light. This satellite image shows heat emitted by the Earths surface. Red and orange areas indicate where more heat is emitted; blue and white areas indicate less heat emission. (Constructed over one month in March 2000.)
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is the Earths average surface temperature? 2 What would the surface temperature be without the greenhouse effect? 3 What wavelength is solar radiation? 4 What wavelength is the Earths radiation?
10.13 Greenhouse gases are both natural and caused by human activities.
5 Name the four main greenhouse gases. 6 Which human activities add carbon dioxide to the air? 7 Which human activity adds three of the greenhouse gases to the atmosphere?
Greenhouse gas
Natural origins
Human origins No signicant contribution from human activities
Water vapour Evaporation from water bodies on the Earths surface Transpiration from plants Carbon dioxide Respiration by plants and animals Volcanic eruptions Natural res Decomposing plant and animal matter Earths mantle Mud pools
Skills
8 Use 10.12 to nd the wavelength of each of the following: a radio waves b microwaves c infrared radiation d red light e violet light f ultraviolet light g X-rays.
Deforestation Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) Rice paddies Ruminant animals (cattle and sheep) Garbage dumps and landll sites Burning fossil fuels Chemical fertilisers Burning vegetation Industry emissions Burning fossil fuels
Application
9 Draw a fully labelled diagram of the greenhouse effect. 10 Refer to 10.14: a Use your atlas to identify the blue areas along the Equator. In a small group discuss why these areas radiate low amounts of energy to the atmosphere. b If rainforests are logged what will happen to the amount of radiation from these areas?
Methane
Nitrous oxide
Natural atmospheric gas
Surf
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Global warming
10.15 The ice cover on Mount Kilimanjaro is predicted to disappear altogether by 2020 if global warming continues at its current rate.
Increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increases the amount of longwave infrared radiation that can be absorbed and radiated back to the Earths surface. In the last 200 years, since the Industrial Revolution, human activitiesparticularly burning fossil fuels to produce electricity, power machinery and fuel transporthave signicantly increased emissions of the four greenhouse gases.
There are still many uncertainties about global warming and the issue is hotly debated. Some of the weather events that we are seeing are extreme but still within the normal range of our global climates. The extent to which the change is natural or caused by humans has not been proven, but the evidence of change is all around us.
Retreating glaciers
Alpine glaciers have been retreating for the last 150 years and could disappear altogether by 2050. The Rhone glacier shown in 10.17 lled the valley as far as the village of Gletsch in 1859. Now it is 2.5 kilometres further away. The loss of glaciers in alpine areas poses a threat to local economies based on tourism. In Kenya, in Africa, the permanent ice cover on Mount Kilimanjaro is 82 per cent less than it was in 1912. The number of glaciers on Mount Kenya has dropped from 18 to seven in the past 100 years. The retreat of ice is expected to have serious impacts on the ecosystems downstream and means the loss of valuable water supplies in a country already facing drought.
GLOBAL INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE

The level of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere is now at a higher level than it has been for the last 650 000 years and temperatures are increasing at a much faster rate than during previous natural climate changes. The rapid increase in temperature experienced over the last century is the reason that current climate change is described as global warming.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

Warmer temperatures are only one of the consequences of global warming. Variations in the amount and distribution of precipitation, and the frequency and intensity of storms, oods and droughts are all predicted outcomes. Sea levels are already rising due to oceans warming and expanding. Ice caps are melting and polar sea ice is disappearing (see 10.19).
Spread of disease
Warmer global temperatures have already increased the range and level of activity of disease-carrying insects. There is now considerable concern that epidemics of tropical diseases such as malaria will spread to new areas. Bacteria will multiply more rapidly in warmer conditions causing increased contamination of food and water supplies, and there will be more heat-related health risks.
10.16 Indicators of the effects of human activities on the atmosphere since the Industrial Revolution
10.18 Newspaper headlines highlighting the increase in health risks
CO2 (ppb) 360 340 320 300 280 260 Carbon dioxide concentration
Radiative forcing (Wm2) 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
itoes Disease-carrying mosqu d malaria spread dengue fever an to new areas in Andes
1000 CH4 (ppb) 1750 1500 1250 1000 750
Year
Radiative forcing (Wm2) 0.50 0.25 0.00 1200 1400 Year 1600 1800 2000
New Mexico: 60% rise in hu man plague cases following wetter than averag e winterspring
Methane concentration
HEAT WAVE KILLS 700 PEOPLE IN CHICAGO
1000 N2O (ppb)
310 Nitrous oxide concentration 290 270 250 1000 1200 1400 1600
Radiative forcing (Wm2) 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 1800 2000
2003: EXTREME HEAT WAVES CAUSE MORE THAN 20 000 DEATHS IN EUROPE
ALLERGIES GETTING WORSE IN THE US DUE TO GLOBAL WARMING
Year
Departures in temperature in C (from the 19611990 average) 0.8 0.8
0.4
0.4
0.0
0.0
50% increase in ragweed pollen brings misery to hay-fever sufferers

POSSIBLE LINK BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE AND INCREASE IN VIRAL ACTIVITY
0.4 Direct temperatures 0.8 1860
0.4
0.8 1880 1900 1860 1940 Year 1960 1980 2000
10.17 The Rhone glacier in Switzerland in 1859 (left) and 2001 (right)
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ARCTIC MELT
In January 2007 at the Arctic Frontiers Conference, held in the northern Norwegian town of Troms, experts predicted that the Arctic Oceans pack ice would disappear in summer within 50 years and that by the end of the century it would have disappeared altogether.
WARMING HITS TIPPING POINT

10.19 This satellite image shows the Arctic sea ice spread on 21 September 2005, when it dropped to the lowest extent yet recorded. The yellow outline indicates where the concentration of ice was as of 21 September 1979.
Changing ecosystems
Climate change has both direct and indirect effects on ecosystems. The ability of individual species to adapt or migrate will determine their future survival and distribution. As temperatures increase some animal species will move to cooler regions but those already living at high altitude or latitude will have nowhere to go. Melting Arctic ice caused by warmer air and ocean temperatures is already threatening the survival of polar bears and walruses. As the ice retreats the bears have to swim longer distances in search of food and some are drowning. Walruses struggle to nd resting places from which to hunt and calves have been found abandoned by their mothers. In the boreal forests of northern Canada the trees are highly sensitive to temperature changeslight uctuations affect their growth and regeneration. The only way that they can move is by dispersing their seed into new areas. At present the conditions favoured by the trees are moving north ten times faster than the forests are able to migrate. A recent survey in Britain shows that rising temperatures are causing disruption to plants with heavy seeds because they are unable to disperse over long distances. Ferns GEOGRAPHY with light spores and FOCUS orchids with tiny seeds Water temperature strongly that can be easily carried affects the sex of turtle by the wind are moving hatchlings so warmer conditions north and competing with could mean that entire some of the traditional populations become female. wild-ower species.
A vast expanse of western Siberia is undergoing an unprecedented thaw that could dramatically increase the rate of global warming, climate scientists warn today. Researchers who have recently returned from the region found that an area of permafrost spanning a million square kilometresthe size of France and Germany combinedhas started to melt for the rst time since it formed 11 000 years ago at the end of the last ice age. The area, which covers the entire sub-Arctic region of western Siberia, is the worlds largest frozen peat bog and scientists fear that as it thaws, it will release billions of tonnes of methane, a greenhouse gas 20 times more potent than carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere. It is a scenario climate scientists have feared since rst identifying tipping pointsdelicate thresholds where a slight rise in the Earths temperature can cause a dramatic change in the environment that itself triggers a far greater increase in global temperatures.
Source: The Guardian, 11 August 2005
10.20 The permafrost in western Siberia is starting to thaw.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Why is the current climate change called global warming? 2 Describe three negative impacts of global warming. 3 Describe three positive impacts of global warming. 4 Give two reasons for the predicted rise in sea level. 5 What will happen to Boreal forests if temperatures continue to rise?
10.21 More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may favour crop yields.
6 Which greenhouse gas will be released if Siberias frozen peat bogs melt? 7 Why are scientists worried about the thaw in Siberia? 8 Why have there been more cases of plague in New Mexico? 9 Why is malaria likely to increase? 10 Why might some turtle populations become all female?
POSITIVE IMPACTS
Not all the impacts of global warming are negative. Some agricultural areas will benet from longer growing seasons, warmer winters, more frost-free days or increased precipitation. Predictions suggest greater concentrations of carbon dioxide will increase plant growth leading to higher crop yields and therefore the ability to produce more food for the worlds growing population. Increased sea levels and melting sea ice will also have advantages. Many estuaries will become wider and deeper, improving navigation and beneting local economies. If the Arctic Ocean becomes navigable along the Siberian coast, shipping routes between Europe and East Asia will be 7000 kilometres shorter and bring a boost to the Russian economy. In northern latitudes where winters can be severe, the prospect of warmer temperatures is appealing. Lower clothing and heating bills will be one of the benets. Winter travel will be easier and safer as snow and ice conditions become less frequent, and there will also be less-cold related illness and fewer winter deaths.
Skills
11 Refer to 10.16: a What was the maximum carbon dioxide level between 1000 and 1800? b What was the carbon dioxide level in 2000? c In which century did nitrous oxide concentration start to increase? d How much did nitrous oxide concentration increase in the 20th century? e Prior to 1800 what was the concentration of methane in the atmosphere? f What was the concentration of methane in 2000? g Describe the pattern of greenhouse gas concentrations shown in the graphs. h How did the temperature in 1860 vary from the 30-year average? i j How did temperatures in 2000 vary from the 30-year average? Which was the warmest year shown?
12 Refer to 10.19: a Name the countries that you can see. b Estimate the amount of ice shrinkage that occurred between 1979 and 2005. c Where has the greatest shrinkage occurred? (Clue: Use words such as landmass and oceans in your answer.)
Application
13 Describe and explain the change in the Rhone glacier shown in 10.17.
Surf
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Different perspectives on climate change
10.22 Funafuti, the main island of Tuvalu in the South Pacic, is only 4 metres high and threatened by the rise in sea level.
The way in which you view an issueyour perspective can be inuenced by many things, particularly the direct impacts it is likely to have on you. For the residents of Tuvalu, living just 4 metres above sea level, climate change is a reality and one that is threatening their survival. In other parts of the world people with comfortable lifestyles based on energy consumption might talk about the issue but are reluctant to change their ways.
While most people in Australia and other wealthy nations are aware of the potential impacts of global warming, few are willing to make changes to their lifestyles to reduce energy consumption. Yet some still campaign to prevent developing countries from taking advantage of their own coal reserves. For countries such as China, India and Thailand, coal is a valuable resource in their newly industrialising economies and one which they feel entitled to develop. From their perspective, the developed nations should be cutting back on their own emissions before they restrict others, putting obstacles in the path to development.
10.23 Coal mining in China is important in generating electricity to power industrial plants, which help the countrys development.
PACIFIC ISLAND PERSPECTIVE

Tuvalu is the smallest nation in the world after the Vatican. It covers an area of just 26 square kilometres spread over nine coral atolls in the southern Pacic Ocean. In recent years the rising sea level has caused the loss of 1 metre of land all the way around the main island of Funafuti, and storm surges increasingly batter the coast. The Tuvaluan people are not impressed by the offers of help and support they have received from countries that refuse to make any genuine effort to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. They are not in a position to wait for action. They want emissions cut now, before their islands disappear.
DEVELOPED VERSUS DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Western countries have developed a high standard of living based on the consumption of fossil fuels. In Australia more than 75 per cent of power is generated by burning coal, which is plentiful, so the cost of electricity is relatively cheap. Changing to a different source of energy would increase costs and therefore impact on household bills.
POLITICAL ANGLE
The UNs Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty established in 1997. It is designed to limit global greenhouse gas emissions. Two major developed countries have not accepted the treaty. Australia has signed the protocol, agreeing to keep discussing it, but like the United States, refuses to conrm agreement with the terms of the treatya process known as ratication. The reasons that the Australian Government had not ratied the protocol by 2007 were: that the protocol did not provide a comprehensive or environmentally effective long-term response to climate change that there were no clear guidelines for reductions by developing countries that, as the United States was not prepared to sign, the reductions achieved would be minimal.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Where is Tuvalu? 2 Why is the Tuvaluan community at risk? 3 Why are western nations reluctant to change their energy sources? 4 Name two developing countries that feel entitled to develop their coal resources. 5 Which two major countries had not ratied the Kyoto Protocol by 2007? 6 What are the three reasons given by Australia for its actions over Kyoto? 7 Which oil company funds organisations that express doubts about global warming? 8 How does the Competitive Enterprise Institute view global warming?
MEDIA WATCH
In order to protect their interests major companies involved in fossil fuel production have used nancial incentives to ensure that their point of view is well represented in the media. Exxon Mobil has spent millions of dollars supporting organisations and groups that express doubts about global warming, as indicated in 10.24.
Application
9 Choose one of the perspectives from this unit and illustrate it in a cartoon.
Surf
10.24 Exxon Mobil supports doubt over climate change.
Acton Institute for the study of Religious Liberty
Limiting CO2 is a misguided attempt to solve a problem that may not exist
American Foundation for Capital Formation
Science questions must be addressed before the United States and its allies embark on a path as non-productive as that of the Kyoto Protocol.
Citizens for a Sound Economy
The science behind global warming is inconclusive, and to teach otherwise is fear mongering.
American Legislative Exchange Council
Global warming could actually save lives.
Competitive Enterprise Institute
Likens the danger of global warming to that of an alien invasion.
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Living more sustainably
10.25 Where the climate is suitable, large solar farms are being built as an alternative to fossil fuel energy in many places.
Climate change is one of the most signicant global issues facing us in the twenty-rst century. As global citizens we must be aware that our actions may have signicant impacts on other people and on the planet that we all share. It is our responsibility to develop sustainable lifestyles based on the information available to us.
RENEWABLE ALTERNATIVES
As shown in 10.26 most of the worlds electricity is generated by burning non-renewable fossil fuelscoal, oil and gasthat pollute the atmosphere. Changing to green power is one of the most signicant actions that governments can undertake to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, cheaper renewable energy sources are the focus of considerable research. Renewable energy is generated from a resource that is replaced by natural processes at 10.26 Logo of a movement a faster rate than it is to encourage people to live being used. more sustainably
10.27 World electricity generation by energy source
INTERNATIONAL MONITORING
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by the United Nations and the World Meteorological Society. Its role is to assess the information available on climate change in order to gain a clear understanding of the processes involved, potential impacts and possible responses relevant to the issue. From IPCC reports we know that at the current rate of emissions the average global temperature will rise between 2C and 5C by the end of this century. (This may not seem much but the last ice age was only 5C cooler.) There is no single solution to the problem of global warming, but there are many new technologies available to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and many actions that can be taken by governments, organisations and individuals to bring about change.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Each time a turbine turns, electricity is generated. Moving water and wind can turn turbines. Some of the largest wind turbines in operation are off the coast of Ireland.
Fossil fuels Renewable Nuclear
Solar
Collected directly from the Sun. Example: 1 square metre of solar panel can generate enough power to run a 100W light bulb. In Australia installing solar power in your home can cut fuel bills by up to 50 per cent.
Geothermal
Uses the heat from the centre of the Earth. Example: 11 per cent of New Zealands energy production is from geothermal sources.
Wind
Captured using wind turbines grouped together in wind farms. Example: A wind farm with 30 turbines near London, England generates enough electricity to supply 100 000 homes.
Hydroelectric
Moving water released from a dam turns turbines. Example: Snowy Hydro provides over 70 per cent of all renewable energy available to the eastern mainland grid of Australia, as well as providing fast response power to light up the morning and evening rush hours of Sydney, Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne and Adelaide.
Biomass
GREEN POWER
Plant matter can be burnt to create energy. Example: Biomass fuels provide about 3 per cent of the energy used in the United States.
Wave
Moving water turns turbines that produce electricity. Example: Wave power has the potential to provide 10 per cent of world energy demands.
Biogas
Gas from decomposing organic matter can be captured and used for fuel. Example: Canada is developing technology to replace conventional fossil fuels with biogas.
Tidal
Uses the movement of water to turn turbines from low to high tide. Example: A plant near St Malo on the Brittany coast, France supplies 90 per cent of Brittanys power needs.
SNAPSHOT 1
water that can be used to generate electricity. Geothermal power generation is seen as being sustainable because the heat of the Earth is so great that humans are only capable of removing a tiny fraction of it. After the steam has been used to turn the turbines it condenses into water and it can be reused or piped back into the rock to pick up more heat. Geothermal power is more cost-effective in countries that do not have coal, oil and natural gas supplies such as Iceland and New Zealand. The largest geothermal power area is called The Geysers and it is found near San Francisco in California, United States. There are 21 power plants that produce about 1000 Megawatts of power. The Geysers are even more sustainable now as they are recharged with treated sewage efuent from nearby cities. Previously the efuent was pumped into rivers and streams but now it is used to make steam. Geothermal power is used widely in the United States, but it is also used in Kenyas Rift Valley (see pages 109 and 110), Iceland (17 per cent of its electricity comes from geothermal power), Italy, France, New Zealand, Mexico, Russia, the Philippines (27 per cent of the countrys electricity), China and Japan. Geothermal projects are also underway in Australia.
10.28 Steaming chimneys at a geothermal power station. Superheated water from below the ground is used to heat water to drive electricity.
Geothermal power
Geothermal power is the use of the Earths internal heat for the production of electricity. This heat comes from molten rock or magma that is under the surface. This heats groundwater at shallow depth to a high temperature, producing steam or hot
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10.29 The hydrogen car is being developed as an alternative to fossil-fuel powered cars.
Fuel tank
Liquid hydrogen is stored in a tank at the rear of the car and is pumped forward to the fuel cell stack as required.
Fuel cell stack

When the hydrogen is combined with oxygen in a fuel cell a chemical reaction creates electricity. Between 150 and 200 fuel cells are stacked together to garnish enough electricity to power the car.
Battery pack
A battery pack is periodically recharged by the fuel cell. The power from the battery pack is used to provide rapid acceleration.
Electric motor
The stack provides energy for the electric motor that powers the vehicle.
SNAPSHOT 2
TOMORROWS TRANSPORT
The fastest growing source of greenhouse gas emissions is transport. As petrol prices increase, new sources of fuel as well as energy-efcient cars are becoming more attractive. Ethanol is being developed as an alternative fuel and cars that run on hydrogen are due to be ready for commercial production by 2010 (see 10.29).
10.30 Environmentally friendly public transport reduces emissions
WHAT IS ETHANOL?
Ethanol is a renewable fuel. It is produced by fermenting the carbohydrate found in starch, cereal grain, cereal crop or sugarcane. The use of sugar in the production of ethanol could rejuvenate the struggling sugarcane industry and rural industry in general. Ethanol provides energy security. Brazil is looking to cooperate in the production of ethanol with Australia. Car manufacturers are already designing vehicles able to use 85 percent ethanol.
Group action in Mexico

Mexico City is one of the largest cities in the world with a population close to 20 million people. The city accounts for 20 per cent of the countrys greenhouse gas emissions and suffers from severe air pollution problems due to the reliance on petrol-driven vehicles. To reduce emissions and trafc congestion a scheme has been developed to open trafc lanes dedicated to high-capacity, fuelefcient buses. The project is being funded with US$5.8 million from the World Bank, US$1 million from the Shell fuel company and US$2 million from bus-assembling rms such as Volvo. It is one of the rst to use a partnership between government and private business to tackle the problems. As well, a new $5 billion commuter-rail system funded by private investment and government bonds began operation in 2007 and a high speed bullet train will be operational by 2011.
INDIVIDUALS
International agreements, national and local government incentives, and investments in research and development all have a part to play in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, it will be the actions and decisions of individuals that will be the driving force for change. We can all live more sustainably. The natural cycles of climate change will continue in the future and are not the cause of concern. It is the rapid changes due to human activities that are causing alarm. These changes are preventable if each individual takes action to live in a more sustainable way. As an informed geographer you are able to ensure that this happens.
10.31 Demonstrations as part of global protests call for world leaders to act urgently on climate change
10 WAYS TO COOL GLOBAL WARMING

1 Walk, cycle or use public transport. 2 Use compact uorescent lights. 3 Purchase the highest energy-efciency star rating in appliances. 4 Insulate your home and add insulation to electric hot water units. 5 Cut hot water consumption by washing clothes in cold water and by tting a water-efcient shower head. 6 Replace an electric hot water service with solar or high-efciency gas. 7 Support renewable energy. 8 Service your car regularly and, when buying a new car, choose a hybrid or energy-efcient vehicle. 9 Use design features to reduce the need for heating and air conditioning. 10 Plant, protect and conserve existing trees and shrubs.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is the role of the IPCC? 2 How much could the average global temperature increase this century? 3 How is most of the worlds electricity generated? 4 List eight renewable energy sources. 5 Where is tidal power a main source of energy? 6 What percentage of New Zealands energy comes from geothermal sources? 7 What does biogas come from? 8 What is ethanol? 9 How is Mexico reducing its greenhouse gas emissions? 10 Describe three ways in which you personally could reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Application
11 Design a bumper sticker to encourage people to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 12 Prepare a role play to perform in an assembly or year-level meeting showing the threats of global warming and the need for action.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Earth Hour: At 7.30 p.m. on 31 March 2007, Sydney turned off its lights for one hour to take action on global warming.
Surf
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Water is essential for life yet 1.2 billion people in the world lack access to a safe water supply and 2.6 billion are without adequate sanitation. As the global population continues to increase, water shortage will become the single most important issue facing humans in the twenty-rst century. The uneven distribution of water supply and demand, the degradation of groundwater and surface water sources and the inefcient use of water are important geographical issues. Actions can be taken at local, national and global scales to address these issues.
Geographical tools
Maps
use an atlas use various types of maps: physical, political, topographic, thematic locate features on a map using latitude and longitude, area and grid references use the points of a compass to determine direction construct a sketch map identify and calculate maximum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs collect and record data in the field draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images use a range of digital images, maps, sound and other appropriate multimedia sources to develop a multimedia presentation or web page
Syllabus outcomes
A student: 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.7 identifies and discusses geographical issues from a range of perspectives 4.8 describes the interrelationships between people and environments 4.9 describes the differences in life opportunities throughout the world 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship
Fieldwork

Photographs
ICT
Definitions
aquiferan underground layer of earth, gravel or porous rock that yields water artesianan aquifer trapped below an impermeable layer equitythe ideal of being just and fair to all people eutrophicationreduction of oxygen in water due to excessive nutrients impermeablewater cannot pass through inltrationthe process of water soaking into the ground NGOnon-government organisation parasitean organism that lives and feeds in or on another permeableallows water to pass through porositythe ability to absorb water rechargethe addition of water to an aquifer salinecontaining salt sanitationa means of hygeine, includes washing and sewage facilities saturated zoneground where all the spaces are lled with water unsaturated zoneground where some of the spaces are lled with air or are free of water urbanisationthe process involving the increase in the percentage of a countrys population living in cities water tablethe level in the ground below which all the pore spaces and cracks in the rocks and sediment are completely lled (saturated) with water WHOWorld Health Organization
Watera scarce and precious resource
11.1 Together Greenland and Antarctica contain 75 per cent of the worlds fresh water.
Water is our most precious natural resource. It is essential for life and there is no substitute for it. Human bodies are 70 per cent water. When our water levels drop by 1 per cent we feel thirsty and if they drop by 10 per cent we die. We can survive for weeks without food but only a few days without water.
On a global scale the total water use is in these proportions: agriculture69 per cent industry23 per cent domestic use8 per cent. However, these proportions vary widely between regions. In Africa and Asia more than 80 per cent is used in agriculture whereas in Europe more than 50 per cent is used in industry (see 11.4).
11.2 Global water resources
GLOBAL WATER RESOURCES

The Earth is known as the Blue Planet because 70 per cent of the surface is covered by water. There is an estimated 1365 million cubic kilometres (km3) of water in total but more than 97 per cent is saline. This means that less than 2.5 per cent (35 million km3) is freshwater with less than 0.5 per cent available for human use (see 11.2). Water is a nite resourcewe cannot make more of itso as the global population increases the amount of water per person decreases. In 2000 the global population was 6 billion and by 2025 it is estimated to reach 8 billion. Providing water sustainably for the domestic, agricultural and industrial needs of this increased population presents a global challenge.
Lakes and river storage
0.3% Freshwater 2.5% 35 000 000 km3
Groundwater, 30.8% including soil moisture, swamp water and permafrost Glaciers 68.9% and permanent snow cover
HOW WE USE WATER

The minimum water requirement for human survival is three litres per day. However, there are other basic needs that depend on water such as washing, cleaning, sanitation and watering vegetable plots. To meet basic needs the United Nations estimates that a person requires 50 litres of clean water per day. When water for food production and manufacturing goods are added, the amount increases signicantly.
Saltwater 97.5% 1 365 000 000 km3
11.3 Water use around the world
SKILLS MASTER
Proportional circle graphs
These are a good geographical tool to use for a visual comparison of quantities. They are often used to compare populations but in 11.5 on the next page they show freshwater resources. They do not have to be plotted on axes but can be located on a map as they are in this example. The area of the circle is proportional to the quantity it represents. It is immediately clear that the majority of the worlds freshwater is in Antarctica.
Area of world Average Sub-Saharan Africa UN recommended basic minimum Average European* Average Australian
Average US 0 100 200 300 400 500 Consumption (Litres/person/day) 600
* Consumption differs between European countries, ranging from 250350 litres/day.
11.4 Water use by sector

% 100 80 60 40 20 0
World Asia Central Europe (excluding America Middle & East) Caribbean Middle North Oceania South SubEast & America America Saharan North Africa Africa
To find the amount that a circle represents, measure the diameter. The diameter of this circle is 2 cm. On the scale diagram find the circle with a 2 cm diameter. The circle has been shaded for you.
km3
30 000 000
Read the amount here next to the top of the circle with the same diameter.
8 000 000 4000 000 3000 000 1000 000 300 000 50 000
Region Agricultural Industrial Domestic
In a proportional circle graph, the area of the circle represents the size of the variable (in this case fresh water).
Water is not only needed for human use, it is essential for the well-being of ecosystems. During the twentieth century large-scale water projects were developed draining wetlands and diverting rivers, particularly for the expansion of agriculture.
To determine the size, measure the circle and then compare the measurement with the circles below the maps.
Activity
1 Refer to 11.5: a Which continent has the least freshwater stored as ice? b Which continent has 90 000 km3 stored as ice? c How much freshwater is stored as groundwater in each of these countries? i South America ii Asia iii Africa d Record the amount of freshwater in each storage for Australia. e What are the advantages and disadvantages of this type of graph?
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Water is the only common, safe substance that can exist in all three statesliquid, solid and gasat the same time on the Earths surface.
However, there was not enough concern for the environmental impact of these projects, with the consequence that some ecosystems have been so badly damaged they may never recover. (See unit 11.6 on page 260 for such effects on the Aral Sea.)
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11.5 Global freshwater resources, quantity and distribution by region, 1999
WATER SCARCITY
We are already using just over half of all the accessible freshwater contained in rivers, lakes and underground aquifers. By 2025 this will increase to at least 70 per cent, and if we continue our wasteful ways we could be using over 90 per cent of all available freshwater by this date. (See 9.3 on page 207.) The greatest increase in demand for water will come from agriculture as the world attempts to feed the growing population. Consumption will soar further as more people expect western-style lifestyles and dietsone kilogram of grain-fed beef needs at least 15 cubic metres of water to produce, while a kilogram of cereals needs only three cubic metres. Water scarcity is not only the result of greater demand for water. Pollution is also having an increasing impact on the availability of freshwater resources. In rural areas, land clearing and widespread application of fertilisers has led to high levels of sediment and chemicals being washed into waterways, causing eutrophication. In urban areas, industrial wastes and storm water pollute waterways, and wetlands that used to act as natural lters are being cleared for development (see 11.6). In developing countries the situation is made even worse by the rapid rate of urbanisation. Water infrastructure in the form of reservoirs, pumping stations and pipes cannot be built fast enough to service expanding cities. The United Nations announced that 2005 to 2015 was the international decade of actionWater for Life. If the Millennium Development Goal (see unit 9.8, page 223) of reducing the number of people without access to fresh water by half is achieved during this decade, poverty reduction, improved health and sustainable development will all become possible.
GLOBAL FRESHWATER RESOURCES

Quantity and Distribution by Region
Glaciers and permanent ice caps (km3)
Europe 18 216 Asia 60 984 Greenland 2 600 000
North America 90 000
Africa 0.2 Australia 180
South America 900
Antarctica 30 109 800
Groundwater (km3)
Europe 1 600 000 North America 4 300 000
Asia
Africa
Australia 1 200 000
South America
Wetlands, large lakes, reservoirs and rivers (km3)
Europe 2 529
Asia 30 622
North America 27 003
WATER USE FACTS

If the entire worlds water was represented by a 2-litre bottle, the useable water would be half a teaspoon. Over your lifetime you will drink about 60 000 litres of water. The average ow of water from a tap is 15 litres per minute. A standard showerhead uses up to 25 litres per minute. Some women in Africa have to walk up to 10 kilometres each day to collect water. 1 litre of water weighs 1 kilogram. Global water consumption has risen by almost ten times since 1900. Water scarcity is not only the result of increased demand for water but increasing pollution and sedimentation (from land clearing), which is spoiling the quality of water.
Africa 31 776
Australia 221 km3
South America 3 431
30 000 000
8 000 000 4000 000 3000 000 1000 000 300 000 50 000
Note: Estimates refer to standing volumes of fresh water
11.6 Human activities interact at all stages of the water cycle. By understanding the interactions we can manage water better.
Precipitation Surface run-off Subsidence and erosion Land degradation
Transpiration (from plants) Airborne pollution Evaporation Diversion of water to irrigation farming
Salinity Chemical pollution
Water tab le
Infiltration Pollution
Ocean
Pollution enters sea Saltwater intrusion
Activities
Knowledge
1 Why is the Earth known as the Blue Planet? 2 What proportion of the Earths water is fresh water? 3 Where is 75 per cent of freshwater stored as ice? 4 What proportion of freshwater is available for human use? 5 How much water does a human require to meet their basic needs? 6 List three basic uses for water other than drinking. 7 Globally what is water mostly used for? 8 List ve facts about water use that make it an important geographical issue. 9 List the factors that lead to water scarcity.
a What type of graph is it? b How much water does the average person in the United States use per day? c How much water does the average person in SubSaharan Africa use per day? d Do Australians or Europeans use more water? e Compare water consumption in Australia and the United States. 12 Refer to 11.4: a Which region uses the highest proportion of water for industry? b Which region has the highest proportion of domestic water use? c What proportion of water is used for agriculture in SubSaharan Africa? d In Europe which sector uses the most water? e What percentage of water is used for industry in South America?
Application
10 Refer to 11.6. Write a paragraph describing the ways humans impact the hydrological cycle.
Skills
11 Refer to 11.3:
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Groundwater a hidden resource

Most of the water in the ground comes from precipitation that inltrates down from the surface. Groundwater is the term used for the saturated layer where all the spaces in and between the rocks are full of water. The upper surface of this layer is known as the water table.
AQUIFERS
Where there is a layer of water-bearing rock or sediment from which groundwater can be extracted by sinking a well, it is known as an aquifer. Aquifers are generally found in layers of rock with high porosity and permeability, lying within 100 metres of the Earths surface. There are two types of aquifer. Open aquiferlies beneath a permeable upper layer. Water inltrates through permeable soil and rock or sediment that make up the unsaturated zone into the saturated zone of the aquifer. If a well is sunk the level of water in the well is the same as the water table. Closed (artesian) aquiferis trapped beneath an impermeable layer. Water enters through a recharge area where the aquifer is exposed at a higher level. If an artesian well is sunk, pressure in the aquifer forces the water above the ground surface (see 11.10).
11.8 The different zones of water under the land surface
11.7 A well owing under artesian pressure
For centuries people have withdrawn water by sinking wells into aquifers. Many ancient civilizations developed around wells. Today an estimated two billion people about one-third of the worlds populationrely on aquifers as their main water supply (see 11.9). As the worlds population grows, pressure on this valuable resource continues to increase. Groundwater is a popular water supply as it has many advantages. It is reliable in dry seasons or droughts because of the large storage. It is cheaper to develop because if it is unpolluted it requires little treatment. It can often be tapped where it is needed.
Land surface Unsaturated zone Water table Saturated zone Ground water Water (not groundwater) held by molecular attraction surrounds surfaces of rock particles Creviced rock Air Air Gravel Surface water
It is less affected by catastrophic events.
11.9 Drinking groundwater
Region AsiaPacic Europe Latin America United States Australia Africa World
Drinking water from People served groundwater (%) (millions) 32 75 29 51 15 No data 10002000 200500 150 135 3 No data 1500 2000
Approximate level of water table All openings below water table full of ground water
11.10 The two different types of aquiferopen (left) and closed (right)
Well
Water rises in this well to this level
Water flows from this well
Potential water level
Unsaturated zone
Water table
Saturated zone Unconfined or water table aquifer Bedrock Confined or artesian aquifer (under pressure)
Wate r
table
Impermeable layer
SNAPSHOT
11.11 The Great Artesian Basin stretches beneath 20 per cent of Australia.
N
Activities
Knowledge
1 Where does water in the ground come from? 2 In your own words write a denition of groundwater. 3 Describe the difference between open and closed aquifers.
NT
Darwin
4 What proportion of the worlds population relies on aquifers for its water supply?
QLD Brisbane
Alice Springs WA SA Perth 0 400
5 Where is the Great Artesian Basin in Australia? 6 How much water is estimated to be held in the Great Artesian Basin?
Adelaide 800 km
NSW
Application
Sydney ACT Canberra
VIC Melbourne TAS
Great Artesian Basin
7 Look at 11.8. Draw a diagram to show where groundwater is found. On your diagram label groundwater, water table, saturated zone and unsaturated zone. Remember to give your diagram a title.
Hobart
Skills
8 On a blank map of Australia mark and shade the Great Artesian Basin. Label the states and territories that it stretches beneath. Use your atlas to nd two places that lie above the basin and mark them on the map. Put a scale on your map. 9 Extension: Use the scale to estimate the area of the basin. How can you check your answer? 10 Use the information in 11.9 to rank the regions of the world: a according to the percentage of the population that gets their drinking water from groundwater b according to the number of people served by groundwater. Compare the rankings and explain the difference.
The Great Artesian Basin

Australias Great Artesian Basin is vast, lying beneath 20 per cent of the entire continent. It consists of porous layers of sandstone rock that stretch from Cape York to South Australia, underlying most of Queensland, northern New South Wales and parts of the Northern Territory and South Australia. The amount of water stored in this huge geological feature is similarly vast. The Great Artesian Basin contains approximately 64 900 million megalitres of water. This represents 820 times the total volume of water stored in all surface water storages in Australia if they were full. A bore sunk into the basin will run like a tap, without the need for pumping (see 11.10).
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Effects of falling water tables

Groundwater is under threat in many places around the world as increasing populations look for new sources of clean water. It is essential that groundwater is managed sustainably or a valuable resource that provides over one billion people with freshwater will be lost.
GROUNDWATER UNDER THREAT

There are four main problems associated with using aquifers as a water supply. Over extraction can allow salt water to seep into the groundwater. Overuse can cause the water table to fall below the level of wells. If too much water is extracted the ground above may subside. The water can become contaminated by chemicals, pesticides and fertiliser. The following snapshots and unit 1.4 illustrate these problems.
11.12 Indian villagers gather around a well to ll their pots with water
Communities across India living around Coca-Colas bottling plants are experiencing severe water shortages, which they claim are a result of the massive extraction of water from the communal groundwater resource. The wells have run dry and the hand water pumps do not work any more. One individual, Amit Srivastava, has set up his own NGO called Global Resistance to campaign for the closure of Coca Colas bottling plants in India. He has shown that a one-person NGO armed with just a laptop computer, a website and a telephone can, with allies, inuence a huge multinational corporation. The actions of individuals and the groups they have coordinated demonstrate the role social activists can play in a world that is going increasingly online, as shown in the following news article and table.
11.14 Comparison between the Global Resistance company and its target, Coca Cola
TAKING ACTION AGAINST OVERUSE

Individuals have used modern communication methods such as billboard advertising and the Internet to increase awareness and gain international support in their protest against the activities of corporate giant Coca Cola.
11.13 Chemicals used in agriculture can contaminate groundwater.
Global Resistance Employees Headquarters 2004 revenue One full-time, one part-time Shared house in El Centro, California About US$60 000 in grants
Coca Cola 39 000 worldwide 1 Coca Cola Plaza, Atlanta, Georgia US$21.96 billion More than 200 US$3.74 million
Countries and territories 2 it operates in CEOs annual salary package Own expenses
Source: India Resource Centre
COCA-COLAS WATER RECORD IN INDIA

The Coca-Cola company is the target of intense campaigns by community groups in India and internationally. Thousands of rural Indians are facing severe water shortages and polluted groundwater and landdirectly as a result of Coca-Colas operations. The company has also distributed its toxic waste to farmers around its plants under the guise of fertiliser, and Coca-Cola sells products in the Indian marketplace with high levels of pesticides that could never be sold in the US or EU because they do not meet US and EU standards. Coca-Colas crimes in India are no small matter. In a country where over 70 per cent of the population still makes a living related to agriculture, taking away the water and poisoning the remaining water and land is a sure recipe for disaster. Thousands in India have lost their livelihoods, and in a country where over 40 per cent of the population lives below the poverty line, the difference between life and death is a ne line.
Source: India Resource Centre, London, 15 June 2005
SNAPSHOT 2
The inequalities of a falling water table

In Gujarat in northern India, groundwater is the main source of water for domestic use. It also provides more than threequarters of irrigation water. Overuse in this highly populated area has caused the water table to fall, in some places by as much as 40 metres. This has deprived many poor farmers of water since they can only afford dug wells, which are usually limited to a depth of 10 metres. These poor farmers have little representation in the government organisations that develop groundwater policies so they cannot inuence the decisions that are made. As a result their needs are often put second to those of the wealthier and more highly educated urban population. The rural population have been so angered by what they regard as an unfair distribution of water that it has led to riots.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
In Manila groundwater abstraction has lowered the water level by 5080 metres. As a result, salt water intrusion has reached as far as 5 kilometres inland.
SNAPSHOT 1
Excess pumping of fresh water Well contaminated with salt water Original water table
Activities
Knowledge
1 What are the four main problems with using aquifers for water supply? 2 What is salt water intrusion?
Salt water
Lowered water table Fresh groundwater aquifer Salt water intrusion
3 Where is Gujarat? 4 How far has the water table fallen in Gujarat? 5 Explain why the farmers in Gujarat are so angry. 6 Which multinational company has been criticised for its use of water in bottling plants? 7 What actions have been taken to protest about the use of water by this company?
Original salt water interface
11.15 Salt water intrusion
Salt water intrusion

When freshwater is withdrawn at a faster rate than it can be replenished, the water table is lowered with a resulting decrease in the overall water pressure. When this happens near a coastal area, salt water from the ocean intrudes into the fresh water aquifer. The result is that fresh water supplies become contaminated with salt water as is happening to communities along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States.
Application
8 Design a poster to highlight the problems being caused by the bottling plants in India. On your poster suggest ways in which people can take action to change the situation.
Surf
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Contamination of groundwater
As more people are extracting groundwater in the belief that it provides clean, safe drinking water it is becoming clear that this is not always the case. Poisonous substances that occur naturally in the ground as well as those that are due to human activities are now being discovered in these water reserves.
ARSENIC POISONING
Arsenic occurs naturally on Earth and can be released into groundwater through natural processes such as volcanic activity, erosion and res as well as through human activities. Agricultural fertilisers, irrigation, industrial efuent and mining activities can all increase arsenic levels in groundwater supplies. The problem is particularly severe in southern Asia. Arsenic is a slow killer that accumulates in the body, resulting in nails rotting, dark spots appearing on the skin, bleeding sores, swelling, large warts and a form of gangrene. It is also a cause of chronic lung disease and increases the risk of skin cancer and tumours of the bladder, kidney, liver and lungs. Arsenic poisoning is becoming a serious global issue. It affects millions of peopleboth rich and poorand is an increasing problem due to the lack of understanding about its causes and effects.
11.17 Countries where arsenic is present in groundwater. Recent research suggests that hundreds of millions of people worldwide are at risk due to arsenic entering groundwater. 11.16 Ramjan Mondal, 38, who suffers from arsenic poisoning, washing at a water pump in the village of Chakhargachi, West Bengal, India
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
In the US the Environment Protection Agency estimates that around 13 million peoplemostly in the western states of the United Statesare exposed to arsenic in drinking water, although concentrations appear to be typically lower than those encountered in places such as Bangladesh.
Bangladesh
Key Countries with arsenic in ground water
2000
4000 km
SNAPSHOT
Bangladesh worst affected

In the 1970s and 1980s development organisations helped to sink millions of tube wells in Bangladesh. People were encouraged to drink well water to reduce the high death toll of 250 000 children per year from water-borne diseases. It was regarded as safer than water from surface streams and rivers as these contained high levels of bacteria. Scientists have now discovered that arsenic in these wells is as much as ve times the WHO maximum safe level. The people of Bangladesh are being slowly poisoned, often without knowing the cause. Over 50 million Bangladeshis are affected in what has been described as the largest mass poisoning in history. The challenge facing Bangladesh is to identify the most reliable and affordable way for poor communities to test and remove arsenic from their drinking water, and to provide alternative water supplies to millions of people. This is made even more difcult as a high proportion of the population is illiterate. Hand pumps used for drawing water from the wells have been tested for arsenic. They are marked with paint to help identify themred for those that are contaminated, green for those that are safe. When surface water is contaminated with bacteria people fall sick within 24 hours. In contrast, arsenic builds up slowly and the effects may not be felt for years. Because they do not become sick immediately, people are still using red pumps. As awareness of this contamination problem increases, NGOs are beginning to help communities nd solutions. Poor villagers are reluctant to give up the
11.18 Green pump for safe water
convenience of their tube wells for rainwater tanks as they invested so many of their limited resources in building them. So much effort is going into providing affordable ltration systems.
COUNCIL INVESTIGATES ARSENIC IN WATER SUPPLY

The discovery of unsafe levels of arsenic in the Belbrook town water supply is causing headaches for Kempsey Shire Council in New South Wales. The towns supply is normally drawn from bores next to the Macleay River, but recent water tests reveal higher than allowed arsenic concentrations. Muddy water from recent rain has made the river water unpumpable, so the council has been forced to truck water supplies into Belbrook. It is not known yet where the arsenic is coming from, but the councils director of shire services, Keith Finnie, says xing the problem could be very expensive. Perhaps just a small water treatment plant to cater for a small village. Were reviewing our options now, he said. We thought that by putting a bore down at a particular location everything would be ne. It hasnt worked out that way. Could be that we go to taking water out of the ... surface water and ltering it, or we might have to do some sort of chemical treatment to get rid of the arsenic.
ABC, 31 January 2006
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name two natural processes that release arsenic into groundwater. 2 Name two human activities that increase arsenic levels in groundwater. 3 What happens when arsenic accumulates in the body? 4 Where in Australia has arsenic been found in the water supply? 5 Why were tube wells sunk in Bangladesh? 6 How high is the arsenic level in Bangladeshi wells? 7 How many Bangladeshis are affected by arsenic poisoning? 8 Why is it difcult to inform villagers about the problem? 9 Explain why most effort is going into providing efcient ltration systems. 10 Which European countries have arsenic in their groundwater?
Application
11 Design a poster to inform people in Bangladesh about the arsenic in tube wells. Remember that many of the peopleparticularly the women who do most of the domestic choresare illiterate.
Skills
12 Refer to 11.17. Describe the distribution of countries affected by arsenic poisoning.
Surf
257
Water and health

Water-related diseases are responsible for 25 million deaths each year and more than 80 per cent of all deaths in the developing world. About 2.3 billion people suffer from diseases linked to dirty water and poor hygiene. Although the knowledge exists to prevent these diseases, they still keep occurring.
11.19 A guinea worm infection in an African teenager
WATER-BORNE DISEASES
These are caused by water that has been contaminated by waste. They are common in areas that lack adequate sanitation and where hygiene practices are poor. Waterborne diseases include cholera, typhoid, dysentery and diarrhoea, which is the most deadly for children. Nearly two million people die annually from diarrhoeal diseases90 per cent are children under the age of ve.
WATER-BRED DISEASE
Malaria and sleeping sickness are both examples of this type of disease. They are caused by insects that live and breed in or near water. In the case of sleeping sickness the parasite is passed on by blood-sucking male and female tsetse ies. In southern Sudan sleeping sickness affects up to 50 per cent of the population.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
One gram of faeces can contain 10 million viruses, one million bacteria and 100 parasite eggs.
WATER-BASED DISEASES
These are caused by organisms such as ukes and tapeworms that spend part of their life-cycle in water and part as parasites in humans. Guinea worm (see 11.19) and schistosomiasis are both examples. Although they are not usually fatal these diseases cause considerable distress and limit peoples ability to work.
11.20 At least 200 million people in 76 countries are infected by schistosomiasis.
Malaria is a widespread tropical disease that kills an African child every 30 seconds. Approximately 40 per cent of the worlds population is at risk from malaria though 90 per cent of the deaths occur in Africa, south of the Sahara. In this region alone treatment and lost productivity are estimated to cost US$1.7 billion each year.
WATER-SCARCE DISEASES
These thrive in conditions where freshwater is scarce and sanitation poor. They spread rapidly through contact where there is too little water for hand washing.
Human comes into contact with infected waterparasite burrows into skin.
Parasites burrow their way through to the bladder and release their eggs.
Trachoma is one of the earliest recorded diseases in history, and is the leading cause of blindness worldwide. It affects over 400 million people and is almost entirely a disease of developing countries, with one exceptionAustralia. The disease is only found where living conditions are crowded and hygiene is poor, so bacteria spread easily from one person to another through contact. Children pass on the disease by rubbing their infected eyes and then touching other people. Few people have heard about trachoma yet it threatens to blind 10 per cent of the worlds population. It can ruin whole communities but it is preventableall that is needed is enough clean water so that people can wash as well as drink.
Schistosomiasis cycle
Parasites are released from snails back into water. Eggs infect snails and develop into parasites.
Human urinates into watereggs are released into water.
SNAPSHOT
THE SCHISTOSOMIASIS CONTROL INITIATIVE (SCI)

This initiative was founded in 2002 with a $20 million grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. It aims to encourage treatment of schistosomiasis in Sub-Saharan Africa by targeting those at high risk of developing severe infections, especially school-aged children, women and those in high-risk occupations.
11.21 The mosquito carries malaria.
Eradicating malaria
The malaria parasite is transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. One to two weeks after infection, u-like symptoms begin with cycles of fever, shaking, chills and drenching sweats. Severe cases result in red blood cells being destroyed, which restricts blood supply to the brain and vital organs causing death. There are three approaches to reducing malaria. Treating infected people with drugs, but some of these are no longer effective and they are too expensive for many of the poor people affected. Prevention to reduce the number of people infected by promoting the use of bed nets, as mosquitoes are most active at dusk. Nets need to be treated with insecticide. Eradication to kill insects by spraying their breeding grounds with pesticides. These can be effective but also harmful to humans if they get in to the water supply. An alternative is to reduce the breeding grounds by draining areas of stagnant water and covering water containers. No method will work alone. A combination of these along with community education programs is the only way this global epidemic will be stopped.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Refer back to the chapter opening pages of this unit. How many people worldwide lack access to: a clean water b sanitation? 2 How many people die from water-related diseases each year? 3 What is the cause of water-borne diseases? 4 How many people die annually from diarrhoea? 5 Name two water-borne diseases. 6 Where in the world is schistosomiasis worst? 7 Which insects carry: a sleeping sickness b malaria? 8 Where and when was the Schistosomiasis Control Initiative introduced? What are the main aims of the SCI? 9 Describe three ways that malaria can be reduced. 10 What are the conditions that can lead to trachoma? What is the potential result of this disease? 11 Which is the only developed country in the world with trachoma?
Application
11.22 Repeated infections of trachoma can cause the eyelashes to turn inward and scratch the cornea leading to loss of vision and blindness.
12 Choose one of the diseases from this unit and design a poster for use in a community education program aimed at preventing the disease. 13 Imagine that you work for an international aid agency and it is your responsibility to decide on the funding for projects. This year you have enough money to do one of the following: provide the drugs necessary to treat everyone in the village with malaria build a toilet block for the village school pay a health worker to visit the village once a week test and treat all the children in the village for schistosomiasis. a Work in small groups to decide which of these projects you will fund. b When you have made your decision present your reasons to the class.
259
The Aral Sea ecological disaster
11.23 A boat left high and dry on the Aral Sea
THE SHRINKING ARAL SEA

By 2005 the Aral Sea had become one of the worst ecological disasters in the world. It had been reduced in area by 60 per cent and in volume by 80 per cent, and the sea level had dropped by 18 metres. All known sh species in the sea were extinct and Muynak was a desert town 100 kilometres from the shore. The cause of this was the decision by the former Soviet Union government to expand the area of irrigated crops, particularly cotton and rice, in order to become less dependent on imports. To do this they dammed both the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers and built a vast network of 40 000 kilometres of irrigation canals. Between 1960 and 1980 the irrigated area was expanded from 4.5 million hectares to seven million hectares, allowing cotton production to double and the population to increase from 14 million to 27 million. However the immediate benets from increased agricultural production were quickly outweighed by the environmental, social and economic costs (see 11.27). The cotton plantations in the area use highly toxic pesticides and other harmful chemicals. For decades, these chemicals have been deposited into the Aral Sea. Now that the sea bed is exposed over 100 million tons of salty toxic dust blows over the surrounding region annually, affecting an estimated 20 million people.
11.25 Changes to the Aral Sea
The Aral Sea is located in Central Asia, in the republics of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in the former USSR. It is an inland salt water sea fed by two main rivers, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya. Until 1960 these rivers provided enough fresh water to keep the Aral Seas water and salt levels in perfect balance. It was the fourth largest inland sea in the world with an area of 68 000 square kilometres (about the same size as Tasmania). The sea was a rich source of sh and Muynak was a busy shing port on its southern shore with a population of 45 000 and a thriving tourist industry.
11.24 Location of the Aral Sea
Russia
Key borders water body
Kazakhstan
Lake Balkhash
Syr
Aral Sea
Da
rya
Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan Tajikistan Pakistan India China
Year
D ur Am
Area (km2) 68 000 38 817 21 058
Volume (km3) 1040 282 124
Sea level (m) 53.0 38.5 32.4
Salinity (g/l) 10 30 70
Turkmenistan
Caspian Sea
ary a
1960 1990 2010 (projected)
Iran
0 200 400 km
Afghanistan
11.26 The shrinking Aral Sea
1960 Kazakhstan
Aralsk
1999 Kazakhstan
Dam
Aralsk
2002 Kazakhstan
North Aral Sea Dam
Aralsk
Aral Sea
South Aral Sea
Muynak
Muynak
Muynak
Uzbekistan
0 50
Uzbekistan
100 km
Uzbekistan
Country border
11.27 The contraction of the Aral Sea has had many negative impacts
Climatic Increase in temperature extremes with hotter summers and colder winters Reduced rainfall Growing season reduced to 170 days Increase of salt and dust storms90 days per year
Ecological Degradation of the delta ecosystems due to salinity and water shortage 36 000 km2 of salty sea bed exposed Drinking water is heavily polluted with salt, fertilisers and pesticides Winds carry toxic dust
Economic Total collapse of the shing industry (originally 44 000 tonnes per annum) Decrease of productivity of agricultural elds due to salinity High levels of unemployment leading to rising crime rates Increasing poverty, with failing social services and education systems
Health Increase of serious diseasescholera, typhus, gastritis, blood cancer Increase of respiratory system diseases asthma, bronchitis Birth defects and high infant mortality Presence of anaemia among women
Social 5 million people devastated by the disaster 100 000 environmental refugees Loss of shing heritage and tradition Dramatic drop in living standards
Activities
Knowledge
1 Where is the Aral Sea? Which two main rivers supplied its freshwater? 2 What happened to the Aral Sea between 1960 and 2005? 3 Why did the Soviet government dam the rivers leading to the Aral Sea? 4 Compare the salinity of the Aral Sea in 1960 with the predicted salinity for 2010. 5 Where does the toxic dust come from? 6 Describe the drinking water in the area. How has the water quality affected peoples health? 7 List the ecological impacts caused by the shrinking Aral Sea.
b Write a sentence to describe what your table shows.

Name of country Infant mortality Life expectancy Australia Uzbekistan Kazakhstan
Application
9 Refer to 11.27. Write a paragraph describing the economic and social impacts of the shrinking Aral Sea. 10 In small groups discuss the lessons that can be learnt from the Aral Sea. How can this type of ecological disaster be prevented from happening elsewhere? Develop guidelines for the future management of large irrigation schemes. 11 Collect media articles and construct a wall display to educate your school community about the health of inland seas and large lakes such as the Black Sea, Caspian Sea and Lake Chad.
Skills
8 Refer to the world statistics section of an atlas: a Copy and complete the following table using statistics.
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The issue of dam-building

Dams have played a signicant role in human development and improving the quality of life of millions of people worldwide. In the early twentieth century large dams were seen as the best way to manage freshwater resources and were a symbol of economic development. On the other hand they have also been responsible for displacing millions of people, spreading disease and degrading the environmental quality of 60 per cent of the worlds rivers.
THE DEBATE OVER DAMS

Dam-building has become a hotly debated global topic as the social and environmental costs are weighed against the economic gains. At the heart of the dams debate is the issue of equity. In the twenty-rst century there is considerable concern about how water can be shared fairly: within and between nations between rural and urban populations between upstream and downstream areas between agricultural, industrial and domestic uses between human needs and the requirements of a healthy environment.
11.28 The Hoover Dam on the Colorado River in the United States was the largest dam ever built when it was completed in 1936 and was viewed as one of the technological wonders of the world.
11.29 The arguments for and against dams
FOR
Large expanses of water behind dams have a moderating effect on climate They provide a reliable source of water for industry Local employment opportunities improve Domestic water supply is secured Dams are an insurance against drought They prevent flooding Dams make irrigation possible so food production increases The reservoirs yield a new food source from fishing Dams generate 19% of world electricity They offer recreational opportunities and increase tourism
AGAINST
Dams cause a loss of soil fertility leading to increased use of fertilisers They increase the spread of water-borne diseases such as schistosomiasis Salinity and waterlogging problems result from over-irrigation Fisheries downstream are affected Massive amounts of water are lost through waste and evaporation They cut off the water supply for people across borders downstream Sediment is trapped behind dams instead of reaching the flood plains They flood land and homes and submerge places of cultural value Dams wipe out endangered species They can cause earthquakes, coastal erosion and release greenhouse gases
SNAPSHOT
11.30 Satellite image of the Aswan High Dam on Lake Nasser
11.31 Irrigated crops along the Nile River
The Aswan High Dam

The Aswan High Dam on the Nile River, 13 kilometres south of the Egyptian city of Aswan, had three main purposes: to prevent ooding to store water to generate hydro-electric power. Since its completion in 1970 it has boosted the Egyptian economy due to its successful power production, but not all its impacts have been benecial. The control of ooding has allowed the agricultural area to be expanded and several crops are grown each year rather than just one. However, articial fertilisers now have to be used to maintain soil fertility as the silt that used to replenish the oodplains is trapped behind the dam wall. Egyptians now have a constant supply of freshwater but the slower ow of the river means that pollutants are more concentrated and there is an increased risk of water-related disease. Therefore drinking water needs greater chlorination. Also at the delta, saltwater from the Mediterranean has crept inland affecting the groundwater. Lake Nasser extends nearly 500 kilometres behind the dam, providing excellent opportunities for recreation and new shing and tourism industries, but 10 000 Nubians were displaced and many valuable archaeological sites were submerged (see the Abu Simbel snapshot in unit 2.6 on page 43). The vast lake moderates the surrounding desert climate but at the same time 11 per cent of the water is lost through evaporation.
11.32 Location of the Aswan Dam
Location map
Nile Delta Aswan Dam Lake Nasser

R
AFRICA
Pe
ulf
Re d Sea
N
Nil
Lake Victoria
0 500 1000 km
Activities
Knowledge
1 When was the Hoover Dam built and which river does it dam? 2 What does equity mean? 3 What proportion of the worlds large river systems has been dammed? 4 Summarise the arguments for and against dams. 5 Where is the Aswan High Dam? 6 What has happened to the silt that used to fertilise the Egyptian crops? 7 What has happened in the Nile delta? 8 How big is Lake Nasser? 9 How many Nubians were displaced by the lling of Lake Nasser? 10 Which new industries does Lake Nasser provide?
Application
11 Hold a class debate: Dams are a good way to manage water.
Fieldwork
12 Visit a dam and use photography to record the impact that the dam has had on the local environment.
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263
Conflict or cooperation?
11.33 The Euphrates River rises in the highlands of eastern Turkey
During the twenty-rst centuryas our population continues to grow and more countries face water stress and scarcitythere is an increasing risk of conict. On the other hand the need to share our limited water resources across borders could bring about a world in which there is greater cooperation and peace.
WHO HAS THE RIGHT TO WATER?

In North Africa, the Middle East and parts of Asia, access to freshwater is already a critical issue. Countries in these regions face mounting internal competition for limited supplies as a result of rapid population growth and escalating demand. In some cases this can be a cause of political tension, but in others it is leading to cooperation, as the snapshots illustrate.
11.34 Length and percentage of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers by country
SNAPSHOT
The Nile Basin

Egypt is particularly vulnerable with regard to water as it lies downstream from nine other countries in the Nile Basin. When Ethiopia proposed damming the Nile for hydroelectric power Egypts initial reaction was one of hostility. However, realising that it would be unable to prevent the development Egypt turned to cooperation rather than conict. By 1999 the countries of the Nile Basin had established the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) which provides the opportunity for cooperative development of water resources. The aim of the NBI is to achieve sustainable development that uses the available resources for the benet of all people in the Basin equally and fairly.
River
Turkey km % 41 22
Syrian Arab Republic km 710 44 % 24 2 km
Iraq % 35 76
Total
Euphrates Tigris
1230 400
1060 1418
3000 1862
11.35 The contribution of different countries to the ow of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
River Euphrates Tigris
Turkey 88.7% 51.9%
Syrian Arab Republic 11.3% 0.0%
Iraq 0.0% 48.1%
11.36 Regulation of the Tigris and Euphrates river systems
SNAPSHOT
BLACK SEA
GEORGIA ARMENIA Yerevan TURKEY AZERBAIJAN
Baku
The TigrisEuphrates
The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP is the Turkish acronym) is a massive undertaking for energy and agricultural development in south-east Turkey involving the construction of 22 dams and 19 hydro-electric power plants on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. By 2010 the project will provide 22 per cent of Turkeys electricity needs and irrigate 1.7 million hectares of new farmland. In contrast, Turkeys southern neighboursSyria and Iraqclaim to be suffering severe water shortages due to GAP and estimates suggest that they could receive as much as 60 per cent less water on completion of the development. They believe Turkey is deliberately withholding supplies from them, using water as a weapon. Turkey denies these claims and insists it has always supplied its neighbours with the agreed minimum ow of 500 cubic metres per second. It argues that the dams benet Iraq and Syria as they control the rivers, providing a constant ow that protects all three countries from seasonal droughts and oods. The political conicts and disputes in this region have made cooperation over water management impossible to achieve in the past. As water shortages are becoming more acute the need for a water-sharing agreement is urgent. The negotiations needed to achieve this could become a channel for peace rather than conict.
KABAN KARAKAYA ATATURK GOLKOY
Nakhichevan (Azerbaijan)
Lake Van Lake Urmla
CASPIAN SEA
BAKHMA ESKI MOSSOUL BATMA TABKA
IRAN
Mossul
DUKAN
Kirkuk
Eu
ri Tig
SYRIA
ph ra
tes
DARBANDIKHAN
RAWA HADITAH KAHN BAGHDADI RAMADI
SAMARRA
Karbala
KUT
Nadjat
Eup h
rates
s
DIYALA WEIR KHAN BEN SAAD
Baghdad
HINDIYAH
Tigris
Key
IRAQ Forest and grazing land Rain-fed agriculture; grains, vegetables, fruits Irrigated crops; (saline soils) Alluvial plains; potential for irigation Dry lands, mainly used for pastoralism Regions influencing the flow of the Tigris and Euphrates Main dams Swamps 0 200 Horticulture
Nasiriyah
Bassorah
Chatt-alArab
KUWAIT Kuwait City
400 km
Activities
Knowledge
1 Why can water cause both conict and cooperation? 2 In which regions of the world is access to water already a critical issue? 3 Why is Egypt vulnerable with regard to water? 4 Which country proposed damming the Nile? 5 How did Egypt react to the damming proposal? 6 How many countries share the Nile Basin? 7 What is the Nile Basin Initiative? 8 What is the GAP? How much new farmland will it create? 9 Name two of Turkeys southern neighbours. 10 What do the GAP projects protect Iraq and Syria from? 11 Why are water agreements becoming urgent?
Skills
12 Refer to 11.36: a Name three dams on the Euphrates and two on the Tigris. b Describe the location of the forest land. c Where do the Tigris and Euphrates meet? d What has happened to the soil where there are irrigated crops? e Draw a simple sketch map to show the courses of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the countries they cross. Hint: Remember to add BOLTS to your map. 13 Construct two pie graphs to illustrate the data given in 11.34one for the Euphrates and one for the Tigris.
Application
14 Refer to 11.35. Explain why Turkey has the potential to use water as a weapon.
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265
Urbanisation
Cities around the world are growing in terms of their population and global inuence. While some cities have coped well with these changes, there have been many failures. The transition from a world where the majority of the population live in rural areas to one where the majority live in cities has caused many issues associated with urbanisation that geographers need to address.
Geographical tools
Maps
use an atlas use various types of maps: physical, political, topographic, thematic locate features on a map using latitude and longitude, area and grid references use the points of a compass to determine direction construct a sketch map identify and calculate maximum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar column, line, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images use a range of digital images, maps, sound and other appropriate multimedia sources to develop a multimedia presentation or web page
Syllabus outcomes
A student: 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information
Photographs

ICT
4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.7 identifies and discusses geographical issues from a range of perspectives 4.8 describes the interrelationships between people and environments 4.9 describes differences in life opportunities throughout the world 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship
Definitions
ecological footprinthow much land and water area a person in a particular country needs in order to produce their energy requirements and dispose of their wastes globalisationa process caused by advances in technology, which involves the web of interrelationships that have formed between countries, companies, people, resources, cultures and money industrialisationthe development of factories and the organisation of industry on a large scale due to the introduction of modern machinery from around 200 years ago infrastructurethe essential facilities that cities need including water and power supplies, roads and public transport megacitya city that has a population of 10 million people or more population densitythe number of people per unit of area in a city, usually written as people per square kilometre ruralthe farming areas of a country which have a low population density with people mainly employed in farming or mining activities ruralurban migrationthe process that involves the movement of people from rural areas to cities shanty townsee squatter settlement slumthe poorest area of a city with inadequate housing and few services squatter settlementan unplanned housing area where people have no legal ownership of the land and build houses out of materials they can nd or scavenge, also known as a shanty town urbancity areas of high population density with people employed in manufacturing, ofce and service activities urban sprawlthe constant spreading out of a city as the population grows and new suburbs develop urbanisationthe process involving the increase in the percentage of a countrys population living in cities world citya city in which activities occur that inuence, organise and control nance, business and trade around the world
Cities of the world
12.1 The ruins of the ancient city of Machu Picchu, Peru
Cities are the most recognisable feature of the global pattern of human settlement. Many of todays cities actually began as trading centres or were built with walls so that they could be defended against attack. Other cities, such as Machu Picchu in South America, are ancient cities that no longer exist and the reasons for their development may never be fully understood. Geographers study the growth and changing roles of cities around the globe.
THE ROLES OF CITIES

Cities around the world developed for a number of different reasons. Some ancient cities developed as important religious centres, such as Jerusalem in Israel, Mecca in Saudi Arabia and Vatican City in Rome. From the 1500s onwards some European cities especially those with coastal ports, such as London and Amsterdamgrew as important areas for trade and banking. At the same time, large cities in the non-European countries often began as colonies set up by foreign countries. The English, for example, established colonies in India, Malaysia and Singapore. Some cities in these countries have buildings that reect the period of English rule. With the growth of industry over the last 200 years, some cities developed as centres of manufacturing, such as Birmingham in England GEOGRAPHY and OsakaKobe in Japan. Cities such as Paris and Milan have become famous for the designers and fashion labels that are located there, making them global leaders in the fashion industry.
WHAT IS A CITY?
People use the terms urban and city to mean a settlement containing a large number of people. The word urban therefore refers to an area that is a city or town. The actual denition of a city tends to be based on the number of people who live in a particular settlement. In countries with large populations such as China or India, settlements have to be over 5000 people to be classied as urban. In countries with smaller populations such as Australia, settlements are classied as urban if they have 1000 or more people. The United Nations compares settlements across countries and uses a population size of 2000 people to classify areas as urban.
FOCUS
Vatican City is an entire citystate of only 44 hectares. It is the smallest independent nation in the world.
12.2 Some cities have landmarks that are recognised all over the world. The Hollywood sign in the Los Angeles hills is one of these.
Hollywood, in the US city of Los Angeles, is world famous for the actors and movie studios located there. It has a global role in the production and distribution of movie entertainment. There are cities that have as their main focus politics and government. Canberra is Australias capital city and is the home of the federal government and So Paulo is a city that acts as a main centre of political administration for the whole of Brazil. The rapid growth of computer technology in the last 50 years has seen the growth of technology-based cities or silicon cities, such as San Francisco and Seattle in the United States and Bangalore in India.
12.3 Vatican City is the sacred religious city within Rome, Italy that is home to the Pope, the leader of the Catholic Church. Decisions are made from this city that affect the operation of the Catholic Church around the world.
on what people can afford and the local conditions such as climate, topography and available building materials. Shopping areasMost CBD areas have shopping or retail areas. Many have special areas with designer stores. There is also a trend today towards shopping areas or retail developments in the form of very large shopping centres located in the suburbs of a city area. Industrial areasCities also have large areas where factories and warehouses are located. There are two main types of industrial area. There are the manufacturing areas that make goods like televisions, motor cars and other items. There are also areas that specialise in computer technology and information which are called technology parks. These industrial areas are important because they supply goods as well as jobs for the people who live in cities all around the world. Transport facilitiesCities are the transport focus for roads, rail, air and shipping activities. Most coastal cities have a port area to handle imports and exports carried by ships from around the world. Most large cities also have international airports to accommodate the large number of people who travel between countries of the world for tourism and business. Public rail and road transport facilities are also an important feature of cities. Other essential infrastructure within citiesThis includes recreational land such as parks and reserves, educational areas such as schools and universities, as well as services such as hospitals and police. All cities of the world today aim to have efcient transport networks, recreational space and facilities for residents, sufcient power supplies, sewage works, clean water supply and waste disposal facilities.
COMMON FEATURES OF CITIES

Although individual cities have their own special character, all cities around the world have common features or zones. Central business district (CBD)The CBD is one of the most recognisable features of any city as it is the zone that has the tallest buildings. This is as a result of the high number of businesses that want to locate in such a small space. The solution has been to increase the height of the buildings in CBDs all around the world. Many important businesses are located in the CBD, such as the ofces of transnational corporations, bank headquarters, legal rms, top accountancy and nancial ofces and high-class retail stores. Law courts, government buildings and theatres are also located in this area. Residential areasAnother easily recognisable feature of cities are the residential areas where people live. There are many different types of housing that accommodate people in cities around the world. These include luxury mansions, high-rise apartments, detached style houses and shanty developments or squatter settlements. Housing tends to be based
Urbanisation
269

Key CBD Retail Railway Industrial Major road Older residential Newer residential
200 m 300 m 400 m 500 m
World Building 1890 Masonic Temple 1892 Manhattan Life 1894 St Paul Building 1898 Park Row Building 1899
Singer Building 1908
Met Life Tower 1909
Woolworth Building 1913
12.5 Tallest buildings in the world from 1890 to 2004
Manhattan Company 1930
Chrysler Building 1930
12.4 A simplied pattern of city landuse moving out from the CBD
Empire State Building 1931
World Trade Centre 1973
Sears Tower 1974
Petronas Towers 1998
Taipei 101 2004
100 m
12.6 The West Edmonton Mall in Alberta, Canada is the largest shopping mall in North America with over 800 shops, restaurants and other attractions such as a miniature golf course, an articial beach and amusement park.
Planning landuse within a city

It is important that the growth of cities is planned. This ensures that all newer parts are linked with existing parts of the city. All the facilities and infrastructure ideally are provided before newer parts of the city are developed. Planning cities is one of the key roles of the geographers.
12.7 The road system is part of the infrastructure of cities.
Activities
Knowledge
1 List two reasons why cities have developed in the past. 2 Identify the two areas of study that geographers investigate in relation to cities. 3 What is meant by the term urban? Why does the classication of urban areas vary from country to country? 4 What population size does the United Nations use to classify areas as urban? 5 Name four important roles cities have. Give examples to support your answer. 6 What are silicon cities? Why have they developed? 7 List the key zones found in all cities of the world. 8 What is the CBD area of a city? List the types of activities that occur in the CBD. 9 List ve examples of infrastructure found in cities and explain why each is an essential part of a city.
11 Refer to 12.5: a How tall is the Chrysler building? b How much taller is the Chrysler building than the Manhattan Company building? c In what year did the worlds tallest building pass 500 metres? d How many years did it take for the worlds tallest building to go from 200 metres to 400 metres?
Application
12 Copy and complete the table. Match the cities listed to the global role they play from the following suggestions. Some may involve a little research for you to get the answer. Suggested roles are: religion, fashion, justice and law, nance, technology, politics and administration, manufacturing, education and entertainment. Some cities may have more than one role.
City Vatican City New York Mecca Hollywood Singapore Beijing The Hague Oxford Global role City Paris Tokyo Washington DC Milan Sao Paulo Nairobi Cannes Moscow Global role
Skills
10 Prepare an annotated diagram of 12.4. For each zone prepare a brief summary listing the main types of activities that occur there. Label your diagram with your summaries.
Surf
Urbanisation
271
The growth of cities

The world has now entered the point where for the rst time in history there are more people on Earth living in cities than in rural areas. The world urban population has increased dramatically since the middle of the twentieth centuryit reached 1 billion in 1961, 2 billion in 1985, and 3 billion in 2002. It is projected to reach 4 billion in 2017 and 5 billion in 2030. Contrast this with the growth in the world rural populationit reached 2 billion in 1959 and 3 billion in 1991, but it is unlikely that it will ever reach 4 billion.
12.9 Urban and rural population of the world 19502030

5000 4500 Urban population 4000 Rural population 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1950 1960 1970 1980
Population (millions)
1990 Year
2000
2010
2020 2030
12.8 Tokyo has been the worlds largest city since 1955 and is expected to grow to over 36 million by 2015.
WHERE ARE THE LARGEST CITIES OF THE WORLD?

Many of the worlds large cities are located in the developing countries of the world. In the year 2000 the developing countries had 2 billion urban dwellers compared with 900 million in the developed world. The United Nations predicts that the urban populations in developing countries will increase to nearly 4 billion by 2030. This is in sharp contrast to the developed countries which will increase to just 1 billion in 2030. The growth of large cities shown in 12.11 can largely be explained by the advances in technology and the impacts it has had on particular countries. Many of the cities in the rich countries underwent urbanisation as manufacturing industries developed during the Industrial Revolution, which started about 200 years ago. It is really only since the late 1960s that the cities of the developing world have experienced rapid urbanisation. A big factor in the development of these cities has been the establishment of modern manufacturing plants. Globalisation has allowed companies located in the cities of the developed world to organise and control manufacturing in the cities of the developing world (see 8.29).
URBANISATIONA GEOGRAPHICAL ISSUE

The process causing cities to grow is called urbanisation. Urbanisation involves the movement of people from rural areas to cities and is measured as the percentage (or proportion) of a countrys population living in cities.
12.10 Urban and rural populations of the developed and developing countries. This highlights the rapid rate of urbanisation in developing countries, as well as the transition of people moving from a mainly rural or farmbased population to a mainly urban or city-based population.
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
Population (millions)
1950
1960
1970
1980 1990 Year
2000
2010
2020 2030
Urban population Rural population
Developed countries Developed countries
Developing countries Developing countries
12.11 Growth of the worlds largest cities with populations over 10 million between 1950 and 2015 (projected)
1950
City Population City
1975
Population City
2003
Population City
2015 (projected)
Population
New York, US Tokyo, Japan
12.3 11.3
Tokyo, Japan New York, US Shanghai, China Mexico City, Mexico
26.6 15.9 11.4 10.7
Tokyo, Japan Mexico City, Mexico New York, US So Paulo, Brazil Mumbai, India Delhi, India Kolkata, India Buenos Aires, Argentina Shanghai, China Jakarta, Indonesia Los Angeles, US Dhaka, Bangladesh OsakaKobe, Japan Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Karachi, Pakistan Beijing, China Cairo, Egypt Moscow, Russian Federation Manila, Philippines Lagos, Nigeria
35.0 18.7 18.3 17.9 17.4 14.1 13.8 13.0 12.8 12.3 12.0 11.6 11.2 11.2 11.1 10.8 10.8 10.5 10.4 10.1
Tokyo, Japan Mumbai, India Delhi, India Mexico City, Mexico So Paulo, Brazil New York, US Dhaka, Bangladesh Jakarta, Indonesia Lagos, Nigeria Kolkata, India Karachi, Pakistan Buenos Aires, Argentina Cairo, Egypt Los Angeles, US Shanghai, China Manila, Philippines Rio de Janeiro, Brazil OsakaKobe, Japan Istanbul, Turkey Beijing, China Moscow, Russian Federation Paris, France
36.2 22.6 20.9 20.6 20.0 19.7 17.9 17.5 17.0 16.8 16.2 14.6 13.1 12.9 12.7 12.6 12.4 11.4 11.3 11.1 10.9 10.0
REASONS FOR INCREASED URBANISATION

Geographers recognise two ways that the process of urbanisation occurs. The rst way is through natural increase or births of children to people already living in cities. The second way is through ruralurban migration. This is where people move from rural areas to urban areas in order to seek a different life. The reasons for ruralurban migration are labelled rural push and urban pull factors.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Every week urban areas around the world gain another one million people.
Activities
Knowledge
1 How many years did it take for the worlds urban population to grow from 1 to 2 billion people? 2 When did the worlds urban population reach 3 billion people? 3 How many years did it take for the worlds rural population to grow from 2 to 3 billion people? 4 Dene the term urbanisation. 5 What global change was linked to urbanisation in the cities of the developed world? 6 What global change is linked to the growth of cities in the developing world? e Describe one way the worlds population changed after 2007. f In 2030 how many more people will live in urban areas than in rural areas? 8 Refer to 12.11: a Use a blank world outline map to plot the location of the worlds largest cities in 2003. b Prepare a series of column graphs to show the growth of New York, Tokyo, Mexico City and Mumbai from 1975 to 2015. 9 Study 12.10 then use the word bank below to complete the following cloze passage: Word bank: population, developed, greater, equal, urban, before, rural In 1950 the countries urban and populations were equal. Since then the urban has been than the rural population. In developing countries, the rural population has been greater than the population since 1950. In 2018 the rural and urban population will be in the developing countries.
Skills
7 Refer to 12.9 and answer the following questions: a In a sentence explain what the graph shows. b In 1960 what was the total urban population? c In 1960 what was the total rural population? d How many more people lived in rural areas than in urban areas in 1960?
Urbanisation
273
The urban footprint

People choose to live in cities because of the facilities and opportunities located there. Cities contain government ofces, the best medical facilities, the top universities, business and employment opportunities, entertainment facilities and access to the court system and legal advice. There are many benets of urban living. However, these benets of urban life come at a cost.
CITIES USE RESOURCES

Cities require large quantities of resources to sustain the people and industries located in them. These resources are drawn from long distancessometimes even from other countries. These resources, once used, generate waste that needs to be disposed of. City living has a huge impact on the environment. A way of measuring the impact of cities on the environment is to consider their ecological footprint. This measures the amount of land area that is needed to sustain a persons lifestyle. It considers the amount of farmland needed to feed people, water resources used, energy consumed by people and the amount of land required to produce this energy, as well as the amount of waste created by a persons lifestyle. Londons ecological footprint, for example, is estimated to be 120 times the surface area of the city, or about 200 000 square kilometres. At current consumption levels a typical city in the United States or Canada with a population of 650 000 requires about 30 000 square kilometres of land. In comparison, a similar-sized city in India requires just 2 800 square kilometres. However, as industries develop in Indian cities, this footprint and therefore the impact on the global environment is likely to increase dramatically.
12.13 In Kunming, China people have solar panels on rooftops that are used for hot water. As solar energy does not pollute the air it has helped ease the smog over the city.
12.12 Los Angeles urban sprawl and the lack of public transport means that people rely on their cars for transport. Freeways help move trafc but result in issues such as trafc congestion, pollution and driver stress.
URBAN SPRAWL
Urban sprawl involves the constant spreading out of cities through the growth of new suburbs. The more planning that goes into the growth of cities, the better urban sprawl can be managed. As cities grow, there needs to be careful consideration given to the development of essential infrastructure. Los Angeles in the United States is a sprawling city. As the city has grown, little consideration has been given to the development of an efcient public transport system. As a result 90 per cent of the population drives to work on motorways and freeways that have been built. This creates issues for the city (see 12.12).
Trafc congestion
Poorly planned road networks, a lack of public transport and urban sprawl combine to create trafc congestion. This is a feature of many of the worlds cities. In Lima, Peru, for example, the average speed of peak hour trafc is just 5.9 kilometres per hour. In London and Bombay it is just 16.6 kilometres per hour.
The reliance and concentration of motor cars in cities, combined with the fuel consumption, add to the air pollution levels and the smog. The car emissions and ne particles are harmful to peoples health and increase incidences of asthma and other related illnesses.
Activities
Knowledge
1 List ve reasons people choose to live in cities. 2 What is meant by the term ecological footprint? 3 How big is Londons ecological footprint? Describe what this means in your own words. 4 Compare the ecological footprints of North American and Indian cities. How do they differ? 5 Why is the footprint of Indian cities likely to increase dramatically in the future? 6 Outline one way the residents of Kunming, China are reducing their ecological footprint. 7 What is urban sprawl and why is it a problem for cities? 8 What health problems in humans are associated with trafc congestion? 9 Describe two issues related to waste disposal in cities. 10 List ve things geographers would investigate to make sure cities are well planned.
Waste management
Urban lifestyles generate tremendous quantities of waste in the form of rubbish and sewage. For example, the residents of New York City hold the world waste record of 1.6 kilograms per person per day, but other cities are not far behind. Disposal of this waste becomes a major issue for cities as incineration adds to atmospheric pollution while landll sites can prove difcult to nd and offer only a temporary solution.
CITIES AND THE ROLE OF THE GEOGRAPHER

Good cities are well planned. Geographers are the planners that solve the issues that arise within cities as urbanisation occurs. To ensure cities are well planned geographers need to investigate various aspects of cities including: where the population lives the type of housing the location of jobs, factories and ofces the trafc ow and road location where services are located, such as schools, hospitals and police. As cities develop, issues and problems arise. This is when geographers need to use problem-solving skills. They need to interview groups involved to understand their concerns and perspectives on the issue, and then they need to make suggestions on how to solve the issue. This might mean making some hard decisionswhile some groups will be happy with the decisions, others may be disappointed. This is the nature of managing urbanisation issues in cities.
12.14 Cities generate a huge amount of waste.
Application
11 Look through a newspaper and nd an article involving an issue in an urban area: a Identify the issue. b Name the groups or people involved in the issue. c Describe the likely solution. d Consider which groups or people will be pleased with the solution. e Explain why you agree or disagree with the solution. f Who wrote the article? Do they present a range of opinions on the issue? 12 Describe the role of the geographer in planning for city growth.
Surf
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The average urban resident in a developed country generates four to six times more waste than the average urban resident in a developing country.
Urbanisation
275
New York Citya world city
12.15 The Statue of Liberty has become a globally recognised landmark of not just New York City but the whole of the United States.
The rich or developed countries of the world have some of the most powerful cities. New York and Tokyo were the rst two cities to reach a population of 10 million people. They achieved this population level before 1950. Since then they have continued to grow in size, but have also grown in power. This has enabled these cities to become very rich and inuential.
THE ROLE OF NEW YORK

Cities are the focus for money, production of goods and services, consumption of goods and services, processing of information and centres of culture. New York is a world leader in all these areas. In terms of the money produced in the city of New York, nance, insurance and real estate are the three most important activities. World cities also contain buildings and landmarks that become symbols of an entire nations wealth and power (see 12.15). In 2001 the World Trade Center in New York, two of the most recognisable buildings in the city (see 12.6 on page 270) were destroyed by terrorist attacks. A new building has been designed to replace the World Trade Center. Called the Freedom Tower, the planners of the building were determined that it too would become an important global icon of New York.
WORLD CITIES
Today geographers label London, New York and Tokyo world cities. These are cities that are so powerful that they inuence nance, business and trade around the world. Decisions made in these cities on a daily basis can affect entire countries. With a current population of over 18 million in the greater metropolitan area, New York is one of the worlds dominant cities.
12.16 Despite being a rich world city homeless people live on the streets and in the parks of New York.
URBANISATION ISSUES IN NEW YORK CITY

HomelessnessThe wealth of New York is not experienced by everybody. Housing is a serious problem in the central areas of the city. Each night over 38 000 people sleep in shelters provided by the city government and charity organisations. This includes more than 16 000 children and 8000 single adults. It is also estimated that as many as 90 000 more sleep on the city streets and in other public places each night. WasteThis is another serious problem in New York. The city produces 23 600 tonnes of waste per day. City planners need to deal with the disposal of this rubbish. Currently the city has eight incinerators to burn the waste. These are being replaced because of environmental concerns. Eleven landll sites are currently used to dump the rubbish. The challenge remains: what will the city do when the landll sites are full?
Transport successNot all issues are negative in urban areas. New York has developed the largest railway system in the world called the subway. In 2005, people made 1.45 billion trips on the subway system. While in the rest of the United States nearly 90 per cent of people drive to their jobs, New York is the exceptionmore than half of all households do not own a car and in Manhattan this gure jumps to over 75 per cent. New Yorks high use of public transport makes it one of the most energy-efcient cities in the United States when it comes to transport. Population growthWith 800 000 new residents since 1990, New York has had the challenge of providing affordable housing for them. Over the next 25 years there will have to be homes for as many as 1.5 million more residents, but the city is almost full. Building suburbs on the edge of New York is costly and would mean more roads and increased travel times for commuters to the city. The only other option is to develop all available space in the city and build taller apartment blocks to house people. This challenge remains for planners.
NEW YORK
The Freedom Tower to be built at the site of the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan is planned to be the worlds tallest building. David Childs, the architect, said the tower would satisfy the publics desire for an exclamation point on the skyline, It must be iconic. Simple and pure in its form that would proclaim the resiliency and the spirit of our democracy, Real estate developer Larry Silverstein, the trade centre leaseholder, is determined to make Freedom Tower signicant. It will rise up 70 oors and be topped by wind turbines to produce electricity that will provide 20 per cent of the buildings energy. The building is to include 2.6 million square feet of commercial space, which would be on the market when the tower is completed in 2008. Charles Gargano, the vice chairman of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the agency that built the original trade centre and owns the 16-acre site, said the agency would occupy as much as a third of the building when nished. Gargano estimated the towers construction would cost $1.5 billion. There will be a public lobby, retail stores, 60 oors of ofce space, topped off with an indoor observation deck, a restaurant and event space and then a communications tower to cap it all off.
CNN
12.17 The architects model of the Freedom Tower
Activities
Knowledge
1 What are world cities? Name three world cities. 2 Explain why New York is considered to be a world city. 3 List the three most important activities that occur in New York according to the amount of money they produce. 4 What is a global icon? Name two features of New York that are considered global icons. 5 What is the total homeless population of New York? How does the government deal with homelessness? 6 List two ways New York disposes of its rubbish. List a problem with each of these methods of disposal of rubbish. 7 How does car ownership in New York compare with car ownership in other cities of the United States? 8 Describe how the issue of transport can be considered a success for the city of New York. 9 Describe two ways city planners will deal with the population growth of New York over the next 25 years. 10 Outline an issue associated with adding new suburbs to the edge of New York.
Skills
11 Read the news item in this unit: a What is the Freedom Tower and where is it located? b Who is David Childs and what was his aim for the Freedom Tower? c When was the tower due to be completed? d What steps have been taken to improve the energy efciency of the building? e What is the estimated cost of the building? f Describe the facilities that the Freedom Tower contains.
Surf
Urbanisation
277
Issues in cities of the developing world
Cities in the developing world are unable to deal with the fast pace of urbanisation. Urbanisation issues are centred on the supply of basic housing and services such as fresh, clean water, sewage disposal, rubbish collection, electricity and health care. The most visible results of the rapid growth of these cities are the squatter settlements or shanty towns that develop on vacant land.
12.18 Poor sanitation and a lack of fresh water are some of the problems of large cities in developing countries.
Poor living conditions

No megacity in the developing world is able to provide enough housing for the population of poor people, many of whom have migrated from rural areas. As a result of the lack of housing, people build shelters on unused areas of land. These shelters develop into shanty towns or squatter settlements, also known as slums. They develop on the least attractive land in the cityon garbage dumps, along railway lines and water pipes (see 12.20), under freeways, near factories and even in cemeteries. Squatters who occupy this land have less chance of authorities clearing their settlement with bulldozers. While all cities contain poorer areas, megacities of developing countries contain the majority of the worlds slums. In 2005, one billion people were living in slums, or about a third of the worlds total urban population.
MEGACITIES AND THEIR PROBLEMS

The United Nations uses the term megacity to describe a city with a population over 10 million. While the rst two cities to have a population of 10 million people were New York and Tokyo (in 1950), the majority of the worlds megacities today are located in developing countries (see 12.11 on page 273). The rapid rate of urbanisation in developing countries has caused many problems in these cities.
12.19 Trafc chaos in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Lack of basic services

In the cities of the developing world basic services are inadequate. Squatter settlements lack a safe and reliable electricity supply. Some residents simply connect themselves to the electricity supply, creating a dangerous situation. Often the water supply is inadequate or nonexistent so nearby rivers or groundwater are used. The water is frequently contaminated, which causes disease and death.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Six hundred million people in urban areas in developing regions (nearly 28 per cent of the developing worlds urban population) cannot meet their basic needs for shelter, water and health from their own resources.
Adding to the contamination of the water supply is the lack of a sewage system in most squatter settlements. Raw sewage ows through the streets and drains directly into the rivers which are used for drinking, cooking and bathing. It is a vicious cyclepoor health causes diarrhoea and dehydration that is then treated by drinking contaminated water that causes diarrhoea and dehydration. Death rates in many areas are high as a result.
Trafc congestion and air pollution

In many of the worlds megacities the air is so polluted that it causes severe health problems. The focus for these cities has been to attract industry with little consideration being given to air quality. Electricity, which is essential to attract industry to the city, is often produced by coal-red power stations, and these add carbon and sulphur dioxide to the air. The health consequences of exposure to polluted air are considerableapproximately 2030 per cent of all respiratory diseases can be linked to the quality of the air people breathe.
12.20 Shanty towns are located wherever there is spare space.
THE FUTURE
Megacities present unique problems that require special solutions. At a global level the United Nations is addressing the issues of urbanisation in megacities. One of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals is to improve the living conditions for at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020. However the problem is that, at current rates, by 2020 the number of slum dwellers will have grown by 500 million. Action needs to be taken to manage these issues now. The next two units are case studies of megacities that present solutions to some of the issues surrounding urbanisation.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Jakarta has between 40 and 50 per cent of its population living in slums while Dhaka, Kolkata and So Paulo have about 40 per cent.
Combined with this is the fact that roads in megacities deal with a wide variety of modes of transport from motor cars to bikes and even animals. Poorly planned roads cause trafc congestion further adding to the air pollution problem.
Activities
Knowledge
1 List ve issues associated with urbanisation of cities of the developing world. 2 What is a megacity? Where are most megacities located? 3 What is a slum? How many people lived in slum areas in 2005? 4 What is squatting and why is it one of the only options for poor people living in megacities? 5 Why is the least attractive land in a city the most favoured area for squatter settlements? 6 Describe how a contaminated water supply and lack of a sewage system leads to a cycle of disease and death. 7 Identify two factors that lead to poor air quality in megacities. 8 What impact does poor air quality have on people? 9 What is the United Nations Millennium Development Goal in relation to slum dwellers? Is this goal likely to be reached? Explain your answer.
Skills
10 Refer to 12.11 on page 273: a Draw up a table with two columnsone titled developed countries and the other titled developing countries. Classify the cities in 2015 as either being in the developed or developing world. Write these cities into the table. b How many more megacities will there be in 2015 than in 2003? How many of these cities will be in the developing world?
Application
11 Research Australias contribution to achieving the United Nations Millennium Development Goals, and the assistance and aid given to improve the living conditions for the one billion people who live in shanty towns. Write a letter to your local federal member about your ndings. 12 In groups research a megacity of the developing world and prepare a poster to highlight the living conditions of people in a shanty town. 13 Make a list of the items you could scavenge in your school that would be suitable to form a shelter for you and your family. How successful would you be at surviving in it?
Urbanisation
279
Mumbai Indias megacity
Mumbai (formerly Bombay) is located on the west coast of India. It had a population of over 18 million people in 2005. It is an important city because it is the focus for trade and business for the whole of India. The port of Mumbai handles over half of Indias trade. It is the location of Indias largest airport and is home to the biggest movie industry in the world, Bollywood. Mumbai produces almost one-third of Indias total GDP. The city also contains Asias largest slum, Dharavi.
12.21 The shanty town of Dharavi in Mumbai is home to more than 1 million people.
URBANISATION ISSUES
The rate of urbanisation in Mumbai has been very fast. Every year the city has to deal with more than 250 000 new residents as a result of ruralurban migration. At the current rate of growth the city may be the worlds largest by 2020. Mumbai struggles to deal with the population growth, giving rise to many issues. Half of Mumbais population lacks running water or electricity. More than 2 million Mumbai residents have no sanitation facilities at all and sewage is discharged untreated or only partially treated into the citys drains and waterways.
12.22 Location of Mumbai
30N
70E
80E
Delhi
20N Mumbai
I N D I A
Kolkata (Calcutta)
Air quality of the city is very poor as a result of the majority of the population cooking on open res. Trafc congestion caused by the 500 000 private vehicles and motorised rickshaws is also a major contributor to the poor air quality. Mumbai has a public transport system to help ease the trafc congestion but this too cannot meet the needs of the population. Its train service carries nearly 6 million passengers a day or about 570 people per train. This is nearly three times the capacity of the train and makes it extremely crowded.
Bay of Bengal
N
Arabian Sea 10N
Chennai
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Since 1985 Mumbais population has increased by 100 per cent but the number of squatters has increased by 1100 per cent. There are approximately 20 000 pavement-dwelling families in Mumbai.
400
800 km
SRI LANKA
CLEARING THE SLUMS

Mumbais government aims to remove all slum areas by 2010. There is a slum-clearance law that makes illegal and subject to demolition any slums built after 1995. The current government has begun slum clearance. In addition they have implemented a four-year, US$8 billion plan that includes the construction of new roads, an underground subway system and a massive public-housing project.
12.23 Part of a slum area (foreground) and the high-rise solution, which cannot keep pace with the rate of urbanisation.
SOLUTIONS TO THE ISSUES

It is now estimated that around 60 per cent of Mumbais population are slum dwellers. To help ease this problem, the local government is aiming to develop low-cost housing units (see 12.25), but the population increase in Mumbai due to ruralurban migration happens faster than the units can be developed. In some cities governments have provided slums with improvements such as a public toilet, a water supply, electricity and basic services, which has improved the living conditions and general health of the slum dwellers. Mumbai, however, is dealing with the increasing numbers of people who want to live in the city in a different way. In an effort to remove slums the authorities have embarked on a program of slum clearance.
The government has built 58 000 new, lowcost housing units for pre-1995 slum dwellers through this scheme. While the government accepts no responsibility for nding housing for people who moved into the slums after 1995, they are attempting to house the pre-1995 slum residents. However, the task is hugethe city needs to build more than one million affordable housing units to house existing slum dwellers. It could cost over US$40 billion in the period up to 2015 to x Mumbai. Although the World Bank has agreed to lend the city US$1 billion there is still a large amount of money needed.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
It has been estimated that the cost of slum clearance and relocation is 10 times more expensive than providing basic services to these slums and letting the residents develop the area themselves.
Activities
Knowledge
1 Use these headings to prepare a fact le on Mumbai.
7 What percentage of Mumbais population are slum dwellers? 8 What are low-cost housing units and how will they help Mumbais slum dwellers? Explain the likely result of this solution. 9 What have communities in other countries done to improve slum areas?
Air travel: Economic importance:
Facts about Mumbai

Location: Former name: Importance to India: Trade: Entertainment: Cultural importance: Current population:
Skills
10 Read the feature section Clearing the slums: a What is slum clearance? How is the government using the law to remove slums from Mumbai? b What is the government doing to house the people as a result of the slum clearance project? c How successful will the governments housing project be if the slum clearance law is strictly enforced? d How fair do you think the slum clearance law is on the residents of Mumbai? e Suggest another possible solution to the slum problem in Mumbai.
2 What is Dharavi and why is it signicant? 3 What is Bollywood and why does it make Mumbai an important centre of Indian culture? 4 Why is the rate of urbanisation causing issues for the planners of Mumbai? 5 How many new residents move to Mumbai each year? 6 Make a list of the issues facing Mumbai as a result of urbanisation.
Urbanisation
281
Mexico Citya megacity from Latin America
12.24 Mexico City has vibrant street life.
Mexico City was the fourth city in the world to reach a population of 10 million. Its name originally comes from the Aztec words meztli, (moon), xictli (belly button) and co (place), or the place of the moons belly button. Its overall population is approaching 19 million.
12.25 Location of Mexico City
GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF MEXICO CITY

Mexico City is located in a valley 100 kilometres long and 50 kilometres wide. It is at an altitude of 2240 metres. The city is surrounded on most sides by volcanoes 4000 5500 metres high. It has pleasant summers and mild winters, and a high average annual rainfall. Most rain falls in summerthe wettest month is July and the driest month is February.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 30N
THE GOOD LIFE

Tropic of Cancer MEXICO Gulf of Mexico
Life in Mexico City is good for many of its people. There are: 35 universities numerous restaurants
N
23 2 N Pacific Ocean 20N
Mexico City
more than 50 radio stations 27 daily newspapers more than 100 weekly magazines
500
1000 km
CENTRAL AMERICA 10N 110W 100W 90W
The city attracts people because of the employment opportunities as the city produces 28 per cent of the countrys industrial output, does 49 per cent of its manufacturing and provides 68 per cent of the nancial services.
12.26 Mexico City, 1926N, 9909W, elevation 2240 metres
Mean Rainfall (mm) Minimum temperature (C) Maximum temperature (C) Average temperate (C)
Jan 8 6 21 13.5
Feb 5 7 23 15
Mar 11 10 25 17.5
Apr 19 11 26 18.5
May 49 12 27 19.5
Jun 106 12 25 18.5
Jul 128 12 23 17.5
Aug 121 12 23 17.5
Sep 110 12 23 17.5
Oct 44 10 23 16.5
Nov 15 8 22 15
Dec 6 7 21 14
Total 622
URBANISATION ISSUES
Two of the issues related to urbanisation in Mexico City are outlined below.
Transport
Mexico Citys rail system is one of the busiest in the world. The system transports more than four million people per day and is one of the cheapest transport systems in the world. Despite this success the system reaches only a fraction of the developed area of the city and the residents rely on buses, taxis and their own private cars. The road network has issues due to a lack of cross roads. This means that cross city trips have to be done on major roads which radiate out from the city centre, making the roads very congested. In 1989 the Mexico City Government was so concerned about air pollution caused by motor cars that they started to introduce a Dont Drive Today policy. Each car was banned from being driven into the city for one day per week. This seemed a good solution, but the citys residents began to purchase second cars for their families to beat the policy. Car sales, petrol consumption and air pollution all increased as a result.
12.28 Government-supplied housing is helping to solve the planning issues of Mexico City.
FROM ILLEGAL TO LEGAL

1 The government gives the land to the residents so they know they will not be moved on and their homes destroyed. 2 Community-level political decision-making then becomes an important part of these former slums. Citizens groups make decisions and seek help from the government to improve their community. In Mexico City there are more than 1800 such groups.
Housing
While the government builds low-cost housing for some of the residents (see 12.28), up to 60 per cent of the population live in former illegal squatter settlements. Many of these areas are now an important part of the city. Through community organisations and government action most of the former squatter areas now have electricity, although over one third still have no running water. While some slum areas across the city have been bulldozed, the formation of citizen groups and the improvement of slum areas by the residents working with the government have been the success story of Mexico City. Squatter settlements have moved from illegal to legal developments and the standard of living in the settlements has improved as a result.
12.27 Mexico City has few cross streets and many of the former squatter settlements have become important parts of the city.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What facilities are available to the residents living in Mexico City? 2 Describe the landforms surrounding Mexico City. 3 How does the road network cause problems? 4 Outline a government solution to the transport issues in Mexico City and evaluate its effectiveness. 5 What percentage of Mexico Citys population lives in former slums? 6 Describe the process of turning former slums into important parts of the city. 7 What roles have the community and government played in improving the slum areas? 8 How effective has this approach to slums been in improving the living conditions of residents?
Skills
9 Use the statistics in 12.26 to construct a climatic graph for Mexico City. a Which month has the coldest temperature? b Which month has the hottest temperature? c Calculate the temperature range for Mexico City. d Describe the climate.
Urbanisation
283
Land degradation
Land degradation is occurring globally, with the most severe impact on the poorer developing countries. It affects more than 110 countries on all of the vegetated continents. Each year land degradation costs the world US$42 billion in lost income and six million hectares in productive land. Land degradation includes soil erosion, desertication, nutrient depletion, salinity, acidication and compaction. It is caused by the human activities of overgrazing, unsustainable cropping, deforestation, mining, war, and chemical and nuclear pollution. Land degradation is a global issue that needs managing.
Geographical tools
Maps
use an atlas use various types of maps: physical, political, topographic, thematic locate features on a map using latitude and longitude use the points of a compass to determine direction construct a sketch map use geographical instruments collect and record data in the field construct and interpret bar column, line, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images use a range of digital images, maps, sound and other multimedia sources to develop a multimedia presentation or web page
Fieldwork
Syllabus outcomes
A student:
Photographs

4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.7 identifies and discusses geographical issues from a range of perspectives 4.8 describes the interrelationships between people and environments 4.9 describes differences in life opportunities throughout the world 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship
ICT
Definitions
agriculturethe practice of growing crops and raising stock arableland that is capable of growing crops cultivationthe process of growing crops deserticationthe spread of land degradation in arid and semi-arid areas dryland salinitythe presence of salts close to the surface of soils due to the removal of deep-rooted vegetation erosionthe process of wearing away the lands surface industrialisationthe development of factories and the organisation of industry on a large scale due to the introduction of modern machinery from around 200 years ago irrigationadding water to crops in order to improve production land degradationthe deterioration of land resources, impacting on the productive capacity of the land monoculturecultivation where a single type of crop dominates overgrazingthe process where too many animals are grazing the land salinitythe presence of salts in the top layers of the soil or water scalda bare patch of soil caused by salinity soila zone in the lithosphere made up of weathered and organic material, water, oxygen and minerals capable of supporting plants waterloggingthe state of the soil when the water table has reached the surface causing it to be damp and usually salty water tablethe level in the ground below which all the pore spaces and cracks in the rocks and sediment are completely lled (saturated) with water weatheringthe process that creates small particles of soil from rock
The nature of land degradation
13.1 Farming causes land degradation if not managed properly. Practices such as large-scale monoculture of wheat can deplete the soil.
Land degradation is an important global issue that involves the deterioration of land resources. Degradation reduces the productive capacity of the land and affects the ability of plant life to grow on it in the future. It is occurring worldwide and it is difcult to stop or reverse. The processes that lead to land degradation are usually caused by human activities. Natural events such as prolonged drought and higher temperatures as a result of climate change also add to land degradation.
WHERE DOES LAND DEGRADATION OCCUR?

The rate of land degradation has increased dramatically with the increase in the human population and improved technology. The world map in 13.2 shows that no vegetated continent is free from land degradation. The orange areas of serious soil degradation may include zones where 75 per cent of the topsoil has been lost already. The practice of large-scale, mechanised monoculture cropping has contributed to the decline in soil in central North America and south-eastern Australia. Monoculture is the growing of one particular type of cropsuch as wheat, cotton or riceover a large area of land, without trees, other types of crops or grasslands to break it up. This can result in wind and water erosion, nutrient depletion, compaction from machines and a loss of soil biodiversity.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
On average it takes about 100 years or a human lifetime to generate one millimetre of soil.
WHAT IS LAND DEGRADATION?
Land degradation affects soil health and productivity. Soils are necessary to provide nutrients like potassium, nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus that plants need in order to grow. Healthy topsoil provides the majority of these nutrients, on which land-based plants, animals and other organisms are dependent. Land degradation does not just affect soils, but also impacts upon rivers, wetlands and lakes where soils are deposited.
ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY
Ecological sustainability is the use of natural resources in the environment to ensure that they will be available for future generations. The sustainable use of resources including soil and land resourcesalso aims to ensure that resources remain of high quality for people today. The continued use of land resources in agriculture decreases the fertility and health of the soil over time. The loss of arable farming and grazing land could lead to difculty in food and agricultural production in the future. If agriculture is practised in a sustainable way the human impact on land resources can be reduced. Most indigenous groups of people used resources sustainably. However, since the Industrial Revolution 200250 years ago, land and soil resources have been exploited with little concern foror knowledge ofthe impacts on the environment. People now understand the consequences of the intensive use of natural resources, so they are starting to use techniques to improve and rehabilitate the land.
CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION

Human activity is the main cause of land degradation. According to the World Resources Institute, a large US-based non-prot research organisation, global land degradation is caused primarily by: overgrazing35% crop growing28% deforestation30% collection of fuel wood for burning6% industrialisation including mining, energy production and pollution1%.
13.2 The causes of land degradation are different on various continents. In North America, agriculture has been responsible for 66 per cent of the soil loss, while in Africa, overgrazing is responsible for about half of the land degradation. In Oceania, which includes Australia, overgrazing is the leading cause of land degradation.
EUROPE Europe AFRICA

Equator
ASIA
N
NORTH AMERICA North America
2000
Correct at equator
4000 km
SOUTH AMERICA
Africa Percentage of land degraded 23 22 20 20 13 10
Asia
AUSTRALIA Oceania
Region Europe Africa Asia Central and South America Australia North America
Causes of soil degradation Soil degradation in the 1990s Serious soil degradation Some soil degradation Relatively stable land Other major oil pollution since 1990 Deforestation Fuel wood Overgrazing Agriculture Industrialisation
South America
Activities
Knowledge
1 Why is land degradation such an important issue? 2 What two atmospheric conditions might worsen land degradation in the future? 3 What impacts does land degradation have? 4 What nutrients do soils provide? 5 What particular human activities contribute to land degradation? 6 What is ecological sustainability and what are its benets? c Which two continents have the largest problem with overgrazing? d Which three continents use fuel wood? e In North America what activity is responsible for the greatest percentage of soil loss? f What activity is responsible for about half the soil degradation in Africa? g What is the leading cause of soil degradation in Oceania (which includes Australia)?
Application
10 Calculate how long it would take on average for ve centimetres of soil to be generated. 11 What is monoculture? With the aid of a ow diagram, show how it may worsen land degradation. 12 Brainstorm three actions that could make agriculture more sustainable.
Skills
7 Draw a pie graph to show the main causes of land degradation using the data in the feature box. 8 Use an atlas and 13.2 to name 10 countries that may experience serious soil degradation. 9 Refer to the graphs around the map in 13.2: a Which two continents are most affected by agricultural activities? b Which continent is most affected by industrialisation?
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Soils and their degradation

All nutrients that come to us from plant life sometimes via the meat of plant-eating animals come from the combination of sunlight, water and soil. Soil is a zone of weathered and organic material, water, oxygen and minerals capable of supporting plants. Where there is no soil there is little or no plant life. There are many different soil types.
HOW IS SOIL FORMED?

The process that creates soil from rock is weathering. Air and water interact with rock to break it down into smaller particles that become soil. Weathering is a slow process, depending on the local climate and rock type. Warm, humid climates create better conditions for rapid weathering than cold and dry environments.
13.3 Overgrazing and the resulting compaction of soil by hooved animals is one of the most signicant causes of soil degradation.
13.4 A typical soil prole
The O horizon is composed of leaf litter and humus (leaves that are breaking down) and contains most of the organic matter. The A horizon has tiny particles of decayed leaves, twigs and animal remains, along with some clay minerals and rock particles. The B horizon has soluble minerals that have leached down from above and rock particles.
Granite rocks formed on continents break down more rapidly than basalt formed in oceanic crust. Both granite and basalt are igneous rocks, which means they cooled from magma, but granite formed slowly giving it big crystals while basalt cooled quickly giving it small tightly bound crystals.
Soil horizons
Soil forms into layers called horizons. A typical soil prole has an organic or O layer and three other horizons known as A, B and C. The type of soil in a particular place depends on the climate, local rocks and living organisms in the place.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The world is losing seven million hectares of fertile land each year due to soil degradation an area about the size of Tasmania.
WHY DOES SOIL BECOME DEGRADED?

Soils deteriorate when they are overused. There are several main reasons for the overuse of the land. Population increaseEach year the world population increases by about 80 million people. The United Nations estimates that farmers will need to increase food production by 50 per cent by 2025 to feed this growing population. Farming and grazing will probably become more intense and are likely to cause greater degradation.
The C horizon is slightly broken up bedrock (110 metres) below the surface.
OvergrazingThe leading cause of soil damage. If grasses are grazed too much by animals such as sheep, goats and cattle, then it is difcult for them to recover and keep soil bound together. The sharp hooves of grazing animals contribute to compaction and the breaking down of the soil into dust (see 13.3). Growing cropsGrain production is one of the main types of farming (see 13.5). Global output of grain rose from 623 million tonnes in 1954 to 1900 million tonnes in 2004. Much of this was due to mechanised and hightech farming using fertilisers and genetically modied seeds in large monocultures. This has produced enough food for the worlds population, but high-tech farming can also be destructive without careful management. Fertilisers cause soil acidication and machines cause compaction and greater topsoil loss.
13.6 The diagram shows the vicious circle of poverty and land degradation.
Poverty
Lower agricultural production
Increasing population
PovertyLand degradation can be a cause of poverty and also a result of poverty, particularly in developing nations where many people are reliant on agriculture for survival. If land becomes degraded less food can be made, resulting in starvation and poverty. Many developing countries GEOGRAPHY also have increasing populations, FOCUS often because parents have more In the Sahara Desert, children to ensure that some survive damage from overgrazing to adulthood. This leads to less is making life difcult for land per person, more pressure on 60 per cent of Nigers resources and therefore more land popula tion who survive on degradation (see 13.6).
less than a dollar a day.
13.5 The worlds main crops and the amount farmed by region
Land degradation
Less land resources per head of population
Unsustainable land management
Innapropriate use of marginal land
EUROPE
RUSSIAN FEDERATION ASIA
NORTH AMERICA
AFRICA
Key
Land used for agricultural crop production Barley Corn Wheat Potato Sweet potato Cassava
SOUTH AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
Oats Rice Sorghum
2000
4000 km
Pulse Each symbol represents 10 million tonnes per year
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EROSION
Erosion is one of the processes that cause land degradation. Erosion is soil loss due to the movement of topsoil by water and wind. It is a natural process that removes eroded soil particles and deposits them as sediment in a new location. Problems occur when human actions change the natural process so that erosion is more rapid or accelerated. The rate of erosion is lower in soils covered by vegetation than for bare soils. Human actions that uncover soil, such as logging, overgrazing, intensive farming and building, increase soil erosion rates. Globally, topsoil is eroding faster than it can be replaced. The lost topsoil is irreplaceable as much of it ends up in waterways and eventually the ocean.
Gully erosionOccurs when a ow of water rushes along streams or creeks causing deep, steep-sided channels (see 13.9). This can result in damage to bridges, roads and other structures, but also causes some soil to be washed away and become 13.8 Sheet erosion strips unstable and useless. the productive topsoil, Gully erosion can be which is washed away. controlled by conserving native vegetation and preventing grazing and cropping along creeks and streams. Wind erosionWhen wind has direct access to bare, dry soil it causes the movement of ne dust into the atmosphere and makes larger grains bounce or roll along the Earths surface. Wind erosion is most visible in a dust storm. Preserving vegetation and reducing cropping helps in controlling wind erosion.
Types of erosion
Sheet and rill erosion Caused by raindrops and surface ows that strip the top layer of soil (see 13.8). The most productive part of the soil is lost, resulting in reduced plant growth and siltation of rivers. Ensuring a good cover of vegetation can prevent sheet and rill erosion.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Approximately 25 000 million tonnes of soil is lost every year as a result of water erosion alone.
Where does eroded soil go?

When topsoil is able to move it is transported into the water cycle and is washed downstream. The topsoil becomes silt and travels down rivers, ultimately reaching the sea (see 13.7).
13.7 An example of sediment output is the delta of the Betsiboka River in Madagascar seen here in a satellite image. The red is evidence of the amount of soil that has been carried away by the river. Humans have cleared a large part of the natural rainforest. Soil erosion has increased and much of the resulting sediment is non-renewable.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is soil and why is it important? 2 Under which climate and rock conditions would soil formation be the most rapid? 3 What is a soil layer more correctly known as?
13.9 Gully erosion 13.10 The effects of wind erosion
4 How much fertile land is lost in the world each year? 5 Outline the four main reasons for soil degradation. 6 What is erosion? How do humans make it worse?
SNAPSHOT
Skills
7 Calculate the percentage increase in world grain production between 1954 and 2004. 8 Refer to 13.5: a Which continent yields the most in crop production? b Which continent yields the least in crop production? c Which continent produces the most variety in crops? d How many tonnes of wheat are produced in the world? e What percentage of rice is grown in Asia? f What percentage of potatoes are grown in Europe?
Soil erosion in India

Soil erosion is a major problem in India. It is estimated that at least 145 million hectares require some form of conservation. Indias soils are degraded due to: large amounts of heavy rainfall and runoff in the annual monsoon season from August to October inappropriate agricultural management of land and water resources steep and undulating topography particularly in the Himalayas strong wind velocity shallow soils roadside erosion due to poor road engineering deforestation, particularly on slopes and in the foothills of the Himalayas drought human pressures and overproduction of food. The main consequences of land degradation are reduction in crop yields, loss of soil and nutrients, landslides and sedimentation of rivers such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra and the Meghna. With the increase in silt in the rivers there is less room for the runoff from the monsoon and ooding is common. Problems in the state of Maharashtra Maharashtra is the second largest state of India and is located on the western coast. Over 70 per cent of the agricultural land in this state has been affected by erosion and 32 per cent is no longer productive. Drought and the production of food for a large and growing population have accelerated soil degradation. In Maharashtra the Watershed Organisation Trust (WOTR) is helping the poor communities to regenerate degraded land and manage agricultural land sustainably. Some of WOTRs activities include planting trees and grasses to stabilise waterways, banning tree felling and training farmers and villagers on improved agricultural practices.
9 Draw a sketch map from the satellite image of Madagascar in 13.7 to show where lost soil ends up. Include the following labels on your map: a Betsiboka River b Lost topsoil c Cause of the lost topsoil d Indian Ocean.
Application
10 Draw a diagram that shows how soil is formed and what processes and conditions affect this. 11 Copy and complete this table:
Type of erosion Sheet Rill Gully Wind Explanation Diagram showing the process
12 Think of two or three possible reasons for humans clearing the rainforest in Madagascar and causing the soil loss shown in 13.7. 13 Draw a ow diagram that presents the human-induced and natural causes and effects of land degradation in India.
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Desertification
13.11 Dunes of the Sahara encroach on agricultural land in Mauritania.
Large areas of the Earths surface are becoming barren and unproductive every year. This is the process known as desertication. It is the result of poor land management and long periods of drought.
WHAT IS DESERTIFICATION AND WHY DOES IS OCCUR?

GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
In Nigeria the sands of the Sahara move south by 60 centimetres per year.
Desertication is due to human actions such as over cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel wood, as well as natural processes. Desertication is most likely to occur in the semi-arid regions bordering deserts, where humans have overused the land. The main cause of desertication is not drought, although it can add to the problem.
Desertication occurs when semiarid areas begin to show the features of a true desert. It is the creation of new deserts, not just the spreading of existing ones. A quarter of the Earths surface is threatened by desertication (see 13.13).
WHAT CAN BE DONE ABOUT DESERTIFICATION?

The effects of desertication cannot usually be reversed in a lifetime. Removal of trees and vegetation means the land cannot hold as much water, which in turn makes it difcult for new trees and vegetation to grow. Some actions have been taken to prevent the acceleration of desertication on global, national and local levels. GloballyIn 1996, 169 countries, including all the African countries, signed the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertication (UNCCD). The convention tries to ght desertication at national and regional levels by requiring laws GEOGRAPHY to be made to ensure FOCUS environmental protection Drought and and sustainability. desert ication The International Year of threat en the livelihood Deserts and Desertication of over one billion (IYDD) was declared in people in more than 2006 with the aim of 110 countr ies around educating global citizens the world. (Ko Annan, that desertication is a Secret ary-General, major threat to humanity.
United Nations, 2003)
13.12 Causes of desertication by continent
300 250 Million hetares 200 150 100 50 0

Africa Asia
Deforestation Overgrazing Arable farming
Source: UNCCD International, 2003
Australia Europe Continent
North America
South America
13.13 Global desertication vulnerability
Central and Eastern Europe

Poor irrigation practices
Northern Mediterranean
Poor agricultural practices Over cultivation and overgrazing
2000
4000 km
Key Desertification
Africa
Has the largest area affected by desertication Two-thirds of Africas agricultural dry lands are already degraded in some way.
N
Vulnerability Low to moderate High to very high
Asia
Desertication has impacted on the greatest number of people Eroded mountains in Nepal
Other regions Dry Cold Humid/not vulnerable Ice; glacier
South America
Deforestation
Australasia
Overgrazing
MonitoringOver the past 30 years satellite technology has helped to improve peoples understanding of desertication. Landsat images of the same area, taken at different times, can show the changes that people and animals have made to the Earth. The images can be used to decide strategies that are useful in managing the problem. LocallyAt a local level it is possible to protect land from desertication. Large rocks or oil will prevent sand dunes from moving quickly. Sand fences are used to stop sand from encroaching on buildings, farms or oases (see 13.14). Placing straw around the base of newly planted trees will protect them until they are established and can stabilise the sand themselves.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is desertication? 2 What three main human activities contribute to desertication? 3 How many countries have signed the UNCCD? 4 What is the UNCCD trying to achieve? 5 What technology is helping geographers to monitor the spread of desertication? 6 Name three ways that the movement of desert sands can be slowed.
Skills
13.14 Dune stabilisation in Mauritania, Africa
7 Refer to 13.12: a Which continent is most affected by deforestation? b What are the three causes of desertication in Australia? Which has the most impact? 8 Refer to 13.13. Describe the spatial pattern of the regions most vulnerable to desertication. 9 Make a line drawing of 13.14.
Application
10 Use an atlas and 13.13 to name ve countries that are at a high to very high risk of desertication. 11 Draw a ow diagram explaining how the removal of fuel wood results in desertication.
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Soil salinity
13.15 Salinity can have devastating impacts on the land. This is a scald formed by salts being deposited on the soil surface.
Soil salinity, or salinisation, is an increase in the amount or concentration of salts near the surface of soils to a point that the environment is degraded. Salts such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium chlorides are naturally found in both soil and water, but when these salts are increased by human actions they degrade the land more quickly.
Dryland salinity
Dryland salinity occurs when the water table rises due to the removal of deep-rooted plants, trees, shrubs and native grasses, to make way for crops that do not use the same amount of water because of their shallow roots. More water from rainfall recharges water in the ground, moving salts that are stored deep in the ground towards the surface.
CAUSES AND TYPES OF SALINITY

Before humans disturbed the land in arid and semi-arid climates, water used by native vegetation was in balance with rainfall. The deep roots of the native trees and shrubs ensured that the water tables were well below the soil surface. Clearing vegetation and irrigation changes the balance of water and salt in the soil, as shown in 13.16.
Irrigation salinity
The irrigation of crops causes rising water tables. Rainfall and irrigation together can provide more water than crops use. The extra water dissolves salts in the soil and brings them into the root zone of crops. Crops will use the water but not the salt. The water evaporates, depositing salts on the soils surface, forming a scald as shown in 13.15.
13.16 The change from land in balance to land degraded by dryland salinity
Minimal human disturbance Trees use groundwater and rainfall, keeping the water table at a safe depth Surface runoff is minimal salts salts Precipitation
Serious human disturbance No trees to use rainfall or groundwater Runoff is high Salinity Erosion Infiltration is Infiltration is moderate high Groundwater levels are steady Poor environment for agriculture Groundwater levels rise bringing salts towards the surface killing existing vegetation Water table meets the surface causing salinity and water logging
Healthy environment for agriculture
Low water table does not bring salts to the surface
Water in the soil becomes so saline that plants can no longer use it. Salinity prevents water being taken up by plant roots and vegetation dies. The water table rises until it reaches the surface causing waterlogging. The salt left on the soil surface can then be washed into waterways causing river salinity.
THE IMPACTS OF SALINITY

Plants cannot grow in saline environments. Crops are lost. Large amounts of money are spent on salinity management. Roads and highways are damaged. Salt content rises in drinking water. Native ora and invertebrates that are not tolerant to salt become endangered. Buildings are damaged.
13.18 Measuring salinity in a waterlogged area in the MurrayDarling Basin
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
According to the UNs Food and Agricultural Organization, over 6 per cent of the worlds land is salt-affected. A signicant proportion of this land is cultivated.
MANAGEMENT OF SALINITY
Solving the problem of salinity in Australia involves land managers, conservationists, Aboriginal communities, scientists, businesses, local and state governments, and the federal government. Often the impacts of salinity are felt a long distance from the causes, so cooperation at all levels is necessary. Salinity management is most effective when implemented over a whole river catchment.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is salinity?
2 What salts are involved in this process? 3 What is the difference between dryland salinity and irrigation salinity? 4 What activities contribute to salinity? 5 Who is involved in the management of salinity in Australia? 6 How can individual farmers control salinity on their properties? 7 What is the Australian government doing about salinity?
Individuals
Landholders and groups such as Landcare are able to control salinity by planting salt-tolerant trees, such as some species of eucalyptus and shrubs such as saltbush and grasses. Protecting native vegetation and stopping overgrazing helps to prevent salinity. Planting deep-rooted pastures such as lucerne and limiting irrigation may help to lower the water table.
Application
8 Explain why scalding and waterlogging occurs in saltaffected areas. 9 Copy and complete the following table on the impacts of salinity:
Impacts on agriculture Impacts on the physical environment Impacts on the human environment
Government
In Australia the federal government and all state governments endorsed the Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality in 2000. The plan seeks to prevent, manage and reverse trends in dryland salinity and to improve water quality nationwide, but particularly in the MurrayDarling River Basin and south-west Western Australia.
13.17 Saltbush is a shrub that is very salt tolerant. The deep roots help to rehabilitate salt-affected land.
10 Plant six seedlings in large pots. Water three seedlings normally. Water the three other seedlings with a small amount of salt added to their water. Measure the seedlings every time you have a Geography lesson. Record your ndings.
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Mining and land degradation

Most types of mining result in land degradation on a local scale. Minerals are usually found deep in the Earths crust and disturbance is necessary to extract them. Large-scale mining operations have left vast tracts of land degraded all over the world.
IMPACTS OF MINING ON THE LAND

The construction and use of mines result in these types of land degradation: movement of soil and rock on the sides of steep mountains and in rivers near the mines, which contributes to erosion, landslides and sedimentation more pressure on land usually used for agriculture due to the increase in the number of people at places near mining sites soil contamination from the disposal of garbage and chemicals near mines, making it unsuitable for most other purposes.
13.19 Open-cut mines contribute greatly to land degradation on a local scale.
MINING IN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Mining changes the structure of soil and it can take hundreds of years for it to recover. Developed countries such as Germany, Canada and Australia are likely to have laws in place to protect and rehabilitate the environment after mining has taken place. The government requires mining companies to replace topsoil and revegetate sites with native species once they have been mined. However, in some developing countries such as Peru laws protecting the environment and the people from mining are sometimes non-existent or not enforced. At least 25 mines in developing countries are expected to close in the 10 years to 2015 due to the exhaustion of mineral supplies and increasing liability for mining companies, which means they may have to pay large amounts in compensation to the mining companies and their workers. For the community that lives around the mines there may be economic and social problems associated with unemployment once the mines close. For governments there can be large clean-up costs, safety issues and reductions in revenue.
CELEBRATE!
Hand-crafted Gold Ring
You cant see the care that went into making this ne piece but you know its there: the extraction of ve-tosix tons of rockleaving holes, tunnels and eroding canyons; the traces of cyanide which allowed our skilled mineworkers to extract gold from ores bearing as little as half-a-gram per ton of rock; the mercury used to extract the gold which is now bio-accumulating in humans and the environment and the one-metre wide, one-metre deep, one-and-a-half-metre-long pile of tailings laced with a variety of toxic substances. You know this beautiful piece of jewellery says that you are prepared to move heaven and earth for that special someoneacid mine drainage which occurs in old mine sites is a permanent reminder of your devotion. For centuries, sulphuric acid will be produced which dissolves heavy metals in the rock and washes them into local water systems. Like your ardour, these changes will stand the test of time.
Source: New Internationalist, Issue 299, March 1998
SNAPSHOT 1
Bauxite mining on the Gove Peninsula

Large open cut bauxite (aluminium ore) mines are found at Nhulunbuy on the Gove Peninsula in Arnhem Land, in one of the most remote parts of the Northern Territory. The Alcan Gove mine pictured in 13.20 was built in the 1970s and produces 6 million tonnes of bauxite a year, which is either rened in Australia or exported. About 80 people are employed at the mine site, mostly driving bulldozers and front-end loaders that are used to extract the bauxite. Alcan Gove employs an ecologist to ensure that the mine site is returned to a more natural state and rehabilitated after the bauxite has been mined. The original subsoil and topsoil are replaced over the mined area as soon as the bauxite has been removed. Fungi, bacteria, fauna and seeds from the original topsoil help to rehabilitate the site. Native shrubs and trees are then planted to encourage native fauna to return to the environment.
13.20 Aerial photo of Alcan Gove Bauxite Mine in the Northern Territory
SNAPSHOT 2
Activities
Knowledge
1 Why does mining usually result in land degradation? 2 What are ve impacts of mining on land? 3 What are subsidence and overburden? 4 How can mining sites be rehabilitated? 5 Where is the Alcan Gove mine located? 6 What contributions does the Alcan Gove mine make to the Australian economy? 7 How is the Alcan Gove mine site being rehabilitated?
Coal mining in northern India

India is currently the third-largest hard coal producer in the world and has over 480 coal mines spread throughout the country. In the Damodar Basin of northern India large open-cut coal mines lead to the degradation of land due to re, subsidence (sinking of the land) and overburden (surface soil) dumps. On the whole topsoil is not reused and the waste from mining is dumped into the environment, causing lead and cadmium toxicity to soil and underground water. There is little attempt to rehabilitate the land surrounding the mines.
Skills
8 Refer to 13.20: a What colour is the open-cut bauxite mine shown in the photo? b Can you see any evidence of sedimentation in the ocean near the mine? If so, where and how can you tell? c Is there any evidence of the mine site being revegetated? If so, where?
SNAPSHOT 3
Gold mining in Peru

Gold is a valuable mineral that is mined in many countries. In developing countries such as Peru, where much of the gold is mined by panning, it involves digging up river banks and oodplains as well as trenching using shovels. In some cases the top layers of soil and vegetation need to be stripped to expose the gold, which results in erosion. Contamination from mercury and acids, which are used to separate gold from other minerals, poisons environments. Soil erosion reduces productivity in surrounding agricultural zones and leads to siltation in rivers and dams and ooding. Grazing areas for native and domestic animals are reduced and soil is compacted to a point that plants will not grow.
Application
9 Read the three snapshots on mining activities in Australia, India and Peru and look at the photographs in 13.19 and 13.20. Make a list of all the impacts of mining, referring to the sources. 10 Why do you think that there may be differences between developed countries and developing countries when it comes to land degradation as a result of mining? 11 Read the news item about the gold ring. Outline the impacts its production would have on the land.
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War and land degradation

When war and conicts occur much of the focus of media reports and peoples interest is centred on the deaths and injuries of soldiers and civilians. However, conicts can also have major effects on the natural environment, including land degradation. Landmines make land useless, native vegetation and habitats can be destroyed and refugee camps can deplete resources in that area.
LANDMINES
The International Campaign to Ban Landmines reports that millions of live explosives and landmines remain in old battle zones, maiming and killing people. Countries that have unexploded landmines include Afghanistan, Cambodia, Bosnia and Angola. In Libya one-third of the landmass is covered by landmines and unexploded bombs left there from the Second World War. Landmines also prevent people from using affected land for agriculture, resulting in the need to clear more forest for farms, which causes worse degradation and loss of wildlife. Fear of landmines prevents people using arable land and populations move onto more fragile and marginal land. Explosions disrupt water and soil processes destroying ecosystems.
13.21 The effects of missiles on forests and farming land. Bare soil is more easily eroded.
HABITAT DESTRUCTION
13.22 A landmine warning sign in Cambodia
Fighting and refugees from war can degrade natural resources. Civil war in Angola has left national parks with only 10 per cent of their original wildlife. Sri Lankas civil war has led to massive deforestation, with about 5 million trees felled.
Deliberate degradation of the environment

Damage to the environment can be a tactic in warfare. In the Second World War, bombing destroyed water supplies and scorched-earth retreats were common. These retreats involved burning anything that might have been useful to the enemy, including crops and food supplies. In the 1960s Vietnam War the US army sprayed Vietnams cropland with herbicides and defoliants such as Agent Orange to deny the enemy food and cover. The long-term effects of these sprays are still unclear, but erosion was increased due to less ground cover.
SNAPSHOT
Oil pollution in Iraq and Kuwait

The countries of Kuwait and Iraq in the Middle East have some of the largest oil wells in the world. As a warfare tactic in the 1991 Gulf War, retreating Iraqi soldiers tried to do as much damage as possible to Kuwait by blowing up 700 oil wells. Bombing raids also damaged oil storage tanks and pipelines causing poisonous black lakes of oil to leak onto the soil. The cleanup continues but it is made more difcult by landmines left behind from the war. Capping an oil well is dangerous work, as a plug has to be inserted by hand. Scientists say parts of the desert are still heavily polluted with 60 million barrels of oil. Fifty square kilometres were covered by oil, causing destruction of vegetation and ecosystems. By 1995, the Kuwaiti authorities had managed to clear around half the lakes. Today there are only a few left. Bacteriawhich degrades oilis being used to clean it up. The product of the reaction between the oil and bacteria produces a substance that can be used as compost by Kuwaiti farmers.
13.23 Black lakes of oil were a consequence of war in the Middle East in 1991.
Refugee camps
People escaping war and persecution are called refugees. Large refugee camps inict harm on the environment. Refugee camps in Mozambique, Sudan and Afghanistan cause deforestation due to peoples need for fuel wood for warmth and cooking. These camps encroach on the natural environment, ecosystems, endangered species and national parks.
13.24 This refugee camp in Africa shows the effect of deforestation on the hills surrounding the camp.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
According to OneWorld International there are more than 100 million landmines in 70 countries around the world. In the 30 years to 2005, 1 million people had been killed or maimed by landmines.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What activities of war can result in land degradation? 2 Which countries have unexploded landmines? 3 How long have landmines and unexploded bombs been in Libya? Why were they put there? 4 How do landmines cause land degradation? 5 Why would wildlife in Angola and Sri Lanka be at risk from war? 6 Give two examples of war tactics that result in land degradation. 7 How can refugees cause land degradation?
Skills
8 Use an atlas to locate and give the latitude and longitude of the capital city of each of the countries mentioned on this page. Label the cities on an outline world map.
Application
9 Read the snapshot about the 1991 Gulf War. Brainstorm the different types of land degradation caused by this war.
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Nuclear pollution and land degradation
13.25 Chernobyl power plant shortly after the explosion
Nuclear power is the use of controlled chain reactions to release energy. It produced 17 per cent of the worlds electricity in 2005. Nuclear power is controversial because of the problem of storing radioactive waste and other safety issues. Another problem is that the same materials and knowledge can be used to develop nuclear weapons that have the capacity to cause enormous destruction. Countries choose nuclear power because the materials are cheap and it creates less air pollution.
RADIOACTIVITY
Nuclear power stations work in much the same way as coal-powered stations. Water is heated to make steam to turn the turbines and generate electricity. The difference is that instead of burning coal to make steam, radioactive uranium or plutonium fuel rods are used. Exposure to radiation can increase the risk of cancer, radiation sickness and birth defects in humans and other living creatures. Radiation can continue to be toxic for thousands of years and can be stored in soil and water, taken up by plants and animals, and passed on to humans in food.
13.26 Countries that use nuclear energy or have nuclear weapons.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
US
FR FR US US US UK UK FR FR UK
N
US
2000
4000 km
Key
Countries using nuclear energy to generate electricity, 2004 Storage site for nuclear material Nuclear reactors considered dangerous since 1990
Nuclear test sites used since 1990 used before 1990 US Country which has conducted nuclear tests beyond its borders at this site
The radioactive element plutonium released by the Chernobyl explosion has a half-life of 24 400 years. This means that half of the plutonium released in the explosion will still exist in 24 400 years. The United Nations has described Chernobyl as the greatest environmental catastrophe in the history of humanity.
Countries known to have nuclear weapons, 2004 Countries likely to have nuclear weapons, 2004
13.27 How radiation contaminates the environment and is passed on to humans
Management at Chernobyl
The 4500 inhabitants of Pripyat, the town closest to Chernobyl, were evacuated along with 130 000 people in a 30-kilometre radius from the reactor. The town and exclusion zone have been abandoned since the accident. The entire complex was closed and a concrete shelter was built over the exploded reactor to stop more radiation leaking. Now people who live near the area: must change their clothes twice a day
Clouds and contaminated air
Radioactive fall-out in rain and dust Radiation rises in the atmosphere Inhaled Food and drink Radionucleotides taken up by grasses, crops, trees and fruit
Radiation in air Air inhaled
may not walk in the woods for more than two hours a month are told to wash food at least ve times in clean, uncontaminated water.
Reactor explodes
Dairy and meat Soil
Activities
Knowledge
1 What fuel is used in a nuclear power reactor? 2 Name some radioactive substances. 3 What illnesses can occur in humans due to radiation?
Reactor
CHERNOBYL DISASTER
The Chernobyl power plant is located in northern Ukraine, about seven kilometres from the border with Belarus. Poland is to the west and Russia to the east. It is about 100 kilometres from Kiev, the capital of the Ukraine, which has a population of 3.1 million. On 26 April 1986 an explosion occurred in a reactor at the nuclear power station. The reactor exploded releasing one hundred times more radiation than the atom bombs dropped over Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of the Second World War.
4 List ways that humans can be exposed to radiation. 5 How does radioactivity affect land? 6 How has radiation at Chernobyl been managed?
Application
7 Explain the differences in producing electricity in a coalburning power plant compared to a nuclear power reactor. 8 Refer to 13.27. List ways that radiation may enter the environment.
Skills
9 Refer to 13.26 and an atlas: a Name the seven countries that are known to have nuclear weapons. b On which continents are the majority of countries that use nuclear energy? c Name the countries that have nuclear reactors that are considered dangerous. d Where is nuclear material stored? e Name the countries which have conducted nuclear tests beyond their borders. f Which countries are likely to have nuclear weapons?
Consequences for the land

Radiation spread over a large area. Radionucleotides settled and contaminated land and water resources. Agriculture and forestry were stopped in the contamination zone. Belarus lost 22 per cent of agricultural land and Ukraine 40 per cent of forests. Forestry is also no longer possible, as the radiation can be stored in wood for hundreds of years. Caesium and plutonium are found in the topsoil and roadside dust ready to be stirred up, inhaled or eaten in contaminated food. More than 20 years after the accident 90 per cent of the radioactive material is still there and it is almost impossible to get rid of. It will take thousands of years for the material to break down.
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Land management
As well as erosion, desertication, salinity and various types of pollution, there are other types of land degradation (see 13.29). All of these have management issues associated with them.
LAND DEGRADATION ACTION

People have begun to understand the consequences of land degradation and they are taking action at all levels to manage and improve the situation. Government levelIn Australia, government policy supported land clearing until the 1980s because it was thought that this would increase productivity. During the 1990s the policy shifted and placed more emphasis on conservation. Governments can inuence research by funding universities and other bodies to monitor the impacts and causes of the issue. They can also help in land management education programs. Individual levelMost farmers are concerned about land degradation as they are dependent on the land being healthy in order to make money. Techniques such as crop rotation and minimum tillage can actually improve soils that are only lightly degraded. Planting trees in windbreaks (see 13.32) and revegetating paddocks can protect soils from erosion and salinity.
13.29 Other types of land degradation
13.28 Weed invasion often indicates the rst stage of land degradation such as this invasion of kudzu in the United States.
Type of degradation Compaction
Causes or effects
Management
Repeated cropping of soil for farming Reduce trafc on soil Driving of heavy machinery over soils Keep soil vegetated Herding of hooved animals For trekking, build raised walkways Large amount of human foot trafc in places such as the Himalayas of Nepal and the Milford Track in New Zealand Hard pans and surface sealing that water cannot inltrate Overuse of fertilisers may lead to soils becoming more acidic (having a lower pH) and being less productive Fertilisers may be needed so that the land can produce good quality crops, but long-term use can cause degradation Weeds are often one of the rst signs of degradation on rural and urban lands Plants such as lantana, kudzu, blackberry, scotch thistles and Bathurst burr compete with pastures and crops for nutrients and moisture Weeds can choke bushland and streams and give cover to vermin Add lime to soil to lower pH Keep soil vegetated with acid-tolerant plants
Acidication
Weed invasion
Introduce quarantine laws Pull out by hand or with machines Spray with herbicides
Introduced animals
Introduced animals like rabbits and feral goats can have devastating impacts Introduce quarantine laws They strip the ground of vegetation and leave it susceptible to erosion Introduce biological controls like the myxoma and calicivirus Rabbit warrens cause tunnel erosion Trap, poison, or shoot animals Compete with native animals and stock for food and water
Group levelInterest groups are involved in managing land degradation. In Australia, Landcare is made up of representatives of the whole community. Local councils, conservation groups, schools and individuals can be involved. Examples of issues being addressed by Landcare groups are salinity, animal pests, weeds, vegetation loss, and urban land degradation. Global levelThe rst worldwide survey of soil degradation was carried out by the United Nations and was known as the Global Survey of Human Induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD). There are now other international groups helping in the management of land degradation (see 13.30 and 13.31).
13.30 Global groups concerned with land degradation
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name seven types of land degradation 2 What is soil compaction? 3 How can soil acidication be managed? 4 Name some weeds that contribute to land degradation. 5 How do rabbits and goats cause land degradation? 6 What problems can increasing tourist numbers cause in mountains ranges such as the Himalayas? 7 What responsibilities do governments have in managing land degradation? 8 How can farmers improve their land? 9 What is GLASOD?
UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertication) WSSD (World Summit on Sustainable Development) UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) GEF (Global Environmental Facility)
13.31 Examples of international projects undertaken by GEF and UNDP to manage land degradation
Application
10 Draw a diagram to show how building windbreaks can help reduce land degradation. 11 Draw up a table that shows the management responsibilities of individuals, groups, governments and global organisations to the issue of land degradation. 12 Write two letters to the editor of a newspaper about land management. Write one from the perspective of a farmer and the other from the perspective of a volunteer to an NGO.
Project Improving crop yields and decreasing erosion
Where Cte dIvoire
Description Planting wind breaks in crops Research, planning and policy development Provision of bio-gas for cooking and fuel efcient stoves
Mauritius Controlling development of urban areas on important agricultural land Dependence on forests for Tanzania fuel wood
Fieldwork
13 Choose a eldwork site (possibly your school grounds) and use various maps including a topographic map to locate it. a Locate the following features on the map using latitude and longitude, and grid and area references: i water courses ii parkland iii school iv tops of hills. b Construct a sketch map of your school determining direction using a compass. c Collect and interpret digital images of soil erosion, weed infestations and other land degradation issues at your school or around your town or suburb. d Use instruments such as soil testing kits and weed identication charts to collect and record data in the eld. Determine if there is land degradation at the eldwork site. e Use the results from the soil testing and graph them in three different ways. Identify and calculate maximum and minimum, total, range, rank and average.
13.32 A windbreak on a cultivated paddock
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Human rights
The belief that people have rights, simply because they are human beings, has existed in some societies for thousands of years but in others it is still not accepted. The idea that human beings should be treated fairly is one that most people living in Australia take for granted. However, the extent to which this happens varies considerably around the world. As global citizens it is our responsibility to increase awareness of human rights and their role in securing peace for the future.
Geographical tools
Maps
use an atlas use various types of maps: physical, political, topographic, thematic locate features on a map using latitude and longitude, area and grid references use the points of a compass to determine direction construct a sketch map identify and calculate maximum, total, range, rank and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images use a range of digital images, maps, sound and other appropriate multimedia sources to develop a multimedia presentation or webpage
Syllabus outcomes
A student: 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information
Photographs
4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information 4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.7 identifies and discusses geographical issues from a range of perspectives 4.8 describes the interrelationships between people and environments 4.9 describes differences in life opportunities throughout the world 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship
ICT
Definitions
apartheidthe strict system of racial segregation that was law in South Africa until 1994 caste systema social structure in which classes are determined by birth discriminationunfavourable or unfair treatment of a person because of race, sex, colour, religion, national origin, gender, physical or mental handicap, or sexual orientation ethnic minoritya group of people with a shared cultural identity who despite having a distinctive presence have little power in a society freedom of speechthe right to express individual opinions as long as they are not harmful genocidedeliberate destruction of a racial, political or cultural group holocaustmass slaughter of people, usually referring to the killing of millions of Jews by the Germans in the Second World War human rightsthe basic standards without which people cannot live in dignity; the rights to which people are entitled simply because they are human beings, regardless of their nationality, race, ethnicity, gender or religion human rights violationa term used when a government breaks national or international laws related to the protection of human rights League of Nationsa world organisation established in 1919 to promote international cooperation and peace NGOa non-government organisation people trafckingthe movement of people against their will for the purpose of exploitation ratifyformally adopt an international treaty repatriatereturn to a persons own country small armsweapons designed to be used by one person United Nations (UN)an international organisation comprising most of the nations of the world, formed in 1945 to promote peace, security and economic development
Human rights for all

Human rights recognise the fact that all people throughout the world should be treated fairly. Regardless of their race, age, gender or religion people should be able to live with respect and dignity. They should have the freedom to make choices about their own lives but at the same time they have the responsibility to respect the rights of others. Afrming the worth of all people and promoting equality provides the foundation for peace and security.
HUMAN RIGHTS MOVEMENT

The modern human rights movement has its origin in the League of Nations, which was established in 1919 after the atrocities of the First World War. This organisation aimed to protect the rights of ethnic minorities and the people living in the colonies of defeated powers. For example, Australia was asked to protect the former German colonies of New Guinea and Nauru. After the Second World War the United Nations (UN) was established to replace the League of Nations and to promote world peace in the hope that the horrors of that war would never be repeated. Their rst aim was to develop friendly relations between countries, based on respect for the principle of equal rights.
14.1 Everyone has the right to education.
SELECTED ARTICLES FROM THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Article 1 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2 Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Article 3 Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Article 19 Everyone has the right to freedom of
opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
A DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the UN on 10 December 1948. The declaration starts with a series of statements including:
the peoples of the United Nations have reafrmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom.
Then it sets out a series of 30 articles that describe the standards that should apply to all people regardless of who they are or where they live. Seven of the articles appear opposite. Since 1948 the UN has invested considerable time, effort and resources to promote human rights around the world.
Article 24 Everyone has the right to rest and leisure,

including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
Article 25 Everyone has the right to a standard

of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing, medical care and necessary social services
Article 26 Everyone has the right to education.

Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages.
HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights promotes a world where all people live with respect and dignity, have the freedom to hold their own beliefs and have access to basic needs such as food, water, shelter, education, work and health care. Despite this, human rights violations occur all over the world. In some cases peoples actions deliberately take away another persons most fundamental rights to life and safety, to freedom and dignity. Such abuses include abduction, imprisonment without trial, slavery, rape, torture and execution. Although most countries agree in principle to human rights, the laws needed to protect them are often not put in place or enforced. There are still many groups of people that are discriminated against due to their race, gender or social background.
Moldova: Freedom of expression under attack

sentence at close Kazakhstan: Court issues death of controversial murder trial
A deadly sailing season begins: Smuggling people from Somalia to Yemen
International Youth Day to be celebrat ed under the theme Tackling Poverty Togethe r
Sierra Leone: Women need rights and protection
Human rights of the worlds ion indigenous peoples need act

14.3 Newspaper headlines highlight local and global human rights issues.
Globalisation affects human rights

In the twenty-rst century, through the processes of globalisation, increasing inequalities within and among nations now represent a signicant attack on human rights. With 51 of the 100 largest economies in the world belonging to transnational corporations (TNCs)not countriespower is not only held by political leaders but also by company executives. (See chapters 8 and 9.) We often see media reports on the human rights abuses brought about by cruel dictators and some political regimes. There is also increasing global concern about governments and corporations that seek to exploit resources and people for their own economic gain (see unit 9.3). There are enough resources in the world today to support an adequate standard of living for everyone. The uneven distribution of these resources is a violation of human rights.
14.2 The United Nations promotes human rights.
Activities
Knowledge
1 2 3 4 What are human rights? Why was the League of Nations established? Which organisation replaced the League of Nations? What is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and when was it adopted? 5 Name three types of human rights abuses. 6 Why do human rights abuses still occur in many countries?
Application
7 How much freedom should we have? a In small groups use the following discussion points to consider this question: Should everyone be allowed to do whatever they want? What about children? What if the actions of one person offend or harm another? Who should decide what we can and cannot do? Should everyone have the same rights? b Join with another group and see to what extent you agree or disagree. c In your notebook write down the main points raised in your discussions. 8 In a small group create a collage of media headlines and images relevant to human rights. Present these on a poster or in digital format.
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Life and liberty

In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 3 states: Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. There are, however, many situations where these basic rights are denied. As granting these rights to one person may deny them to another, developing laws to enforce these rights can be very controversial.
PEOPLES RIGHT TO LIFE

Most belief systems in the world today regard taking human life as wrong. Yet, at the same time there are laws in place in some countries that allow the death penalty, and in times of war killing is accepted. In both cases the justication for denying the right to life is the protection of other peoples right to personal security.
Genocide
Many people are killed ghting in wars, however, if a particular ethnic group is targeted for destruction this is known as genocide. The most well-known example of this is the Second World War holocaust during which German Nazis exterminated 6 million Jews. Despite the horrors of that period genocide still continues to occur. Between 1974 and 1979 the Khmer Rouge under Pol Pot killed over 2 million people in Cambodia. From 6 April to mid-July 1994 Hutu extremists killed an estimated 1 million moderate Hutu and Tutsi people in Rwanda. It is estimated that Indonesian forces were responsible for killing one third of the East Timorese population between 1975 and 1999. In 1999 Russian bombing destroyed 90 per cent of the Chechen capital city Grozny and killed tens of thousands of ethnic Chechens, including women and children. In the Darfur region of Sudan over 100 000 people have been killed and between 1 and 2 million refugees fear for their lives.
14.4 Every day 30 000 children die due to poverty.
14.5 Countries with the highest and lowest life expectancy, 2006 Highest life expectancy
Country Japan Iceland Sweden Switzerland Australia

Lowest life expectancy
Years 81 80 80 80 79
Dying from poverty

Since the Second World War more people have been killed by malnutrition, hunger and disease than by the combination of all the wars and cruel regimes that have violated political and civil rights. In developing countries 17 million people die each year from curable diseases such as diarrhoea, measles, malaria and tuberculosis. As the gap between rich and poor widens billions of human beings worldwide are trapped in a state of severe poverty, suffering from ill-health, low life expectancy (see 14.5), illiteracy and lack of employment.
Country Zimbabwe Botswana Malawi Sierra Leone Zambia
Years 39 38 38 37 37
Every day 30 000 children die due to poverty around the world. That is about 210 000 children each week, or just under 11 million each year.
SNAPSHOT
Genocide of the Hmong people

14.7 Location of the Hmong people
CHINA Hanoi LAOS Xaysomboune Hmong people hiding in jungle THAILAND Bangkok
ET
NA
M
to hunt down and eliminate the Hmong and their families. The Lao government has continued with this aim for over 30 years. Between 1975 and 2005 ethnic cleansing took place in the jungles of Laos. More than 300 000 Hmong and Laotian people were killed, including many of the 14 000 people that have surrendered. Others were put into concentration camps. Those that remain free are trying to survive in remote mountain areas. The Lao Human Rights Council has appealed to the UN to stop the Lao government from carrying on the ethnic cleansing and genocide. Their cause was further advanced by a 2006 documentary Hunted Like Animals, which was made by a human rights activist and reveals shocking images of the militarys brutality.
CAMBODIA Phnom Penh

Gulf of Thailand
VI
300 km
During the Vietnam War, the indigenous Hmong people of Laos sided with the United States to ght against communism. Because of this, when the communists took control of Laos in 1975, they vowed
14.6 These Hmong protestors want human rights for their people.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
The world has the resources and the know-how to create a poverty-free world in less than a generation.
Although some of these deaths happen in countries such as Australia and the United States, the largest proportion occurs in the worlds poorest countries (see 14.8). While many children there continue to starve to death, others especially in developed countriesare facing increasing problems due to obesity.
14.8 Highest and lowest infant mortality rates, 2006
14.9 Not all of the worlds people have the opportunity of a secure lifestyle with plenty of food to choose from.
Country/region Angola Afghanistan Sierra Leone Liberia Mozambique Iceland Japan Hong Kong, SAR Sweden Singapore
Infant mortality rate (deaths per 1000 live births of children under 1 year) 188 163 162 162 131 3 3 3 3 2
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309
PEOPLES RIGHT TO LIBERTY

Taking away the freedom of a convicted criminal by imprisonment is an accepted form of punishment when it is part of the legal process set out in the laws of a country. Where people are detainedsometimes for years without ever being charged with a crime or being brought to trial, their human rights are denied. For example, it is estimated by the Asian Human Rights Commission that about 70 per cent of the people being held in Indian prisons have not been sentenced to jail, but are awaiting trial. Many of those prisoners have already spent longer in jail than the most severe sentence for their alleged crime. In one extreme case a man was released after 54 years in prison without ever being brought to trial.
US MUST SHUT GUANTANAMO PRISON, UN REPORT SAYS

The United States must shut down its detention centre at Guantanamo Bay without further delay, a UN human rights report has said, urging Washington to try or release more than 500 terrorism suspects held at its naval base on Cuba.
Detaining terrorists
As part of the US-led War on Terrorism hundreds of people from more than 30 different countries were detained at the US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba from 2002. During their time in captivity many were refused visits from family and friends and had limited access to lawyers. By mid-2006 few had been charged with any offence or brought to trial.
14.10 Mubanga, detained for 33 months in Guantanamo Bay detainment camp and released without charge after being in isolation. I was practically stripped naked apart from a pair of shorts. In isolation the air-conditioning was left on so it was particularly cold at night. I wasnt able to sleep and had to do exercises throughout the night periodically.
14.11 A UN report says the Guantanamo Bay detention centre should be closed without delay.
In their report, ve independent experts who act as monitors for the UN Human Rights Commission said: The United States government should close the Guantanamo Bay detention facilities without further delay. The 54-page report also said that the United States should either bring all Guantanamo Bay detainees to trial, because this was a requirement under international human rights accord, or release them without further delay.
Source: Amnesty International
FREEDOM OF INFORMATION
The Internet provides access to information for millions of people worldwide and enables them to share ideas and opinions through websites, blogs and chat rooms. However the freedom to do this is not available to all people. In Vietnam, for example, people have been arrested for discussing democracy on a chat line. In many countries people are not free to question the government or even to discuss political issues. In China websites are ltered and material is censored in order to control the information available. In 2004 a Chinese journalist, Shi Tao, was jailed for 10 years for sending an email commenting on government concerns over a planned demonstration.
SNAPSHOT
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name two situations where taking a life is regarded as legal. 2 What is genocide? 3 Name three groups of people that have been the subject of genocide in the past. 4 What happened in the holocaust during the Second World War? 5 Which group of people is facing genocide in Laos? 6 How many of these people have been killed in the last 30 years? 7 How has awareness of the Hmong genocide been raised? 8 How many people die each year from curable diseases in developing countries? 9 How many children die each day due to poverty? 10 In which continent are the countries with the lowest life expectancies? 11 What proportion of people in Indian prisons have not had a trial? 12 How long are people kept in prison in India without trial? 13 Where does the US government detain terrorism suspects? 14 Do the terrorism suspects have access to legal advice? 15 What does the UN believe should happen to the suspects? 16 Describe the control over the Internet that some governments impose. 17 Why and where was Shi Tao jailed? 18 What is a forced disappearance? 19 What usually happens to the people that disappear? 20 What was Avdo Palic doing when he disappeared?
Forced disappearance
Every year hundreds of people disappear. They are kidnapped or arrested by people acting on behalf of government authorities. They are often tortured and then murdered. Their families may never learn what happened to them and their bodies are rarely found. The reason for these forced disappearances is to remove opposition. One of the commanders of Bosnian forces during the Bosnian war in the mid-1990s was Colonel Avdo Palic . His soldiers were defending the UN-protected area of Zepa. He disappeared on 28 July 1995 from the UN compound, where he had gone to negotiate with the Bosnian Serbs over the departure of the towns remaining inhabitants. Due to his efforts, 5000 civilians had just been evacuated safely. Avdo Palic is just one of an estimated 17 000 people who were still missing more than 10 years after the end of the conict. These peoplethe disappearedcome from all ethnic groups and all walks of life. Some were soldiers, some civilians, and they include men, women and children.
FREEDOM OF SPEECH
The right to hold and express opinions is one that most people in Australia take for granted. But the right to free speech comes with the responsibility to ensure that the comments that we make and the material that we present to others is not offensive or threatening. Freedom of speech is a mark of an open and democratic society. Although democracy gives us the right to express most points of view, there are times when respect for other peoples values and beliefs means that we choose to remain silent. When exercising our rights we must always remember our responsibilities.
14.12 The freedom to speak out without fear is an important human right but it comes along with the responsibility of respecting others.
Skills
21 Use the statistics in 14.5: a Draw a column graph. b Describe the contrast in life expectancy that your graph illustrates. 22 Select an appropriate graph to represent the gures in 14.8. Construct the graph and describe the differences in infant mortality that it shows.
Application
23 In a small group discuss freedom of speech: Do we have the right to say whatever we want? What about racist or discriminatory comments? Is it acceptable to make jokes about other peoples religion? What limits, if any, should there be to what we say? Does where we express our opinions make a differencehome, school, work, in the media? 24 Develop a set of guidelines for free speech in your community.
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Discrimination denies human rights

The belief that all people should be valued because they are human is the underlying principle of all human rights. Respect for others regardless of their race, religion, gender, or physical or mental characteristics is essential in our increasingly global society. In some societies this respect is achieved, but in others discrimination remains a serious human rights abuse.
APARTHEID
In the same year that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations, the country of South Africa brought in apartheid laws. These made racial discrimination a way of life until 1994. The laws covered every aspect of life and categorised people as: whitewith two white parents blackdescended from one of the indigenous African races colouredof mixed race AsianIndian and all other Asian nationalities. Each racial group was segregated, living in different parts of the cities, attending different schools and doing different types of jobs. It was illegal for blacks and whites to marry. The whites maintained control of 80 per cent of the land and the blacks had to carry passbooks to travel from place to place. Activists within the country opposed the regime and continued to demonstrate against it. One activistNelson Mandela (see page 323)was kept in prison for 27 years for his role in planning resistance activities. Eventually pressure from other countries combined with internal unrest brought about the end of apartheid in 1994. Caste involves ordering people in a social hierarchy based on their purity. In Hinduism it is believed that a person determines their place in life by their deeds in their previous lifetimes. Once born in to a caste the persons social status is determined and they remain in that caste until they die. The caste system in India is more than 2000 years old. Within the system there are four main varna or caste groups. Each varna is associated with particular types of work and determines the way a person is allowed to live during their entire life. A fth category exists outside the system and consists of those known as untouchables or Dalits (meaning broken people). According to the 2001 census this group accounted for approximately 180 million people in India16.5 per cent of the population. The Dalits are subjected to many different types of humiliation and abuse, deprived of education and excluded from society. They are forced to work in the lthiest jobs, clearing waste and sewage. The Dalits are just one of many groups of people that are discriminated against within their own countries. Some other groups that are regarded as social outcasts and treated as inferiors are listed in 14.14.
14.13 Apartheid was the law in South Africa for nearly 50 years.
THE CASTE SYSTEM

In contrast, the caste system that exists throughout South Asia, Japan and numerous other countries continues to subject over 250 million people to the worst forms of abuse and human rights violations. The discrimination in this case is not based on race but social status.
14.14 The untouchables
Country Nigeria Kenya Somalia Sri Lanka Japan
Name of people Osu Watta Sab Rodi Buraku
SNAPSHOT
Government action
In 1989 the Indian government introduced laws to prevent discrimination on the basis of caste. These were set out in the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (prevention of atrocities) Act. As well as these laws the government also reserves around 23 per cent of government jobs for people from the lower castes. When Manmahan Singh was elected as Prime Minister in 2004 he promised to reduce discrimination further by extending the quota system into private businesses. The government is also trying to reduce the inequalities in access to education by reserving places at educational institutions for lower-caste students. For example, in 2006 the All India Institute of Medical Sciences in New Delhi had 50 places for graduate students and 11 were reserved for the lowest castes. Discrimination takes place against many groups of people including women, children, the disabled, ethnic and religious minorities and indigenous populations. It is our responsibility to take actions to change this. If we do nothing, human rights abuses and violations will continue. If we refuse to accept discrimination, equal rights have a much better chance of being achieved.
14.15 In India Dalits are left with the worst jobs.
Life for the untouchables

An Indian woman holds her nose as she walks past Gautam Ganu, a city worker, as he removes a cartful of sewage waste from a Mumbai neighbourhood. He is part of the Dalit caste who are traditionally relegated to only the dirtiest and most unpleasant jobs in Indian society. Narayanamma, a 35-year-old Dalit woman, began cleaning human excrement at 13. She sweeps it into piles then carries it away in a bamboo basket on her head. The smell never gets out of my clothes, my hair. But this is our fate, she laments. She is one of the 800 000 toilet cleaners in India.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is apartheid? 2 When was apartheid introduced in South Africa, and how long did it last? 3 Which racial group controlled South Africa during apartheid? 4 Why did apartheid end? 5 What is the caste system? 6 How old is the caste system in India? 7 What is varna? 8 What percentage of the Indian population belongs to the untouchables? 9 What is another name used for the untouchables? 10 Describe the type of work the Dalits do.
Application
11 Why do you think discrimination exists in societies? 12 Are there any forms of discrimination that are acceptable or necessary? 13 How can unacceptable discrimination be reduced? 14 Why does discrimination produce conict? 15 In a small group develop a role play in which you show one type of discrimination, the harm that it causes and the way in which it can be prevented. Present your role play to your class or in an assembly. 16 Suggest ways in which the discrimination against Dalits could be reduced in India. Consider the role of individuals, groups and government.
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Human rights
313
Childrens rights
14.16 Children everywhere are entitled to their own special rights.
Children are particularly vulnerable to human rights abuses due to their physical and intellectual immaturity. Their ill-treatment calls for special attention because children cannot defend themselves, their opinions are seldom taken into account and they can only rarely form their own organisations to work for change. Of the 2.2 billion children in the world 1 billion live in poverty. In an attempt to escape from this poverty, all around the world millions of children are forced to work long hours, often in hazardous conditions, with no access to education. In some countries young children are forced to become soldiers, sold into slavery or married to strangers.
Name and nationality

From the day you are born you have the right to have a name and be registered as a citizen in your home country. However, around 53 million of the 132 million children born every year are never registered. In 2002, 50 million newborns in the developing world were denied their right to a legal identity. Without a birth certicate, children have no ofcial identity, no recognised name and no nationality. When they grow up the unregistered child may be unable to apply for a passport or formal job, open a bank account, get a marriage licence or vote.
14.17 It is important to register children at birth.
AN INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) is an international treaty that recognises the human rights of children, dened as persons up to the age of 18 years. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1989 and has been ratied by 192 countries, which makes it the most universally accepted treaty on human rights. The treaty covers all children everywhere without discrimination. Everything from a childs right to be free from exploitation to the right to their own opinion is spelled out. The CRC sets standards on the rights to which every child is entitled and which it is the responsibility of global society to uphold.
SNAPSHOT
A child marriage
Takia lives in Niamey, the capital city of Niger in Africa. She is 12 years old, has never been to school and lives with her husband and one-year-old daughter in a one-room hut. Because Takias father is very poor, he believed the only way he could guarantee a secure future for his daughter was to nd a husband for her to marry at a young age. Takia was never asked if she wanted to marryit was seen as her duty to respect the decision of her parents. The man that her father chose was 45. Takia is not happy but she had no choice. When asked what she would have done if she had, she replied: If I had a choice I would have wanted to wait and nd the one I love. But now it is too late. Now I prefer not to think about itI dont have any options.
14.18 Eight-year-old Laxmi, dressed in bridal nery, waits with her family members, unseen, prior to her marriage ceremony, outside the Jalpa Mata temple in Rajgarh, about 155 kilometres northwest of Bhopal, India. Ignoring laws that ban child marriages, hundreds of children, some as young as seven years old, are married in a centuries-old custom across central and western India.
Child marriage
Child marriage is a violation of human rightsit takes away the freedoms set out in the CRC and has a signicant impact on the health and educational opportunities of the young people involved. In the case of girls it leads to early pregnancy and the risk of death in childbirth. Early marriage is most common in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Surveys show that 5 per cent of women in Bangladesh were married between the ages of 10 and 14, and in the Rajasthan province of India the gure is as high as 56 per cent. In all parts of the world early marriage affects girls more than boys (see 14.19).
14.19 Percentage of girls and boys married between the ages of 14 and 19 years
Area/country
Boys
Girls
Area/country
Boys Asia
Girls
Sub-Saharan Africa DR of the Congo Niger Congo Uganda Mali 5 4 12 11 5 74 70 56 50 50 Iraq Syria Lebanon Afghanistan Bangladesh Nepal
9 5 14
54 51 42
Middle East 15 4 5 28 25 24
Source: UN Population Division
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)? 2 When was the CRC adopted by the United Nations? 3 How many countries have ratied the convention? 4 Approximately how many children never have their birth registered? 5 Name three things that you cannot do without a birth certicate. 6 What percentage of i) girls and ii) boys aged between 14 and 19 years were married in Niger? 7 What impacts does early marriage have on children? 8 Name two regions in the world where child marriage is common. 9 Who is affected most by early marriage?
Skills
10 Refer to 14.19: a Select a suitable form of graph to display the data. b Write a paragraph describing what the graph shows. c Use an atlas to locate the countries in the table. d On an outline world map shade and label each of the countries. Give your map a title and key.
Application
11 Read the Snapshot about a child marraige. a Compare the opportunities that Takia has in life with those that you have. b Suggest ways in which early marriages like this can be avoided.
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Human rights
315
Child labour
There is a difference between children working and child labour. Work, supervised by a caring adult, can develop skills and responsibility in young people. In some cases it provides valuable income. When the work does not affect the childs health, development or education it is not a human rights issue.
WORK OR LABOUR?
Around the world millions of children are involved in work that is harmful. The worst forms of child labour include: forced labour, especially in hazardous conditions using children for prostitution or pornography using children for drug trafcking. Often these are the result of: the illegal sale of children by poor parents who need money trafcking of children by people who want to exploit them debt bondage. The differences between child work and child labour are shown in 14.21.
14.20 Being forced to work in hazardous conditions takes away human rights for many of the worlds children.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
An estimated 1 million children work in small-scale mining and quarrying around the world.
HOW MANY ARE FORCED INTO LABOUR?

UNICEF (the United Nations Childrens Fund) exposed the global exploitation of children in a report released in March 2005. The statistics in the report show that 1 in 12 children180 million worldwideare forced into the worst forms of child labour. Of these 97 per cent are in developing countries. They also reported: 352 million children aged ve to 17 are engaged in some type of work 211 million work in family homes or farms Nearly half the children between the ages of ve and 14 in Africa are working.
14.21 The difference between work and labour
Child work Child works voluntarily Work is appropriate to childs age and physical and mental capabilities Supervised by responsible and caring adults Limited hours of work, does not hinder the child from going to school, playing or resting Workplace is kept safe and child friendly, does not pose hazards to health and life of the child Childs physical, emotional and mental well-being nourished even in work environment Childs work is rewarded
Child labour Child is forced to work Work burdens the child; too heavy for childs age and capabilities Child works unsupervised or supervised by abusive adults Very long hours of work, child has limited or no time for school, play or rest Workplace poses hazards to childs health and life Child is subjected to psychological, verbal or physical/sexual abuse Limited or no positive rewards for the child
WHY DO CHILDREN WORK?

Children work because they live in poor families and need the money. While adults are often unemployed it is the children that are offered jobs because they can be paid less and are easier to exploit. The family often relies on their income for survival. In many parts of the world education is not an option for children. It may be too expensive, the schools are too far away or lessons are not available in their language. Many parents do not see the value of education so children take up unskilled jobs and the cycle of poverty continues.
Debt bondage
In South Asiaparticularly India, Pakistan and Nepal there is a long tradition of child labour. This is due partly to debt bondage where children are tied to an employer until they have worked off their familys debt. As the employer can charge interest and deduct money for expenses, this may be for a lifetime. India has the largest number of child labourers in the world. The exact number is not known, as many work illegally, but estimates vary from 40 million to over 100 million. Most of them work in rural areas but others are used as cheap labour in factories or mines.
Child miners
The use of child labour in mines is becoming more common. Children are used to mine precious minerals in Africa, South America and Asia. They work in very dangerous conditions with poor ventilation, excessive heat and cold, and risk death from explosions, collapsing tunnels and poisonous gases. In Tanzania young snake boys crawl along narrow underground tunnels 50 metres below the surface and up to 300 metres long carrying explosives and mining equipment. They work in extreme heat, breathing in harmful dust, and receive only one meal in their 18-hour working day. They are paid the equivalent of $1 per day.
SNAPSHOT
POSITIVE ACTION CAN BRING ABOUT CHANGE

In 1998, about 10 000 children were bonded to over 1000 silk factories in Karnatakas Magadi district. Now there are about 1000 children in fewer than 300 factories. This is the result of the Magadi Makkala Dhwani project. UNICEF with the support of the government of Karnataka set up the project to rescue children from the factories and provide them with an education. The project also educates the community about childrens rights.
Activities
Knowledge
14.22 Children at work in a factory producing silk
1 Describe the main differences between child labour and child work. 2 What proportion of children in the world is forced into child labour? Why are they forced to work? 3 Name two countries where child labour is a tradition. 4 What is debt bondage? 5 Which country has the most children involved in child labour? 6 Describe the work of a child in the Indian silk industry. 7 How has UNICEF helped young silk workers? 8 Who are the snake boys? Describe their work conditions.
Bonded labour in the Indian silk industry

Most of Indias highly valued silk is produced in the state of Karnataka in southern India. Here over 100 000 children work as bonded labourers under conditions of physical and verbal abuse. They work 12 hours a day, seven days a week, boiling cocoons, hauling baskets of mulberry leaves used to feed the silkworms, winding the silk and embroidering saris. The children suffer injuries from fumes, machinery, sharp threads, boiling water and dead worms. Girls also face sexual abuse from employers. One of the worst jobs involves children putting their hands into boiling water to check the cocoons. The cocoons made by the silkworms contain silk threads bound tightly together by a sticky substance called serecin. Boiling them in water dissolves the serecin and releases the threads. The children must keep feeling the cocoons to test when the thread is ready to be unwound. Their hands become raw, blistered and then infected from handling the dead silkworms.
Application
9 Using the information in the text and one other source that you research, write an account of a day in the life of either an Indian silk worker or a Tanzanian snake boy. 10 Read the information in the text describing the work of snake boys. Create an annotated drawing to show the dangers of the work.
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Human rights
317
Child soldiers
Under the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), all children have the right to life (article 6), the right to protection from abuse (article 19) and the right to protection from exploitation (article 36). In addition the CRC sets out in article 38 that children under the age of 15 should have no direct part in armed conict.
TRAINED TO KILL
Even though the rights of the child have been almost universally accepted there are around 300 000 children involved in armed conicts in more than 30 countries worldwide (see 14.24). Hundreds of thousands more have been recruited by government forces and militias, and millions of children around the world receive military training. While most child soldiers are between the ages of 15 and 18 there are children as young as seven involved. They participate in all aspects of contemporary warfare. They wield AK-47s and M-16s on the front lines of combat, serve as human mine detectors, participate in suicide missions, carry supplies and act as spies, messengers or lookouts.
14.23 Children are forced to become soldiers in some countries.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Today, at least one in three soldiers is a child aged less than 15 years old.
Some children join armed forces voluntarily as a way to escape poverty. Orphans and refugees are particularly vulnerable to recruitment as they are attracted by the promise of food and security. Many children are abducted or forced into conict, particularly from refugee camps; either way they are exposed to brutality and violence.
SNAPSHOT 1
Colombia
They give you a gun and you have to kill the best friend you have. They do it to see if they can trust you. If you dont kill him, your friend will be ordered to kill you. I had to do it because otherwise I would have been killed. Thats why I got out. I couldnt stand it any longer. (A 17-year-old boy who joined a paramilitary group aged 7, when a street child.)
14.24 Countries where children were forced into armed conict, 2001
G in government forces Colombia (P,O) Mexico (P,O) Peru (O) Russia (O) Turkey (O) Bosnia (P,O) Algeria (P,O) Angola (G,O) Burundi (G,O) Chad, (G) Rep. of Congo (G,O) DR Congo (G,O)
P paramilitaries Eritrea (G) Ethiopia (G) Rwanda (G,O)
O in opposition forces India (P,O) Indonesia (P,O) Myanmar (G,O) Nepal (O) Pakistan (O) Philippines (O) Solomon Islands (O) Papua New Guinea (O) Sri Lanka (O) East Timor (P,O) Tajikistan (O) Uzbekistan (O)
The estimated number of small arms or light weapons ranges between 500 million and 1 billion. They cause more than 1300 deaths per day.
Sierra Leone (all groups) Somalia (all groups) Sudan (all groups) Uganda (G,O) Afghanistan (all groups) Iran (G,O) Iraq (G,O) Israel (G,O) Lebanon (O)
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
SMALL ARMS
Small arms are weapons designed to be operated by one person, for example assault ries, machine guns and grenades. The characteristics of these modern weapons make it easy for children to become involved in conict. In the past guns were large and heavynow they are light, easy to use and cheap. Recent statistics show that small arms were the weapons most commonly used in 47 out of 49 recent conicts causing 90 per cent of the casualties. Children comprised a large proportion of the victims. Wars during the last decade resulted in: 2 million dead children 45 million crippled children 12 million homeless children countless psychologically traumatised children.
Most of the casualties are in the developing world yet many small arms are manufactured in the developed world. A recent trend, however, is for production to move to factories in the developing world as part of the globalisation process (see 8.1 on page 180). For example in 2002, the Norwegian company Nammo moved some of its ammunition production to Malaysia.
SOLUTIONS
There is a direct relationship between the global spread of small arms and the involvement of children in conicts. To reduce both of these, individuals and organisations can employ a number of strategies.
SNAPSHOT 2
14.25 Education and training provide children with an alternative to joining the army.
Promote community development. Educate people about small arms impacts. Advocate for an age limit of over 18 for all soldiers. Create employment opportunities for young men. Enforce laws banning the possession and trade
of weapons.
Working towards peace will free thousands of children from the horrors they face as child soldiers.
Activities
Knowledge
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 How many children are involved in armed conict worldwide? What proportion of soldiers are aged under 15? What sort of tasks do child soldiers perform? Why do some children volunteer to ght? What are small arms? Why do they make it easier for children to ght? Where are most of the small arms used? Where are most of the small arms produced? Where is the production of small arms moving to? Why do you think this is happening?
Rehabilitation of child soldiers in DRC

The Christian Relief Network has established a centre for rehabilitation of former child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in central Africa. More than 1000 children have so far been rehabilitated at this centre. At the same time political groups are actively recruiting child soldiers and there are an estimated 30 000 involved in armed forces. The children need opportunities for education and training that will provide them with a livelihood and prevent them from joining the army as their only means of survival. A village of bamboo houses has been established where the children can live in safety and learn skills such as sewing and mechanics that will allow them to return to civil life.
Application
10 Suggest reasons why there is an increase in the number of children being recruited as soldiers. 11 Explain why it would be hard for child soldiers to return to civilian life.
Skills
12 Use the information in 14.24 and a blank outline map of the world to show the countries that used child soldiers in 2001. Devise a way to show the three categories. Add a title and a key.
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Human rights
319
Child trafficking
Child trafcking involves children being bought, kidnapped, or deceived by false promises for the purpose of forced labour. Children are taken from their families and homes often across country borders and their right to freedom is violated. This modern-day slavery is a major global issue that needs to be addressed.
EXTENT OF CHILD TRAFFICKING

Child trafcking occurs in every region of the world, and although it is more common in the AsiaPacic region and Africa it is also found in Australia, Europe and North America. UNICEF estimates that 1.2 million children are trafcked every year. Children of all ages are exploited in terrible ways.
SNAPSHOT 1
14.26 Haitian children are regularly bought and sold into slavery.
NIGERIAN OFFICIALS RESCUE MORE THAN 100 CHILDREN FROM CHILD TRAFFICKERS
LAGOS, Nigeria, 9 March 2005Law enforcement ofcials in Nigeria are ghting back against child trafckers, as new laws and a more aggressive awareness campaign take effect. Over 100 children were recovered on the rst weekend of March during two separate incidents. On 4 March, immigration authorities at the border with Togo stopped a truck carrying 52 children. Four suspected trafckers were arrested, including a man who claimed to be the pastor of a Pentecostal church. The children were allegedly being trafcked for forced labour. On 5 March, police in Lagos City stopped a refrigerated truck containing 64 children. The children were severely dehydrated. The driver of the truck, a woman, was arrested. The children were from Mokwa, in the Niger state, and were apparently taken to Lagos to work as servants.
Source: UNICEF, 2005
14.27 Child trafcking is a widespread problem in West Africa.
Cocoa and child slavery

In West Africa child trafcking is a widespread problem linked to poverty. The countries involved include Mali, Ivory Coast, Benin, Gabon, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Niger and Burkina Faso. Trafcked children as young as seven undergo dangerous journeys, with some dying on route, before being forced to work long hours in harsh conditions. Ivory Coast cocoa farms produce 43 per cent of the worlds cocoa. This is made possible by thousands of children working in dangerous tasks on plantations. At least 12 000 child cocoa workers were brought to farms through trafcking and work for littleif anypay with no opportunity for education.
SNAPSHOT 2
Rescued
In March 2004, following international pressure, the UAE Camel Racing Association banned camel jockeys under the age of 16 and then raised the limit to 18 in July 2005. In response a Swiss rm has developed lightweight robot jockeys and the government has agreed to return young jockeys to their home countries. Ansar Burney, a lawyer and human rights activist from Pakistan, has set up the rst rescue and rehabilitation centre for camel jockeys in the UAE. It will be run by the government and Ansar Burney Welfare Trust International. Rescued boys will spend between four and eight weeks in the centre before being repatriated. On 8 May 2005 the UAE Ministry of Interior and UNICEF signed an agreement to provide US$2.7 million to help return child camel jockeys to their home communities. This will not be an easy task as many of the jockeys were so young when they were abducted that they do not remember their families. UNICEF has begun the process of bringing the exploited children home. In June 2005 the rst group of 22 children were returned to Pakistan.
Child trafficking in the Caribbean

The Caribbean Island of Hispaniola is shared by two countries, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. On market day in Dajabn, a bustling Dominican town on the Haitian border, it is not just farm produce for sale. If you ask the right person you can buy a Haitian child for less than US$150. Haitian children are regularly trafcked across the border, promised a better life but sold into slavery.
CAMEL JOCKEYS
The traditional sport of camel racing in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) has been the reason for kidnapping and trafcking children from poorer neighbouring countries for nearly 25 years. Thousands of very young boys from Pakistan and Bangladesh have been brought into the country to provide light, cheap and disposable camel jockeys. The boyssome as young as four yearslive in corrugated-iron huts near the race tracks. They work up to 18 hours a day in the blistering heat of the desert, looking after the camels and training three times a day. If they do not cooperate they are beaten or given electric shocks. Malnutrition is common as the jockeys are kept on starvation diets. Before a race the riders may go without food for a week to keep their weight down. They also receive terrible injuries from falls and in some cases when they fall during a race they are trampled to death. If the jockeys survive the harsh conditions they are discarded once they reach adolescence. Separated from their families, traumatised by their treatment and having received no formal education, their futures are bleak. All this has been happening in a country that has ratied the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
14.28 A child camel jockey in the United Arab Emirates
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is child trafcking? 2 Describe the extent of child trafcking. 3 How many children work on cocoa plantations on the Ivory Coast? 4 Where is Haiti? 5 How much are Haitian children sold for and where? 6 In which country is camel racing a traditional sport? 7 How old are camel jockeys? 8 When was the minimum age of camel jockeys raised to 18 in the UAE? 9 What is replacing the child jockeys? 10 Which organisation is helping to return jockeys to their homes?
Application
11 Use the information in the text and one other source that you have researched to write a newspaper article on camel jockeys in relation to human rights. 12 Collect media articles relating to child trafcking and present them as a class wall display with a world map locating the articles and a written summary of each article.
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Human rights
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Campaigning for human rights
14.29 The General Assembly hall of the United Nations building in New York
Not all governments agree with universal human rights. In some countries authorities still believe that they can treat people as they wish. Where governments are involved in human rights violations or they do not protect human rights, individuals and non-government organisations frequently become involved in campaigns to bring about change. At the international level the United Nations (UN) leads the way on human rights issues.
THE ROLE OF NGOs

There are many international non-government organisations (NGOs) such as Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and Anti-Slavery International that monitor and condemn human rights abuses. All these organisations aim to raise public awareness of human rights issues and put pressure on those in authority to conform with international human rights standards.
THE UNITED NATIONS

The promotion and protection of human rights has been one of the main purposes of the UN since its formation in 1945. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 was one of its rst achievements and set out standards that were then written into legally binding treaties. The General Assembly is the main body of the UN. In 2007 it was made up of 191 member states. Each of these member states has its own government and they are required to abide by the treaties only if they have ratied them. By 2007 every member had ratied at least one of the treaties and 80 per cent had ratied four or more. Once a government has agreed to a human rights treaty it has to put in place strategies to promote and protect peoples rights. This can involve passing laws, such as those that prohibit discrimination, or ensuring that resources are made available, such as providing health and education facilities.
SNAPSHOT 1
Amnesty International (AI)

Amnesty International is a worldwide movement of people who campaign for internationally recognised human rights. AIs vision is of a world in which every person enjoys all of the human rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international human rights standards. AIs mission is to undertake research and action focused on preventing and ending grave abuses of rights. AI is independent of any government, political ideology, economic interest or religion. It is concerned solely with the impartial protection of human rights. AI has a varied network of members from 150 countries, united by a determination to work for a world where everyone enjoys human rights. No funds are sought or accepted from governments for AIs work investigating and campaigning against a range of human rights violations.
SNAPSHOT 2
SNAPSHOT 4
Anti-Slavery International
Founded in 1839 this is the worlds oldest international human rights organisation. We work at local, national and international levels to eliminate the system of slavery around the world by: urging governments of countries with slavery to develop and implement measures to end it lobbying governments and intergovernmental agencies to make slavery a priority issue supporting research to assess the scale of slavery in order to identify measures to end it working with local organisations to raise public awareness of slavery educating the public about the realities of slavery and campaigning for its end. Anti-Slavery Internationals work is divided among three teams: Programme, Communication and Information, enabling us to work effectively towards achieving our goal of a slave-free world.
Source: www.antislavery.org
Craig Kielburger
In 1995 Craig Kielburger, a 12year-old Canadian boy, was looking through the Toronto newspaper for comics when a picture caught his eye. It showed another 12-year-old boy, Iqbal Masih in Pakistan, who had been murdered for bringing the worlds attention to the terrible conditions endured by children working in the hand-made carpetmaking industry.
14.31 Craig Kielburger promotes the rights of children.
Kielburger set out to educate himself about human rights. He became so passionate about it that he persuaded his parents to allow him to accompany Alam Rahman, a Canadian human rights worker, on a trip through South Asia. There Kielburger witnessed the terrible conditions under which many of the children were forced to live and work. He returned to Canada determined to make a difference and wrote about his experience in a book Free the Children. The title of the book is also the name he used for the human rights organisation that he established and which now operates in 27 countries worldwide.
HUMAN RIGHTS ACTIVISTS

Throughout the world there are individuals who have worked tirelessly for human rightssometimes they have sacriced a great deal to do so.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is the main purpose of the United Nations? 2 What is the General Assembly? 3 What do the letters NGO stand for? 4 What is Amnesty International? 5 What does Anti-Slavery International do? 6 Where did Nelson Mandela campaign for human rights? 7 How old was Craig Kielburger when he started campaigning?
SNAPSHOT 3
Nelson Mandela
One of the most famous human rights activists is Nelson Mandela, who fought the apartheid regime in South Africa (see unit 14.3 on page 312) and was imprisoned for 27 years for his beliefs. After his release in 1990, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 and in 1994 became the rst truly democratically elected President of South Africa. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.
Application
8 Plan a campaign to educate the students in your school or local community about human rights. The campaign could include: speaking at assembly celebrating Human Rights Day creating and displaying posters staging a role play.
14.30 Nelson Mandela fought apartheid.
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Threatened habitats
A habitat is the natural home of an animal or plant species. Habitats are under increasing pressure from the booming human population. As humans degrade and change habitats they are also increasing the risk of extinction for many of the worlds creatures.
Geographical tools
Maps
use an atlas use various types of maps: physical, political, topographic, thematic locate features on a map using latitude and longitude construct a sketch map identify and calculate maximum, total, range, rank, and average construct and interpret bar, column, line, climatic and proportional graphs draw a line drawing collect and interpret photographic images use a range of digital images, maps, sound and other appropriate multimedia sources to develop a multimedia presentation or webpage
Syllabus outcomes
A student: 4.2 organises and interprets geographical information 4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms to communicate geographical information

Photographs

4.4 uses a range of geographical tools 4.7 identifies and discusses geographical issues from a range of perspectives 4.8 describes the interrelationships between people and environments 4.9 describes differences in life opportunities throughout the world 4.10 explains how geographical knowledge, understanding and skills combine with knowledge of civics to contribute to informed citizenship
ICT
Definitions
biodiversitythe variety of living things biodiversity hotspota region in the world where there is a large variety of living things Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)an agreement signed by countries to ban trade in threatened animals and plants ecological footprinthow much land and water area a person in a particular country needs in order to produce their energy requirements and dispose of their wastes ecological sustainabilityuse of the worlds resources by the present generation in a way that will not limit the ability of future generations to meet their needs ecosystema community of organisms interacting with one another and with the environment in which they live endangered speciesspecies of plants or animals whose numbers have declined or whose habitats have been reduced drastically, threatening their survival endemica species that is only found in a restricted place Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Actan Australian law that aims to protect Australian wildlife extinctspecies of animals or plants that have not been seen in the world during the last 50 years grasslandsland dominated by grass vegetation habitatthe home of a community of animals or plants, or the location in which they prefer to live sedentaryfarming practised by a settled farmer in one place threatened speciesincludes all endangered, vulnerable and rare species vulnerable speciesspecies that are likely to become endangered as their populations are decreasing wildlife tradenative species that are removed from the environment for trade
The dimension of habitats
15.1 The panda of China is endangered.
A habitat is the home of a community of animals or plants, or the location in which they prefer to live. Habitats can be small or large. Small habitats may be a hollow in a tree, a rock crevice or a system of burrows. Large habitats include entire ecosystems or biomes such as rivers, coral reefs, tropical rainforests, oceans, deserts, wetlands, grasslands or mountains.
WHY DO THREATENED HABITATS OCCUR?

A habitat can become threatened by human activity and become smaller. This then puts at risk the plants and animals that live in that habitat, resulting in endangered species and reduced biodiversity.
15.3 The Dodo bird of Mauritius became extinct in 1681.
EXAMPLES OF HABITATS
The habitat of the clown sh is within the anemone beds of the coral reef environment, such as Australias Great Barrier Reef or the reefs in Malaysian waters (see 4.14 on page 90). The Galapagos giant tortoise habitat is the grass plains on the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador (see 2.44 on page 52). Macaw parrots only inhabit territories with hot climates. The majority live in South and Central America and Africa, in rainforests and savanna grasslands. The giant panda only lives in the mountains of southcentral China (see 15.1).
15.2 The dimensions of the natural environment
Ecological type Ecosystem
Denition Any group of living and non-living things interacting with each other The place where plants and animals prefer to live, which supplies them with the right food, water, climate, oxygen and minerals Populations of different species that interact with each other A group of organisms of the same kind or species living in the same place
Dimension Within ecosystems there are habitats Within habitats there are communities
Levels of threats to species

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) uses these classications to describe the level of threat to a species: extinctnot found in the wild in the last 50 years endangeredspecies of plants or animals whose numbers have declined or whose habitats have been reduced drastically so that they may become extinct vulnerablespecies that are likely to become endangered as their populations or habitats are decreasing rarehave small populations but are not endangered or at risk threatenedincludes all the endangered, vulnerable and rare categories.
Habitat
Community
Within communities there are populations Within populations are individual organisms
Population
Grasslands Tropical rainforest

Threats: Clearing for agriculture, deforestation for logging, re, roads, mining, hunting Example: Congo rainforest Threats: desertication, overgrazing, re, roads, farming Example: Serengeti Plain
Wetlands
Threats: introduced species, hydroelectricity, dam-building, irrigation, urban development, agriculture Example: Florida Everglades
Coral reefs
Threats: Tourism, climate change, pollution from sewage and fertiliser use, sedimentation, disease, agriculture and deforestation, overshing, introduced species Example: Great Barrier Reef
Rivers
Threats: Dambuilding, irrigation, hydroelectricity, introduced species, pollution Example: Amazon River
Temperate forests
HABITATS AT RISK
Threats: Acid rain, clearing for agriculture, deforestation for logging, re, roads, mining, hunting Example: Russian taiga
Polar lands
15.4 The Wollemi pine was discovered in 1994 in the Wollemi National Park in New South Wales. There are fewer than 100 mature trees in the wild, making it a rare species.
Threats: Hunting, climate change, pollution, ozone depletion Example: Greenland
Oceans Mountains
Threats: Deforestation for fuel wood, tourism, erosion Example: Himalayas
Deserts
Threats: Desertication, overgrazing Example: Sahara
Threats: Pollution, climate change Example: Pacic Ocean
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is a habitat? How do habitats become threatened? 2 List the four dimensions of the natural environment. 3 What are two of the possible impacts of threatened habitats? 4 Why are some habitats more threatened than others? 5 What does IUCN stand for? 6 What are the ve levels of threats to species?
Application
8 Use your library resources and the Internet to nd the information to copy and ll in the table. Find a mammal, bird, reptile or amphibian, insect and plant that ts each level of threat.
Species Mammal Bird Reptile or amphibian Insect Plant Extinct Endangered Vulnerable Rare
Skills
7 Refer to the concept map above to identify two habitats that are threatened by: a tourism b irrigation c re d climate change e pollution f deforestation g dam-building.
9 Look at 15.1, 15.3 and 15.4. What features make each organism special? Why should people want to protect the organisms and their habitats?
Surf
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The threats to habitats

If current trends continue, the worlds population is expected to rise to 9 billion by the year 2050 (see 9.23 on page 216). The more people there are, the greater the demand on world resources for development. Human demand for resources results in lost or diminishing habitats and species loss.
THE IMPORTANCE OF HABITATS

Natural habitats are not only important as the homes of animals and plants. They also maintain healthy environments that in turn provide humans with the necessities for their survival including fresh air, water and food as well as other products that people can use and trade. Healthy ecosystemsThese are necessary to humans as they provide clean air, pure water and food. Healthy ecosystems recycle nutrients (see 1.19 on page 15) and wastes, provide food for all species and keep the environment in balance. The degradation of habitats threatens the plants and animals that live in them, but also the quality of life for humans. MaterialsPeople use many natural resources from the physical environment. Materials for shelter and clothing, as well as food and water, originate in healthy ecosystems. Species of plants and animals also supply some ingredients for modern medicines and may contain the remedies for future diseases. For example, the Madagascan periwinkle plant contains a chemical used in the chemotherapy treatment for Hodgkins disease (see 15.6).
15.5 Duwamish estuary in Seattle, United States where most of the wetlands have been destroyed by development, leading to a decline in sh numbers.
15.6 If the habitat of the Madagscan periwinkle is threatened, then a cancer treatment may be lost.
BiodiversitySome people are of the opinion that the extinction of a few species is not something to be worried about. Species extinction is nothing new dinosaurs, dodos and mammoths no longer wander the Earth. However the diversity of plants and animals helps to maintain healthy ecosystems. If one species is lost (or added) there is a ow-on effect to the rest of the food chain and the environment. For example, if pesticides used on crops kill all the insects in the food chain then the numbers of common and marsupial mice and bush rats that eat insects will also decline. In turn the smaller populations of mice and rats will result in a decline in their predators, the snakes and kookaburras. Ecologically sustainable development (ESD) This involves the present human population using the resources of the natural environment in such a way that it does not affect the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The aims of ecological sustainability are to improve or maintain the quality of life of people today without harming the environment.
CAUSES OF HABITAT LOSS

Urban development
As the population increases cities and towns get larger and sprawl onto surrounding natural habitats, replacing them with concrete buildings, asphalt and other built surfaces.
Introduced species
Disrupt natural habitats and ecosystems through competition with native species.
Pollution
Toxic materials are released from industry into the air, waterways and land.
Wildlife trade
Native species are removed from the environment for trade, disrupting natural habitats and food webs.
Natural events
Dramatic weather conditions and the tectonic disturbances of earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis.
HABITAT LOSS
Climate change
As levels of greenhouse gases increase the climate may change so that some ecosystems experience hotter temperatures and drier conditions that change the vegetation and some ecosystems may be lost.
Acid rain
Pollutants from industry are released into the atmosphere and mix with water returning to Earth and degrading forest ecosystems.
Overgrazing
Land degradation due to overgrazing threatens species and habitats.
Tourism and recreation

Disturbance due to increased trafc can harm wilderness areas and habitats.
15.7 These macaws have been captured from Brazil illegally to be sold overseas as pets.
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is the world human population expected to be in 2050? 2 How will the increase in the human population affect habitats and species? 3 What things do healthy ecosystems provide for humans? 4 Name three species that have become extinct. 5 What is ecologically sustainable development? 6 Outline the basic causes of habitat destruction as dot points.
Skills
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
Asia is a hotspot for illegal wildlife trade because of the demand for animal parts and plants in traditional Chinese medicine. One tiger skin can fetch up to US$15 000 on the black market.
7 Refer back to 9.23 on page 216. Describe the increase in the global population over the last 50 years. How may population growth have impacted upon natural habitats?
Application
8 Do you think there is any relationship between the human population and threatened species? Explain your answer.
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Perspectives on threatened habitats

The destruction of natural habitats often results in species becoming endangered or threatened. So why do we keep destroying habitats? The reason for most habitat destruction is that humans use the natural resources that habitats contain. People have different perspectives about how environments and habitats should be managed. A perspective is a way of viewing a situation or topic, or an opinion on an issue. Studying the perspectives of different groups of people on various issues is an important aspect of Geography.
DIFFERING PERSPECTIVES ON THE RAINFOREST

Consider the different viewpoints or perspectives people have about rainforest ecosystems, and therefore the habitats within them. There are regular media reports about how much rainforest is being destroyed each day. Many people agree that this deforestation should end. So why is rainforest destroyed? Generally this is because some people have differentoften conictingideas about how we should be using or preserving it, as shown in 15.9.
15.9 Different perspectives of the rainforest and its destruction 15.8 People who protest about the destruction of forests show a particular perspective.
Groups of people Wildlife trader
Perspective This macaw that I have taken from the rainforest could fetch $30 in the illegal wildlife trade. That is enough money to feed my family for a month. Sensation in the Amazon! Crisis in the rainforest: The rainforest will be destroyed in 20 years! This is my traditional home. The species of the rainforest are sacred to us and ensure our survival. We cannot survive without them. There are many valuable minerals under the rainforest that are worth huge sums of money. The increasing global population is placing enormous pressure on resources, habitats and species. What can we do about it? I am so far removed from the rainforest and I dont see it every day. I have more important things to worry about like paying off my home and car, socialising and having fun. It is difcult knowing what to do when everybody has a different opinion. I just want to make sure that my government is elected again next time, and try to represent the people who vote for me.
Media
Groups of people Conservationist
Perspective We need to stop the destruction of the habitats of rainforest plants and animals or they will become extinct, and there will be fewer resources for future generations. Many plants and animals have become extinct in the past. Why should we worry about it now? A large variety of living things keeps ecosystems functioning and healthy. They also provide the ingredients for some medicines that we may need in the future. The rainforest has many valuable timbers that are worth lots of money. Why do we need so many animals and plants? I understand that the rainforest is important for keeping my soil and water healthy, but I also need space to grow crops and raise livestock to export all over the world. Indigenous person
Mining company
Scientist 1
Teacher
Scientist 2
Many people in the population
Logging company
Farmer
Government parliamentarian
DIFFERING PERSPECTIVES ON THE POLAR BEARS HABITAT

The polar bear has in recent times become a symbol of endangered wildlife. Its habitat lies in the Northern Hemisphere polar lands in Canada, Norway, Russia, Alaska and Greenland. Polar bears need solid ice as a platform to hunt seals, which are their main prey. The polar bear was included on the 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. These are the threats to the polar bears habitat: oil mining and development in polar regions including Alaska climate change, which is causing the sea ice and ice sheets in the Arctic, where polar bears live, to thin and break up pollution in the form of persistent organic pollutants that are carried in the atmosphere and deposited at the Poles.
NATURAL WORLD ON RED ALERT

By Devika Bhat
POLAR BEAR WORRIES UNPROVEN, EXPERT SAYS

Polar bears are becoming the poster-species for doomsday prophets of climate change, even though groups pushing for higher protection for the animals dont have the evidence to prove their case, Nunavuts manager of wildlife says. It makes a great story because it is simple and intuitive, Dr Mitch Taylor wrote in a 12-page document for the US Fish and Wildlife Services review of the animals status. However, the reality is much more complex. Delving into the patterns of polar bear eating habits, ice oe loss, population densities and other issues, Taylor downplays the overall impact of climate change. He said no one is suggesting that climate change isnt affecting some polar bear populations, but noted there are 20 polar bear populations in the world and each one should be considered independently. He said Canada has one of the best management systems for polar bears in the world, allowing Inuit to hunt in a sustainable manner and generating $3.5 million in Canada through sport hunts and the sale of hides. At present, the polar bear is one of the best-managed of the large Arctic mammals, Taylor said. If all the Arctic nations continue to abide by the terms and intent of the Polar Bear Agreement, the future of polar bears is secure. Taylor noted the estimated number of bears on the Boothia Peninsula, 1300 kilometres west of Iqaluit, has actually increased to 1500 animals from 900. He said environmental groups dont seem to want to take information like that into consideration when pressing their case.
Source: CBC News, accessed 15 May 2006 15:44:46 EDT
A report compiled over two years details the everincreasing species of ora and fauna facing extinction More than 16 000 species of animals, birds, sh and plants are registered as under serious threat of becoming extinct on the Red List of Threatened Species compiled by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The number is up from just over 15 500 last year. Among the worst affected are polar bears. The report says that the impact of climate change is being increasingly felt in the Arctic, where the level of sea ice in the summer is expected to decrease by 50 to 100 per cent over the next 50 to 100 years. As a result, the polar bear population is predicted to decline by more than 30 per cent in the next 45 years, and the species has moved up the IUCN list to be classied as vulnerable, threatened with global extinction.
Source: The Times (United Kingdom), 1 May 2006
Activities
Knowledge
1 What is the greatest threat to many species of animals and plants? 2 Why do people destroy and degrade habitats? 3 What is a perspective? 4 Describe the habitat of the polar bear. 5 Why was the polar bear listed on the Red List of Threatened Species in 2006?
Application
6 As a class read through the perspectives of different groups of people on the rainforest habitat. In pairs research the perspective of one of the groups and prepare an argument to support that point of view. Hold a class forum to discuss the perspectives of different people in relation to rainforest destruction. 7 Look at 15.8 and 15.9. List which perspective/s from the table the protestors in the photo are likely to have. 8 Create a cartoon that shows two or more differing perspectives on the management of rainforests. 9 Read the two news items on polar bears. Identify the perspectives and any bias in these reports.
Threatened habitats
331
Management of threatened habitats

Individuals, groups and governments are involved in the management of threatened habitats and endangered species. Actions can be taken on local, national and international scales to protect habitats and species. Extinction of some animals and plants will probably still occur, but humans have the ability to slow down the rate of destruction, and therefore the rate of extinction.
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
The increasing number of threatened habitats is a truly global issue. The governments of many countries have recognised that there is a problem and have organised international meetings to decide what should be done. International agreements to protect special areas and species have been signed by many countries.
15.11 Greenpeace activists hang a banner on a bridge in Bangkok during the CITES conference in Thailand.
15.10 The CITES convention aims to prevent the mass killing of animals such as the rhinoceroses, which have been slaughtered for the ivory in their horns.
CITESSince 1975, 150 countries have signed the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Under this agreement countries agree to limit or ban trade in named species of animals and plants. This convention has been moderately successful in the trade of ivory taken from elephant tusks, and the population of the African elephant is now stable.
the World Cultural and Natural Heritage was adopted in 1972. Many sites have properties that protect natural habitats, entire ecosystems or threatened species. Natural criteria (iv) states that for a site to be listed it should have important and signicant habitats for conservation of biodiversity and may contain threatened species with value for science or conservation (see 15.13 and unit 2.7). Convention on Biological DiversityAt the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, world leaders agreed on this convention. This agreement sets out the strategy for governments to maintain the worlds variety of plants and animals. It also focuses on the sustainable use of plant and animal resources, and the sharing of genetic resources and research.
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
About 5000 species of animals and 28 000 species of plants are protected by the CITES agreement against over-exploitation through illegal international trade.
15.12 Symbol for World Heritage
World Heritage agreementUNESCO seeks to encourage the protection of heritage around the world considered to be the most important to humans, by keeping a World Heritage List. An international treaty called the Convention Concerning the Protection of
INTERNATIONAL GROUPS
IUCNThe International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources is known as the World Conservation Union. It is the worlds largest and most important conservation network. It aims to encourage and assist countries in valuing and protecting nature. One of its roles is preparing the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. WWFThe World Wildlife Fund was established in 1961 and operates in over 100 countries. It aims to prevent further degradation of the planets natural environment by conserving biodiversity, encouraging people and governments to use resources sustainably and promoting the reduction of pollution and waste. It funds about 2000 projects across the world operating at a variety of scales. Other organisationsThere are many other groups that play a role in protecting threatened habitats. Some are listed in 15.14.
15.14 Other international organisations involved in protecting endangered species and threatened habitats
Group Greenpeace International International Coral Reef Institute (ICRI) Global Environment Facility (GEF) Earthwatch Institute
Main area of action Non-prot organisation focusing on threats to habitats Partnership between governments and NGOs aiming to preserve coral reefs Financial organisation providing grants to developing countries for projects that help the environment and promote sustainability Non-prot organisation conserving the diversity of life on Earth to meet the needs of current and future generations Non-prot organisation of leading companies aiming to foster global environmental health and safety Non-prot US based organisation focusing on protecting biodiversity
Global Environmental Management Initiative (GEMI) Conservation International
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
WWF offers online virtual gifts aimed at protecting and conserving wildlife and habitats. These include Send a turtle to rehab, which funds a turtle health centre and Give a polar bear a tattoo, which helps in identifying and tracking polar bears.
Arm of the United Nations focusing on the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring protection of biodiversity Centre Bagheera Educational website focusing on endangered species and habitats
15.13 Examples of natural World Heritage sites protected by the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
World Heritage Area Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra Okapi Wildlife Reserve
Country Indonesia
When inscribed 2004
Features of the site 2.5 million hectares of rainforest Many endangered species including Sumatran orangutan
Democratic Republic of the Congo
1996
Forest and river basin Threatened species of primates and the extremely rare okapirelated to the giraffe
Arabian Oryx Sanctuary
Oman
1994
Unique desert ecosystem Arabian oryx became extinct in the wild in 1972 but have been reintroduced here
Serengeti National Park
United Republic of Tanzania Australia
1981
1.5 million hectares of savanna grasslands Many species like wildebeest, zebras, cheetahs and lions
Great Barrier Reef
1981
Worlds largest collection of coral reefs Dugong and green turtle which are both threatened
Galapagos Islands
Ecuador
1978
19 islands and marine reserve Rare and unusual plant and animal life including the land iguana and giant tortoise
Lake Baikal
Russia
1996
Oldest and deepest lake in the world Rich and unusual fauna
Threatened habitats
333
THE ROLE OF AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENTS

Australia has signed all of the international conventions regarding threatened habitats. As a developed country, Australia has the resources and nances to protect habitats and species. By mid-2006 Australia had 16 World Heritage sites, most of which protect large areas of natural habitat. Some of these are Kakadu National Park (Northern Territory), Fraser Island and the Great Barrier Reef (Queensland) and Shark Bay (Western Australia). In 1999 the federal government created the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act. This is a law and plan that aims to protect Australian wildlife. Development of urban, agricultural and mining areas is dependent on assessment and approval. If habitats of endangered species are threatened by these activities then they will not usually go ahead. The federal government and all of the state and local governments also: formulate laws to protect species and habitats help to fund projects undertaken by individuals and groups set aside tracts of natural habitat as national parks monitor human activities within protected areas enforce environmental laws and ne people for doing the wrong thing.
15.15 The rare Nepalese red panda has been successfully bred in many zoos, such as in the Munich zoo in Germany.
GROUPS IN AUSTRALIA
There are many active groups that work to protect threatened habitats in Australia. Some of these are listed in 15.16.
15.16 Some Australian organisations involved in protecting endangered species and threatened habitats
Group Landcare
Main area of action Community, government and business partnership that aims to protect and repair the environment Non-prot organisation aiming to achieve a healthy Australian environment Advocacy organisation with an aim to protect and restore wilderness in Australia Branch of an international conservation organisation aiming to conserve Australias biodiversity Campaigning organisation that works to expose environmental problems and force solutions Organisation that shows people the ways they can reduce their impact on the environment Partnership between WWF-Australia and the Australian government working to stop plants and animals from becoming extinct Government body responsible for national parks in NSW
Australian Conservation Foundation Wilderness Society WWF Australia
Greenpeace Australia
Planet Ark
Threatened Species Network NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service
ZOOLOGICAL PARKS
Zoological parks and botanic gardens protect and conserve endangered ora and fauna species, undertake environmental education and provide opportunities for research. ZoosPlay important roles in captive breeding programs, and education and research about endangered species. Some zoos are used to breed critically endangered animals to be reintroduced to the wild. For example the black rhinoceros is bred at the Western Plains Zoo in Dubbo. The San Diego Zoo in the United States and the Munich Zoo in Germany are other important breeding centres for endangered animal species (see 15.15). Botanic gardensAre zoos for plants. Endangered plants are bred in gardens to preserve their genetic material. For example the Wollemi pine is very rare in its natural habitat of the Wollemi National Park in New South Wales (see 15.4 on page 327). It is bred through the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney and is now available for commercial sale.
SNAPSHOT
WHAT CAN INDIVIDUALS DO?

Most peopleparticularly in Australia and other developing countriesdo not realise the impact that they are having on the environment and habitats around them. One way of measuring our impact is to calculate the estimated area of land and water that is needed in order to provide the resources that each person uses. This is called the ecological footprint. In order to reduce our ecological footprint and protect habitats there are many things that we can do. Many of the organisations mentioned in this unit recommend a variety of ways that individuals can reduce their ecological footprint. Some of these include driving less, becoming a more conscious consumer and being more energy- and water-efcient around the home.
15.17 Planet Arks website, which shows people ways they can reduce their environmental impact
Activities
Knowledge
1 Name three international agreements that aim to conserve threatened habitats and endangered species. 2 Why was the CITES convention necessary? 3 Name two international groups that are concerned about threatened species and habitats and describe the area of activity they are involved in. 4 Outline the responsibilities Australian governments have in regard to threatened habitats. 5 Why are zoos and botanic gardens important? 6 List some strategies that individuals can implement in order to protect threatened habitats. 7 What is Planet Ark and what are its aims? 8 List three global campaigns in which Planet Ark is involved. 9 Name three businesses that are involved in the Cartridges 4 Planet Ark campaign and two that are involved in the Cards 4 Planet Ark campaign.
Planet Ark leads the way

Planet Ark is an international not-for-prot organisation that was set up in Australia in 1991 by the tennis player Pat Cash and the international charity campaigner John Dee. It aims to show people and businesses how they can reduce their impact on the planet in simple and practical ways. Planet Ark has many campaigns including the following. Cartridges 4 Planet Arkan international campaign to prevent used printer and photocopier ink cartridges ending up in landll. Planet Ark teamed up with global businesses like Lexmark, Hewlett-Packard and Brother Australia to implement this campaign in Australia. Other international companies and countries have implemented similar schemes after observing over four million printer cartridges being recycled in Australia in two years. The Recycling Olympicsbegan in 2004 to coincide with the Athens Olympics. Planet Ark compared the recycling rates and waste gures of 11 developed countries including Australia. It was concluded that Australia would nish middle of the eld, with Switzerland taking out the gold, Germany the silver, Sweden the bronze and the United Kingdom bringing up the rear of the eld. Cards 4 Planet Arkan Australian campaign to recycle Christmas, birthday and other cards that has been adapted by Planet Ark in other countries. The campaign runs from Boxing Day until the end of January and involves people taking their cards GEOGRAPHY to Coles supermarkets or sending them free of charge through Australia FOCUS Post. The cards are recycled to make If everyone lived the way SAFE toilet tissue and cardboard. A Australians do we would similar campaign is run by Planet Ark in the United Kingdom in conjunction need another four to ve with the Recycle More UK website. planet Earths.
Application
10 Choose an international or Australian organisation and research it using the questions below. Present your information on a one-page fact sheet, including a picture and the logo of the organisation. a What is the name of the organisation and where is it based? b What is the aim of the organisation? c What are some of the projects that the organisation is working on currently? 11 How did Australia fare in the Recycling Olympics? Suggest ways in which Australia could improve its position.
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335
Grasslands a threatened habitat
15.18 Grasslands in Mongolia. Nomadic tribes of people take their sheep, goats and horses to new pastures in search of fodder. They have portable homes called yurts.
Grasslands contain many different types of grass. They cover large areas and are located where there is not enough rainfall for forests, but too much for deserts. The grassland environment includes savanna, prairie, scrub, plains, pampas and steppes. Grasslands extend over nearly 35 per cent of the Earths surface. Many of the worlds crops including wheat, barley, oats and sorghum originated in the worlds grasslands.
LOCATION AND IMPORTANCE OF GRASSLANDS

Natural grasslands grow on every continent except Antarctica. The grassland biome is located from the mid-latitudes to the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere, and from Tropic of Capricorn to the mid-latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere (see 2.48 on pages 5455 and 15.19). There are ve major grassland regions in the world: prairies of North America pampas of South America steppes of Europe and Asia savanna of Africa plains and savanna of Australia. Grasslands are important for agriculture, particularly the raising of animals that provide milk, meat, wool and hides. Grasses grow from the base of the plant. If grass is burned or eaten it can easily regrow from the bottom, making it ideal for grazing. Grasses have long, thin leaves, so they retain moisture during dry periods. Grasslands also contain other plants such as wildowers and some trees and low shrubs. They provide the habitat for a wide range of unique animals and plants. Grasslands are well known for large herbivores such as the giraffe, bison, antelope and zebra and their accompanying predators. Birds such as the ostrich, emu, owl and many others are particularly prolic in this type of environment.
15.19 Area of the worlds grasslands
Sub-Saharan Africa Asia (excl. Middle East) Europe and Russia Oceania North America South America Middle East and North Africa Central America and Caribbean 0 3 6 9 Millions of km2 12 15
THREATENED GRASSLANDS
Humans have used grasslands for thousands of years to raise sheep, goats and cattle. In the past many of the herders were nomadiconce an area had been grazed, they moved on to fresh pasture taking their home with them. Over the past 10 000 years and particularly in the last 300 years, agriculture has become more sedentaryfarmers live permanently in one place. With farmers owning the land they are under more pressure to make food and money from the same land year after year, and many have turned to growing crops to achieve this. All grasslands have been exploited and developed by humans as they are suitable for raising cattle, sheep and other stock and are the right environment for growing crops. Some grasslands have been ploughed up or overgrazed. This disturbance leads to the removal of the natural grass cover, which leaves the soil exposed to erosion and desertication (see unit 7.5 on page 170).
15.20 Important goods and services that grasslands provide
Goods and products Food
Services and the environment
Tourism and recreationPeople visit grasslands to view the large Herbivorous animals provide and well known animals and meat and milk, as well as wool, skins and other products for hiking, hunting, shing, and religious or cultural activities Most of the worlds cereal crops, including wheat, barley, BiodiversityGrasslands contain oats, rice and rye, originated outstanding examples of diverse in grasslands. This is ecosystems and many endemic important for the genetics of and unique species of plants and the original grasses. animals. Energy sourcesWood and wind provide energy to people in grasslands. Grasslands also have the materials used to make ethanol to add to petrol. PopulationAbout 800 million people live in grasslands and many people rely on them for their goods and products. Storage of carbonGrasslands store about 34% of terrestrial global carbon in the soil. If disturbed this carbon could contribute to climate change. Grasslands provide a healthy global environment by recycling water and maintaining soil health.
THE SERENGETI PLAIN

Location
Africa contains the largest unspoilt tracts of grasslands. The Serengeti Plain is found on the eastern shores of Lake Victoria in Tanzania and Kenya in Africas Great Rift Valley (see 15.24 on page 338 and 5.5 on page 108) and covers an area of 14 631 square kilometres. It contains the Serengeti National Park, the Masai Mara National Reserve, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area and many game reserves.
15. 21 Human population in grasslands
Sub-Saharan Africa Asia (excl. Middle East) Middle East and North Africa Continent or region South America Central America and Caribbean Europe and Russia North America Oceania 0 50 100 150 200 250 Millions of people 300 350
Flora and fauna

The Serengeti National Park is made up of grassland and woodland plains and marshes, and contains a mixture of grass and trees that can support more animals than any other land type. The trees often have elaborate defence mechanisms such as thorns, spines, needles, poisons and smells. Some of the well-known plants include the umbrella tree, sausage tree, strangler g, wild date palm and red grass. The Serengeti is home to at least 1.2 million wildebeest, which eat and renew the pastures of grass by grazing, trampling and leaving their droppings. This massive number of animals provides prey for 3500 lions, hyenas and other predators. There are more than 200 000 zebras, 2000 elephants, black rhinos, cheetahs, impalas, topi, elands, gazelles, giraffes, wild dogs, warthogs and cape buffalo.
15.22 Grasslands in Canada
Threatened habitats
337
Threats to the Serengeti

In the protected areas the Serengeti is quite healthy, but outside the parks and reserves the picture is less hopeful. Both Tanzania and Kenya have booming human populations. The population of Tanzania has tripled in 50 years and was 36 million in 2005. Fifty years ago the Serengeti Plain was only sparsely settled. Now people live on the very edge of the game reserves and conservation areas. Most are poor and lack basic necessities. Many have to poach wood for heating and cooking from the protected areas and hunt the wildlife for food. Drought also impacts on plants, animals and humans.
Management of the Serengeti

The Serengeti was made a game reserve in 1921 and was upgraded to a national park in 1951. No humans live in the park, but Masai herders live on the eastern side of the reserve, and farmers live close to the western side. Poaching has been a major issue, but efforts have been made to stop this and to involve local people in the conservation of the park. The Serengeti became a World Heritage area in 1981. Since then tourists from all over the world have travelled there. This boom in tourism has brought income for many people, though sometimes this does not lter down to the very poor. In the future tourism may help to improve the quality of life of people living there, including the Masai.
35E 36E 37E
15.23 The Serengeti Plain is the habitat of the giraffe.
15.24 Location of the main conservation areas near Lake Victoria in eastern Africa
34E
Nairobi
Lake Victoria
Musoma
N
Masai Mara Game Park
03
KENYA
60 km
20
40
Magadi
Road Capital city Country boundary National Park boundary
2S 04
Robanda
Lake Natron
Serengeti National Park

Serengeti Plain Olduvai Gorge
05
TANZANIA
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
Monduli Mountain
Sagata
Tinga Tinga
3S 06
Arusha N.P.
Serengeti National Park TANZANIA
KENYA
Arusha
Lake Eyasi Lake Manyara
Kilimanjaro International Airport

99 00 01 02 03 04
07
SNAPSHOT
Activities
Knowledge
1 What other names are given to grasslands? 2 Name some crops that originated in the grasslands. 3 Where are the ve major grassland areas of the world? 4 Why are grasslands important? List the eight goods and services that grasslands provide. 5 What are the threats to grasslands? 6 What is the difference between the nomadic and sedentary way of life?
15.25 The Masai are nomadic herders who traditionally lived on the Serengeti.
7 Describe the location of the Serengeti Plain. 8 What animals and plants can be found on the Serengeti Plain? 9 Outline the impact of the booming human population in the Serengeti National Park. 10 What are the main management issues for the Serengeti? 11 What are some features of the Masai traditional life?
The Masai people

The Masai people are the indigenous people of the Serengeti. They have traditionally herded cattle and subsisted on milk, meat and cow blood. They remain semi-nomadic despite pressures for them to settle in one spot. Men and women have denite roles in society. Traditionally the Masai wear red clothing. Their shelters are completed with a render of cattle dung. Cattle are the lifeblood of the traditional Masai way of life. When British settlers arrived they brought disease. The Masai were particularly vulnerable to cholera and smallpox. A disease in cattle also wiped out their wealth and nourishment and civil wars left them with little power. Some of the Masai were relocated by the settlers, who set up game parks on Masai traditional land. Today the population of Masai has grown to 50 000 in the Serengeti, but they do not have any land to move onto or on which to enlarge their herds. They are forbidden to farm their land in case it becomes degraded. As is true of many other indigenous people around the globe, Masai traditional lands are no longer available for them to use.
Skills
12 Refer to the graph in 15.19: a What area contains the greatest area of grassland ecosystem? How many square kilometres is it? b What is the average area of grasslands for the areas listed in the graph? c List all the continents that have over 6 million square kilometres of grasslands. 13 Refer to the graph in 15.21: a How many people live in the grasslands of the Middle East and North Africa? b Which area or continent has the greatest number of people living in grasslands? c Which area or continent has the least number of people living in grasslands? 14 Refer to 15.24 to do the following activities: a Draw a sketch map that shows the different types of park and conservation areas. Include major lakes and the border between Tanzania and Kenya. b State the latitude and longitude for: i Lake Natron ii Robanda iii Nairobi iv Olduvai Gorge. c Give the area reference for: i Arusha National Park ii Magadi iii Kilimanjaro International Airport iv Lake Victoria. d Give the grid reference for: i Robanda ii Tinga Tinga iii Monduli Mountain iv Sagata.
15.26 Tourism can bring nancial wealth and stability to developing countries if it is managed well.
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The lemurs of Madagascar an endangered species in a threatened habitat

Madagascar is the worlds fourth-largest island, located off the east coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean. It has a land area of 582 000 square kilometres or about threequarters the size of New South Wales. The capital Antananarivo has a latitude of 1852'S and longitude of 4730'E. It is covered by many types of habitat, including rainforest, temperate inland areas and arid desert in the south.
15.28 Location of Madagascar
N
15.27 The female ring tailed lemur is dominant in the group.
LEMUR CHARACTERISTICS
Lemurs are small primates that are known as prosimians. They are only found on Madagascar and the Comoros Islands. Lemurs range in size from the tiny 30-gram pygmy-mouse lemur to the cat-size Indri lemurs. They can live to about 18 years of age. Lemurs are arboreal (they live in trees) and spend most of their time in the canopy of the rainforest. Lemurs live in groups with a dominant female leader. She controls the movement of the group and chooses a mate rst. Lemurs eat fruit, leaves and other plant material. They use their long plumy tails and scent to communicate. Lemurs are important to Madagascar as they disperse seeds from their food through droppings. These seeds help to regenerate forests.
40E Comoros Islands

Mozambique
45E Antsiranana
50E
Key capital city town road 200 km
Chan
nel
Moz
amb
ique
Mahajanga
15S
Toamasina
Antananarivo
Morondava Eianarantsoa Toliara Mananjary 20S
THREATS TO LEMUR SPECIES

Lemurs are threatened. Of the 61 types of lemurs: 10 are critically endangered 7 are endangered 19 are vulnerable. One main threat comes from increasing population pressure and poverty. The population of Madagascar exceeds 14 million in an area less than the size of New South Wales (which has 7 million). The population is growing at a rapid rate of 3 per cent per annum. Many Malagasy people live on only AU$350 a year in a subsistence lifestyle. Poverty means that the environment can be less important to most people than nding the next meal. Another threat to lemurs is the reduction in their natural forest habitat due to deforestation. Madagascar used to be covered by a large area of rainforest. Up to 80 per cent of this has been cleared for logging, fuel wood and crop cultivation (see page 149). Lemurs have also been hunted for pet trade and food, which has had a signicant impact on their population.
Madagascar
Tolanaro
25S
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Madagascar has been isolated from other landmasses for about 60 million years. This means that there are many species that are endemicthey are unique because they live in Madagascar and are found nowhere else on Earth. Sixty-one of these unique species are lemurs. Madagascar is considered to be one of the worlds 25 biodiversity hotspots. A biodiversity hotspot contains a very large and diverse range of plant and animal species. Madagascar has lost over 70 per cent of its original habitat.
15.29 Number of species classied as critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable in Madagascar by IUCN, 2006
PROTECTION OF THE LEMURS

All lemurs are protected by the CITES agreement. It is illegal to hunt or capture lemurs for trade except for scientic research or to breed in zoos. Tsingy de Bermaraha Strict Nature Reserve is a conservation area for the lemur and has been made a World Heritage site.
80 70 Number of species 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Type of animal Fish Invertebrates
GEOGRAPHY FOCUS
In some areas of Madagascar species of lemurs are trapped and hunted because the indigenous people think that they are bad omens. They think this because of the lemurs scary facial features.
Source: IUCN Red list of Threatened Species 2006
Activities
Knowledge
1 2 3 4 5 What types of habitat cover Madagascar? Why are species on Madagascar likely to be endemic? What is the habitat of the lemur? What threats do lemurs face? Outline the ways that people are adopting to conserve the lemur populations.
LEMUR CONSERVATION ORGANISATIONS

The Duke University Lemur Center is a research facility in the United States, which also has an active conservation program in Madagascar that trains Malagasy people in reforestation, good agricultural practices and ecotourism. The Lemur Conservation Foundation is a nonprot organisation dedicated to conserving lemurs through captive breeding, research, education and reintroduction to the wild. Conservation International is involved in conservation in Madagascar. There are many reserves and parks set aside for lemurs in Madagascar. Zoos play important roles in breeding lemurs. There are 1000 ring-tailed lemurs in 140 world zoos, 100 red-fronted lemurs in 22 zoos and 300 red-ruffed lemurs in 70 zoos.
Skills
6 Draw a pie graph to show how many lemurs are critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable and not at risk. 7 Use the statistics section of an atlas to compare the following for Madagascar and Australia: a birth rate b death rate c life expectancy d infant mortality e number of doctors f literacy rates g GNI per capita. 8 Refer to 15.28. What is the latitude and longitude of: a Antananarivo b Comoros Islands c Toliara? 9 Refer to 15.29: a What type of animal is most threatened? b What type of animal is least threatened? c What is the total number of species threatened? 10 Look at page 149. Explain what the photograph of Madagascar in 6.34 is showing.
15.30 A new species of lemur found in 2005 the Goodman lemur
Application
11 Why do you think that conservation in Madagascar is not a high priority? Write a paragraph explaining your answer.
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Threatened species profiles

Threatened species are animal and plant species that are at risk of becoming extinct. There have been at least 784 documented extinctions since the year 1500. Over 16 000 species have been included on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. They can be listed as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered. This list is considered the best guide to the status of global biodiversity.
MAMMAL EXAMPLE
Name Caribbean or American
manatee
Description The Caribbean manatee has a large cylindrical shape, with two forelimbs that are ippers and a at paddle-shaped tail. Manatees can reach a length of 4.6 metres. Algae or barnacles often cover their grey wrinkled skin. Manatees are also known as sea cows as they graze on seagrass beds. Location The Caribbean Sea in the coastal waters around south-east United States, the Bahamas, Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela and other Caribbean nations.
N
Eating habits Seagrasses, mangroves and other underwater vegetation. Habitat Tropical lagoons, rivers and coves of the Caribbean and Latin America in fresh or saline water warmer than 20C. Numbers in the wild
30005000 Status Vulnerable
Threats to Caribbean manatees

Over-hunting from the sixteenth century has decimated the manatee population Accidental drowning in nets Boat collisions Changes to habitat like ports, marinas Loss of seagrass beds due to agricultural and industrial runoff and pollution
USA
0 Caribbean Sea Pacific Key Ocean Caribbean Manatee habitat
Atlantic Ocean 1600 km
Conservation
In most countries that have manatee populations research is conducted. In the United States there are manatee protection zones and laws to protect the species, such as the Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act (1978).
BRAZIL
BIRD EXAMPLE
Name Brown kiwi Description The kiwi is about the size
of a chicken with spiky brown feathers, a long thin bill, no tail, and tiny, useless wings. It is shy and nocturnal and uses its highly developed sense of smell to search for food. Location North Island 0 100 200 km of New Zealand Habitat New Zealand Great Barrier I. lowland and coastal Coromandel forest on the North Peninsula Island Eating habits Worms, insects and berries
Brown Kiwi habitat
Threats
Predators such as stoats, cats, ferrets, brush tail possums and dogs Settlements encroaching on habitats Loss of habitat to agriculture, tourism and urban areas
Conservation
There are ve mainland sanctuaries that have been set aside as habitat for the different species of kiwi. Large fences and trapping protect the kiwi from predators and human activity. The Bank of New Zealand funds conservation programs like the Save the Kiwi Trust. The bank also funds Operation Nest Egg which allows zoos to collect and hatch eggs, raise kiwis and release birds back into the wild in order to build up their population.
NORTH ISLAND
N
SOUTH ISLAND
Numbers in the wild 25 000 (estimate) Status Endangered
PLANT EXAMPLE
Name Showy ladys slipper orchid Description The showy ladys slipper orchid is a brightly coloured
rare plant that has one or two blossoms on a single stem. The ower is made up of white petals on a white pouch streaked with pink. The plant grows to between 30 and 60 centimetres tall and can live to be 50 years old. It takes 16 years to grow and bloom for the rst time. Location United States and Canada Habitat Freshwater wetlands and swamps, wet meadows and cool damp woods Numbers in the wild/captivity Rare but exact numbers unknown Status Vulnerable
Threats
Habitat destruction including wetland drainage for irrigation or land reclamation Road construction Collectors of orchids and gardeners have taken too many Illegal picking of owers Use of herbicides in the habitat
Conservation
The orchid was made Minnesotas state ower, which has helped to raise the prole of this species in that state. State law has protected it since 1925, making it illegal to pick or uproot the plant. Areas of land have been set aside for the orchid including the Purdon Conservation Area in which a suitable habitat has been created for plants to be transplanted.
OTHER THREATENED SPECIES EXAMPLE
CANADA
Minnesota
USA
N
Name Komodo dragon Description The Komodo
INDONESIA
N
Key Showy ladys slipper orchid habitat 0 500 km
AUSTRALIA
dragon is the largest living KOMODO lizard growing to 23 Labuanbajo metres in length and 70 FLORES kilograms in weight. It is Waewuul reserve a erce predator and is GILI DASAMI 0 25 km active during the day. It Komodo dragon range can move very quickly, Numbers in the wild 6000 climb trees and swim. Its strongest sense is smell which Status Vulnerable it uses to locate food. Threats Loss of habitat due Location Lesser Sunda to deforestation for timber Islands, Indonesia products Habitat Hot, humid grassy Conservation lowlands and rainforests on a Indonesia protects the dragons few volcanic Indonesian islands in the Komodo National Park, of the Lesser Sunda group which has also been made including Komodo and Flores a World Heritage area. Many Eating habits Carnivore that zoos across the world breed eats the meat of goats, pigs, komodo dragons using eggs deer and buffalo collected from the islands.
Activities
Application
1 Read the proles in this unit. What do you think are the main threats to endangered and vulnerable species? 2 Complete your own prole of a species at risk using library resources and the Internet. Create a multimedia presentation or webpage that includes the following: at least two digital images of the species and/or its habitat a map that shows the species distribution a species prole including: Name: Description: Location: Map: Habitat: Numbers in the wild: Threats: Conservation:
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Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce photographs, texts and illustrations. The following abbreviations are used in this list: t = top, b = bottom, l = left, r = right, c = centre. Alamy Limited: p. 8tl. Amnesty International Australia: p. 322b. Anti-slavery International: p. 323tl. Arctic Photo Library: p. 70t. Auscape International Photo Library: pp. 95b, 98t, 151r, 154t, 285, 290, 291tl, 328t. Australian Associated Press: AAP Image/Linda McSweeny, p. 125; AAP Image/Matthew Vasilescu, p. 198br; AFP Photo/ Deshakalyan Chowdhury, p. 179; AFP Photo/Vyacheslav Oseledko, p. 210t; AP Photo/Kevin P. Casey, p. 190b; AP Photo/ Prakash Hatvalne, p. 315; AP Photo/Gurinder Osan, p. 130b; AP Photo/Khalil Senosi, p. 258t; AP Photo/Gautam Singh, p. 257; AP Photo/Apichart Weerawong, p. 309t. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Household Use of Information Technology, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 200405, pp. 186b, 187. Australian Council for International Development: p. 225. Australian Institute of Marine Science <www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/project-net/reefs-at-risk/apnet-rar01.html>: p. 87tl: Study reveals cyclone damage to coral reefs 100 kilometres from ground zero, Australian Institute of Marine Science, 17 August 2000, p. 99. Bureau of Meteorology: p. 20b. CIA: World Factbook, p. 78. CITES: p. 332tl. Computer Industry Almanac: p. 186br. Coo-ee Picture Library: pp. 134, 150br, 150t, 176. Corbis Australia Pty Ltd: pp. 44t, 50, 54tl, 54tr, 65, 66t, 67b, 67t, 68b, 68t, 69, 77b, 77br, 108t, 127, 138tr, 146t, 170t, 171b, 171t, 172t, 173b, 174, 206b, 206t, 227, 238b, 239b, 240b, 241, 264, 274b, 276b, 278b, 278t, 281, 296, 298t, 300t, 311, 312, 313, 318, 332bl. CSIRO Land & Water: p. 295t. Desert Research Institute and Nevada Power Co.: p. 242c. Dorling Kindersley: p. 244b. Emerald City Images: pp. 220t, 221. ExplorersWeb Inc. <www.humanedgetech.com/story/IntrntinthEvrstrgionApr132004.shtml>: p. 130. Fairfax Photo Library: p. 330. Free the Children: p. 323tr. Gary Braasch Photography: pp. 237bl, 237br, 240t. Gdynia Aquarium: p. 88b. Geoscience Australia: Commonwealth of Australia, Geoscience Australia, pp. 152, 153, 177. Getty Images: pp. 1, 8bl, 57, 72t, 84t, 92br, 97, 105, 113b, 120, 123, 128t, 129b, 144b, 147bl, 148, 165, 170b, 173t, 180t, 188b, 188t, 192, 196b, 196t, 198bl, 200t, 203, 205, 210t, 211tr, 215, 216t, 218b, 218t, 220b, 222t, 224b, 224t, 226b, 231t, 244t, 245, 247, 254t, 256t, 260t, 267, 277, 299b, 299t, 305, 306, 308t, 316, 317, 319, 320b, 321b, 322, 325, 329b. The Global Footprint Network <www.footprintnetwork.org/newsletters/gfn_blast_ap_report_2005.html>: p. 214tr. Global Policy: p. 193t. Government of Yukon: p. 230b. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority: Photographs courtesy of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, pp. 96t, 96bl, 96br. Harcourt Education: Heinemann Atlas, 4th edn, Heinemann, Australia, 2006, p. 72b. IAATO/ Antarctica New Zealand: p. 77tr. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: p. 237l. International Center for Research on Women: p. 315tl. International Civil Aviation Organization: pp. 190tl, 190tr. International Shipping Federation: p. 189b. Jupiterimages Corporation: 2006 Jupiterimages Corporation, pp. 4, 6t, 6b, 7tl, 7tr, 7b, 7cr, 10t, 16t, 20t, 21br, 32, 33, 34, 37b, 39, 42t, 43b, 45r, 46t, 47b, 49t, 52b, 52t, 54cl, 54bl, 55bl, 60t, 74t, 74tr, 75tl, 76bl, 84b, 90b, 90c, 90t, 114b, 133, 147t, 151l, 157, 162t, 158b, 166c, 166t, 200b, 212, 230t, 239t, 248t, 259t, 262, 268, 269l, 269tr, 275, 286, 288t, 309b, 326t, 331, 334bl, 337, 339t, 343l.
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Lonely Planet Images: pp. 16b, 112t, 124b, 128b, 129t, 140bl, 158t, 272, 280t, 282t, 320t. Longman: R. Laws in Antarctic Environments and Resources: A Geographical Perspective by J. D. Hansom and J. E. Gordon, Longman, Harlow, 1998, p. 77tl. Motorola Inc.: pp. 184b, 184t, 185b, 185t. NASA: Image courtesy NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS and US/Japan ASTER Science Team, p. 8br; Image courtesy Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC, p. 160t; pp. 235tr; NASA: Science and Analysis Laboratory, NASA-Johnson Space Center, p. 263tl; 290b. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Department of Commerce: Rear Admiral Harley D. Nygren, NOAA Corps (ret.), p. 58t. National Science Foundation: Ethan Dicks, p. 76t; Zee Evans, p. 55br; Charles Kaminski, p. 73; Steven Profaizer, p. 75c; Patrick Rowe, pp. 74, 75; Joe Tarnow, p. 78. New Internationalist: Adapated with permission from New Internationalist magazine <www.newint.org>, The no-nonsense guide to fair trade by David Ransom, New Internationalist Publications, UK, 2001, p. 194b; <http://newint.org/features/2004/11/01/womens-rights/>, p. 210; 211tl. New Scientist: Krakatoa eruption cooled the world, New Scientist, no. 2538, 2006, p. 233; <www.newint.org/issue354/ facts.htm>, p. 252br. News Limited: pp. 5, 80, 102t; AFP Photo/HO/NASA/Getty Images, p. 238t. Norwegian Meteorological Institute <met.no>: p. 65. NSW Government: Department of Natural Resources, p. 8cl. Ofce of the Board of Studies New South Wales: Geography Stage 4 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2003, pp. x, xi. Oceanic Images: Gary Bell/OceanwideImages.com, p. 89l. Panos Pictures: p. Dieter Telemans/Panos Pictures, 198t; p. 323b. Pearson Education Australia: Katherine Wynne, p. 194t. Peters, Robert: p. 8cr. Photolibrary: pp. 8tr, 9l, 18t, 18b, 22tl, 36, 43tl, 46br, 46c, 47l, 47tr, 48t, 54br, 54tr, 55bc, 55tl, 55tr, 61, 62tr, 74bl, 74br, 74c, 75b, 75c, 83, 86, 87br, 87tr, 88t, 91, 92l, 92t, 94t, 95t, 100t, 118t, 122b, 122t, 123l, 124t, 126t, 136, 137bl, 139tl, 140t, 142b, 142c, 142t, 144t, 147br, 149, 154b, 163b, 166b, 166tr, 167b, 167c, 167t, 168br, 168t, 169, 175, 202, 208t, 209, 236, 243, 252t, 259b, 263tr, 271l, 271r, 274t, 283b, 291tr, 292t, 293, 294t, 295b, 298b, 302, 303b, 314t, 327, 328b, 332tr, 336t, 339b, 340t, 342bl, 342tl, 343r. Picture Media: Reuters, p. 310b. The Picture Source/Terry Oakley: p. 21bl. Planet Ark: Planet Ark Environmental Foundation homepage, 27 March 2007, p. 335t. Plan UK: p. 314b. Reuters Australia: p. 81. Scheltema, Sandy: p. 226t. Terragalleria: p. 116t. UNICEF: p. 258. Unilever: pp. 195b, 195tl, 195tr. United Nations: pp. 207, 216, 222bl, 222br, 223, 250, 265, 272b, 272l, 273, 292b, 306, 307. University of California Press, Berkeley: Spalding MD, Ravilious C, Green EP, World Atlas of Coral Reefs. University of California Press, Berkeley, 2001, USA, p. 85. US Geological Survey: p. 47c. Van Zuylen, Sue: p. 21tl, 21tr. Wheeling Jesuit University/NASA-supported Classroom of the Future <www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/coralreef/CRanthro. html>: p. 93. World Nuclear Organisation: p. 214tl. World Vision of Australia: p. 223b. WorldWind Central <www.worldwindcentral.com/hotspots/view_hotspot.php?id=1843>: p. 297t. Zoo Zrich/Robert Zingg: p. 341b. Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. However, should any infringement have occurred, the publishers tender their apologies and invite the copyright owners to contact them.
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Index
abiotic elements 14 Aboriginal people, Australia 96, 170, 176 abrasion 117 Abu Simbel temples, Egypt 423 acid rain 329 aeolian process 157, 164 Africa 26, 206, 315, 317, 320 agriculture 17, 170, 285, 286, 336, 337 air pressure 20 algae 91, 98 altitude 121, 126, 127, 128 Amazon Basin 26, 134, 1369, 140, 155 climate 1368 food web 143 indigenous people 1445 Amazon River 134, 136, 138 Amnesty International 322 Amsterdam, Netherlands 268 anabatic wind 120 Andes mountains 26, 106, 117, 139 anemone 90 Annan, Ko 264, 292 Antarctica 26, 29, 58, 72 climate 73 ecosystem 745 food web 745 global warming 81 ownership 76 scientists 78 tourism 77 treaty 80 whalers 77 Anti-Slavery International 322, 323 apartheid 305, 31213 aquifer 163, 247, 2523, 254 arable land 157, 170, 285, 286, 298 Aral Sea 2601 archipelago 83, 112 Arctic Ocean 26, 58, 60 arte 116, 117 arid land 157, 158, 170 arsenic 256 artesian 247, 2523 Asia 26, 256, 317 aspect 105, 120, 121 asthenosphere 108 Aswan High Dam, Egypt 263 Atacama Desert 164 Atlantic Ocean 26, 146 atlas 25 atmosphere 40, 136, 143, 160, 162, 166 atmospheric pressure 157, 160 atoll 83, 88 Australia 26, 268 Antarctica involvement 78 desert 1767 international conventions 334 Badlands, Death Valley 164 Bam, Iran 48 Bangalore, India 269 Bangladesh 257, 315 barrier reef 83, 88, 946 biodiversity 83, 133, 325 desert 173 habitats 328, 332 hotspot 325, 340 rainforest 139, 150, 155 reef 94 soil 286 biome 545, 57, 60, 84, 134, 326, 336 biosphere 40, 136, 143, 166 biotic elements 14 birds 745 Birmingham, England 268 Bono 226 boreal forest 229, 238 bromeliad 141, 142 Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) 122 cactus, beavertail 168 calcium carbonate 83, 86, 87 Cambodia 308 Canada 26, 274 Canberra, Australia 269 canopy 134, 141 carbon dioxide 233, 236 carbon sink 133, 136 cardinal points 10 Carlsbad Caverns National Park 50 carnivores 15, 142, 143, 168 cartographer 28, 108 Casey station, Antarctica 78 Caspian Sea 26 caste system 305, 312 Central Kalahari Game Reserve 173 Chernobyl explosion 3001 children camel jockeys 321 labour 31617 marriage 315 small arms 305, 319 soldier 318 trafcking 3201 China 36, 240, 268, 310 cirque 105, 116, 117 citizen 3, 4 city 26871, 2723 developing world 2789 facilities 274 features 269 climate 323, 229 change 1001, 230, 238, 242, 329 desert 1601 mountain 1201 clock 39 cloud 22 clown sh 90, 326 Coca-Cola 255 cold front 23 compass 10 condensation 3, 15 conuence 105, 127 Congo rainforest 134, 1467, 148 problems 1489 Congo River 146 continental drift 1089 continents 26 contour 3, 12, 118 convection currents 108, 109 convention see treaty Coober Pedy, Australia 176 coral bleaching 83, 1001 cay 89, 94 conditions for growth 84 hard 83, 87 location 85 polyps 86, 100 protection 1023 reefs 84, 326, 327 soft 83, 87 coral reef threats 923, 989 coastal development 93 cyclones 989 farming 93 shing 92 infestations 98 tourism 92 trade 92 core 105, 108 criteria 25 see also world heritage sites crust 108, 110, 111, 114, 162 cultivation 285, 292
346
culture 179 entertainment 2001 food 200 cyclone 989 Daintree rainforest 150151 dam 262 Darfur, Sudan 308 daylight saving 36 decomposers 133, 140 deforestation 1545, 292, 298, 340 degradation 25, 48, 261, 285, 2867, 2889, 328 action 3023 mining 2967 war 2989 democracy 205, 210 Democratic Republic of the Congo 146, 147, 148, 149, 319 Demography 205, 219 Dendrochronology 229, 2301 desert 1589, 326, 327 animals 167 atmosphere 160 Australian 176 climate 161 environment 1589 food web 1689 location 1589 surface 164 types of 158 uses 1701 desertication 157, 171, 285, 2923, 337 developed country 179, 198, 216, 272, 296, 319, 334 developing country 179, 198, 216, 272, 296, 308, 316, 319 diarrhoea 205, 206, 208, 258 disappearance (people) 311 discrimination 305, 31213 disease 236, 2589, 261 dragon, Komodo 343 Earth 267 orbit 34 shape 28 structure 108 surface 26, 158 water 248 earthquake 112, 113, 329 Earthwatch Institute 50 Eastern Hemisphere 36 East Timor 308 eccentricity 229, 232 ecological footprint 205, 214, 267, 274, 325, 335 ecological sustainability 205, 212, 214, 286, 325, 328 ecosystem 3, 14, 47, 133, 157, 325
Antarctica 745 climate change 238 coral reef 84, 87, 90, 92 desert 166, 167, 169, 171 landmine 298 rainforest 134, 1401, 330 threatened habitats 326, 3289, 332 water 249 ecotourism 149, 176 Ethiopia 224 emergents 141 endangered species 325, 326, 332, 334, 340, 342 endemic 325, 340 energy ow 14 environment 3, 67, 16, 58 Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 325, 334 epicentre 112 epiphyte 133, 140, 141, 142 Equator 25, 323, 34, 58, 116, 120, 134, 136, 160, 230 equinox 34, 59 equity 247, 262 Eratosthenes 5 erosion 116, 285, 290, 296, 337 glacial 117, 127 types of 290 ethanol 229, 244 ethnic minority 305, 306 Europe 26 European Alps 117 eutrophication 247, 250 evaporation 3, 15, 157, 163 export 179, 200, 202 extinct 325, 326, 328, 342 fauna 121, 140, 146, 166 bre optic cable network 182 eldwork 1819 Finland 62, 67, 69, 70, 71 sh 745 ora 121, 140, 146, 166 fold mountains 105, 111, 126 food 2089 food web 143, 168, 328 forest oor 134, 140, 141 forest, temperate 327 fossil fuel 205, 21213, 229, 240, 242 freedom of speech 305, 311 fringing reef 83, 88, 94 frost shattering 117 Galapagos Islands, Ecuador 523 Geldof, Bob 224 genocide 305, 308, 309 geographers 4, 5, 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, 19, 20, 27, 32, 88, 275 Geography 4, 10, 330
geothermal power 243 giant panda 326 giant tortoise 326 glacial period 229, 232, 233 glacial processes 116, 117 glacier 127, 236 global environments 545, 84, 134, 136 globalisation 179, 180, 192, 267, 272 culture 2001 inequality 2023, 222, 224, 307 sport 1967 transportation 188, 192 global village 180 global warming 1001, 212, 2369 gorilla 122, 146 grasslands 325, 326, 327, 3367 Great Artesian Basin 163, 253 Great Barrier Reef 88, 945 biodiversity 94 protection 50, 956 value 94 Great Plains 171 Great Pyramid of Giza 6 Great Rift Valley 110 Great Salt Lake 163 greenhouse effect 229, 2345 greenhouse gases 229, 2345, 236, 242 Greenland 26, 29 Greenpeace 80, 227 green power 2423 Greenwich Mean Time 36 Greenwich Meridian see Prime Meridian Grindelwald, Switzerland 124 gross domestic product (GDP) 179, 205, 217, 218 per capita 205, 217 Grozny, Russia 308 Guantanamo Bay, Cuba 310 Gujarat, India 254 G8 nations 2245 habitat 325, 3267, 3289, 3301 loss, causes of 329 management 3323 hanging valley 105, 116 Hawaii Volcanoes National Park 47 herbivores 15, 142, 143, 168 high pressure system 23, 73 Himalayas mountain range 26, 107, 117, 126 Hiroshima Peace Memorial 46 Hollywood 269 holocaust 305, 308 Hmong people, Laos 309 Human Development Index (HDI) 205, 21819, 220 human environments 25, 41 human features 3, 6, 14, 40, 41
347
human rights 210, 305, 306, 312 campaigning 322 children 31415 liberty 310 violation 305, 307 humidity 21, 134 relative 3, 21 hydrological cycle 15, 135, 138 hydrosphere 40, 136, 143, 162, 166 ice cap 57, 58 ice sheet 231 impermeable 247, 252 import 179 India 240, 255, 268, 291, 297, 312, 315, 317 Indian Ocean 26 indigenous people 57, 58, 286 industrialisation 17, 267, 269, 285 infant mortality rate 205, 211 inltration 247, 252 infrastructure 267, 271 insectivore 142, 143, 168 insects 167 insolation 25, 32, 34, 133, 135 interglacial period 229, 232, 233 International Date Line 25, 367 international trade 179, 1889, 192 international treaty 25, 44 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) 333 Internet 186, 310 introduced species 329 Inuit people, Arctic Ocean lands 58 Ischigualasto Provincial Park 50 isobar 3, 23 Japan caste system 312 earthquakes 112 whaling 80 Jerusalem, Israel 268 Kalahari Desert 159, 171, 172 Kashmir earthquake 113 katabatic winds 57, 73, 120 Kayapo people, Amazon rainforest 144, 145 key 12 Kielburger, Craig 323 Kilwa Kisiwani 50 kiwi, brown 342 Khumbu, Nepal 126, 130 Khwarizmi, Al 5 Kobe, Japan 1127 Kokoda Track, Papua New Guinea 125 krill 745
Kuku Yalariji people, Daintree rainforest 150, 151 Kyoto Protocol 241 lahar 115 Lake Baikal 26, 47, 50 Lake District, England, 117 Lake Eyre 163 Landcare 303 landmine 298 latitude 25, 27, 32 parallels of 25, 27, 32 lava 105, 110, 114 leaching 133, 139 League of Nations 305, 306 legend 12, 23 lemur 3401 Lima, Peru 274 lithosphere 40, 136, 143, 162, 164, 166 Live Aid 224 Live 8 2245 lobbying 205, 226 London, England 268, 274, 276 longitude 25, 27, 32, 36 meridians of 25, 27, 32, 36 Los Angeles, United States 274 low pressure system 23 macaw parrot 326 Madagascar rainforest 134, 149 lemur 340 magma 105, 109, 110, 111, 114 malaria 229, 236, 2589 Malaysia 268 Mali 2201 malnutrition 205, 208 manatee, Caribbean 342 manufacturing 272 map projection 25, 2830 azimuthal 2930 conic 2930 cylindrical 2930 maps 10, 27, 289 history 289 physical world 40 political world 41 thematic 41, 545 Mandela, Nelson 312, 323 mantle 105, 108, 162 Mariana Trench, Pacic Ocean 26, 111 Masai people, Serengeti, Tanzania 339 Mauna Kea 106 Mauna Loa 106 Mbuti people, Democratic Republic of the Congo 147, 148 Mecca, Saudi Arabia 268 medical care 211
megacity 267, 2789 Mercator, Gerardus 5 Mesa Verde, United States 46 meteorologist 229, 230 Mexico City, Mexico 16, 244, 2823 Mid-Atlantic Ridge 110 Mid-Ocean Ridge 107 Milan, Italy 268 Millennium Development Goals 222 3, 250, 279 mining 170, 176, 2967, 317 monoculture 285, 286 Mother Teresa 5 Motorola 1845 mountain 105, 1067, 11617, 326, 327 climate 1201, 127 communities 124 ranges 107, 111 tourism 1223 types of 106 Mount Everest 26, 106, 126, 127, 129 Mount Fuji 112, 114 Mount Kilimanjaro 106 Mount McKinley 106 Mount Unzen 115 Mumbai, India 16, 280 Namib Desert 168, 171 nation-state 179, 180 New Delhi, India 16 New York City, United States 275, 2767, 278 Freedom Tower 275, 276 Nile River 26, 163 nitrogen 139, 140 nomadic people 57, 133, 157, 337 Aboriginal people 176 Mbuti people 147 Sami people 63, 67, 69 San of the Kalahari people 172, 173 non-government organisation (NGO) 226, 247, 255, 257, 305, 322 North America 26 North Atlantic Ocean 233 Northern Hemisphere 34, 336 North Pole 32, 36, 58, 601, 116, 230 Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument 103 Norway 62, 67, 69, 70, 71 nuclear power 3001 nutrient 3, 15, 139, 142, 288, 328 nutrient cycle 1415, 140 oasis 157, 162, 163 oceanographer 109 oceans 26, 326, 327 oil pollution 299 okapi 147 Olympic Games 197
348
omnivore168 orchid, showy ladys slipper 343 orogenesis 110 Ortelius, Abraham 108 Osaka-Kobe, Japan 268 overgrazing 285, 289, 292, 329, 337 Oxfam 227 oxygen 140 Pacic Ocean 26, 27, 88, 92, 101, 112 pack ice 57, 60 parasite 247, 258 Paris, France 268 parrot sh 91 patch reef 88, 94 penguin 745 permafrost 57, 601 permeability 247, 252 perspective 3301 Peru 297 Petra, Jordan 46 phosphorus 139, 140 photographs, types of 8, 10 photosynthesis 14, 136, 141 physical environments 25, 40 physical features 3, 6, 14, 40 phytoplankton 745 Planet Ark 335 plate boundaries 10910 convergent 109, 111 divergent 109, 110 plate tectonics 105, 1089 playa 157, 162, 163, 164 plucking 117 poaching 133, 148 polar bears 60 habitat 331 polar lands 58, 327 climate 58 environments 58 midnight sun 59 pollution 329 population 272, 288, 340 density 267 porosity 247, 252 poverty 209, 212, 250, 261, 289, 308 precession 229, 232 precipitation 3, 15, 21, 252 Antarctica 73 desert 161, 162 global warming 236 mountain 116, 121, 127 rainforest 134, 138, 139, 141 Prime Meridian 25, 36 producer 133, 142 pyramidal peak 116, 117, 127 pyroclast 114, 115 quota 179, 202
rainfall 21, 23, 121, 261 convectional 137 desert 163 rainforest 134, 135, 138, 139 rainforest 134 cloud 134 ecosystem 140 layers 141, 142 lowland 134 montane 134 perspective 330 swamp 134 temperate 133, 134 threats 1545 tropical 133, 134, 326, 327 Rapa Nui National Park 46 ratify 229, 241, 305, 322 rattlesnake 169 recharge 247, 252 refugee camps 299 reindeer 63, 64, 67 relative humidity 3, 21 relative relief 105, 106 relief 12 repatriate 305, 321 resources distribution 307 ecological sustainability 214, 286, 328 natural 205, 212, 328 non-renewable 205 renewable 205, 213, 229 urbanisation 274 Richter scale 112 Ring of Fire 112 river 326, 327 River Seine 46 roadrunner 168 Rub al-Khali 159, 164 rural 267 push factor 267, 273 urban migration 267, 273, 280, 281 Russia 62, 67, 70, 71 Rwanda 308 Sagarmatha National Park 47 Sahara Desert 159, 164, 171, 175 salinity 157, 171, 247, 261, 285, 2945 dryland 285, 294 irrigation 2945 Sami people, Spmi 58, 624, 667 cultural change 667, 69 reindeer 67 resources 634 self-determination 57, 701 tourism 68 sample 19 San Francisco, United States 269
sanitation 205, 216, 247, 258 San of the Kalahari people, Kalahari Desert 170, 1723, 174 Sao Paulo, Brazil 16, 269, 279 Spmi, Northern Europe 62 satellite 183 saturated zone 247, 2523 scald 285, 294 scale 10 seahorse 91 seal 745 seasons 34, 138 Seattle, United States 269 sedentary farming 325 seismic waves 112 self-determination see Sami people, Spmi Serengeti National Park, Tanzania 47, 3379 settlement 3, 16, 268 Seven Wonders of the Ancient World 6 shading 12 shanty town 209, 267, 278 Sherpa people, Nepal 126, 12830 culture 130 environment 1267, 128 farming 128 tourism 129, 130 Singapore 268 slum 267, 278, 281, 283 spot height 12 squatter settlement 205, 209, 267, 278, 283 soil 285 degradation 286, 287, 2889 desert 164 erosion 2901 solstice 34, 59 South Africa 312 South America 26, 317 South Asia 312, 315, 317 Southern Hemisphere 34, 336 Southern Ocean 26, 72, 73 South Pole 32, 36, 58, 72, 116, 230 storm 163 Sturts Stony Desert 164 subduction zone 109, 111, 114 subsidiary 179, 193 subsidy 179, 202 subsistence 157, 170 subtropical 157, 161 survey 19 sustainable 133, 148, 157 development 250 ecological 286 living 173, 242 sweatshop 179, 1989 Sweden 62, 67, 69, 70, 71
349
Sydney Opera House 45 symbiotic relationship 83, 86, 90, 100, 167 symbol 12 synoptic chart 83, 98 Syrian Desert 164 taiga 57, 601 Taj Mahal, India 46 tariff 179, 202 Taureg people, Sahara Desert 175 Taylor, Thomas Grifth 5 technology 180 communication 182, 192 computers 186 transport 188 tectonic forces 116, 126 temperature 3, 21, 134, 261 desert 161 global warming 236 inversion 120 range 229, 230 Texas, United States 221 Thailand 240 threatened species 325, 332, 334, 3423 Tierras Bajas, Bolivia 17 tilt 229, 232 time zones 367, 39 Tokyo, Japan 16, 276, 278 Torres Strait Islander people, Torres Strait Island 96 tourism 92, 1223, 151, 171, 189, 329 trade 179, 180 air transport 189 practice 202 shipping 1889 transhumance 105, 128 transnational corporation (TNC) 179, 269, 307 globalisation 180, 1924, 200 sport 196, 198 transpiration 15 treaty 57 Antarctic 80 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 44, 332 Convention on Biological Diversity 332 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 102, 325, 332, 341 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Life Resources (CCAMLR) 80 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 314, 315, 318 Kyoto Protocol 241 World Heritage Convention 102
tributary 133 Tropics 161 of Cancer 134, 135 of Capricorn 134, 135 tsunami 329 tundra 57, 601 Turkey 265 Tuvalu 240 understorey 141, 142 Unesco 25, 44, 46 United Arab Emirates 321 United Nations (UN) 222, 268, 305 climate change 242 human rights 312, 322 Kyoto Protocol 241 land degradation 303 poverty 226 urbanisation 268, 272, 279 water 250 United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) 316, 317, 321 United States 255, 274 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 306, 307, 308, 312, 322 unsaturated zone 247, 2523 uranium 213 urban 267, 268 development 329 pull factor 273 sprawl 267, 274 urbanisation 247, 250, 267, 2723, 278 Mexico City, Mexico 283 Mumbai, India 280 trafc 2745 waste management 275 Uros people, Lake Titicaca 123 U-shaped valley 105, 116, 117 Uttar Pradesh, India 220 Vatican City, Rome, Italy 268 vegetation 134, 139 Venezuela rainforest 134 Venice, Italy 49 Vietnam 310 Vikings 66 volcano 105, 107, 112, 233, 329 Decade Volcano project 115 types of 114 von Humboldt, Alexander 5 vulnerable species 325 wadi 157, 162, 163, 164 war 2989 water 2067 basic needs 248 conict 2645 cycle 3, 1415, 251 disease 2589
ground 254, 256 logging 285, 295 scarcity 250 table 247, 285 Waugh, Steve 225 weather 20, 229, 329 weathering 285, 288 weather station 20 Wegener, Alfred 108 Weipa, Cape York Peninsula 297 Western Desert 164 Western Hemisphere 36 wetland 326, 327 wilderness 57, 72, 76, 80, 151 wildlife trade 325, 329 wind 161, 164 direction 3, 22, 23 power 213 speed 3, 22, 23 whale baleen 745 toothed 745 women, status 210 world city 267 World Health Organization (WHO) 247, 257 World Heritage Agreement 332 World Heritage Sites 424, 95, 146, 151, 334 bodies responsible for 44 criteria 25, 467 in danger 48 process 44 World Vision 227 World Wildlife Fund 333 xerophyte 157, 166 Yanomami people, Amazon rainforest 1445 zoological parks 334 zooplankton 83, 86 zooxanthellae 83, 86, 100
350

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Geography

Investigating the world

3.9 Protecting Antarctica

Changing global relationships 178

8.10 Globalisationwinners and losers

Global issues and the role of citizenship

Geography Focus 1 Coursebook

pP rou (a d ivision lia G of Pearson Austra

Geography Focus 1 Companion Website

Geography Focus 1 Teachers Edition

c Ray Handley Glyn Trethewy Helen McIsaa van Zuylen

ion CD with Teachers Edit ing programs ble teach

Human elements of the environment

Work, employment and enterprise

in? 9 Which place would you most like to live

Quality teaching and learning

pP rou (a d ivision lia G of Pearson Austra

Unlocking the world

16 Geography Focus Chapter 8 Changing Global Relationships

Chapter 1 Unlocking the world 17

For more information on the Geography Focus series, visit

1.24 The pin-wheel settlement pattern of Tierras Bajas, Bolivia

How to use this book

Graphs and statistics

Geography Focus 1 addresses the content,

Graphs and statistics

7.22 The sidewinder rattlesnake

178E Vanua Labasa Levu

Nabouwalu Koro Ellington Ovalau Koro Levuka Nausori Gau SUVA

e Passag avu K ad Vunisea Kadavu 178E

Legend Capital city town or city

country name or state name page number

alphanumeric grid reference latitude longitude

2.24 How to read the index

Using the index

2.25 Part of the N section in an atlas index

Snapshots incorporate high-interest items to illustrate aspects of the text.

Genocide of the Hmong people

CAMBODIA Phnom Penh

Case studies are treated in depth as unit topic spreads.

15.27 The female ring tailed lemur is dominant in the group.

40E Comoros Islands

Key capital city town road 200 km

THREATS TO LEMUR SPECIES

340 Geography Focus 1

Syllabus correlation grids

STAGE 4 MANDATORY OUTCOMES

Focus Areas (chapters)

4.4 4.5 4.6

4.7 4.8 4.9

Content: In working towards Stage 4 outcomes, students learn to:

Geography Focus 1 unit number

Graphs and Statistics

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICT)

INVESTIGATING THE WORLD

Unlocking the world

The nature of Geography

1.1 Geography is everywhere.

KEY GEOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONS