Vogel's Qualitative Inorganic Analysis PDF

Vogel's Qualitative Inorganic Analysis
Seventh Edition Revised by G. Svehla PhD, DSC, FRSC formerly Professor of Analytical Chemistry. University Col/ege. Cork
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Addison Wesley Longman Ltd Edinburgh Gate, Harlow Essex CM20 21E, England and Associated Companies throughout the world
Longman Group Limited 1979, 1987, 1996

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the Publishers or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd., 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WI P 9HE. Trademarks Throughout this book trademarked names are used. Rather than put a trademark symbol in every occurrence of a trademarked name, we state that we are using the names only in editorial fashion and to the benefit of the trademark owner with no intention of infringement of the trademark. First published under the title A Text-book of Qualitative Chemical Analysis 1937 Second edition 1941 Reissue with Appendix 1943 Third edition under the title A Text-book of Qualitative Chemical Analysis including Semimicro Qualitative Analysis 1945 Fourth edition under the title A Text-book of Macro and Semimicro Qualitative Inorganic Analysis 1954 Fifth edition 1979 Sixth edition under the title Vogel's Qualitative Inorganic Analysis 1987 Seventh edition 1996 Reprinted 1997 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this title is available from the British Library. ISBN 0-582-21866-7 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog entry for this title is available from the Library of Congress.
Set by 22 in 10/12pt Times Produced by Longman Singapore Publishers (Pte) Ltd. Printed in Singapore
Contents
Preface to seventh edition From preface to the first edition From preface to the fifth edition From preface to the sixth edition
ix x x xi
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7
Introduction Experimental techniques Introduction Dry tests Wet reactions; macro apparatus and analytical operations on a macro scale Semimicro apparatus and semimicro analytical operations Micro apparatus and microanalytical operations Spot test analysis Detection of metals by flame atomic spectrometric methods
3
3 4 15 23 39 45 54
Chapter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7
Reactions of the cations Classification of cations (metal ions) in analytical groups Notes on the study of the reactions of ions First group of cations: lead(II), mercury(IL and silver(l) Lead, Pb (A,: 207.19) Mercury, Hg (A,: 200.59) - mercury(l) Silver, Ag (A,: 107.868) Second group of cations: mercury(IIL lead(IIL bismuth(lliL copper(II), cadmium(IIL arsenic(III) and (VL antimony(III) and (VL and tin(II) and (IV) Mercury, Hg (A,: 200.59) - mercury(II) Bismuth, Bi (A,: 208.98) Copper, Cu (A,: 63.55) Cadmium, Cd (A,: 112.40) Arsenic, As (A,: 74.92) - arsenic(III) Arsenic, As (A,: 74.92) - arsenic(V) Special tests for small amounts of arsenic
59
59 60 61 62 67 71 76
3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14
77
79 83 88 91 93 95
3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20
3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 3.38
Antimony, Sb (Ar: 121.75) - antimony(llI) Antimony, Sb (Ar: 121.75) - antimony(V) Special tests for small amounts of antimony Tin, Sn (Ar: 118.69) - tin (II) Tin, Sn (Ar: 118.69) - tin(IV) Third group of cations: iron(ll) and (III). aluminium(III), chromium(lll) and (VI), nickel(ll). cobalt(ll). manganese(lI) and (VII). and zinc(lI) Iron, Fe (Ar: 55.85) - iron(ll) Iron, Fe (Ar: 55.85) - iron(lll) Aluminium, AI (Ar: 26.98) Chromium, Cr (Ar: 51.996) - chromium(lIl) Oxoanions of Group III metals: chromate and permanganate Cobalt, Co (Ar: 58.93) Nickel, Ni (Ar: 58.71) Manganese, Mn (Ar: 54.938) - manganese(lI) Zinc; Zn (Ar: 63.38) Fourth group of cations: barium(ll). strontium(II), and calcium(lI) Barium, Ba (Ar: 137.34) Strontium, Sr (Ar: 87.62) Calcium, Ca (Ar: 40.08) Fifth group of cations: magnesium(II), sodium(I), potassium(I), and ammonium(l) Magnesium, Mg (Ar: 24.305) Potassium, K (Ar: 39.098) Sodium, Na (Ar: 22.99) Ammonium, NHt (M r: 18.038)
99 102 104 104 107 108
109 113 118 122 127 127 131 135 139 143 144 147 149 152 152 156 159 160
Chapter 4
Reactions of the anions Scheme of classification Carbonates, CO~Hydrogen carbonates, HC03' Sulphites, SO~Thiosulphates, S20~Sulphides, S2Nitrites, N02' Cyanides, CNCyanates, OCNThiocyanates, SCNHexacyanoferrate(ll) ions, [Fe(CNl6l4Hexacyanoferrate(lll) ions, [Fe(CN)6l 3 Hypochlorites, OCIChlorides, CIBromides, BrIodides, 1Fluorides, F-
163
163 164 166 168 171 174 176 179 181 182 185 187 188 190 192 195 198
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17
4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38 4.39 4.40 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.44
Chapter 5
Nitrates, N0 3 Chlorates, CI0 3 Bromates, Br03 Iodates, 10 3 Perchlorates, CI0 4 Borates, BO~-, B40~-, B02' Sulphates, SO~Peroxodisulphates, S20~Silicates, SiO~2Hexafluorosilicates (silicofluorides), [SiF 61 Orthophosphates, PO~Pyrophosphates, P20~-, and metaphosphates, P0 3 Phosphites, H PO~Hypophosphites, H 2P02' Arsenites, AsO~-, and arsenates, AsO~Chromates, CrO~-, and dichromates, Cr20~Permanganates, Mn04 Acetates, CH 3 COOFormates, HCOOOxalates, (COO)~Tartrates, C4H40~Citrates, C6H50~Salicylates, C6H 4(OH)COO- or C7 H5Oi Benzoates, C6H5COO- or C7 H502' Succinates, C4H4 O~Hydrogen peroxide, H 20 2 (the per hydroxyl ion, OOH-) Dithionites, S20~-
199 202 204 206 207 208 211 214 215 217 218 221 221 223 224 224 228 229 232 234 236 239 240 242 243 244 247 249 249 249 250 252 253 254 256 258 265 274 274 274 276 276
Selected tests and separations I ntrod uction Preliminary tests on liquid samples (samples in solution) Preliminary tests on non-metallic solid samples Preliminary tests on metal samples Dissolution of the sample Examination of the insoluble residue Testing for a single cation in solution Separation and identification of cations in mixtures Special tests for mixtures of anions
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9

Chapter 6
Reactions of some less common ions I ntrod uction Thallium, TI (Ar: 204.34) - thallium(l) Thallium, TI (Ar: 204.34) - thallium(III) Tungsten, W (Ar: 183.85) - tungstate
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4
6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14
6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23
6.24
Separation and identification of Group I cations in the presence of thallium and tungsten Molybdenum, Mo (Ar: 95.94) - molybdate Gold, Au (Ar: 196.97) - gold(lIl) Platinum, Pt (Ar: 195.09) Palladium, Pd (Ar: 106.4) Selenium, Se (Ar: 78.96) - selenites, SeO~ Selenium, Se (Ar: 78.96) - selenates, SeO~ Tellurium, Te (Ar: 127.60) - tellurites, TeO~ Tellurium, Te (Ar: 127.60) - tellurates, TeO~Separation and identification of Group II cations in the presence of molybdenum, gold, platinum, palladium, selenium, and tellurium Vanadium, V (Ar: 50.94) - vanadate Beryllium, Be (Ar: 9.01 ) Titanium, Ti (Ar: 47.90) - titanium(IV) Zirconium, Zr (Ar: 91.22) Uranium, U (Ar: 238.03) Thorium, Th (Ar: 232.04) Cerium, Ce (A,: 140.12) - cerium(llI) Cerium, Ce (A,: 140.12) - cerium(IV) Separation of Group III cations in the presence of titanium, zirconium, thorium, uranium, cerium, vanadium, thallium, and molybdenum Lithium, Li (A,: 6.94)
278 278 281 283 285 287 288 289 290 291
293 296 298 300 303 304 306 307 308
310
Appendix Index
313 334
Preface to the seventh edition
The seventh edition of Vogel's Qualitative Inorganic Analysis contains some new material, which has been added in response to readers' comments. First of all, Chapter 5 was extended to include more on preliminary tests, dissolution and fusion of samples. This will help users who wish to tackle real samples - industrial, agricultural, environmental, etc. Furthermore, atomic spectrometric tests have been added to the reactions of metal ions, as the necessary instrumentation is nowadays commonly found in laboratories; testing for metals in this way can be carried out quickly and reliably. Only the essential details are given - fuel, wavelength, light source as well as preparation of standards. It was felt necessary to add a short section on the theory and instrumentation of atomic spectrometry. A number of health and hazard warnings have also been included. Nomenclature (especially that of organic reagents) has been modified so that readers should be able to find such chemicals in modern catalogues. Figures have been updated, though I was reluctant to change them to show only full-glass apparatus (as some have suggested), because this can be quite expensive and beyond the budgets of certain users. Instead, I have given information on commercially available all-glass devices in the text. To save space, preparations of reagents have been removed from the main text; the reader will find them in the Appendix. I have also added comments in the margins, highlighting the most important facts and points described in the adjoining text. Hopefully, all these additions will enhance the practical value of the book, which first appeared about sixty years ago. I would like to acknowledge many friends and students for their helpful suggestions. I am especially indebted to Dr Colin Graham (Birmingham) and to Mr Alan Robinson (Belfast) for reading and correcting the manuscript. Two postgraduate students in Cork, Miss Drewan McCaul and Mr Ronan Ennis, have carried out most of the atomic spectrometric tests experimentally; I wish to thank them for their efforts and I hope they will find the experience useful in their professional life. As in the past, any suggestions for improvement will be welcomed by the revisor. G. Svehla 1996. Department of Chemistry University College Cork Ireland
From preface to the first edition (1937)

Experience of teaching qualitative analysis over a number of years to large numbers of students has provided the nucleus around which this book has been written. The ultimate object was to provide a text-book at moderate cost which can be employed by the student continuously throughout his study of the subject. It is the author's opinion that the theoretical basis of qualitative analysis, often neglected or very sparsely dealt with in the smaller texts, merits equally detailed treatment with the purely practical side; only in this way can the true spirit of qualitative analysis be acquired. The book accordingly opens with a long Chapter entitled 'The Theoretical Basis of Qualitative Analysis', in which most of the theoretical principles which find application in the science are discussed. The writer would be glad to hear from teachers and others of any errors which may have escaped his notice: any suggestions whereby the book can be improved will be welcomed. A. I. Vogel Woolwich Polytechnic London S.E.18
From preface to the fifth edition (1979)

Vogel's Qualitative Inorganic Analysis has been in continuous use in universities and polytechnics since its first publication in 1937. The fourth edition has now been in use for more than twenty years, and it was therefore considered appropriate to prepare a new one. Since Dr Vogel died in 1966, the publishers asked me to prepare this new edition. When undertaking the enormous task, I wanted to preserve all that made this popular book so good: the detailed theoretical introduction, the well illustrated laboratory instructions and the rich selection of reactions. Nevertheless, because of the age of the text and changes in emphasis and style of the teaching of qualitative inorganic analysis, some rather drastic changes have had to be made. When launching this new edition I would like to repeat what the ~uthor said in the first edition: any suggestions whereby the book can be improved will be welcomed. G. Svehla Department of Chemistry Queen's University Belfast, N. Ireland
From preface to the sixth edition (1987)

Previous editions of Vogel's Qualitative Inorganic Analysis were used mainly as university textbooks.... With the advent of more complex, mainly instrumental techniques, teaching of the reactions of ions and traditional qualitative analysis has moved from the classroom almost entirely into the laboratory. When preparing the sixth edition, this fact had to be taken into consideration. The new edition is aimed more to be a laboratory manual than a textbook. With this aim in mind, the text has been rearranged and shortened. Furthermore, dangerous experiments and those involving carcinogenic materials have been removed. G. Svehla Department of Chemistry University College Cork Ireland
Chapter 1
Introduction
-.,eoretical background
The purpose of chemical analysis is to establish the composition of naturally occurring or artificially manufactured substances. This is usually done in two distinct steps. First, qualitative analysis is used to identify the sample components. This is followed with quantitative analysis, by which the relative amounts of these components are determined. The present book describes the traditional methods of qualitative inorganic analysis. These can be divided broadly into two categories: dry tests which are carried out on solid samples, usually at higher temperatures; and, more commonly, wet reactions involving dissolved samples and reagent solutions. The chemical change (or its absence) is observed and used for the elucidation of sample composition. In order to be able to do such analyses it is essential to study these reactions in a systematic way. Chapter 2 describes the laboratory equipment and skills necessary for such tests. Chapter 3 contains the reactions of the most common cations, while in Chapter 4 those of the most common anions are introduced with some explanations. Once the reader is familiar with these, he/she can attempt analyses of unknown samples, as described in Chapter 5. The book is concluded with the reactions of the less common ions (Chapter 6). It must be emphasized that the study of 'classical' qualitative inorganic analysis is invaluable for any intending chemist, as this is where he/she first comes across and handles materials which are discussed in the traditional courses of inorganic chemistry. After a few weeks spent in the qualitative analytical laboratory the young chemists become familiar with solids, liquids, gases, acids, bases, salts - the bread and butter of every chemist's knowledge and skills. The intelligent study of qualitative inorganic analysis requires a certain level of theoretical background in general and inorganic chemistry. These, being taught in the introductory courses of chemistry at colleges and universities, will not be described here. Such a background involves chemical symbols, formulae, equations; theory of electrolytes, equilibria in electrolyte solutions; acid-base theory, strength of acids, pH, buffer systems, hydrolysis; morphology and structure of precipitates and colloids, precipitation equilibria; formation, structure and stability of complexes; balancing redox equations, redox potentials; the principles of solvent extraction and the distribution law. These are described to the necessary extent in most introductory chemistry texts and also in the first chapter of the 5th Edition of this book. I
I Vogel's Textbook of Macro and Semimicro Qualitative Inorganic Analysis (5th edn) . revised by G. Svehla. Longman 1979.
1.1
Introduction
Warning on hazards
Users of this book should be aware of the fact that almost all the reagents involved in qualitative inorganic analysis are poisonous, and some of the operations can be dangerous. It should be remembered that samples themselves often contain substances which are environmentally hazardous. It is important to consult appropriate safety legislation that is extant in your country. This normally relates not only to the use of certain toxic substances but also to their labelling and storage. The disposal of waste solutions must also be given serious consideration. In many countries there are special regulations governing the acquisition and disposal of radioactive materials (among which uranium and thorium are mentioned in this book). When special care is needed (e.g. handling cyanides, compounds of mercury, cadmium and arsenic and working with hydrogen sulphide) a warning is included in the text. Students and experienced chemists alike should always follow good laboratory practice (GLP), work in tidy, clean, well-lit laboratories. If necessary or if in doubt one must use fume cupboards with good ventilation. Safety glasses must be worn at all times and in many cases suitable gloves should be used. A person should never work alone in a laboratory, especially beyond normal working hours. Students must be supervised during practicals by adequately trained personnel. It is worthwhile to spend some time at the beginning of a practical course on explaining safety measures in the laboratory, including practice with fire extinguishers. It is prudent to keep a written record of such safety courses, with participants acknowledging by their signature that they have attended.
Chapter 2
Experimental techniques
2.1
Introduction
Advantages of semimicro scale
Although it is assumed that the reader is familiar with basic laboratory operations such as dissolution, evaporation, crystallization, distillation, precipitation, filtration, decantation, bending of glass tubes, preparation of ignition tubes, boring of corks, etc., a brief discussion of those laboratory operations which are of special importance in qualitative inorganic analysis, will be given here. Qualitative analysis may be carried out on various scales. In macro analysis the quantity of the substance employed is 0.1 to 0.5 g and the volume taken for analysis is about 20 ml. In what is usually termed semimicro analysis these quantities are reduced by a factor of 10-20, i.e. about 0.05 g material and 1 ml solution are employed. For micro analysis the factor is of the order of 100-200. The special operations needed for semimicro and micro work will be discussed in somewhat more detail, together with the apparatus needed to perform these. It must be said that the semimicro scale is most appropriate/or the study 0/ qualitative inorganic analysis; some of the special advantages being as follows: (a) Reduced consumption of chemicals with a considerable saving in the laboratory budget. (b) The greater speed of analysis, due to working with smaller quantities of materials and the saving of time in carrying out the various standard operations of filtration, washing, evaporation, saturation with hydrogen sulphide, etc. (c) Increased sharpness of separation, e.g. washing of precipitates, can be carried out rapidly and efficiently when a centrifuge replaces a filter. (d) The amount of hydrogen sulphide used is considerably reduced. (e) Much space is saved both on the reagent shelves and more especially in the lockers provided immediately below the bench for the housing of the individual person's apparatus; this latter merit may be turned to good use by reducing the size of the bench lockers considerably and thus effectively increasing the accommodation of the laboratory. (f) The desirability of securing a training in the manipulation of small amounts of material. Macro, semimicro and micro procedures will be discussed separately in this book to cater for all requirements. The readers should familiarize themselves first with macro operations, even if they adopt the semi micro
3
2.2
scale throughout. It may be said that when the general technique of semimicro analysis has been mastered and appreciated, no serious difficulty should be encountered in adapting a macro procedure to the semi micro scale. Among micro scale operations, spot tests are of special importance; for this reason these will be described in a separate section. Qualitative analysis utilizes two kinds of tests, dry tests and wet reactions. The former are applicable to solid substances, while the latter apply to solutions. We begin with the discussion of the most important dry tests.
2.2
Dry tests
A number of useful tests can be carried out in the dry, that is before dissolving the sample for wet analysis. The information obtained in a comparatively short time often provides a clue to the presence or absence of certain substances. With this knowledge the course of wet analysis may be modified and shortened. Instructions for some important dry tests are given below.
Heating
Subl imation
Colour change Gases
I. Heating the substance is placed in a small ignition tube (bulb tube), prepared from soft glass tubing, and heated in a Bunsen flame, gently at first and then more strongly. Small test-tubes, 60-70 mm x 7-8 mm, which are readily obtainable and are cheap, may also be employed. Sublimation may take place, or the material may melt or may decompose with an attendant change in colour, or a gas may be evolved which can be recognized by certain characteristic properties. Sublimation yields a deposit of solid substance in the upper, colder parts of the test-tube. A white deposit occurs if ammonium salts, mercury(l) or mercury(lI) chloride, or arsenic(III), antimony(III) or selenium(lV) oxides are present. A yellow deposit originates from sulphur, arsenic(III) sulphide and mercury(l) or (II) iodide. The deposit can be black if mercury(I) or (II) sulphides are present, and a metallic deposit may occur as the result of decomposition of other mercury salts, amalgams, arsenic(III) and cadmium compounds. Colour change can occur, usually indicating decomposition. The most common changes are associated with the removal of water of crystallization. Gases produced may be colourless or coloured, occasionally with a characteristic smell. They can be identified with appropriate reagents, as described later under the reactions of cations and anions. Carbon dioxide can form if certain carbonates or organic materials are present. Sulphur dioxide can result when heating sulphites, thiosulphates or sulphides. Chlorine occurs if certain chlorides (e.g. magnesium chloride) are heated, while bromine or iodine can be formed when heating bromides or iodides in the presence of oxidizing agents. Nitrates yield nitrogen dioxide; formates and oxalates, carbon monoxide. Heating cyanides yields cyanogen. When heating ammonium salts mixed with alkalis, ammonia can occur. Oxygen is obtained if chi orates, perchlorates, bromates or iodates are heated.
Dry tests
2.2
Reducing
Fig. 2.1
Blowpipe tests
2. Blowpipe tests a luminous Bunsen flame (air holes completely closed), about 5 cm long, is employed for these tests. A reducing flame is produced by placing the nozzle of a mouth blowpipe just outside the flame, and blowing gently so as to cause the inner cone to play on the substance under examination. An oxidizing flame is obtained by holding the nozzle of the blowpipe about one-third within the flame and blowing somewhat more vigorously in a direction parallel with the burner top; the extreme tip of the flame is allowed to play upon the substance. Figure 2.1 illustrates the oxidizing and reducing flames. The tests are carried out upon a clean charcoal block in which a small cavity has been made with a penknife or with a small coin. A little of the substance is placed in the cavity and heated in the oxidizing flame. Crystalline salts break into smaller pieces; burning indicates the presence of an oxidizing agent (nitrate, nitrite, chlorate, etc.). More frequently the powdered substance is mixed with twice its bulk of anhydrous sodium carbonate or, preferably, with 'fusion mixture' (an equimolecular mixture of sodium and potassium carbonates; this has a lower melting point than sodium carbonate alone) in a reducing flame. The initial reaction consists of the formation of the carbonates of the cations present and the alkali salts of the anions. The alkali salts are largely adsorbed by the porous charcoal, and the carbonates are, for the most part, decomposed into the oxides and carbon dioxide. The oxides of the metals may further decompose, or be reduced to the metals, or they may remain unchanged. The final products of the reaction are therefore either the metals alone, metals and their oxides, or oxides. The oxides of the noble metals (silver and gold) are decomposed, without the aid of the charcoal, to the metal, which is often obtained as a globule, and oxygen. The oxides of lead, copper, bismuth, antimony, tin, iron, nickel, and cobalt are reduced either to a fused metallic globule (lead, bismuth, tin, and antimony) or to a sintered mass (copper) or to glistening metallic fragments (iron, nickel, and cobalt). The oxides of cadmium, arsenic, and zinc are readily reduced to the metal, but these are so volatile that they vaporize and are carried from the reducing to the oxidizing zone of the flame, where they are converted into sparingly volatile oxides. The oxides thus formed are deposited as an incrustation round the cavity of the charcoal block. Zinc yields an incrustation which is yellow while hot and white when cold; that of cadmium is brown and is moderately volatile; that of arsenic is
5
2.2
Bunsen flame
c
1 O ' r - - - - Upper oxidizing zone (d)
fOlr-+--- Upper reducing zone
(e)
r + - - - Hottest portion of flame (b) 0 - - - Lower oxidizing zone (c) C H - - - Lower reducing zone (f)
1:)----
Lower temperature zone (a)
Fig. 2.2
white and is accompanied by a garlic odour due to the volatilization of the arsenic. A characteristic incrustation accompanies the globules of lead, bismuth, and antimony. The oxides of aluminium, calcium, strontium, barium, and magnesium are not reduced by charcoal; they are infusible and glow brightly when strongly heated. If the white residue or white incrustation left on a charcoal block is treated with a drop of cobalt nitrate solution and again heated, a bright-blue colour, which probably consists of either a compound or a solid solution of cobalt(II) and aluminium oxides (Thenard's blue), indicates the presence of aluminium;! a pale-green colour, probably of similar composition (Rinmann's green), is indicative of zinc oxide; and a pale pink mass is formed when magnesium oxide is present.
Flame tests on dry samples
3. Flame tests in order to understand the operations involved in the flame colour tests and the various bead tests to be described subsequently, it is necessary to have some knowledge of the structure of the non-luminous Bunsen flame (Fig. 2.2). The non-luminous Bunsen flame consist of thee parts: (I) an inner blue cone ADB cor.sisting largely of unburnt gas; (2) a luminous tip at D (this is only visible when the air holes are slightly closed); and (3) an outer mantle ACBD in which complete combustion of the gas occurs. The principal parts of the flame, according to Bunsen, are clearly indicated in Fig. 2.2. The lowest temperature is at the base of the flame (a); this is employed for testing volatile substances to determine whether they impart any colour to the flame. The hottest part of the flame is the fusion zone at b and lies at about one-third of the height of the flame and approximately equidistant
I
A blue colour is also given by phosphates, arsenates, silicates, or. borates.
Dry tests
2.2
from the outside and inside of the mantle; it is employed for testing the fusibility of substances, and also, in conjunction with a, in testing the relative volatilities of substances or of a mixture of substances. The lower oxidizing zone (c) is situated on the outer border of b and may be used for the oxidation of substances dissolved in beads of borax, sodium carbonate, or microcosmic salt. The upper oxidizing zone (d) consists of the nonluminous tip of the flame; here a large excess of oxygen is present and the flame is not so hot as at c. It may be used for all oxidation processes in which the highest temperature is not required. The upper reducing zone (e) is at the tip of the inner blue cone and is rich in incandescent carbon; it is especially useful for reducing oxide incrustations to the metal. The lower reducing zone (/) is situated in the inner edge of the mantle next to the blue cone and it is here that the reducing gases mix with the oxygen of the air; it is a less powerful reducing zone than e, and may be employed for the reduction of fused borax and similar beads. We can now return to the flame tests. Compounds of certain metals are volatilized in a non-luminous Bunsen flame and impart characteristic colours to the flame. The chlorides are among the most volatile compounds, and these are prepared in situ by mixing the compound with a little concentrated hydrochloric acid before 9lrrying out the tests. The procedure is as follows. A thin platinum wire about 5 cm long and 0.03-0.05 mm diameter, fused into the end of a short piece of glass tubing or glass rod which serves as a handle, is employed. This is first thoroughly cleaned by dipping it into concentrated hydrochloric acid contained in a watch glass and then heating it in the fusion zone (b) of the Bunsen flame; the wire is clean when it imparts no colour to the flame. The wire is dipped into concentrated hydrochloric acid on a watch glass, then into a little of the substance being investigated so that a little adheres to the wire. It is then introduced into the lower oxidizing zone (c), and the colour imparted to the flame observed. Less volatile substances are heated in the fusion zone (b); in this way it is possible to make use of the difference in volatilities for the separation of the constituents of a mixture. The colours imparted to the flame by salts of different metals are shown in Table 2.1. Carry out flame tests with the chlorides of sodium, potassium, calcium, strontium, and barium and record the colours you observe. Repeat the test
Table 2.1
applications . o-'? tests
-~
Flame tests
Observation Caused by
Persistent golden-yellow flame Violet (lilac) flame Carmine-red flame Brick-red (yellowish) flame Crimson flame Yellowish-green flame Green flame Blue flame (wire slowly corroded)
Sodium Potassium Lithium Calcium Strontium Barium, molybdenum Borates, copper, thallium Lead, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, copper
2.2
Table 2.2
The cobalt glass absorbs radiation from Na
Flame tests with cobalt glass

Flame colouration Flame colouration through cobalt glass Caused by
Golden-yellow Violet Brick-red Crimson Yellowish-green
Nil Crimson Light-green Purple Bluish-green
Sodium Potassium Calcium Strontium Barium
with a mixture of sodium and potassium chlorides. The yellow colouration due to the sodium masks that of the potassium. View the flame through two thicknesses of cobalt glass; the yellow sodium colour is absorbed and the potassium flame appears crimson. Potassium chloride is much more volatile than the chlorides of the alkaline earth metals. It is therefore possible to detect potassium in the lower oxidizing flame and the calcium, strontium, and barium in the fusion zone. Repeat all the tests with a cobalt glass and note your observations. Table 2.2 indicates the results to be expected. After all the tests, the platinum wue should be cleaned with concentrated hydrochloric acid. It is a good plan to store the wire permanently in the acid. A cork is selected that just fits into a test-tube, and a hole is bored through the cork through which the glass holder of the platinum wire is passed. The testtube is about half filled with concentrated hydrochloric acid so that when the cork is placed in position, the platinum wire is immersed in the acid. A platinum wire sometimes acquires a deposit which is removed with difficulty by hydrochloric acid and heat. It is then best to employ fused potassium hydrogen sulphate. A coating of potassium hydrogen sulphate is made to adhere to the wire by drawing the hot wire across a piece of the solid salt. Upon passing the wire slowly through a flame, the bead of potassium pyrosulphate which forms travels along the wire, dissolving the contaminating deposits. When cool, the bead is readily dislodged. Any small residue of pyrosulphate dissolves at once in water, whilst the last traces are usually removed by a single moistening with concentrated hydrochloric acid, followed by heating. The resulting bright clean platinum wire imparts no colour to the flame.
4. Spectroscopic tests (flame spectra) the best way to employ flame tests in analysis is to resolve the light into its component tints and to identify the cations present by their characteristic sets of tints. The instrument employed to resolve light into its component colours is called a spectroscope. A simple form is shown in Fig. 2.3. It consists of a collimator A which throws a beam of parallel rays on the prism B, mounted on a turntable; the telescope C through which the spectrum is observed; and a tube D, which contains a scale of reference lines which may be superimposed upon the spectrum. The spectroscope is calibrated by observing the spectra of known substances, such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride, thallium chloride, and lithium chloride. The conspicuous lines are located on a graph drawn
The spectroscope
Dry tests
2.2
Components of a spectroscope: collimator (A) prism (B) telescope (C) scale (D)
Fig. 2.3
with wavelengths as ordinates and sdtle divisions as abscissae. The wavelength curve may then be employed in obtaining the wavelength of all intermediate positions and also in establishing the identity of the component elements of a mixture. To adjust the simple table spectroscope described above (which is always mounted on a rigid stand), a lighted Bunsen burner is placed in front of the collimator A at a distance of about 10 cm from the slit. Some sodium chloride is introduced by means of a clean platinum wire into the lower part of the flame, and the tube containing the adjustable slit rotated until the sodium line, as seen through the telescope C, is in a vertical position. (If available, it is more convenient to employ an electric discharge 'sodium lamp': this constitutes a high-intensity sodium light source.) The sodium line is then sharply focused by suitably adjusting the sliding tubes of the collimator and the telescope. Finally, the scale D is illuminated by placing a small electric lamp in front of it, and the scale sharply focused. The slit should also be made narrow in order that the position of the lines on the scale can be noted accurately. A smaller, relatively inexpensive, and more compact instrument, which is more useful for routine tests in qualitative analysis, is the direct vision spectroscope with comparison prism, shown in Fig. 2.4. The light from the flame passes along the central axis of the instrument through the slit, which is adjustable by a milled knob at the side. When the comparison prism is interposed, half the length of the slit is covered and thus light from a source in a position at right angles to the axis of the instrument will fall on one-half of the slit adjacent to the direct light which enters the other half. This light passes through an achromatic objective lens
9
2.2
A 'pocket" spectroscope
+ - - - - for stand
Clamp
Window
Comparison prism -Light
Adjustable slit ' - - - - - - - - - Objective lens Adjusting ---=----screw Lens focusing for graticule plate
Fig. 2.4
and enters a train of five prisms of the 60 type, three being of crown glass and the alternate two of flint glass. The train of prisms gives an angular dispersion of about 11 between the red and the blue ends of the spectrum. The resulting spectrum, which can be focused by means of a sliding tube adjustment, is observed through the window. There is a subsidiary tube adjacent to the main tube: the former contains a graticule on a glass disc, which is illuminated either from the same source of light as that being observed or from a small subsidiary source (e,g, a flash lamp bulb). It is focused by means of a lens system comprising two achromatic combinations between which is a right angle prism. This prism turns the beam of light so that it falls on the face of the end prism (of the train of five prisms) and is reflected into the observer's eye, where it is seen superimposed upon the spectrum. An adjusting screw is provided to alter the position of the right angle prism in order to adjust the scale relative to the spectrum. The scale is calibrated directly into divisions of 10 nanometers (or 100 A in older instruments) and has also an indication mark at the D-line: it is 'calibrated' by means of a sodium source, and the adjusting screw is locked into position by means of a locking nut. The instrument can be mounted on a special stand. If a sodium compound is introduced into the colourless Bunsen flame, it colours it yellow; if the light is examined by means of a spectroscope, a bright yellow line is visible. By narrowing the slit, two fine yellow lines may be seen. The mean wavelength of these two lines is 5.893 x 10- 7 m. [Wavelengths are generally expressed in nanometers (nm). I nm = 10- 9 m. The old units of angstrom (A, 10- 10 m) and millimicron (m~ = 10-9 m, identical to nm) are now obsolete.] The mean wavelength of the two sodium lines is therefore 589.3 nm. The elements which are usually identified by the
0
10
Dry tests
2.2
Table 2.3
Commonly occurring spectrum lines

Element
Sodium Potassium Lithium Thallium Calcium
Description of liners)
Double yellow Double red Double violet Red Orange (faint) Green Orange band Yellowish-green Violet (faint) Red band Orange Blue Green band Blue (faint)
Wavelength in nm
589.0, 589.6 766.5, 769.9 404.4, 404.7 670.8 610.3 535.0 618.2-620.3 555.4 422.7 674.4, 662.8 606.0 460.7 553.6, 534.7, 524.3, 513.7 487.4
Strontium
Barium
spectroscope in qualitative analysis are: sodium, potassium, lithium, thallium and, less frequently, because of the comparative complexity of their spectra, calcium, strontium, and barium. The wavelengths of the brightest lines, visible through a good-quality direct vision spectroscope, are collected in Table 2.3. As already stated, the spectra of the alkaline earth metals are relatively complex and consist of a number of fine lines; the wavelengths of the brightest of these are given. If the resolution of the spectroscope is small, they will appear as bands. The spectra of the various elements are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2.5; the positions of the lines have been drawn to scale. . Tests for certain metals can be carried out conveniently on solutions using flame atomic emission spectrometry (F AES) or flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS), if the appropriate apparatus is available. These tests will be described under Section 2.7.
Borax bead test
5. Borax bead tests a platinum wire, similar to that referred to under flame tests, is used for the borax bead tests. The free end of the platinum wire is coiled into a small loop through which an ordinary match will barely pass. The loop is heated in the Bunsen flame until it is red hot and then quickly dipped into powdered borax, Na2B407 . lOH 20. The adhering solid is held in the hottest part of the flame; the salt swells up as it loses its water of crystallization and shrinks upon the loop forming a colourless, transparent, glass-like bead consisting of a mixture of sodium metaborate and boric anhydride. 2
Na2B407 = 2NaB0 2 + B20 3

2 Some authors do not recommend the use of a loop on the platinum wire as it is considered that too large a surface of the platinum is thereby exposed. According to their procedure, the alternate dipping into borax and heating is repeated until a bead 1.5-2 mm diameter is obtained. The danger of the bead falling off is reduced by holding the wire horizontally. It is the author's experience that the loop method is far more satisfactory, especially in the hands of beginners, and is less time consuming.
11
2.2
RED
GREEN
BLUE
VIOLET
N'I~", ~ - - r- -r'J"- - T- -I~-r-----r--------==-iJ
KI~f ~
6
::0
ii
V')
Lil ----r--r-
...L...-,----L,l
I -.--:=;-~-----.------r--------il
Ca
f--.--r--..,.I
~:~III~~III----,-------:::r---r---.~I .
I
~~
Fig. 2.5
The bead is moistened and dipped into the finely powdered substance so that a minute amount of it adheres to the bead. It is important to employ a minute amount of substance as otherwise the bead will become dark and opaque in the subsequent heating. The bead and adhering substance are first heated in the lower reducing flame, allowed to cool and the colour observed. They are then heated in the lower oxidizing flame, allowed to cool and the colour observed again.
12
Dry tests
2.2
Characteristic coloured beads are produced with salts of copper, iron, chromium, manganese, cobalt, and nickel. Carry out borax bead tests with salts of these metals and compare results with those given in Chapter 3. After each test, the bead is removed from the wire by heating it again to fusion, and then jerking it off the wire into a vessel of water. The borax bead also provides an excellent method for cleaning a platinum wire; a bead is run backwards and forwards along the wire by heating, and is then shaken off by a sudden jerk. The coloured borax beads are due to the formation of coloured borates; in those cases where different coloured beads are obtained in the oxidizing and the reducing flames, borates corresponding to varying stages of oxidation of the metal are produced. Thus with copper salts in the oxidizing flame, one has:
Chemical reactions in borax bead tests
Na2B407
2NaB0 2 + B20 3
CuO + B20 3 = CU(B02h (copper(II) metaborate) The reaction: CuO + NaB0 2 = NaCuB03 (orthoborate) probably also occurs. In the reducing flame (i.e. in the presence of carbon), two reactions may take place: (1) the coloured copper(II) is reduced to colourless copper(I) metaborate: 2Cu(B02h + 2NaB0 2 + C = 2CuB0 2 + Na2B407
+ COj
(2) the copper(II) borate is reduced to metallic copper, so that the bead appears red and opaque: 2Cu(B02h
+ 4NaB0 2 + 2C =
2Cu + 2Na2B407
+ 2COj
With iron salts, Fe(B02h and Fe(B02h are formed in the reducing and oxidizing flames respectively. Some authors assume that the metal metaborate combines with sodium metaborate to give complex borates of the type Na2[Cu(B02)4], Na2[Ni(B02)4] and Na2[Co(B02)4]: CU(B02h
+ 2NaB0 2 = Na2[Cu(B02)4]
Results obtainable with the borax-bead test are summarized in Table 2.4. In certain circumstances the borax-bead test is inconclusive, but it can be supplemented with the phosphate (or microcosmic salt) bead test (see below).
Microcosmic salt bead test
6. Phosphate (or microcosmic salt) bead tests the bead is produced similarly to the borax bead except that microcosmic salt, sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate tetrahydrate Na(NH 4)HP04 4H 20, is used. The colourless, transparent bead contains sodium metaphosphate: Na(NH 4)HP04 = NaP0 3 + H 20j + NH3 j This combines with metallic oxides forming orthophosphates, which are often coloured. Thus a blue phosphate bead is obtained with cobalt salts: NaP0 3 + CoO = NaCoP0 4
13
2.2
Table 2.4
Colours of borax beads

Oxidizing flame Hot Cold Hot Reducing flame Cold Metal
Green Yellowish-brown Yellow Violet (amethyst) Blue Violet Yellow Rose-violet Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Orange-red
Blue Yellow Green Amethyst Blue Reddish-brown Colourless Rose-violet Colourless Pale yellow Greenish-yellow Colourless Colourless
Colourless Green Green Colourless Blue Grey Brown Red Yellow Green Brownish Grey Colourless
Opaque red-brown Green Green Colourless Blue Grey Brown Violet Yellowish-brown Bottle-green Emerald -green Pale violet Colourless
Copper Iron Chromium Manganese Cobalt Nickel Molybdenum Gold Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Titanium Cerium
The sodium metaphosphate glass exhibits little tendency to combine with acidic oxides. Silica, in particular, is not dissolved by the phosphate bead. When a silicate is strongly heated in the bead, silica is liberated and this remains suspended in the bead in the form of a semi-translucent mass; the so-called silica 'skeleton' is seen in the bead during and after fusion. This reaction is employed for the detection of silicates: CaSi0 3
+ NaP0 3 =
NaCaP0 4 + Si0 2
It must, however, be pointed out that many silicates dissolve completely in
the bead so that the absence of a silica 'skeleton' does not conclusively prove that a silicate is not present. In general, it may be stated that the borax beads are more viscous than the phosphate beads. They accordingly adhere better to the platinum wire loop.
Table 2.5
Microcosmic salt bead tests

Oxidizing flame Reducing flame Metal
Green when hot, blue when cold. Yellowish- or reddish-brown when hot, yellow when cold. Green, hot and cold. Violet,.bot and cold. Blue, hot and cold. Brown, hot and cold. Yellow, hot and cold. Yellow when hot, yellow-green when cold. Pale yellow when hot, colourless when cold. Colourless, hot and cold.
Colourless when hot, red when cold. Yellow when hot, colourless to green when cold. Green, hot and cold. Colourless, hot and cold. Blue, hot and cold. Grey when cold. Green when cold. Green, hot and cold Green when hot, blue a when cold. Yellow when hot, violet" when cold.
Copper Iron Chromium Manganese Cobalt Nickel Vanadium Uranium Tungsten Titanium
" Blood red when fused with a trace of iron(II) sulphate.
14
Wet reactions on macro scale
2.3
The colours of the phosphates, which are generally similar to those of the borax beads, are usually more pronounced. The various colours of the phosphate beads are collected in Table 2.5. 7. Sodium carbonate bead tests the sodium carbonate bead is prepared by fusing a small quantity of sodium carbonate on a platinum wire loop in the Bunsen flame; a white, opaque bead is produced. If this is moistened, dipped into a little potassium nitrate and then into a small quantity of a manganese compound, and the whole heated in the oxidizing flame, a green bead of sodium manganate is formed: MnO + Na2C03
+ O 2 = Na2Mn04 + CO 2i
A yellow bead is obtained with chromium compounds, due to the production of sodium chromate:
2.3
Wet reactions; macro apparatus and analytical operations on a macro scale
Wet reactions are carried out with dissolved substances. Such reactions lead to: (a) the formation of a precipitate; (b) the evolution of a gas; or (c) a change of colour. The majority of reactions in qualitative analysis are carried out in solution, and details of these are given in later chapters. The following general notes on basic laboratory operations should be carefully studied.
Equipment
1. Test-tubes the best size for general use is 15 x 2 cm with 25 ml total capacity. It is useful to remember that 10 ml of liquid fills a test-tube of this size to a depth of about 5.5 cm. Smaller test-tubes are sometimes used for special tests. For heating moderate volumes of liquids a somewhat larger tube, about 18 x 2.5 cm, the so-called 'boiling tube' is recommended. A test-tube brush should be available for cleaning the tubes. 2. Beakers those of 50, 100, and 250 ml capacity and of the Griffin form are the most useful in qualitative analysis. Clock glasses of the appropriate size should be provided. For evaporations and chemical reactions which are likely to become vigorous, the clock glass should be supported on the rim of the beaker by means of V-shaped glass rods. 3. Conical or Erlenmeyer flasks these should be of 50, 100, and 250 ml capacity, and are useful for decompositions and evaporations. The introduction of a funnel, whose stem has been cut off, prevents loss of liquid through the neck of the flask and permits the escape of steam. 4. Stirring rods a length of glass rod, of about 4 mm diameter, is eut into suitable lengths and the ends rounded in the Bunsen flame. The rods should be about 20 em long for use with test-tubes and 8-10 em long for work with basins and small beakers. Open glass tubes must not be used as stirring rods. A rod pointed at one end, prepared by heating a glass rod in
15
2.3
the flame, drawing it out when soft as in the preparation of a glass jet and then cutting it into two, is employed for piercing the apex of a filter paper to enable one to transfer the contents of a filter paper by means of a stream of water from a wash bottle into another vessel. A rubber-tipped glass rod or 'policeman' is employed for removing any solid from the sides of glass vessels. A stirring rod of polythene (polyethylene) with a thin fan-shaped paddle on each end is available commercially and functions as a satisfactory 'policeman' at laboratory temperature: it can be bent into any form.
5. Wash bottle this may consist of a 500 ml flat-bottomed flask, and the stopper carrying the two tubes should be preferably of glass or rubber (cf. Fig. 2.19a and b). It is recommended that the wash bottle be kept ready for use filled with hot water as it is usual to wash precipitates with hot water; this runs through the filter paper rapidly and has a greater solvent power than cold water so that less is required for efficient washing. Insulating cloth should be wound round the neck of the flask in order to protect the hand. A rubber bulb may be attached to the short tube; this form of wash bottle is highly convenient and is more hygienic than the type requiring blowing by the mouth. Polyethylene wash bottles (Fig. 2.19c and d) can be operated by pressing the elastic walls of the bottle. The pressure pushes the liquid out through the tube. The flow rate can easily be regulated by changing the pressure exerted by the hand. When set aside the walls flatten out again and air is sucked into the bottle through the tube. As the air bubbles through the liquid, the latter will always be saturated with dissolved oxygen and this might interfere with some of the tests. These flasks cannot be heated, and although they will take hot liquids, it is very inconvenient to use them because one has to grip the hot walls.
Precipitation
6. Precipitation when excess of a reagent is to be used in the formation of a precipitate, this does not mean that an excessive amount should be employed. In most cases, unless specifically stated, only a moderate amount over that required to bring about the reaction is necessary. This is usually best detected by filtering a little of the mixture and testing the filtrate with the reagent; if no further precipitation occurs, a sufficient excess of the reagent has been added. It should always be borne in mind that a large excess of the precipitating agent may lead to the formation of complex ions and consequent partial solution of the precipitate; furthermore, an unnecessary excess of the reagent is wasteful and may lead to complications at a subsequent stage of the analysis. When studying the reactions of ions the concentrations of the reagents are known and it is possible to judge the required volume of the reagent by quick mental calculation. 7. Precipitation with hydrogen sulphide operations with hydrogen sulphide are of such importance in qualitative inorganic analysis that they merit detailed discussion. Hydrogen sulphide gas is highly poisonous, its lethal dose
How to use H 2 S safely and sparingly
16
2.3
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.6
is the same as that of hydrogen cyanide. Fortunately its unpleasant smell repels people from breathing in dangerous amounts. Hydrogen sulphide must be handled in a fume cupboard with good ventilation. One method, which is sometimes employed, consists of passing a stream of gas in the form of bubbles through the solution contained in an open beaker, test-tube, or conical flask; this procedure is sometimes termed the 'bubbling' method. The efficiency of the method is low, particularly in acid solution; absorption of the gas takes place at the surface of the bubbles and, since the gas is absorbed slowly, most of it escapes into the air of the fume chamber and is wasted. The 'bubbling' method is not recommended and should not be used for macro analysis. The most satisfactory procedure (the 'pressure' method) is best described with the aid of Fig. 2.6. The solution is contained in a small conical flask A, which is provided with a stopper and lead-in tube; B is a wash bottle containing water and serves to remove any hydrochloric acid spray that might be carried over from the Kipp's apparatus in the gas stream; C is a stopcock which controls the flow of gas from the generator, whilst stopcock D provides an additional control 3 for the gas flow. The conical flask is connected to the wash bottle by a short length of rubber tubing. The stopper is first loosened in the neck of the flask and the gas stream turned on (C first, followed by D) so as to displace most of the air in the flask: this will take not more than about 30 seconds. With the gas flowing, the stopper is inserted tightly and the flask is gently shaken with a rotary motion; splashing of the liquid on to the hydrogen sulphide delivery tube should be avoided. In order to ensure that all the air has been expelled, it is advisable to loosen the stopper in A again to sweep out the gas and then to stopper the flask tightly. Passage of the gas is continued
3 Stopcock D is optional; it prevents diffusion of air into the wash bottle and thus ensures an almost immediate supply of hydrogen sulphide.
17
2.3
with gentle rotation of the flask until the bubbling of the gas in B has almost ceased. 4 At this point the solution in A should be saturated with hydrogen sulphide and precipitation of the sulphides should be complete: this will normally require only a few minutes. Complete precipitation should be tested for by separating the precipitate by filtration, and repeating the procedure with the filtrate until the hydrogen sulphide produces no further precipitate. Occasionally a test-tube replaces the conical flask; it is shown (with the stopper) in (b). The delivery tube must be thoroughly cleaned after each precipitation. The same device can be put together with glass joints. The appropriate Quickfit apparatus consists of the MF 28/3/125 wash bottle, FE 100/1 conical flask, MF 15/IB/SC inlet tube and MF 24/1 test tube. The advantages of the 'pressure' method are: (I) a large surface of the liquid is presented to the gas and (2) it prevents the escape of large amounts of unused gas. Alternatively, a saturated aqueous solution of hydrogen sulphide can be used as a reagent. This can most easily be prepared in the bottle B of the apparatus shown in Fig. 2.6. Such a reagent can most conveniently be used in teaching laboratories or classroom demonstrations when studying the reactions of ions. For a quantitative precipitation of sulphides (e.g. for separation of metals) the use of hydrogen sulphide gas is however recommended.
Filtration
Washing
8. Filtration and washing the purpose of filtration is, of course, to separate the mother liquor and excess of reagent from the precipitate. A moderately fine-textured filter paper is generally employed. The size of the filter paper is controlled by the quantity of precipitate and not by the volume of the solution. The upper edge of the filter paper should be about 1 cm from the upper rim of the glass funnel. It should never be more than about twothirds full of the solution. Liquids containing precipitates should be heated before filtration except in special cases, for example that of lead chloride which is markedly more soluble in hot than cold water. Gelatinous precipitates, which usually clog the pores of the filter paper and thus considerably reduce the rate of filtration, may be filtered through fluted filter paper or through a pad of filter papers resting on the plate of a Buchner funnel (Fig. 2.9b or c); this procedure may be used when the quantity of the precipitate is large and it is to be discarded. The best method is to add a little filter paper pulp (macerated filter paper) to the solution and then to filter in the normal manner. Filter paper pulp increases the speed of filtration by retaining part of the precipitate and thus preventing the clogging of the pores of the filter paper. When a precipitate tends to pass through the filter paper, it is often a good plan to add an ammonium salt, such as ammonium chloride or nitrate, to the solution; this will help to prevent the formation of colloidal solutions. A precipitate may be washed by decantation, as much as possible being retained in the vessel during the first two or three washings, and the precipitate then transferred to the filter paper. This procedure is unnecessary for
4 It must be borne in mind that the gas may contain a small proportion of hydrogen due to the iron usually present in the commercial iron(II) sulphide. Displacement of the gas in the flask (by loosening the stopper) when the bubbling has diminished considerably will ensure complete precipitation.
18
2.3
coarse, crystalline, easy filterable precipitates as the washing can be carried out directly on the filter paper. This is best done by directing a stream of water from a wash bottle first around the upper rim of the filter and following this down in a spiral towards the precipitate in the apex; the filter is filled about one-half to two-thirds full at each washing. The completion of washing, i.e. the removal of the precipitating agent, is tested for by chemical means; thus if a chloride is to be removed, silver nitrate solution is used. If the solution is to be tested for acidity or alkalinity, a drop of the thoroughly stirred solution, removed upon the end of a glass rod, is placed in contact with a small strip of 'neutral' litmus paper or of 'wide range' or 'universal' test paper on a watch glass. Other test papers are employed similarly.
Removal of precipitate from the filter
9. Removal of the precipitate from the filter if the precipitate is bulky, sufficient amounts for examination can be removed with the aid of a small nickel or stainless steel spatula. If the amount of precipitate is small, one of two methods may be employed. In the first, a small hole is pierced in the base of the filter paper with a pointed glass rod and the precipitate washed into a test-tube or a small beaker with a stream of water from the wash bottle. In the second, the filter paper is removed from the funnel, opened out on a clock glass, and scraped with a spatula. It is frequently necessary to dissolve a precipitate completely. This is most readily done by pouring the solvent, preferably whilst hot, onto the filter and repeating the process, if necessary, until all the precipitate has passed into solution. If it is desired to maintain a small volume of the liquid, the filtrate may be poured repeatedly through the filter until all the precipitate has passed into solution. When only a small quantity of the precipitate is available, the filter paper and precipitate may be heated with the solvent and filtered. 10. Aids to filtration the simplest device is to use a funnel with a long stem, or better to attach a narrow-bored glass tube, about 45 cm long and bent as shown in Fig. 2.7, to the funnel by means of rubber tubing. The lower end of the tube or of the funnel should touch the side of the vessel in which the filtrate is being collected in order to avoid splashing. The speed of filtration depends inter alia upon the length of the water column. Where large quantities of liquids and/or precipitates are to be handled, or if rapid filtration is desired, filtration under diminished pressure is employed: a metal or glass water pump may be used to provide the reduced pressure. A filter flask of 250-500 ml capacity is fitted with a two-holed rubber bung; a long glass tube is passed through one hole and a short glass tube, carrying a glass stopcock at its upper end, through the other hole. The side arm of the flask is connected by means of thick-walled rubber tubing ('pressure' tubing) to another flask, into the mouth of which a glass funnel is fitted by means of a rubber bung (Fig. 2.9a). Upon applying suction to the filter paper fitted into the funnel in the usual way, it will be punctured or sucked through, particularly when the volume of the liquid in the funnel is small. To surmount the difficulty, the filter paper must be supported in the funnel. For this purpose either a Whatman filter cone (No. 51) made of a specially hardened filter paper, or a Schleicher and Schuell (U.S.A.) filter
19
Filtration aids and techniques
Using suction
2.3
Fig. 2.7
paper support (No. 123), made from a muslin-type material which will not retard filtration, may be used. Both types of support are folded with the filter paper to form the normal type of cone (Fig. 2.8). After the filter paper has been supported in the funnel, filtration may be carried out in the usual manner under the partial vacuum created by the pump, the stopcock T being closed. When filtration is complete, the stopcock T is opened, air thereby entering the apparatus which thus attains atmospheric pressure; the filter funnel may now be removed from the filter flask. For a large quantity of precipitate, a small Buchner funnel (b in Fig. 2.9, shown enlarged for the sake of clarity) is employed. This consists of a porcelain funnel in which a perforated plate is incorporated. Two thicknesses of well-fitting filter paper cover the plate. The Buchner funnel is fitted into the filter flask by means of a cork. When the volume of liquid is small, it may be collected in a test-tube placed inside the filter flask. The Jena 'slit sieve' funnel,5 shown in c, is essentially a transparent Buchner funnel; its great advantage over the porcelain Buchner funnel is that it is easy to see whether the funnel is perfectly clean. Strongly acidic or alkaline solutions cannot be filtered through ordinary filter paper. They may be filtered through a small pad of glass wool placed in the apex of a glass funnel. A more convenient method, applicable to strongly acidic and mildly basic solutions, is to employ a sintered glass funnel (Fig. 2.9d); the filter plate, which is available in various porosities, is fused into a resistance glass (borosilicate) funnel. Filtration is carried out under reduced pressure exactly as with a Buchner funnel. Filtration with suction can be achieved by components with glass joints. The Quickfit FB 100/2 Buchner flask with Fe 15/2 suction tubes, combined with SF 42/2 conical filter with perforated plate is adequate for the purpose. The SF 4A 32 conical filter with sintered disc or the Buchner filter SF 3A 32 are also available for filtration.
11. Evaporation the analytical procedure may specify evaporation to a smaller volume or evaporation to dryness. Both operations can be conveniently carried out in a porcelain evaporating dish or casserole; the capacity of the vessel should be as small as possible for the amount of liquid being reduced in volume. The most rapid evaporation is achieved by heating the dish directly on a wire gauze. For many purposes a water bath (a beaker half-filled with water maintained at the boiling point is quite suitable) will
Evaporation
Fig. 2.8
5A
Pyrex 'slit sieve' funnel, with 65 mm disc, is available commercially.
20
2.3
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 2.9
serve as a source of heat; the rate of evaporation will of course be slower than by direct heating with a flame. Should corrosive fumes be evolved during the evaporation, the process must be carried out in the fume cupboard. When evaporating to dryness, it is frequently desirable, in order to minimize spattering and bumping, to remove the dish whilst there is still a little liquid left; the heat capacity of the evaporating dish is usually sufficient to complete the operation without further heating. The reduction in volume of a solution may also be accomplished by direct heating in a small beaker over a wire gauze or by heating in a wide test-tube ('boiling-tube'), held in a holder, by a free flame; in the latter case care must be taken that the liquid does not bump violently. A useful anti-bumping device, applicable to solutions from which gases (hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, etc.) are to be removed by boiling, is shown in Fig. 2.10. It consists
-.jlcmf--
c:
Fig. 2.10
21
2.3
of a length of glass tubing sealed off about 1 cm from one end, which is inserted into the solution. The device must not be used in solutions that contain a precipitate.
Drying precipitates
12. Drying of precipitates partial drying, which is sufficient for many purposes, is accomplished by opening out the filter, laying it upon several dry filter papers and allowing them to absorb the water. More complete drying is obtained by placing the funnel containing the filter paper in a 'drying cone' (a hollow tinned-iron cone or cylinder), which rests either upon a sand bath or upon a wire gauze and is heated by means of a small flame. The funnel is thus exposed to a current of hot air, which rapidly dries the filter and precipitate. Great care must be taken not to char the filter paper. A safer but slower method is to place the funnel and filter paper, or the filter paper alone resting upon a clock glass, inside a drying oven. 13. Cleaning of apparatus the importance of using clean apparatus cannot be too strongly stressed. All glassware should be put away clean. A few minutes should be devoted at the end of the day's work to 'cleaning up'; one should remember that wet dirt is very much easier to remove than dry dirt. A test-tube brush should be used to clean test-tubes and other glass apparatus. Test-tubes may be inverted in the test-tube stand and allowed to drain. Other apparatus, after rinsing with distilled water, should be wiped dry with a 'glass cloth', that is a cloth which has been washed at least once and contains no dressing. Glass apparatus which appears to be particularly dirty or greasy is cleaned by soaking in chromosulphuric acid (concentrated sulphuric acid containing about 100 g of potassium dichromate per litre), followed by a liberal washing with tap water, and then with distilled water. The cleaning agent is highly corrosive!
14. Some working hints (a) Always work in a tidy, systematic manner. Remember a tidy bench is indicative of a methodical mind. A string duster is useful to wipe up liquids split upon the bench. All glass and porcelain apparatus must be scrupulously clean. (b) Reagent bottles and their stoppers should not be put upon the bench. They should be returned to their correct places upon the shelves immediately after use. If a reagent bottle is empty, it should be returned to the store-room for filling. (c) When carrying out a test which depends upon the formation of a precipitate, make sure that both the solution to be tested and the reagent are absolutely free from suspended particles. If this is not the case, filter the solutions first. (d) Do not waste gas or chemicals. The size of the Bunsen flame should be no larger than is absolutely necessary. It should be extinguished when no longer required. Avoid using unnecessary excess of reagents. Reagents should always be added portion-wise. (e) Pay particular attention to the disposal of waste. Neither strong acids nor strong alkalis should be thrown into the sink; they must be well
Cleaning of apparatus
Tidiness
Cleanliness
Not wasting chemicals
Waste disposal
22
Semimicro operations
2.4
Fume cupboard
Taking notes
diluted first, and the sink flushed with much water. Solids (corks, filter paper, etc.) should be placed in the special boxes provided for them in the laboratory. On no account may they be thrown into the sink. (f) All operations involving (1) the passage of hydrogen sulphide into a solution, (2) the evaporation of concentrated acids, (3) the evaporation of solutions for the removal of ammonium salts, and (4) the evolution of poisonous or disagreeable vapours or gases, must be conducted in the fume cupboard. (g) All results, whether positive, negative, or inconclusive, must be recorded neatly in a notebook at the time they are made. The writing up of experiments should not be postponed until after one has left the laboratory. Apart from inaccuracies which may thus creep in, the habit of performing experiments and recording them immediately is one that should be developed from the very outset. (h) If the analysis is incomplete at the end of the laboratory period, label all solutions and precipitates clearly. It is a good plan to cover these with filter paper to prevent the entrance of dust, etc.
2.4
Semimicro apparatus and semimicro analytical operations
The essential technique of semi micro analysis does not differ very greatly from that of macro analysis. Since volumes of the order of 1 ml are dealt with, the scale of the apparatus is reduced; it may be said at once that it is just as easy to manipulate these small volumes and quantities as to work with larger volumes and quantities. The various operations occupy less time and the consumption of chemicals and glassware is reduced considerably; these two factors are of great importance when time and money are limited. Particular care must be directed to having both the apparatus and the work bench scrupulously clean.
Test-tubes
1. Test-tubes and centrifuge tubes small Pyrex test-tubes (usually 75 x lOmm, 4ml, sometimes 100 x 12mm, 8ml) are used for reactions which do not require boiling (Fig. 2.11a and b). When a precipitate is to be separated by centrifuging, a centrifuge tube (Fig. 2.11d) is generally employed; here, also, the contents cannot be boiled as 'bumping' will occur. Various sizes are available; the 3 ml centrifuge tube is the most widely used and will be adopted as standard throughout this book. For rapid concentration of a solution by means of a free flame, the semimicro boiling tube (60 x 25 mm, Pyrex; Fig. 2.l1c) will be found convenient.
Stirring
2. Stirring rods solutions do not mix readily in semimicro test-tubes and centrifuge tubes; mixing is effected by means of stirring rods. These can readily be made by cutting 2 mm diameter glass rod into 12 cm lengths. A handle may be formed, if desired, by heating about 1 cm from the end and bending it back through 135 to an angle of 45 (see Fig. 2.12b). The sharp edges are fire-polished by heating momentarily in a flame. In washing a precipitate with water or other liquid, it is essential to stir the precipitate so that every particle is brought into contact with as large a volume of liquid
23
2.4 Experimental techniques

Test tubes
e _:1:. I
I
sa
x
!:l
e e
!::!
x
e e
j
4ml
(a)
:G
X
t e e
20ml
(c)
1 ~
....
>0
f6
j
3ml
(d)
8m1 (b)
Fig. 2.11
as possible: this is best done by holding the tube almost horizontal to spread the precipitate over a larger surface, and then stirring the suspension.
Droppers
3. Droppers for handling liquids in semimicro analysis, a dropper (also termed a dropper pipette) is generally employed. Two varieties are shown in Fig. 2.13a and b. The former one finds application in 30 or 60 ml reagent bottles and may therefore be called a reagent dropper; the capillary of the latter (b) is long enough to reach to the bottom of a 3 ml centrifuge tube, and is used for removing supernatant liquids from test-tubes and centrifuge tubes and for the quantitative addition of reagents. Dropper b will be referred to as a capillary dropper. Before use the droppers must be calibrated, i.e. the volume of the drop delivered must be known. Introduce some distilled water into the clean dropper by dipping the capillary end into some distilled water in a beaker and compressing and then releasing the rubber teat or bulb. Hold the dropper vertically over a clean dry 5 ml measuring cylinder, and gently press the
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.12
24
2.4
(b) ...... ~---lOcm----t~~.
Scm
~~
~----------------~~
Fig. 2.13
rubber bulb. Count the number of drops until the meniscus reaches the 2 ml mark. Repeat the calibration until two results are obtained which do not differ by more than 2 drops. Calculate the volume of a single drop. The dropper should deliver between 30 and 40 drops per m!. Attach a small label to the upper part of the dropper giving the number of drops per m!. The standard commercial form of medicine dropper, with a tip of 1.5 mm inside diameter and 3 mm outside diameter, delivers drops of dilute aqueous solutions about 0.05 ml in volume, i.e. about 20 drops per m!. This dropper is somewhat more robust than that shown in Fig. 2.13a, as it has a shorter and thicker capillary; the size of the drop (c. 20 per ml) may be slightly too large when working with volumes of the order of 1 m!. However, if this dropper is used, it should be calibrated as described in the previous paragraph. It must be remembered that the volume of the drop delivered by a dropper pipette depends upon the density, surface tension, etc., of the liquid. If the dropper delivers 20 drops of distilled water, the number of drops per ml of other liquids will be very approximately as follows: dilute aqueous solutions, 20-22; concentrated hydrochloric acid, 23-24; concentrated nitric acid, 36-37; concentrated sulphuric acid, 36-37; acetic acid, 63; and concentrated ammonia solution, 24-25.
neagent bottles
4. Reagent bottles and reagents a semimicro reagent bottle may be easily constructed by inserting a reagent dropper through a cork or rubber stopper that fits a 30 or 60 ml bottle - as in Fig. 2.14a. These dropping bottles (Fig. 2.l4b) may be purchased and are inexpensive; the stoppers of these bottles are usually made of plastic, and this, as well as the rubber teat (or bulb), is attacked by concentrated inorganic acids. A dropping bottle of 30 ml capacity with an interchangeable glass cap (Fig. 2.l4c) is also marketed. The bottles a and b cannot be used for concentrated acids and other corrosive liquids because of their action upon the stoppers. The simplest containers for these corrosive liquids are 30 or 60 ml dropping bottles with glass stopper containing a groove (the so-called 'TK bottle', Fig. 2.l4d). For the study of reactions it is best to divide reagents into two groups. Those reagents which are most frequently used should be kept by each worker separately; solid wooden stands are available commercially to house these. A list of such reagents is given in Table 2.6. The other reagents, which are used less frequently, are kept in 60 or 125 ml dropping bottles (30 ml for expensive or unstable reagents) on the reagent shelf (side shelf or side rack reagents); further details of these will be found in the Appendix. When using these side shelf reagents, great care should be taken that the droppers do not come into contact with the test solutions,
25
2.4
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 2.14
thus contaminating the reagents. If accidental contact should be made, the droppers must be thoroughly rinsed with distilled water and then dried. Under no circumstances should the capillary end of the dropper be dipped into any foreign solution.
Centrifuge
5. The centrifuge the separation of a precipitate from a supernatant liquid is carried out with the aid of a centrifuge. This is an apparatus for the separation of two substances of different density by the application of centrifugal force which may be several times that of gravity. In practice, the liquid containing the suspended precipitate is placed in a semimicro centrifuge tube. The tube and its contents, and a similar tube containing an equal weight of water, are placed in diagonally opposite buckets of the centrifuge, and the cover is placed in position; upon rotation for a short time and after allowing the buckets to come to rest and removing the cover, it will be found that the precipitate has separated at the bottom of the tube. This operation (centrifugation) replaces filtration in macro analysis. The supernatant
Reagents for semimicro work
Reagent Bottles Fitted with Reagent Droppers (Fig. 2.14a, b or c)
Table 2.6
Most common reagents
Sodium hydroxide Ammonium sulphide Potassium hydroxide Barium chloride Silver nitrate Iron(IIl) chloride
TK Dropper Bottles (Fig. 2.14d)
2M
M
2M
O.2SM O.lM O.SM
Acetic acid, dil. Ammonia solution, conc. Ammonia solution, dil. Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) Potassium chromate Ammonium carbonate
2M
ISM
2M
O.02SM O.IM
M
Hydrochloric acid, conc. Sulphuric acid, conc. Nitric acid, conc.
12M
IBM
16M
Hydrochloric acid, dil. Sulphuric acid, dil. Nitric acid, dil.
2M
M
2M
26
2.4
Removable lid - - - - - - - - ,
.--------Centrifuge head
Hand-driven centrifuge
~~:::::::~r=~~t=====-3-+--position Lt of centrifuge
tube when
running
Position of centrifuge tube at rest
r - - - - h - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - O i l here
Fig. 2.15
:oe-alons with the ::e'ltnfuge
liquid can be readily removed by means of a capillary dropper; the clear liquid may be called the centrifugate or 'centrate'. The advantages of centrifugation are: (1) speed, (2) the precipitate is concentrated into a small volume so that small precipitates are observed readily and their relative magnitudes estimated, (3) the washing of the precipitate can be carried out rapidly and efficiently, and (4) concentrated acids, bases, and other corrosive liquids can be manipulated easily. Several types of centrifuge are available for semimicro analysis. These are: A. A small 2-tube hand centrifuge with protecting bowl and cover (Fig. 2.15); if properly constructed it will give speeds up to 2-3000 rev min- 1 with 3 ml centrifuge tubes. The central spindle should be provided with a locking screw or nut: this is an additional safeguard against the possibility of the head carrying the buckets flying off - an extremely rare occurrence. The hand-driven centrifuge is inexpensive and is satisfactory in most cases. B. An inexpensive constant speed, electrically-driven centrifuge (see Fig. 2.16) has a working speed of 1450 rev min -1, sometimes supplied with a dual purpose head. The buckets can either 'swing out' to the horizontal position or, by means of a rubber adaptor, the buckets can be held at a fixed angle. In the latter case, the instrument acts as an 'angle' centrifuge. When using a centrifuge, the following points should be borne in mind: (a) The two tubes should have approximately the same size and weight. (b) The tube should not be filled beyond 1 cm from the top. Spilling may corrode the buckets and produce an unbalanced head. (c) Before centrifuging a precipitate contained in a centrifuge tube, prepare a balance tube by adding sufficient distilled water from a dropper
27
2.4
Electric centrifuge
Motor
Fig. 2.16
Separation of solid and liquid
to an empty tube of the same capacity until the liquid levels in both tubes are approximately the same. (d) Insert the tubes in diametrically opposite positions in the centrifuge; the head (sometimes known as a rotor) will then be balanced and vibration will be reduced to a minimum. Fix the cover in place. (e) When using a hand-driven centrifuge, start the centrifuge slowly and smoothly, and bring it to the maximum speed with a few turns of the handle. Maintain the maximum speed for 30-45 seconds, and then allow the centrifuge to come to rest of its own accord by releasing the handle. Do not attempt to retard the speed of the centrifuge with the hand. A little practice will enable one to judge the exact time required to pack the precipitate tightly at the bottom of the tube. It is of the utmost importance to avoid strains or vibrations as these may result in stirring up the mixture and may damage the apparatus. (f) Before commencing a centrifugation, see whether any particles are floating on the surface of the liquid or adhering to the side of the tube. Surface tension effects prevent surface particles from settling readily. Agitate the surface with a stirring rod if necessary, and wash down the side of the centrifuge tube using a capillary dropper and a small volume of water or appropriate solution. (g) Never use centrifuge tubes with broken or cracked lips. (h) When using a motor-driven centrifuge, never leave it while it is in motion. If a suspicious sound is heard, or you observe that the instrument is vibrating or becomes unduly hot, turn off the current at once and report the matter to the supervisor. An unusual sound may be due to the breaking of a tube; vibration suggests an unbalanced condition. Most semimicro centrifuges will accommodate both semimicro test-tubes (75 x 10 mm) and centrifuge tubes (up to 5 ml capacity). The advantages of the latter include easier removal of the mother liquor with a dropper, and, with small quantities of solids, the precipitate is more clearly visible (and the relative quantity is therefore more easily estimated) in a centrifuge tube (Fig. 2.17). To remove the supernatant liquid, a capillary dropper is generally used. The centrifuge tube is held at an angle in the left hand, the rubber teat or nipple of the capillary dropper, held in the right hand, is compressed to expel the air and the capillary end is lowered into the tube until it is just below the liquid (Fig. 2.18). As the pressure is very slowly released the liquid rises in the dropper and the latter is lowered further into the liquid
28
2.4
Precipitate - -.........- - - -.....
Fig. 2.17
until all the liquid is removed. Great care should be taken as the capillary approaches the bottom of the centrifuge tube that its tip does not touch the precipitate. The solution in the dropper should be perfectly clear; it can be transferred to another vessel by merely compressing the rubber bulb. In difficult cases, a little cotton wool may be inserted in the tip of the dropper and allowed to protrude about 2 mm below the glass tip; any excess of cotton wool should be cut off with scissors.
Washing
6. Washing the precipitates it is essential to wash all precipitates in order to remove the small amount of solution present in the precipitate, otherwise it will be contaminated with the ions present in the centrifugate. It is best to wash the precipitate at least twice, and to combine the first washing with the centrifugate. The wash liquid is a solvent which does not dissolve the precipitate but dilutes the quantity of mother liquor adhering to it. The wash liquid is usually water, but may be water containing a small amount of the precipitant (common ion effect) or a dilute solution of an electrolyte (such as an ammonium salt) since water sometimes tends to produce colloidal solutions, i.e. to peptize the precipitate.
Fig. 2.18
29
2.4
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 2.19
To wash a precipitate in a centrifuge tube, 5-10 drops of water or other reagent are added and the mixture thoroughly stirred (stirring rod or platinum wire); the centrifuge tube is then counterbalanced against another similar tube containing water to the same level and centrifuged. The supernatant liquid is removed by a capillary dropper, and the washing is repeated at least once.
Wash bottles
7. Wash bottles for most work in semimicro analysis a 30 or 60ml glass stoppered bottle is a suitable container for distilled water; the latter is handled with a reagent dropper. Alternatively, a bottle carrying its own dropper (Fig. 2.14a or b) may be used. A small conical flask (25 or 50 m!) may be used for hot water. For those who prefer wash bottles, various types are available (Fig. 2.19): a is a 100 or 250ml flat-bottomed flask with a jet of 0.5-1 mm diameter, and is mouth-operated; b is a wash bottle with full-glass joints (Quick fit MF 25/3), c and d are polyethylene bottles, from which the wash solution can be dispensed by squeezing. 8. Transferring of precipitates in some cases precipitates can be transferred from semimicro test-tubes with a small spatula (two convenient types in nickel or monel metal are shown in Fig. 2.20). This operation is usually difficult, particularly for centrifuge tubes. Indeed, in semimicro analysis it is rarely necessary to transfer actual precipitates from one vessel to another.
...... I----------120mm - - - - - - - - - - - 5mmt
(a)
(=====================1.0
..... 1 - - - - - - 70mm - - - - -...- ... ---35mm - ........ ~ 15--
4mmt_
(b)
mm
Fig. 2.20
30
2.4
If, for some reason, transfer of the precipitate is essential, a wash liquid or the reagent itself is added, the mixture vigorously stirred and the resulting suspension transferred to a reagent dropper, and the contents of the latter ejected into the other vessel; if required, the liquid is removed by centrifugation. If the precipitate in a test-tube is to be treated with a reagent in an evaporating dish or crucible, the reagent is added first, the precipitate brought into suspension by agitation with a stirring rod, and the suspension is then poured into the open dish or crucible. The test-tube may be washed by holding it in an almost vertical (upside down) position with its mouth over the receptacle and directing a fine stream of solution or water from a capillary dropper onto the sides of the test-tube.
Heating solutions
Water bath
9. Heating of solutions solutions in semimicro centrifuge tubes cannot be heated over a free flame owing to the serious danger of 'bumping' (and consequent loss of part or all of the liquid) in such narrow tubes. The 'bumping' or spattering of hot solutions may often be dangerous and lead to serious burns if the solution contains strong acids or bases. Similar remarks apply to semimicro test-tubes. However, by heating the side of the test-tube (8 ml) and not the bottom alone with a micro burner, as indicated in Fig. 2.21, and withdrawing from the flame periodically and shaking gently, 'bumping' does not usually occur. The latter heating operation requires very careful manipulation and should not be attempted by beginners. The mouth of the test-tube must be pointed away from others nearby. The danger of 'bumping' may be considerably reduced by employing the antibumping device shown in Fig. 2.10; the tube should be about 1 em longer than the test-tube to facilitate removal. On the whole it is better to resort to safer methods of heating. The simplest procedure is to employ a small water bath. This may consist of a 250 ml Pyrex beaker, three-quarters filled with water and covered with a stainless steel plate (Fig. 2.22) drilled with two holes to accommodate a test-tube and a centrifuge tube. It is a good plan to wind a thin rubber band about 5 mm from the top of
Fig. 2.21
31
2.4
Fig. 2.22
the tube; this will facilitate the removal of the hot tube from the water bath without burning the fingers and, furthermore, the rubber band can be used for attaching small pieces of folded paper containing notes of contents, etc. A more elaborate arrangement which will, however, meet the requirements of several workers, is Barber's water bath rack (Fig. 2.23). The dimensions of a rack of smaller size are given in Fig. 2.24. This rack will accommodate four centrifuge tubes and four semimicro test-tubes. The apparatus is constructed of monel metal, stainless steel, a plastic material which is unaffected by water at 100C, or of brass which is subsequently tinned. The brass may be tinned by boiling with 20% sodium hydroxide solution containing a few lumps of metallic tin.
10. Evaporations where rapid concentration of a liquid is required or where volatile gases must be expelled rapidly, the semimicro boiling tube (c in Fig. 2.11) may be employed. Useful holders, constructed of a light metal alloy, are shown in Fig. 2.25; b is to be preferred as the boiling tube cannot fall out by mere pressure on the holder at the point where it is usually held. 6 Slow evaporation may be achieved by heating in a test-tube, crucible, or beaker on a water bath.
IS nun
Evaporation
14--+--12 nun
1,._--... 9cm
OSmm
4mm 9mm
~--5mm
6cm
'---6.5 em
.. I
Fig. 2.23
Fig. 2.24
6 A small wooden clothes-peg (spring type) may also be used for holding semiqIicro test-tubes.
32
2.4
o
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.25
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.26
Dissolution
If evaporation to dryness is required, a small casserole (c. 6 ml) or crucible (3-8 ml) may be employed. This may be placed in an air bath consisting of a 30 ml nickel crucible and supported thereon by a ring (Fig. 2.26a) and heated with a semi micro burner. Alternatively, a small Pyrex beaker (say, of 50 or 100 ml capacity) may be used with a silica or nichrome triangle to support the crucible or casserole (Fig. 2.26b): this device may also be used for evaporations in semimicro beakers. Evaporation to dryness may also be accomplished by direct intermittent heating with a micro burner of a crucible (supported on a nichrome or silica triangle) or of a semimicro beaker (supported on a wire gauze). A little practice is required in order to achieve regular boiling by intermittent heating with a flame and also to avoid 'bumping' and spattering; too hot a flame should not be used. In many cases the flame may be removed whilst a little liquid remains; the heat capacity of the vessel usually suffices to complete the evaporation without further heating. If corrosive fumes are evolved, the operation should be conducted in the fume cupboard.
11. Dissolving of precipitates the reagent is added and the suspension is warmed, if necessary, on the water bath until the precipitate has dissolved. If only partial solution occurs, the suspension may be centrifuged. Some precipitates may undergo an ageing process when set aside for longer times (e.g. overnight). This can result in an increased resistance against the reagent used for dissolution. In later chapters, when dealing with the particulars of reactions, such a tendency of a precipitate is always noted. It is advisable to arrange the timetable of work with these precipitates in such a way that dissolution can be attempted soon after precipitation. 12. Precipitations with hydrogen sulphide various automatic generators of the Kipp type are marketed. Owing to the highly poisonous and very obnoxious character of hydrogen sulphide, these generators are always kept in a
33
Use of H 2 S on a semimicro scale
2.4
Fig. 2.27
Testing gases
fume cupboard (draught chamber or hood). A wash bottle containing water should always be attached to the generator in order to remove acid spray (compare Fig. 2.6a). The tube dipping into the liquid in the wash bottle should preferably be a heavy-walled capillary; this will give a better control of the gas flow and will also help to prolong the life of the charge in the generator. Precipitation may be carried out in a centrifuge tube, but a semimicro testtube or 10 ml conical flask is generally preferred; for a large volume of solution, a 25 ml Erlenmeyer flask may be necessary. The delivery tube is drawn out to a thick-walled capillary (1-2 mm in diameter) and carries at the upper end a small rubber stopper which fits the semi micro test-tube? (Fig. 2.27) or conical flask. The same equipment with glass joints can be constructed of Quickfit MF 24/0/4 test tube or FE 25/0 Erlenmeyer flask, combined with MF 15/0B/SC delivery tube. The perfectly clean delivery tube is connected to the source of hydrogen sulphide as in Fig. 2.6, and a slow stream of gas is passed through the liquid for about 30 seconds in order to expel the air, the cork is pushed into position and the passage of hydrogen sulphide is continued until very few bubbles pass through the liquid; the vessel is shaken gently from time to time. The tap in the gas generator is then turned off; the delivery tube is disconnected and immediately rinsed with distilled water. If the liquid must be warmed, the stopper is loosened, the vessel placed in the water bath for a few minutes, and the gas introduced again.
13. Identification of gases many anions (e.g. carbonate, sulphide, sulphite, thiosulphate, and hypochlorite) are usually identified by the volatile decomposition products obtained with the appropriate reagents. Suitable devices for this purpose are shown in Fig. 2.28. The simplest form (a) consists of a semimicro test-tube with the accompanying 'filter tube,:8 a strip of test paper (or of filter paper moistened with the necessary reagent) about 3-4mm wide is suspended in the 'filter tube'. In those cases where spray is likely to affect the test paper, a loose plug of cotton wool should be placed at the narrow end of the 'filter tube'. Apparatus b is employed when the test reagent is a liquid. A short length of wide-bore rubber tubing is fitted over the mouth of a semimicro test-tube with about I cm protruding over the upper edge. The chemical reaction is started in the test-tube and a 'filter tube' containing a tightly-packed plug of cotton wool is inserted through the rubber collar, the filter plug again packed down with a 4 mm glass rod, and 0.5-1 ml of the reagent introduced. An alternative apparatus for liquid reagents is shown in c: it is a type of absorption pipette and is attached to the 4 ml test-tube by a rubber stopper. It is possible to use allglass apparatus if available. The Quickfit version of c can be put together
7 For a 3 ml centrifuge tube or a 4 ml test-tube, the top part of the rubber teat (bulb) from a dropper makes a satisfactory stopper: a small hole is made in the rubber bulb and the delivery tube is carefully pushed through it. 8 Test-tubes (75 x 100mm and 100 x 12 mm) together with the matching 'filter tubes' (55 x 7 mm and 80 x 9 mm) are standard products; they are inexpensive and therefore eminently suitable for routine work. The smaller size is satisfactory for most purposes.
34
2.4
(a)
(b)
(e)
Fig. 2.28
from the MF 24/0 test-tube and CNB 10 joint; the two bulbs however have to be created by a glassblower. A drop or two of the liquid reagent is introduced into the absorption tube. The double bulb ensures that all the evolved gas reacts, and it also prevents the test reagent from being sucked back into the reaction mixture. All the above apparatus, a-c, may be warmed by placing in the hot water rack (e.g. Fig. 2.23). They will meet all normal requirements for testing gases evolved in reactions in qualitative analysis. When the amounts of evolved gas are likely to be small, the apparatus of Fig. 2.29 may be used; all the evolved gas may be swept through the reagent by a stream of air introduced by a rubber bulb of about 100 ml capacity. The approximate dimensions of the essential part of the apparatus are given in a, whilst the complete assembly is depicted in b. The sample under test is placed in B, the test reagent is introduced into the 'filter tube' A over a tightlypacked plug of cotton wool (or other medium), and the acid or other liquid reagent is added through the 'filter tube' C. The rubber bulb is inserted into C, and by depressing it gently air is forced through the apparatus, thus sweeping out the gases through the test reagent in A. The apparatus may be warmed by placing it in a hot water bath. An all-glass apparatus can be constructed from a Quickfit two-neck flask FP 50/l/IA, equipped with an SF 4T31 conical semimicro filter funnel in the left-side neck and an MF 15/1 air inlet tube in the nght neck.
Cleaning of apparatus
14. Cleaning of apparatus it is essential to keep all apparatus scrupulously clean if trustworthy results are to be obtained. All apparatus must be thoroughly cleaned with chromosulphuric acid (concentrated sulphuric acid containing about 100 g of potassium dichromate per litre) or with a brush and cleaning powder. The cleaning agent is highly corrosive! The apparatus is then rinsed several times with tap water, and repeatedly with distilled water. Special brushes (Fig. 2.30) are available for semimicro testtubes and centrifuge tubes; the commercial 'pipe cleaners' are also satisfactory. The tubes may be allowed to drain in a special stand or else they
35
2.4
-mm
100
,12mm
c
9mm
45mm
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.29
may be inverted in a small beaker on the bottom of which there are several folds of filter paper or a filter paper pad to absorb the water. Larger apparatus may be allowed to drain on a clean linen towel or glass cloth. Droppers are best cleaned by first removing the rubber bulbs or teats and allowing distilled water to run through the tubes; the teats are cleaned by repeatedly filling them with distilled water and emptying them. When clean, they are allowed to dry on a linen glass cloth. At the end of the laboratory period, the clean apparatus is placed in a box with cover, so that it remains clean until required.
15. Spot plates; drop-reaction paper these are employed chiefly for confirmatory tests (see Section 2.6 for a full discussion).
".IBBBBEmlIHBmWl1I--==O
Fig. 2.30
36
2.4
Important hints for good practice
16. Some practical hints (a) Upon commencing work, arrange the more common and frequently used apparatus in an orderly manner on your bench. Each item of apparatus should have a definite place so that it can be found readily when required. All apparatus should have been cleaned during the previous laboratory period. (b) Weigh the sample for analysis (if a solid) to the nearest milligram: 50mg is a suitable quantity. (c) Read the laboratory directions carefully and be certain that you understand the purpose of each operation - addition of reagents, etc. Examine the label on the bottle before adding the reagent. Serious errors leading to a considerable loss of time and, possibly, personal injury may result from the use of the wrong reagent. Return each reagent bottle to its proper place immediately after use. (d) When transferring a liquid reagent with a reagent dropper always hold the dropper just above the mouth of the vessel and allow the reagent to 'drop' into the vessel. Do not allow the dropper tip to touch anything outside the reagent bottle; the possible introduction of impurities is thus avoided. Similar remarks apply to the use of TK dropper bottles. (e) Never dip your own dropper into a reagent. Pour a little of the reagent (e.g. a corrosive liquid) into a small clean vessel (test-tube, crucible, beaker, etc.) and introduce your dropper into this. Never return the reagent to the bottle; it is better to waste a little of the reagent than to take the risk of contaminating the whole supply. (f) Do not introduce your spatula into a reagent bottle to remove a little solid. Pour or shake a little of the solid on to a clean, dry watch glass, and use this. Do not return the solid reagent to the stock bottle. Try to estimate your requirements and pour out only the amount necessary. (g) All operations resulting in the production of fumes (acid vapours, volatile ammonium salts, etc.) or of poisonous or disagreeable gases (hydrogen sulphide, chlorine, sulphur dioxide, etc.) must be performed in the fume cupboard. (h) Record your observations briefly in your note-book in ink immediately after each operation has been completed. (i) Keep your droppers scrupulously clean. Never place them on the bench. Rinse the droppers several times with distilled water after use. At the end of each laboratory period, remove the rubber teat or cap and rinse it thoroughly. (j) During the course of the work place dirty centrifuge tubes, test-tubes, etc., in a definite place, preferably in a beaker, and wash them at convenient intervals. This task can often be done while waiting for a solution to evaporate or for a precipitate to dissolve while being heated on a water bath. (k) Adequately label all solutions and precipitates which must be carried over to the next laboratory period. (I) When in difficulty, or if you suspect any apparatus (e.g. the centrifuge) is not functioning efficiently, consult the supervisor. 17. Semimicro apparatus the apparatus suggested for each workbench is listed below. (The liquid reagents recommended are given in Section 2.4(4).)
37
Basic apparatus for semimicro work
2.4
1 wash bottle, polythene (Fig. 2.19d) 1 beaker, Griffin form, 250 mI 1 hot water rack constructed of tinned copper (Figs. 2.23 and 2.24) or 1 stainless steel cover (Fig. 2.22) for water bath 1 beaker, 5 ml 1 beaker, 10 ml 1 flat-bottomed flask, 100 mI, and one 50 ml rubber bulb (for wash bottle, Fig. 2.19) 2 conical flasks, 10 ml 1 conical flask, 25 ml 6 test-tubes, 75 x IOmm,9 4ml, with rim 2 test-tubes, 75 x 10 mm,9 4 ml, without rim 2 'filter tubes', 55 x 7 mm 9 (Fig. 2.28) 1 gas absorption pipette (with 75 x 10 mm test-tube and rubber stopper, Fig. 2.28) 4 centrifuge tubes, 3 ml (Fig. 2.11 d) 2 semimicro boiling tubes, 60 x 25 mm, 20 ml 1 wooden stand (to house test-tubes, 'filter tubes', gas absorption pipette, conical flasks, etc.) 2 medicine droppers, complete with rubber teats (bulbs) 2 reagent droppers (Fig. 2.13a) 2 capillary droppers (Fig. 2.13b) 1 stand for droppers 2 anti-bump tubes (Fig. 2.10) 1 crucible, porcelain, 3 ml (23 x 15 mm) I crucible, porcelain, 6 ml (28 x 20 mm) 1 crucible, porcelain, 8 ml (32 x 19 mm) 3 rubber stoppers (one 1 x 2 cm, two 0.5 x 1.5 cm, to fit 25 ml conical flask, test-tube, and gas absorption pipette) 30cm glass tubing, 4mm outside diameter (for H 2 S apparatus) 10 cm rubber tubing, 3 mm (for H 2 S apparatus) 5 cm rubber tubing, 5 mm (for 'filter tubes') 30 cm glass rod, 3 mm (for stirring rods, Fig. 2.12) 1 measuring cylinder, 5 ml 1 watch glass, 3.5 cm diameter 2 cobalt glasses, 3 x 3 cm 2 microscope slides 1 platinum wire (5 cm of 0.3 mm diameter) 1 forceps, 10 cm 1 semi micro spatula (Fig. 2.20a or b) 1 semimicro test-tube holder (Fig. 2.25) 1 semimicro test-tube brush (Fig. 2.30)
9 Semimicro test-tubes (100 x 12.5 mm, 8 ml) and the appropriate 'filter tubes' (80 x 9 mm) are marketed, and these may find application in analysis. The smaller 4 ml test-tubes will generally suffice: their great advantage is that they can be used directly in a semimicro centrifuge in the buckets provided for the 3 ml centrifuge tubes.
38
Microanalytical operations
2.5
1 pipe cleaner 1 spot plate (6 cavities) 1 wide-mouthed bottle, 25 ml filled with cotton wool 1 wide-mouthed bottle, 25 ml filled with strips (2 x 2 cm) of drop reaction paper 1 dropping bottle, labelled DISTILLED WATER 1 packet blue litmus paper 1 packet red litmus paper 1 triangular file (small) 1 tripod and wire gauze (for water bath) 1 retort stand and one iron ring 7.5 cm 1 wire gauze (for ring) 1 triangle, silica 1 triangle, nichrome 1 Bunsen burner 1 semimicro burner
2.5
The micro scale
Micro apparatus and microanalytical operations
Spot tests
In micro analysis the scale of operations is reduced by a factor of 100-200 as compared with macro analysis. Thus whereas in macro analysis the weights and volumes for analysis are 0.5-1 g and about 10 ml, and in semimicro analysis 50 mg and 1 ml respectively, in micro analysis the corresponding quantities are about 5 mg and 0.1 m!. Micro analysis is sometimes termed milligram analysis to indicate the order of weight of the sample employed. It must be pointed out that whilst the weight of the sample for analysis has been reduced, the ratio of weight to volume has been retained and in consequence the concentration of the individual ions, and other species, is maintained. A special technique must be used for handling such small quantities of materials. There is no sharp line of demarcation between semimicro and micro analysis and much of the technique described for the former can, with suitable modifications to allow for the reduction in scale by about one-tenth, be utilized for the latter. Some of the modifications, involving comparatively simple apparatus, will be described. No attempt will be made to deal with operations centred round the microscope (magnification up to 250) as the specialized technique is outside the scope of this volume. to The small amounts of material obtained after the usual systematic separations can be detected, in many cases, by what is commonly called spot analysis, i.e. analysis which utilizes spots of solutions (about 0.05 ml or smaller) or a fraction of a milligram of solids. Spot analysis has been developed as a result of the researches of numerous chemists: the names of Tananaeff, Krumholz, Wenger, van Niewenburg, Gutzeit and, particularly, Feigl and their collaborators must be mentioned in this connection.
10 For a detailed account see: H. H. Emons, H. Keune and H. H. Seyfarth: Chemical Microscopy in G. Svehla (Ed.): Wilson & Wilson's Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry Vol. XVI, Elsevier, 1982.
39
2.5
13-14mm
13-14mm
63 x 85mm
1
68x Ilmm
j
Iml
(a)
j
Iml
(b)
Int. diam. 35mm
Fig. 2.31
Equipment for micro work
In general, spot reactions are preferable to tests which depend upon the formation and recognition of crystals under the microscope, in that they are easier and quicker to carry out, less susceptible to slight variations of experimental conditions, and can be interpreted more readily. Incomplete schemes of qualitative inorganic analysis have been proposed which are based largely upon spot tests: these cannot, however, be regarded as entirely satisfactory as only very few spot tests are specific for particular ions and also the adoption of such schemes will not, in the long run, help in the development of micro qualitative analysis. It seems that the greatest potential for progress lies in the use of the common macro procedures (or simple modifications of them) to carry out preliminary separations followed by the utilization of spot tests after the group or other separation has been effected. Hence the following pages will contain an account of the methods which can be used for performing macro operations on a micro scale and also a discussion of the technique of spot analysis. Micro centrifuge tubes (Fig. 2.31) of 0.5-2 ml capacity replace test-tubes, beakers and flasks for most operations. Two types of centrifuge tubes are shown: b is particularly useful when very small amounts of precipitate are being handled. Centrifuge tubes are conveniently supported in a rack consisting of a wooden block provided with 6 to 12 holes, evenly spaced, of 1.5 cm diameter and 1.3 cm deep. Solutions are separated from precipitates by centrifuging. Semimicro centrifuges (Section 2.4.5), either hand-operated or electrically-driven, can be used. Adaptors are provided inside the buckets (baskets) in order to accommodate micro centrifuge tubes with narrow open ends. Precipitations are usually carried out in micro centrifuge tubes. After centrifuging, the precipitate collects in the bottom of the tube. The supernatant liquid may be removed either by a capillary dropper (Fig. 2.13) or by means of a transfer capillary pipette. The latter consists of a thin glass tube (internal diameter about 2 mm: this can be prepared from wider tubing) 20 to 25 cm in length with one end drawn out in a micro flame to a tip with a fine opening. The correct method of transferring the liquid to the
40
2.5
t--~
Fig. 2.32
Micro techniques
capillary pipette will be evident from Fig. 2.32. The centrifuge cone is held in the right hand and the capillary pipette is pushed slowly towards the precipitate so that the point of the capillary remains just below the surface of the liquid. As the liquid rises in the pipette, the latter is gradually lowered, always keeping the tip just below the surface of the liquid until the entire solution is in the pipette and the tip is about I mm above the precipitate. The pipette is removed and the liquid blown or drained out into a clean dry centrifuge tube. Another useful method of transferring the centrifugate to, say, another centrifuge tube will be evident upon reference to Fig. 2.33. The siphon is made of thermometer capillary and is attached to the capillary pipette by means of a short length of rubber tubing of I mm bore. The small hole A in the side of the tube permits perfect control of the vacuum; the side arm of the small test-tube is situated near the bottom so as to reduce spattering of the liquid in the centrifuge tube inside the test-tube when the vacuum is released. Only gentle suction is applied and the opening A is closed with the finger; upon removing the finger, the action of the capillary siphon ceases immediately. An all-glass apparatus can be put together from Quickfit BC/24/C/14T centrifuge tubes, an MF 24/3/8 test-tube equipped with an MF 28/3/125 inlet tube, which has to be bent by a glassblower.
A
To pump
Fig. 2.33
41
2.5
10 em
03cm bore
4cm
Olcm bore
1
Fig. 2.34
0'2cm dia.
For the washing of precipitates the wash solution is added directly to the precipitate in the centrifuge tube and stirred thoroughly either by a platinum wire or by means of a micro stirrer, such as is shown in Fig. 2.34; the latter can readily be made from thin glass rod. The mixture is then centrifuged, and the clear solution removed by a transfer capillary pipette as already described. It may be necessary to repeat this operation two or three times to ensure complete washing. The transfer of precipitates is comparatively rare in micro qualitative analysis. Most of the operations are usually so designed that it is only necessary to transfer solutions. However, if transfer of a precipitate should be essential and the precipitate is crystalline, the latter may be sucked up by a dry dropper pipette and transferred to the appropriate vessel. If the precipitate is gelatinous, it may be transferred with the aid of a narrow glass, nickel, monel metal, or platinum spatula. The centrifuge tube must be of type a (Fig. 2.31) if most of the precipitate is to be removed. The heating of solutions in centrifuge tubes is best carried out by supporting them in a suitable stand (compare Figs. 2.22 and 2.23) and heating on a water bath. When higher temperatures are required, as for evaporation, the liquid is transferred to a micro beaker or micro crucible; this is supported by means of a nichrome wire triangle as indicated in Fig. 2.35. Micro beakers may be heated by means of the device shown in Fig. 2.36, which is laid on a water bath.
C::;::=1==1==;:::::J-- Wire triangle

r - - t - - - Micro beaker or crucible
f----Nickel crucible
Fig. 2.35
Section A-B
.J!
Steam jacket-for micro beaker
QiSI
Water bath rings
Fig. 2.36
42
2.5
, - - - - Rubber
stopper
Clamp
f.<}-----
Purified
Fig. 2.37
Cleaning micro glassware
Another valuable method for concentrating solutions or evaporating to dryness directly in a centrifuge tube consists of conducting the operation on a water bath in a stream of filtered air supplied through a capillary tube fixed just above the surface of the liquid. The experimental details will be evident by reference to Fig. 2.37. Micro centrifuge tubes are cleaned with a feather, 'pipe cleaner' or small test-tube brush (cf. Fig. 2.30). They are then filled with distilled water and emptied by suction as in Fig. 2.38. After suction has commenced and the liquid removed, the tube is filled several times with distilled water without removing the suction device. Dropper pipettes are cleaned by repeatedly filling and emptying them with distilled water, finally separating rubber bulb and glass tube, and rinsing both with distilled water from a wash
Fig. 2.38
43
2.5
I r - - - - - Rubber stopper
Fig. 2.39
Fig. 2.40
Handling gases in micro work
bottle. A transfer capillary pipette is cleaned by blowing a stream of water through it. An all-glass apparatus can be assembled from Quickfit FB 100/2 Buchner flask and MF 15/2 suction tube. The passage of hydrogen sulphide into a solution in a micro centrifuge tube is carried out by leading the gas through a fine capillary tube in order not to blow the solution out of the tube. The delivery tube may be prepared by drawing out part of a length of glass tubing of 6mm diameter to a capillary of l-2mm bore and 10-20cm long. A plug of pure cotton wool is inserted into the wide part of the tubing, and then the capillary tube is drawn out by means of a micro burner to a finer tube of 0.3-0.5 mm bore and about 10cm long. The complete arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 2.39. Such a fine capillary delivers a stream of very small bubbles of gas; large bubbles would throw the solution out of the micro centrifuge tube. The flow of the hydrogen sulphide must be commenced before introducing the point of the capillary into the centrifuge cone. If this is not done, the solution will rise in the capillary and when hydrogen sulphide is admitted, a precipitate will form in the capillary tube and clog it. The point of saturation of the solution is indicated by an increase in the size of the bubbles; this is usually after about two minutes. The identification of gases obtained in the reactions for anions may be conducted in an Erlenmeyer (or conical) flask of 5 to 10 ml capacity; it is provided with a rubber stopper which carries at its lower end a 'wedge point' pin, made preferably of nickel or monel metal (Fig. 2.40). A small strip of impregnated test paper is placed on the loop of the pin. The stoppered flask, containing the reaction mixture and test paper, is placed on a water bath for five minutes. An improved apparatus consists of a
44
Spot test analysis
2.6
small flask provided with a ground glass stopper onto which a glass hook is fused (see Fig. 2.52); the test paper is suspended from the glass hook. An all-glass apparatus is also available, it can be assembled from Quickfit FE 100/3 Erlenmeyer flask and SB 24/S Schoniger stopper. If the evolved gas is to be passed through a liquid reagent, the apparatus of Fig. 2.2Sb or c, proportionately reduced, may be employed. Confirmatory tests for ions may be carried out either on drop reaction paper or upon a spot plate. The technique of spot tests is fully described in Section 2.6. The following micro apparatus ll will be found useful: micro porcelain, silica, and platinum crucibles of 0.5 to 2 ml capacity micro beakers (5 ml) and micro conical flasks (5 ml) micro centrifuge tubes (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 ml) micro test-tubes (40-50 x Smm) micro volumetric flasks (1, 2, and 5 ml) micro nickel, monel, or platinum spatula, 7-10 cm in length and flattened at one end micro burner micro agate pestle and mortar magnifying lens, 5 x or lOx a pair of small forceps a small platinum spoon, capacity 0.5-1 ml, with handle fused into a glass tube; this may be used for fusions
2.6
Spot test analysis
The term 'spot reaction' is applied to micro and semimicro tests for compounds or for ions. In these chemical tests manipulation with drops (macro, semimicro, and micro) play an important part. Spot reactions may be carried out by any of the following processes: (a) By bringing together one drop of the test solution and of the reagent on porous or non-porous surfaces (paper, glass, or porcelain). (b) By placing a drop of the test solution on an appropriate medium (e.g. filter paper) impregnated with the necessary reagents. (c) By subjecting a strip of reagent paper or a drop of the reagent to the action of the gases liberated from a drop of the test solution or from a minute quantity of the solid substance. (d) By placing a drop of the reagent on a small quantity of the solid sample, including residues obtained by evaporation or ignition. (e) By adding a drop of the reagent to a small volume (say, 0.5-2ml) of the test solution and then extracting the reaction products with organic solvents. The actual 'spotting' is the fundamental operation in spot test analysis, but it is not always the only manipulation involved. Preliminary preparation
II
All glass apparatus must be of borosilicate (e.g. Pyrex) glass.

45
2.6
Measures of sensitivity
is usually necessary to produce the correct reaction conditions. The preparation may involve some of the operations of macro analysis on a diminished scale (see Section 2.5), but it may also utilize certain operations and apparatus peculiar to spot test analysis. An account of the latter forms the subject matter of the present section. Before dealing with the apparatus required for spot test reactions, it is necessary to define clearly the various terms which are employed to express the sensitivity of a test. The limit of identification is the smallest amount recognizable, and is usually expressed in micrograms (Ilg), one microgram being one-thousandth part of a milligram or one-millionth part of a gram: Illg = 0.001 mg = 10- 6 g Throughout this text the term sensitivity will be employed synonymously with limit of identification. The concentration limit is the greatest dilution in which the test gives positive results; it is expressed as a ratio of substance to solvent or solution. For these two terms to be comparable, a standard size drop must be used in performing the test. Throughout this book, unless otherwise stated, sensitivity will be expressed in terms of a standard drop of 0.05ml. The removal and addition of drops of test and reagent solutions is most simply carried out by using glass tubing, about 20 cm long and 3 mm external diameter; drops from these tubes have an approximate volume of 0.05ml. The capillary dropper (Fig. 2.13b) may also be employed. A useful glass pipette, about 20cm long, may be made from 4mm tubing and drawn out at one end in the flame (Fig. 2.41); the drawn-out ends of these pipettes may be of varying bores. Polyethylene micro pipettes with elastic bulb on the top are also suitable. A liberal supply of glass tubes and pipettes should always be kept at hand. They may be stored in a beaker about 10 cm high with the constricted end downwards and resting upon a pad of pure cotton wool; the beaker and pipettes can be protected against dust by covering with a sheet of polythene. Pipettes which are used frequently may be supported horizontally on a stand constructed of thin glass rod. After use, they should be immersed in beakers filled with distilled water: interchanges are thus prevented and subsequent thorough cleaning is facilitated. Very small and even-sized drops can be obtained by means of platinum wire loops; the size of the loop can be varied and by calibrating the various loops (by weighing the drops delivered), the amount of liquid delivered from each loop is known fairly accurately. A number of loops are made by bending platinum wire of suitable thickness; the wires should be attached in the usual manner to lengths of glass rod or tubing to act as handles. They are kept in Pyrex test-tubes fitted with corks or rubber stoppers and labelled with particulars of the size of drop delivered. It must be pointed out that new smooth platinum wire allows liquids to drop off too readily, and hence it is essential to roughen it by dipping into chloroplatinic acid solution, followed by heating to glowing in a flame; this should be repeated several times. Micro burettes sometimes find application for the delivery of drops.
Operations in spot test analysis
Fig. 2.41
46
Spot test analysis
2.6
Fig. 2.42
Spot plates
Fig. 2.43
Fig. 2.44
Reagent solutions can be added from dropping bottles of 25-30ml capacity (see Section 2.4.4). A stock bottle for water and for solutions which do not deteriorate on keeping, is shown in Fig. 2.42; it permits easy addition in drops. This stock bottle is constructed from a Pyrex flask into which a tube with a capillary end is fused; a small rubber bulb is placed over the drawn-out neck, which has a small hole to admit air. Digestion of solid samples with acid or solvent may be performed in small crucibles heated on a metal hot plate, or in an air bath (Fig. 2.35), or in the glass apparatus illustrated in Fig. 2.43. The last-named is heated over a micro burner, and then rotated so that supernatant liquid or solution may be poured off drop-wise without danger or loss. Spot tests may be performed in a number of ways: on a spot plate, in a micro crucible, test tube, or centrifuge tube, or on filter paper. Gas reactions are carried out in special apparatus. The commercial spot plates are made from glazed porcelain or plastic and usually contain 6 to 12 depressions of equal size that hold 0.5 to I ml of liquid. It is advisable, however, to have several spot plates with depressions of different sizes. The white porcelain background enables very small colour changes to be seen in reactions that give coloured products; the colour changes are more readily perceived by comparison with blank tests in adjacent cavities of the spot plate. Where light-coloured or colourless precipitates or turbidities are formed, it is better to employ black spot plates. Transparent spot plates of glass are also available; these may be placed upon glossy paper of suitable colour. The drops of test solution and reagent brought together on a spot plate must always be mixed thoroughly; a glass stirrer (Fig. 2.34) or a platinum wire may be employed. Traces of turbidity and of colour are also readily distinguished in micro test-tubes (50 x 8 mm) or in micro centrifuge tubes. As a general rule, these vessels are employed in testing dilute solutions so as to obtain a sufficient depth of colour. The liquid in a micro centrifuge tube or in a test-tube may be warmed in a special stand immersed in a water bath (see Figs. 2.22 and 2.23) or in the apparatus depicted in Fig. 2.44. The latter is constructed of thin aluminium or nickel wire; the tubes will slip through the openings and rest on their collars. The wire holder is arranged to fit over a small beaker, which can be filled with water at the appropriate temperature. F or heating to higher temperatures (> lOOC) micro porcelain crucibles may be employed: they are immersed in an air bath (Fig. 2.35) and the latter heated by a micro burner, or they can be heated directly. Small silica watch glasses also find application for evaporations. It must be emphasized that all glass and porcelain apparatus, including spot plates and crucibles, must be kept scrupulously clean. It is a good plan to wash all apparatus (particularly spot plates) immediately after use. Glassware and porcelain crucibles are best cleaned by immersion in a chromic acid-sulphuric acid mixture or in a mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid and hydrogen peroxide, followed by washing with a liberal quantity of distilled water, and drying. The use of chromic acid mixture is not recommended for spot plates. These cleaning mixtures are highly corrosive!
47
2.6
Tests on filter paper
The great merit of glass and porcelain apparatus is that it can be employed with any strength of acid and base: it is also preferred when weakly coloured compounds (especially yellow) are produced or when the test depends upon slight colour differences. Filter paper, however, cannot be used with strongly acidic solutions for the latter cause it to tear, whilst strongly basic solutions produce a swelling of the paper. Nevertheless, for many purposes and especially for those dependent upon the application of capillary phenomena, spot reactions carried out on filter paper possess advantages over those in glass or porcelain: the tests generaIly have greater sensitivity and a permanent (or semi-permanent) record of the experiment is obtained. Spot reactions upon filter paper are usually performed with Whatman No.3 filter paper. This paper may contain traces of iron and phosphate: spot reactions for these are better made with quantitative filter paper (Whatman No. 42 or, preferably, the hardened variety No. 542). The paper should be cut into strips 6 x 2 cm or 2 x 2 cm, and stored in petri dishes or in vessels with tightly-fitting stoppers. Spot reactions on paper do not always involve interaction between a drop of test solution and one of the reagent. Sometimes the paper is impregnated with the reagent and the dry impregnated reagent paper is spotted with a drop of the solution. Special care must be taken in the choice of the impregnating reagent. Organic reagents, that are only slightly soluble in water but dissolve readily in alcohol or other organic solvents, find extensive application. Water-soluble salts of the alkali metals are frequently not very stable in paper. This difficulty can often be surmounted by the use of sparingly soluble salts of other metals. In this way the concentration of the reactive ion can be regulated automatically by the proper selection of the impregnating salt, and the specificity of the test can be greatly improved by thus restricting the number of possible reactions. Thus potassium xanthate (a selective reagent for molybdenum) has little value as an impregnating agent since it decomposes rapidly and is useless after a few days. When, however, cadmium xanthate is used, a paper is obtained which gives sensitive reactions only with copper and molybdenum and wiIl keep for months. Similarly the colourless zinc hexacyanoferrate(II) offers paraIlel advantages as a source of hexacyanoferrate(II) ions: it provides a highly sensitive test for iron(II) ions. A further example is paper impregnated with zinc, cadmium, or antimony sulphides: such papers are stable, each with its maximum sulphide-ion concentration (controlled by its solubility product) and hence only those metallic sulphides are precipitated whose solubility products are sufficiently low. Antimony(III) sulphide paper precipitates only silver, copper, and mercury in the presence of lead, cadmium, tin, iron, nickel, cobalt and zinc. It might be expected that the use of 'insoluble' reagents would decrease the reaction rate. This retardation is not significant when paper is the medium because of the fine state of dispersion and the great surface area available. Reduction in sensitivity becomes appreciable only when the solubility products of the reagent and the reaction product approach the same order of magnitude. This is naturaIly avoided in the selection of reagents.
48
Spot test analysis 2.6
,
-Outer tube 35mm diam. ,( Outer tube IOmm diam. , IH-----Inner tube 2mm diam.
r..,"~
/'"
Rubber bulb'~"--- atlached here
-Seal
Note: tubing of I mm wall
o
Fig. 2.45
Impregnation of filter paper
Filter paper may be impregnated with reagents according to their solubility. For reagents that are soluble in water or in organic solvents, strips of filter paper are bathed in the solutions contained in beakers or in dishes. Care must be taken that the strips do not stick to the sides of the vessel or to one another, as this will prevent a uniform impregnation. The immersion should last about 20 minutes and the solution should be stirred frequently or the vessel gently rotated to produce a swirling of the solution. The strips are removed from the bath, allowed to drain, pinned to a string (stretched horizontally), and allowed to dry in the air. Uniform drying is of great importance. Alternatively, the reagent may be sprayed on to the filter paper. The allglass spray shown in Fig. 2.45 (not drawn to scale) gives excellent results. A rubber bulb is attached at C; the cork is fitted into a boiling tube or small flask charged with the impregnating solution. The paper is sprayed first on one side and then on the other. There are a number of spray units available commercially; plastic-made aerosol sprays (e.g. Fisons AET -1 OOA or Unitary WBS-520-J) and full-glass devices (e.g. Fisons CIJ-700-01OT atomiser, or Quickfit 7 CR spray). For reagents that are precipitated on the paper, the strips are soaked rapidly and uniformly with the solution of one of the reactants, dried and then immersed similarly in a solution of the precipitant. The excess reagents are then removed by washing, and the strips dried. The best conditions (concentration of solutions, order in which applied, etc.) must be determined by experiment. In preparing highly impregnated paper, the precipitation should never be made with concentrated solutions as this may lead to an inhomogeneous precipitation and the reagent will tend to fall off the paper after it is washed and dried. It is essential to carry out the soaking and precipitation separately with dilute solutions and to dry the paper between the individual precipitations. Sometimes it is preferable to use a reagent in
49
2.6
Separation of sol ids and liquids
Filter pipette
the gaseous form, e.g. hydrogen sulphide for sulphides and ammonia for hydroxides; there is then no danger of washing away the precipitate. The reactions are carried out by adding a drop of the test solution from a capillary pipette, etc., to the centre of the horizontal reagent paper resting across a porcelain crucible or similar vessel; an unhindered capillary spreading follows and a circular spot results. With an impregnated reagent paper, the resulting change in colour may occur almost at once, or it may develop after the application of a further reagent. It is usually best not to place a drop of the test solution on the paper but to allow it to run slowly from a capillary tip (0.2-1 mm diameter) by touching the tip on the paper. The test drop then enters over a minute area, precipitation or adsorption of the reaction product occurs in the immediate surrounding region, where it remains fixed in the fibres whilst the clear liquid spreads radially outwards by capillarity. A concentration of the coloured product, which would otherwise be spread over the whole area originally wetted by the test drop, is obtained, thus rendering minute quantities distinctly visible. A greater sensitivity is thus obtained than by adding a free drop of the test solution. Contact with the fingers should be avoided in manipulation with drop-reaction papers; a corner of the strip should be held with a pair of clean forceps. The problem of separating solid and liquid phases either before or after taking a sample drop or two of the test solution frequently arises in spot test analysis. When there is a comparatively large volume of liquid and the solid matter is required, centrifugation in a micro centrifuge tube (Fig. 2.31) may be employed. Alternatively, a micro sintered glass filter tube (Fig. 2.46), placed in a test-tube of suitable size, may be subjected to centrifugation: this device simplifies the washing of a precipitate. If the solid is not required, the liquid may be collected in a capillary pipette by sucking through a small pad of purified cotton wool placed in the capillary end; upon removing the cotton wool and wiping the pipette, the liquid may be delivered clear and free from suspended matter. A useful filter pipette is shown in Fig. 2.47. It is constructed of tubing of 6 mm diameter. A rubber bulb is attached to the short arm A; the arm B is
OE
A
Fig. 2.46 50
Fig. 2.47
Spot test analysis
2.6
Filter stick
ground fiat, whilst the arm C is drawn out to a fine capillary; a short piece of rubber tubing is fitted over the top of B. For filtering, a disc of filter paper of the same diameter as the outside diameter of the tube (cut out from filter paper by means of a sharp cork borer or by a hand punch) is placed on the fiat ground surface of B, the tube F placed upon it and then held in position by sliding the rubber tubing just far enough over the paper to hold it when the tube F is removed. The filter pipette may be used either by placing a drop of the solution on the filter disc or by immersing the tube end B into the crucible, test-tube, or receptacle containing the solution to be filtered. The bulb is squeezed by the thumb and middle finger, and the dropper point closed with the forefinger thus allowing the solution to be drawn through the paper when the bulb is released. To release the drops of filtered liquid thus obtained, the filter pipette is inverted over the spot plate, in an inclined position with the bulb uppermost. Manipulation of the bulb again forces the liquid in the tip on to the spot plate. The precipitate on the paper can be withdrawn for any further treatment by simply sliding the rubber tubing D down over the arm B. Another method involves the use of an Emich filter stick fitted through a rubber stopper into a thick-walled suction tube; the filtrate is collected in a micro test-tube (Fig. 2.48). The filter stick has a small pad of pure cotton wool above the constriction. Filter pipettes and micro filtration devices are available commercially. Thus, the Whatman syringe filters No. 402/0803/06 (with 4 mm effective diameter) and 402/0805/06 (with 13 mm effective diameter) are suitable for micro- or semimicro-work respectively. The apparatus illustrated in Fig. 2.49 may be employed when the filter paper (or drop reaction paper) must be heated in steam; the filter paper is
Fig. 2.48
Fig. 2.49
51
2.6
Gas reactions
placed on the side ann support. By charging the flask with hydrogen sulphide solution, ammonia solution, chlorine or bromine water, the apparatus can be used for treating the filter paper with the respective gases or vapours. Fusion and solution of a melt may be conducted either in a platinum wire loop or in a platinum spoon (0.5-1 ml capacity) attached to a heavy platinum wire and fused into a glass holder. Gas reactions may be perfonned in specially devised apparatus. Thus in testing for carbonates, sulphides, etc., it is required to absorb the gas liberated in a drop of water or reagent solution. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 2.50, and consists of a micro test-tube of about I ml capacity, which can be closed with a small ground glass stopper fused to a glass knob. The reagent and test solution or test solid are placed in the bottom of the tube, and a drop of the reagent for the gas is suspended on the knob of the stopper. The gas is evolved in the tube, if necessary, by gentle wanning, and is absorbed by the reagent on the knob. Since the apparatus is closed, no gas can escape, and if sufficient time is allowed it is absorbed quantitatively by the reagent. A drop of water may replace the reagent on the stopper; the gas is dissolved, the drop may be washed on to a spot plate or into a micro crucible and treated with the reagent. The apparatus, shown in Fig. 2.51, which is closed by a rubber stopper, is sometimes preferable, particularly when minute quantities of gas are concerned; the glass tube, blown into a small bulb at the lower end, may be raised or lowered at will, whilst the change of colour and reaction products may be rendered more easily visible by filling the bulb with gypsum or magnesia powder. In some reactions, e.g. in testing for ammonia, it may be desirable to suspend a small strip of reagent paper from a glass hook fused to the stopper as in Fig. 2.52. When a particular gas has to be identified in the presence of other gases, the apparatus shown in Fig. 2.53 should be used; here the stopper for the micro test-tube consists of a small glass funnel on top of
Fig. 2.50 52
Fig. 2.51
Fig. 2.52
Spot test analysis
2.6
Fig. 2.53
Fig. 2.54
Fig. 2.55
Distillation
which the impregnated filter paper is laid in order to absorb the gas. The impregnated filter paper permits the passage of other gases and only retains the gas to be tested by the formation of a non-volatile compound that can be identified by means of a spot test. Another useful apparatus is shown in Fig. 2.54; it consists of a micro test-tube into which is placed a looselyfitting glass tube narrowed at both ends. The lower capillary end is filled to a height of about 1 mm with a suitable reagent solution; if the gas liberated forms a coloured compound with the reagent, it can easily be seen in the capillary. Where high temperatures are necessary for the evolution of the gas, a simple hard glass tube supported in a circular hole in a Teflon plate (Fig. 2.55) may be used. The open end of the tube should be covered by a small piece of reagent paper kept in position by means of a glass cap. Micro distillation is sometimes required, e.g. in the chromyl chloride test for a chloride (see Section 4.14). The apparatus depicted in Fig. 2.56 is suitable for the distillation of very small quantities of a mixture. A micro crucible or a micro centrifuge tube may be employed as a receiver.
w
Fig. 2.56
53
2.7
In Chapters 3, 4 and 6, the experimental details are given for the detection of a number of ions by spot tests. The sensitivities given are, as a general rule, for a solution containing only the ion in question. It must be remembered that this is the most favourable case, and that in actual practice the presence of other ions usually necessitates a modification of the procedure which, more often than not, involves a loss of sensitivity. Almost without exception each test is subject to interference from the presence of other ions, and the possibility of these interferences occurring must be taken into consideration when a test is applied. Furthermore, the sensitivities when determined upon drop-reaction paper will depend upon the type of paper used. The figures given in the text have been obtained largely with the Schleicher and Schuell spot paper: substantially similar results are given by the equivalent Whatman papers. It is important to draw attention to the difference between the terms 'specific' and 'selective' when used in connection with reagents or reactions. Reactions (and reagents), which under the experimental conditions employed are indicative of one substance (or ion) only, are designated as specific, whilst those reactions (and reagents) which are characteristic of a comparatively small number of substances are classified as selective. Hence we may describe reactions (or reagents) as having varying degrees of selectivity; however, a reaction (or reagent) can be only specific or non-specific.
2.7
Detection of metals by flame atomic spectrometric methods
Safety
Most modern laboratories are nowadays equipped with flame atomic spectrometers, which are routinely used for the quantitative determination of metals in solution. If such equipment is available, detection of metals can be carried out much faster than with the usual wet tests, especially if separations are involved. Usually 1-2 ml solution is consumed during one test; however in most cases the tests are so sensitive, that a portion of the original sample solution can be diluted 10-100 fold, leaving enough material for separations. Note that flame atomic spectrometric tests do not provide information about the oxidation state of the metal (e.g. they cannot differentiate between divalent and trivalent iron, trivalent or hexavalent chromium, etc.).12 It is important to emphasize some aspects of safety. Cylinders of fuel and oxidant gases must be fastened to a wall or laboratory bench. The exhaust gases have to be channelled through an adequate ventilation system and released into the atmosphere. In some cases (e.g. when employing nitrous oxide) the exhaust gases are toxic. Special care has to be exercised when lighting and extinguishing the flame. 12 In the present text only brief outlines of these methods can be presented. For more detailed discussion of the theoretical principles, instrumentation and practice of atomic spectrometry, modern texts of instrumental analysis should be consulted, e.g. Daniel C. Harris: Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 3rd edn, W. H. Freeman and Co, 1991, chapters 20 and 21.
54
Detection of metals by atomic spectrometry
2.7
Flame _
Oxidant gas-
FOOI'' 4 ,
l
Sample
Wavelength control
Slit width control
Power control
Capillary
Fig. 2.57
RIme atomic emission

(FAES)
"eler
lIIanochromator
There are two principal methods available, which require somewhat different instrumentation; these will be described below. Historically, atomic emission instruments were designed first; one can find such older instruments in many laboratories. Nowadays atomic absorption spectrophotometers are more popular, these however can be used also in emission mode. In flame atomic emission spectrometry (FAES) the sample solution is sprayed into a flame, and by means of a monochromator the emitted radiation is analysed. As the emission spectrum is characteristic for each element, by identifying the wavelengths of the lines in the spectrum, the presence or absence of a metal can thus be established. The typical layout of a flame atomic emission spectrometer is shown in Fig. 2.57. A flame is produced and maintained by mixing a fuel gas (usually acetylene, but hydrogen or propane-butane may also be used) and an oxidant gas (air, oxygen or nitrous oxide N 20). The gas flow rates (pressures) have to be regulated accurately with precision valves and rotameters. The nebuliser unit disperses the sample solution into very fine droplets and transports these through the burner into the flame. Two different types of burners can be employed. A total consumption type burner, as shown on the figure, using turbulent flow, uses up all the sample, thus resulting in higher sensitivities. A pre-mix type burner, like the one shown in Fig. 2.58 for atomic absorption (but with a tubular, Meker-type burner head) uses laminar flow and produces a quiet, steady flame. Larger droplets of the spray settle out in the mixing chamber, and only 10-25% of the sample solution reaches the burner, hence sensitivities are lower. The radiation emitted by the flame first enters the monochromator through an entrance slit. By placing a collimator lens or mirror at the focal length distance from the entrance slit the now parallel rays are directed onto a prism or a grating. The rays undergo dispersion, leaving the prism or grating at different angles, according to their wavelengths. A focusing lens or mirror then focuses these radiations onto a plane, thus creating separate spectrum lines (i.e. images of the entrance slit). By rotating the prism or grating, and using a fixed exit slit, each individual spectrum line can be projected onto the radiation detector. The signal created by the detector is
55
2.7
Current control
Ammeter
Mixing chamber Nebuliser
Wavelength control
Slit width control
Power control
Oxidant gas -
Samole
Fig. 2.58
Operations in FAES
then amplified and fed into a readout device, where radiation intensities are displayed. Flame atomic emission spectrometers have separate controls for maintaining gas pressures, selecting wavelengths and adjusting slit widths (optimal values depend on the wavelength examined; figures are given in the instrument handbook). The power control allows the adjustment of (relative) radiation intensities (readouts). To operate a flame atomic emission instrument, consult the instrument handbook or seek assistance from an experienced operator. After switching on the instrument, the flow rate of the oxidant gas has to be adjusted to a suitable value, followed by regulation of the fuel gas. The mixture is then ignited (usually with an electric spark). If nitrous oxide is employed as the oxidant gas, the flame has to be started first with air, followed by a gradual switch to N 20. Once the flame has been established, spray pure water into the flame, adjust slit widths and wavelength. The newest instruments allow digital adjustment with an accuracy of one-hundredth of a nanometer (hence all wavelength data given in this text are quoted with this accuracy). Small changes of temperature, however, cause fluctuations in refractive indices and therefore true wavelengths may slightly differ from the nominal ones. It is advisable therefore to scan wavelengths within a few nanometers around the nominal figure and take measurements when the emission signal is highest. Now spray a standard solution, containing the suspected metal in known concentration, and, using the power control, adjust to a given emission reading (say 50%). Spray water again until the emission reading falls back to near zero, and then spray the test solution into the flame and note the wavelength and emission reading. Emission spectrometric characteristics of the various metals, with further relevant information, will be described among the reactions of the cations.
56
Detection of metals by atomic spectrometry
2.7
Plasma torches
Flame atomic absorption (FAAS)
Spectrometer
Monochromator
::lefations in FAAS
The most up-to-date atomic emission instruments employ high-temperature plasma torches instead of flames as radiation sources. Their sensitivities are much higher than those of the flame instruments and emissions are less prone to chemical interferences. They can also be used for the detection and determination of certain metallic (Th, Ce) and non-metallic elements (like B, P, S, Se, Te). The discussion of such instruments is beyond the scope of this book. In flame atomic absorption spectrometry (F AAS) monochromatic radiation, characteristic for the metal in question, is passed through a long, thin flame, into which the sample solution is sprayed (see Fig. 2.58). A flame is produced in a pre-mix type burner with a 10 cm long slit. The burner head has to be aligned carefully so that the radiation should pass exactly over this slit. The role of the flame in this case is to produce a population of ground-state atoms, capable of absorbing the radiation coming from the radiation source. The latter, in most cases, is a hollow-cathode lamp. Emission is produced by electric discharge between a thimble-like cathode, made from the pure metal (or sometimes an alloy), and a tungsten anode. The glass lamp is filled with low-pressure neon or argon gas, and has a small silica window through which the radiation is directed onto the flame. Under these circumstances extremely narrow spectral lines are emitted, which are then partly absorbed by the ground-state atoms in the flame. Steady emission can be controlled by adjusting an optimal lamp current with the aid of a variable resistor and an ammeter. For each element to be detected, a different radiation source has to be used; this could be a disadvantage if solutions containing a number of metals have to be analysed. Hollow cathode lamps are expensive and have limited lifetimes. On the other hand, the sensitivities are usually higher than achievable with F AES. The role of the monochromator is mainly to isolate a selected line from the few spectral lines generated by the radiation source, hence relatively wide entrance slits can be used. All the other components and controls of these instruments have the same roles as described under FAES, though with some instruments there are separate power controls for adjusting zero and 100% transmittances. To operate flame atomic absorption instruments an instrument handbook or an experienced operator should again be consulted. After switching on the instrument, the hollow-cathode lamp has to be turned on. By increasing the voltage on the electrodes of the lamp (usually to 600-1000 V), the lamp 'strikes, which can be detected from the ammeter, which now displays a measurable current (at the same time the voltage between the electrodes falls to about 200-400 V). The lamp current has to be adjusted with the variable resistor to an optimal value (these are different for each lamp; the instrument manual will recommend values). The flame has now to be ignited in a similar manner to FAES, and the wavelength and slit width must also be adjusted. This is followed by adjusting the detector output. First block the radiation from entering the monochromator and set zero transmittance with the appropriate control. Remove the block, and spray pure solvent into the flame and adjust to 100% transmittance (or zero absorbance) with the power control. Finally, while spraying the test solution into the flame,
57
2.7
the absorbance of the solution can be measured, and compared to a standard solution containing the suspected analyte. Absorption spectrometric characteristics of the various metals, with further relevant information, will be described among the reactions of the cations. Instead of flames, atomic absorption spectrometers sometimes employ graphite furnaces or (relatively speaking) cold quartz tubes as atomisers; these devices are not normally required for the purpose of qualitative analysis (unless the volume of sample available is very small), and will not be discussed here.
58
Chapter 3
Reactions of the cations
3.1
Classification of cations (metal ions) into analytical groups
The five groups
For the purpose of systematic qualitative analysis, cations are classified into five groups on the basis of their behaviour against some reagents. By the systematic use of these so-called group reagents we can decide about the presence or absence of groups of cations, and can also separate these groups for further examination. The reactions of cations will be dealt with here according to the order defined by this group system. Apart from being the traditional way of presenting the material, it makes the study of these reactions easier because ions of analogous behaviour are dealt with within one group. The group reagents used for the classification of most common cations are hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide, ammonium sulphide, and ammonium carbonate. Classification is based on whether a cation reacts with these reagents by the formation of precipitates or not. It can therefore be said that classification of the most common cations is based on the differences of solubilities of their chlorides, sulphides, and carbonates. The five groups of cations and the characteristics of these groups are as follows: Group I cations of this group form precipitates with dilute hydrochloric acid. Ions of this group are lead, mercury(I), and silver. Group II cations of this group do not react with hydrochloric acid, but form precipitates with hydrogen sulphide in dilute mineral acid medium. Ions of this group are mercury(II), copper, bismuth, cadmium, arsenic(III), arsenic(V), antimony(III), antimony(V), tin(II), and tin(IV). The first four form the sub-group IIa and the last six the sub-group lIb. While sulphides of cations in Group IIa are im.oluble in ammonium polysulphide, those of cations in Group lIb are soluble. Group III cations of this group do not react either with dilute hydrochloric acid, or with hydrogen sulphide in dilute mineral acid medium. However they form precipitates with ammonium sulphide in neutral or ammoniacal media. Cations of this group are cobalt(II). nickel(ll), iron(II), iron(III), chromium(III), aluminium, zinc, and manganese(II). Group IV cations of this group do not react with the reagents of Groups I, II, and III. They form precipitates with ammonium carbonate in the presence of ammonium chloride in neutral or slightly acidic media. Cations of this group are calcium, strontium, and barium.
59
3.2
Group V Common cations, which do not react with reagents of the previous groups, fonn the last group of cations, which includes magnesium, sodium, potassium, ammonium, lithium, and hydrogen ions. This group system of cations can be extended to include less common ions as well. Classification of these ions, together with their reactions, will be given in Chapter 6.
3.2
Notes on the study of the reactions of ions
How to take notes
When studying the reactions of ions, experimental techniques described in Chapter 2 should be applied. The reactions can be studied both in macro and semimicro scale, and the majority of the reactions can be applied as a spot test as well. Hints on the preparation of reagents are given in the appendix of this book. The reagents are listed there in alphabetical order, with notes on their stability. Most reagents are poisonous to some extent, and should therefore be handled with care. Those reagents which are exceptionally poisonous or hazardous must be specially labelled and must be used with utmost care. In the list of reactions these reagents will be marked as (POISON) or (HAZARD). One should not use these reagents when working alone in a laboratory; the supervisor or a colleague should always be notified before using them. The concentration of reagents is in most cases chosen to be molar, meaning that it is easy to calculate the relative volumes of the reactant and the reagent needed to complete the reaction. It is not advisable to add the calculated amount of reagent at once to the solution (cf. Chapter 2), but the final amount should be equal to or more than the equivalent. In some cases it is impossible or impractical to prepare a M reagent; thus 0.5 or even O.IM reagents have to be used sometimes. It is easy to predict the volume of a particular reagent needed to complete the reaction from the concentrations. Acids and bases are applied mostly in 2M concentrations in order to avoid unnecessary dilution of the mixture. Taking notes when studying these reactions is absolutely necessary. A logical, clear way of making notes is essential. Although it would be wrong to copy the text of this book, it is important to note (a) the reagent, and any special experimental circumstances applied when perfonning the test, (b) the changes observed, and (c) the equation of the reaction or some other explanation of what had happened. A useful way of making notes is the following. The left page of an open notebook is divided into two equal sections by a vertical line. The left column can be headed 'TEST' and should contain a brief description of the test itself, including the reagent and experimental circumstances. The second column (still on the left-hand page), headed 'OBSERVATION' should contain the visible change which occurred when carrying out the test. Finally, the entire right-hand page should be reserved for 'EXPLANATION', where the reaction equation can be entered. A typical page of a notebook containing some of the reactions of lead(II) ions is shown on Table 3.1. It is also advisable to summarize reactions within one group
60
First group of cations
3.3
Table 3.1
One page of a laboratory notebook

Test
Group 1 Pb1+
Observation
Explanation
I.
HCI + NH 3 +hot water H 2 S(+HCl) +conc. HN0 3 +boiling
white ppt. no change dissolves black ppt. white ppt. white ppt. (different) white ppt. no change white ppt. dissolves yellow ppt. dissolves
Pb 2+ + 2CI- --. PbCI2 ! no ammine complexes (but Pb(OHhD 33.4 g PbCI 2 dissolves per litre at 100C Pb 2+ + H 2 S -+ PbS! + 2H+ 3PbS! + 8HN03 -+ 3Pb2+ + 2NOj + 4H 2O +3S! + 6N03' S! + 2HN0 3 -> SO~- + 2W + 2NOj Pb2+ + SO~- -> PbS04! Pb + + 2NH3 + 2H 2 0 -> Pb(OHh! + 2NHt Pb 2+ does not form ammine complexes Pb 2+ + 20H- -> Pb(OHhl Pb(OHh! + 20W ;::::! [Pb(OH)41 2Pb(OHh: amphoteric Pb2+ + 21- -+ Pbl 2 1 Pb12~ + 21- ~[PbI4122
2.
3. 4.
NH3 +excess NaOH +excess KI +excess (6M)
5.
in the form of tables, as shown on Table 3.2 for the first group of cations. The column 'TEST' should be made up before making the actual experiments. The 'OBSERVAnON' column should be filled when actually making the experiments, while the 'EXPLANA nON' page should be made up after leaving the laboratory. Finally, the reaction tables should be made up when the reactions of the particular group have been studied and explained. This systematic way of study enables us to devote precious laboratory time entirely to experiments and, by dealing with one particular reaction altogether four times, helps to learn the subject.
3.3
First group of cations: lead(lI). mercury(l). and silver(I)

Group reagent dilute (2M) hydrochloric acid. Group reaction white precipitates of lead chloride PbCI 2, mercury(I) chlor-
Pb(II). Hg(I), Ag(l)
ide Hg 2C1 2 , and silver chloride AgCl. Cations of the first group form insoluble chlorides. Lead chloride, however, is slightly soluble in water and therefore lead is never completely precipitated by adding dilute hydrochloric acid to a sample; the rest of the lead ions are quantitatively precipitated with hydrogen sulphide in an acidic medium together with the cations of the second group, Nitrates of these cations are very soluble. Among sulphates, lead sulphate is practically insoluble, but silver sulphate dissolves to a much greater extent. The solubility of mercury(l) sulphate is somewhere between. Bromides and iodides are also insoluble, though precipitation of lead halides is incomplete, and they dissolve quite easily in hot water. Sulphides are insoluble. Acetates are more soluble, though silver acetate might be precipitated
61
3.4
Table 3.2
Tabulating reactions of Group I cations
HCI + NH 3 +hot water H 2 S(+HCI) +ccHN0 3, boiling NH 3, small amounts +excess
white PbCI2 ! no change dissolves black PbS! white PbS04! white Pb(OH)z! no change
white Hg 2 C1 2 ! black Hg! + HgNH 2 CI! no change black Hg! + HgS! white Hg 2(N0 3hS! black Hg! + HgO HgNH 2N0 3! no change black, Hg2O! no change
white AgCI! dissolves [Ag( NH 3ht no change black Ag2S! dissolves Ag+ brown Ag 2O! dissolves [Ag(NH3hl+ brown, Ag2O! no change
NaOH, small amounts white Pb(OH)z! dissolves +excess [Pb(OH)4fKI, small amounts yellow PbI 2! no change +excess yellow PbCr04! K 2Cr04 no change + NH 3 KCN, small amounts +excess Na2C03 +boiling Na2HP04 Specific reaction
green Hg 2I2! yellow AgI! 2no change grey Hg! + [HgI41 red Hg2Cr04! red Ag2Cr04! black Hg! + HgNH 2N0 3! dissolves [Ag(NH3hl+ white AgCN! white Pb(CNh! black Hg! + Hg(CNh no change no change dissolves [Ag(CNhr white PbO . PbC0 3! yellowish-white yellowish-white Ag2C0 3! Hg2C0 3! brown Ag 2O! no change black Hg! + HgO! white Hg2HPOd yellow Ag)P04! white Pb)(P04h! p-dimethylaminoDiphenyl carbazide K 2Cr0 4 benzylideneviolet colour yellow PbCr04! rhodanine (+HN0 3) violet colour
from more concentrated solutions. Hydroxides and carbonates are precipitated with an equivalent amount of the reagent, an excess however might produce varied results. There are differences in their behaviour towards ammonia as well.
3.4 Lead, Pb (Ar: 207.19)
Lead is a bluish-grey metal with a high density (11.48 gml- 1 at room temperature). It readily dissolves in moderately concentrated nitric acid (8M), and nitrogen oxide is formed also: 3Pb + 8HN0 3
--->
3Pb 2+ + 6N03"
+ 2NOj + 4H 2 0
The colourless nitrogen oxide gas, when mixed with air, is oxidized to red nitrogen dioxide: 2NOj(colourless)
+ O2 j
--->
2N0 2 j(red)
With concentrated nitric acid a protective film oflead nitrate is formed on the surface of the metal and prevents further dissolution. Dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acid have little effect owing to the formation of insoluble lead chloride or sulphate on the surface.
62
Lead(lI)
3.4
Pb(lI) reactions
Reactions oflead(ll) ions A solution of lead nitrate (O.2SM) or lead acetate (O.2SM) can be used for the study of these reactions.
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid (or soluble chlorides) solution if the acid is not too dilute:
a white precipitate in cold
Pb 2+ + 2Cl-;:::! PbCl 21
Hel
!
white PbCl z
The precipitate is soluble in hot water (33.4 g 1-1 at 100C while only 9.9 g 1-1 at 20C), but separates again in long, needle-like crystals when cooling. It is also soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid or concentrated potassium chloride when the tetrachloroplumbate(II) ion is formed: PbClz1
+ 2Cl-
----+
2 [PbCI41
If the precipitate is washed by decantation and dilute ammonia is added, no visible change occurs [difference from mercury(I) or silver ions], though a precipitate-exchange reaction takes place and lead hydroxide is formed: PbClz1
+ 2NH3 + 2H 2 0
----+
Pb(OH)zl
+ 2NHt + 2Cl-
2. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) in neutral or dilute acid medium black precipitate of lead sulphide: HzS !
black PbS
Pb 2+ + H 2 S ----+ PbS1
+ 2H+
Precipitation is incomplete if strong mineral acids are present in more than 2M concentration. Because hydrogen ions are formed in the above reaction, it is advisable to buffer the mixture with sodium acetate. When hydrogen sulphide gas is introduced into a mixture which contains a precipitate of white lead chloride, the latter is converted into (black) lead sulphide in a precipitate-exchange reaction: PbCl11
+ H1S ----+ PbS1 + 2H+ + 2Cl-
If the test is carried out in the presence of larger amounts of chloride [potassium chloride (saturated)], initially a red precipitate of lead sulphochloride is formed when introducing hydrogen sulphide gas: 2Pb 2+ + H 2 S + 2Cl----+
Pb 2 SCl11 + 2H+
This however decomposes on dilution or on further addition of hydrogen sulphide and a black precipitate of lead sulphide is formed:
+ PbCl 2 1 Pb 2 SC11 + H1S ----+ 2PbS1 + 2Cl- + 2H+

Pb1SCl2 1 ----+ PbS1 Lead sulphide decomposes when concentrated nitric acid is added. and white, finely divided elemental sulphur is precipitated: 3PbS1 + 8HN0 3 ----+ 3Pb1+
+ 6N0 3 + 3S1 + 2NOT + 4H:O
If the mixture is boiled, sulphur is oxidized by nitric acid to sulphate, which immediately forms white lead sulphate precipitate \\;th the lead ions
3.4
in the solution: Sl + 2HN0 3 ---+ SO~Pb 2+ + SO~---+
+ 2H+ + 2NOj
PbS0 4l
On boiling lead sulphide with hydrogen peroxide (3%), the black precipitate turns white owing to the formation of lead sulphate: PbSl
+ 4H 20 2 ---+ PbS04l + 4H 20
The great insolubility oflead sulphide in water (4.9 x 10- 11 g 1-1) explains why hydrogen sulphide is such a sensitive reagent for the detection of lead, and why it can be detected in the filtrate from the separation of the sparingly soluble lead chloride in dilute hydrochloric acid. Hydrogen sulphide is a highly poisonous gas, and all operations with the gas must be conducted in the fume cupboard. Every precaution must be observed to prevent the escape of hydrogen sulphide into the air of the laboratory.
NH3
3. Ammonia solution
Pb 2+ + 2NH3
white precipitate of lead hydroxide

---+
1
white Pb(OH)2
+ 2H 20
Pb(OH)zl
+ 2NHt
The precipitate is insoluble in excess reagent.

NaOH
1
white Pb(OHh Dissolves in excess
4. Sodium hydroxide white precipitate of lead hydroxide Pb 2+ + 20H- ---+ Pb(OH)zl

The precipitate dissolves in excess reagent, when tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) ions are formed: Pb(OH)zl
+ 20H-
---+
[Pb(OH)4f-
Thus, lead hydroxide has an amphoteric character. Hydrogen peroxide or ammonium peroxodisulphate, when added to a solution of tetrahydroxoplumbate(II), forms a black precipitate of lead dioxide by oxidizing bivalent lead to the tetravalent state: [Pb(OH)4]2[Pb(OH)4fH2 S0 4
+ H 20 2 ---+ Pb0 2 l + 2H 20 + 20H+ S20~---+
Pb0 2 l
+ 2H 2 0 + 2S0~white precipitate of lead
1
white PbS0 4
5. Dilute sulphuric acid (or soluble sulphates) sulphate:

Pb 2+ + SO~---+
PbS0 4l
The precipitate is insoluble in excess reagent. Hot, concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves the precipitate owing to formation of lead hydrogen sulphate: PbS0 4l
+ H 2S0 4 ---+ Pb 2+ + 2HS04"
Solubility is much lower in the presence of ethanol. Lead sulphate is soluble in more concentrated solutions of ammonium acetate (6M) or ammonium tartrate (6M) in the presence of ammonia, when
64
Lead(ll)
3.4
tetraacetoplumbate(II) and ditartratoplumbate(II) ions are formed: PbS041 + 4CH 3 COOPbS0 41 + 2C4H40~----> ---->
[Pb(CH 3 COO)4]2[Pb(C4H 40 6 h]2-
+ SO~-
+ SO~-
The stabilities of these complexes are not very great; chromate ions, for example, can precipitate lead chromate from their solution. When boiled with sodium carbonate, the lead sulphate is transformed into lead carbonate in a precipitate-exchange reaction: PbS0 41 + CO~---->
PbC0 3 1 + SO~-
On washing the precipitate by decantation with hot water, sulphate ions can be removed and the precipitate will dissolve in dilute nitric acid PbC0 3 1 + 2H+ ----> Pb 2+ + H 20 + CO 2i
K2 Cr0 4
1
yellow PbCr04
6. Potassium chromate in neutral, acetic acid or ammonia solution precipitate of lead chromate Pb 2+ + CrO~- ----> PbCr041
yellow
Nitric acid or sodium hydroxide dissolve the precipitate: 2PbCr041 + 2H+ ;:::::! 2Pb2+ + Cr20~- + H 20 PbCr041 + 40H;:::::!
[Pb(OH)4]2-
+ CrO~-
Both reactions are reversible; by buffering the solution with ammonia or acetic acid respectively, lead chromate reprecipitates.
KI
1
yellow Pbl 2
7. Potassium iodide yellow precipitate of lead iodide Pb 2+ + 2r ----> Pbl 21
The precipitate is moderately soluble in boiling water to yield a colourless solution, from which it separates as golden yellow plates on cooling. An excess of a more concentrated (6M) solution of the reagent dissolves the precipitate and tetraiodoplumbate(II) ions are formed: Pbl 21 + 21- ;:::::! [PbI 4]2The action is reversible; on diluting with water the precipitate reappears.
Na2S03
1
white PbS0 3
8. Sodium sulphite in neutral solution Pb 2+ + SO~- ----> PbS0 1

3
white precipitate of lead sulphite
The precipitate is less soluble than lead sulphate, though it can be dissolved by both dilute nitric acid and sodium hydroxide PbSOJ1 + 2H+ ----> Pb 2+ + H 20 + S02 i PbS0 3 1 + 40H---->
[Pb(OH)4]2-
+ SO~-
Nhite ppt with mixed composition
9. Sodium carbonate white precipitate of a mixture of lead carbonate and lead hydroxide 2Pb 2+ + 2CO~- + H 20 ----> Pb(OHhl + PbC0 3 1 -l- CO2T
65
3.4
On boiling, no visible change takes place [difference from mercury(I) and silver(I) ions]. The precipitate dissolves in dilute nitric acid, and even in acetic acid, and CO 2 gas is liberated: Pb(OHhl + PbCOd
Na2HP04
+ 4H+
--4
2Pb 2+ + 3H 2 0
+ CO 2 i
10. Disodium hydrogen phosphate

2
white precipitate of lead phosphate
1
white Pb 3 (P0 4h
3Pb + + 2HPO~-;:::! Pb3 (P0 4 hl
+ 2H+
The reaction is reversible; strong acids (nitric acid) dissolve the precipitate. The precipitate is also soluble in sodium hydroxide.
KCN
11. Potassium cyanide (POISON)
white precipitate of lead cyanide
1
white Pb(CNh
Pb + + 2CN2
--4
Pb(CNhl
which is insoluble in the excess of the reagent. This reaction can be used to distinguish lead(II) ions from mercury(I) and silver(l), which react quite differently.
12. Di-( 4-dimethylaminodiphenyl) methane (or 'tetrabase') (0.5%)
(CH3hN-oCH2-oN(CH3h
Tetrabase
1
blue colour
a blue oxidation product {hydrol: -CH 2 --4 -CH(OH)} is formed under the conditions given below. Place 1 ml test solution in a 5 ml centrifuge tube, add 1 ml 2M potassium hydroxide and 0.5-1 ml 3% hydrogen peroxide solution. Allow to stand for 5 minutes. Separate the precipitate by centrifugation, and wash once with cold water. Add 2 ml reagent, shake and centrifuge. The supernatant liquid is coloured blue. The ions of bismuth, cerium, manganese, thallium, cobalt, and nickel give a similar reaction: iron and large quantities of copper interfere. Concentration limit I in 10 000.
13. Gallocyanine (1 % )
l;N~ O~O~N(CH))J'
OH
Gallocyanine
HCI
1
violet ppt
deep-violet precipitate of unknown composition. The test is applicable to finely divided lead sulphate precipitated on filter paper. Place a drop of the test solution upon drop-reaction paper, followed by a drop each of I % aqueous pyridine and the gallocyanine reagent (blue). Remove the excess of the reagent by placing several filter papers beneath the drop-reaction paper and adding drops of the pyridine solution to the spot until the wash liquid percolating through is colourless; move the filter papers to a fresh position after each addition of pyridine. A deep violet spot is produced.
66
Mercury(l)
3.5
Sensitivity 1-61lg Pb. Concentration limit 1 in 50000. In the presence of silver, bismuth, cadmium, or copper, proceed as follows. Transfer a drop of the test solution to a drop-reaction paper and add a drop of M sulphuric acid to fix the lead as lead sulphate. Remove the soluble sulphates of the other metals by washing with about 3 drops of M sulphuric acid, followed by a little 96% ethanol. Dry the paper on a water bath, and then apply the test as detailed above. 14. Diphenylthiocarbazone (or Dithizone) (0.005%)
SC
NHNHC 6 H 5
Dithizone red complex
brick-red complex salt in neutral, ammoniacal, alkaline, or alkalicyanide solution. Place 1 ml of the neutral or faintly alkaline solution in a micro test-tube, introduce a few small crystals of potassium cyanide (POISON), and then 2 drops of the reagent. Shake for 30 seconds. The green colour of the reagent changes to red. Sensitivity O.lllg Pb (in neutral solution). Concentration limit 1 in 1 250000. Heavy metals (silver, mercury, copper, cadmium, antimony, nickel, and zinc, etc.) interfere, but this effect may be eliminated by conducting the reaction in the presence of much alkali cyanide: excess of alkali hydroxide is also required for zinc. The reaction is extremely sensitive, but it is not very selective.
15. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame emission spectrometry lead cannot be easily detected with the air/acetylene flame; however, using a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame good emission readings are obtainable at 405.78 nm, when 100 ppm lead can easily be identified. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using an air/acetylene flame and a lead hollow-cathode lamp, 5 ppm lead can be easily detected at 283.31 nm. (c) Lead standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.5985 g analytical grade lead nitrate Pb(N0 3 h in water and dilute to 1 litre.
'"
N=NC 6H 5
Atomic spectrometry
Dry tests
16. Dry tests (a) Blowpipe test when a lead salt is heated with alkali carbonate upon charcoal, a malleable bead of lead (which is soft and will mark paper) surrounded with a yellow incrustation of lead monoxide is obtained. (b) Flame test pale blue (inconclusive).
3.5 Mercury, Hg (Ar: 200.59) - mercury(l)
Mercury is a silver-white, liquid metal at ordinary temperatures and has a density of 13.534gml- 1 at 25C. It is unaffected when treated with
67
3.5
hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid (2M), but reacts readily with nitric acid. Cold, medium concentrated (8M) nitric acid with an excess of mercury yields mercury(l) ions: 6Hg + 8HN0 3 -+ 3Hg~+
+ 2NOj + 6NO) + 4H 20
With an excess of hot concentrated nitric acid, mercury(II) ions are formed: 3Hg + 8HN0 3 -+ 3Hg2+ + 2NOj + 6NO) + 4H 20 Hot, concentrated sulphuric acid also dissolves mercury. The product is mercury(I) ion if mercury is in excess 2Hg + 2H 2S04 Hg + 2H 2S0 4
-+
Hg~+
+ SO~- + S02 j + 2H 20
while if the acid is in excess, mercury(II) ions are formed:

-+
Hg2+
+ SO~- + S02 j + 2H 2 0
The two ions, mercury(I) and mercury(II), behave quite differently with reagents used in qualitative analysis, and hence belong to two different analytical groups. Mercury(I) ions belong to the first group of cations, their reactions will therefore be treated here. Mercury(II) ions, on the other hand, are in the second cation group; their reactions will be dealt with later, together with the other members of that group.
Hg(l) reactions
Reactions of mercury ( J) ions A solution of mercury(I) nitrate (O.05M) can be used for the study of these reactions. All compounds of mercury are toxic! 1. Dilute hydrochloric acid or soluble chlorides mercury(l) chloride (calomel)
Hg~+
HCI
white precipitate of
1
white Hg 2 CI 2
+ 2Cl-
-+
Hg 2Cl21
The precipitate is insoluble in dilute acids. Ammonia solution converts the precipitate into a mixture of mercury(II) amidochloride and mercury metal, which are both insoluble. Hg 2Cl 2 + 2NH3
-+
Hgl
+ Hg(NH2)CI1 + NHt + Cl-
The reaction involves disproportionation: mercllry(I) is converted partly to mercury(II) and partly to mercury metal. This reaction can be used to differentiate mercury(l) ions from lead(II) and silver(I). The mercury(II) amidochloride is a white precipitate, but the finely divided mercury makes it shiny black. The name calomel, coming from Greek (",a)..ov ME)..au = nice black) refers to this characteristic of the originally white mercury(I) chloride precipitate. Mercury(I) chloride dissolves in aqua regia, forming undissociated but soluble mercury(II) chloride: 3Hg2Cl 21 + 2HN0 3 + 6HCl
H2 S 1
black mixed ppt
-+
6HgCl 2 + 2NOj
+ 4H 20
2. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) in neutral or dilute acid medium black precipitate, which is a mixture of mercury(II) sulphide
and mercury metal

Hg~+
+ H 2 S -+ Hgl + HgSl + 2H+
68
Mercury(l)
3.5
Owing to the extremely low solubility product of mercury(II) sulphide, the reaction is very sensitive. Sodium sulphide (colourless) dissolves the mercury(II) sulphide (but leaves mercury metal) and a disulphomercurate(II) complex is formed: HgS + S2- ---> [HgS 2l2After removing the mercury metal by filtration, black mercury(lI) sulphide can again be precipitated by acidification with dilute mineral acids: [HgS 2l2-
+ 2H+ ---> HgSl + H 2 Sj
Sodium disulphide (yellow) dissolves both mercury and mercury(II) sulphide: HgSl
+ Hgl + 3S~-
--->
2[HgS 2
f- + S~6HgCl 2 + 3S1
Aqua regia dissolves the precipitate, yielding undissociated mercury(II) chloride and sulphur: 12HCl + 4HN0 3 + 3Hgl
+ 3HgSl =
+ 4NOj + 8H 20
When heated with aqua regia, sulphur is oxidized to sulphuric acid and the solution becomes clear: Sl
NH3
+ 6HCl + 2HN0 3 ---> SO~- + 6Cl- + 8H+ + 2NOj
1
black mixed ppt
3. Ammonia solution black precipitate which is a mixture of mercury metal and basic mercury(II) amidonitrate (which itself is a white precipitate)
2Hg~+
+ NO.3 + 4NH3 + H 2 0
/
--->
NH2 1 + 2Hgl + 3NHt N0 3
HgOHg
This reaction can be used to differentiate between mercury(l) and mercury(II) ions.
NaOH
'"
4. Sodium hydroxide black precipitate of mercury(I) oxide

Hg~+
1
black H9 2 0
+ 20H-
--->
Hg 201
+ H 20
The precipitate is insoluble in excess reagent, but dissolves readily in dilute nitric acid. When boiling, the colour of the precipitate turns to grey, owing to disproportionation, when mercury(II) oxide and mercury metal are formed: Hg 201
--->
HgOl + Hgl red crystalline precipitate of mer-
5. Potassium chromate in hot solution cury(I) chromate

Hg~+
+ CrO~-
--->
Hg2Cr041
If the test is carried out cold, a brown amorphous precipitate is formed with an undefined composition. When heated the precipitate turns to red crystalline mercury(I) chromate.
69
3.5
Sodium hydroxide turns the precipitate into black mercury(I) oxide: Hg2Cr041
+ 20H~
---->
Hg 201
+ CrO~~ + H 20
green precipitate of
6. Potassium iodide, added slowly in cold solution mercury(I) iodide

Hg~+
+ 2r
---->
Hg2I21
If excess reagent is added, a disproportionation reaction takes place, soluble tetraiodomercurate(II) ions and a black precipitate of finely divided mercury being formed: Hg 2I21 + 2I~
---->
[HgI412~
+ Hgl
When boiling the mercury(l) iodide precipitate with water, disproportionation again takes place, and a mixture of red mercury(II) iodide precipitate and finely distributed black mercury is formed: Hg2I 21 ----> HgI21 + Hgl
Na2C03
1
yellow H9 2C0 3
7. Sodium carbonate in cold solution carbonate:

Hg~+
yellow precipitate of mercury(I)
1
turns slowly black
+ CO~~
---->
Hg 2C0 3 1
The precipitate turns slowly to blackish grey, as mercury(II) oxide and mercury are formed:
The decomposition can be speeded up by heating the mixture.

Na2HP04
1
white Hg 2HP0 4
8. Disodium hydrogen phosphate phosphate:

Hg~+
white precipitate of mercury(I) hydrogen
+ HPO~~
---->
Hg 2HP0 41 produces mercury(II) cyanide solution
KCN
1
black Hg
9. Potassium cyanide (POISON) and a precipitate of mercury:

Hg~+
+ 2CN~
---->
Hgl + Hg(CN)z
Mercury(II) cyanide, though soluble, is virtually undissociated.

SnCI 2
1
black Hg
10. Tin ( II) chloride reduces mercury(I) ions to mercury metal, which . appears in the form of a greyish-black precipitate: Hg~+ + Sn 2+ ----> 2Hgl + Sn 4+ Mercury(II) ions react in a similar way.
Cu
1
Hg deposit
11. Polished copper sheet or copper coin if a drop of mercury(I) nitrate is placed on a polished copper surface, a deposit of mercury metal is formed: Cu + Hg~+ ----> Cu2+ + 2Hgl
Rinsing, drying, and rubbing the surface with a dry cloth, a glittery, silverish spot is obtained. Heating the spot in a Bunsen-flame evaporates the mercury,
70
Silver(l)
3.6
and the red copper surface becomes visible again. Mercury(II) solutions react in a similar way.
+ =-algam and :eAJ(OHlJ
12. Aluminium sheet if a drop of mercury(l) nitrate is placed on a clean aluminium surface, aluminium amalgam is formed and aluminium ions pass into solution:
3Hg~+
+ 2Al ~ 2A1 3+ + 6Hgl
The aluminium which is dissolved in the amalgam is oxidized rapidly by the oxygen of the air and a voluminous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide is formed. The remaining mercury amalgamates a further batch of aluminium, which again is oxidized, thus considerable amounts of aluminium are corroded.
::; croenylcarbazide
13. 1,5-Diphenylcarbazide (1% in alcohol)
1
:ot complex
C=O forms a violet-coloured compound with mercury(I) or mercury(II) ions, the composition of which is not quite understood. In the presence of 0.2M nitric acid the test is selective for mercury. Under these circumstances the sensitivity is 1 J.lg Hg~+ or Hg2+ with a concentration limit of 1 in 5 xl 04 . Drop test Impregnate a piece of filter paper with the freshly prepared reagent. Add 1 drop O.4M nitric acid, and on top of the latter one drop of the test solution. In the presence of mercury a violet colour is observable. The test is most sensitive if the filter paper is left to dry at room temperature.
- -: ,- : soectrometry
NH-NH-C 6 H 5
'"
NH-NH-C 6 H 5
14. Atomic spectrometric tests about 20 ppm mercury can be detected by emission, using a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame at 253.65 nm. By absorption, however, mercury cannot be reliably and easily detected with ordinary equipment. The methods used in environmental analysis for the determination of mercury require special devices and training; the discussion of these is beyond the scope of this book. Mercury standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.3534 g of analytical grade mercury(II) chloride HgCl 2 in water and dilute to 1 litre. To avoid adsorption by glass walls, keep the solution in a polythene bottle.
:"j test
15. Dry test all compounds of mercury when heated with a large excess (78 times the bulk) of anhydrous sodium carbonate in a small dry test-tube yield a grey mirror, consisting of fine drops of mercury, in the upper part of the tube. The globules coalesce when they are rubbed with a glass rod. MERCURY VAPOUR IS EXTREMELY POISONOUS and not more than 0.1 gram of the substance should be used in the test.
3.6 Silver, Ag (Ar: 107.868)
Silver is a white, malleable, and ductile metal. It has a high density

(l O. 5 g ml- 1) and melts at 960SC. It is insoluble in hydrochloric, dilute
71
3.6
sulphuric (M) or dilute nitric (2M) acid. In more concentrated nitric acid (8M) (a) or in hot, concentrated sulphuric acid (b) it dissolves: 6Ag + 8HN0 3 -> 6Ag+ 2Ag + 2H 2S04
->
+ 2NOj + 6N0 3 + 4H 20 + S02 j + 2H 20
(a)
(b)
2Ag + + SO~-
Silver forms a monovalent ion in solution, which is colourless. Silver(II) compounds are unstable, but play an important role in silver-catalysed oxidation-reduction processes. Silver nitrate is readily soluble in water, silver acetate, nitrite and sulphate are less soluble, while all the other silver compounds are practically insoluble. Silver complexes are however soluble. Silver halides are sensitive to light; these characteristics are widely utilized in photography.
Ag+ reactions
Reactions of silver (I) ions study these reactions.
A solution of silver nitrate (0.1 M) can be used to white precipitate of silver
Hel
1
white Agel
I. Dilute hydrochloric acid (or soluble chlorides) chloride Ag+
+ Cl-
->
AgCll
With concentrated hydrochloric acid precipitation does not occur. After decanting the liquid from over the precipitate, it can be dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid, when a dichloroargentate complex is formed: AgCll
+ Cl-;::::! [AgC12r
On dilution with water, the equilibrium shifts back to the left and the precipitate reappears. Dilute ammonia solution dissolves the precipitate to form the diammineargentate complex ion: AgCll + 2NH3 ;::::! [Ag(NH3hl+ + ClDilute nitric acid or hydrochloric acid neutralizes the excess ammonia, and the precipitate reappears because the equilibrium is shifted back towards the left. The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be acidified quickly with 2M nitric acid and disposed of. Otherwise, when set aside, a precipitate of silver nitride Ag3N (,fulminating silver') is formed slowly, which explodes readily even in a wet form! Potassium cyanide (POISON) dissolves the precipitate with formation of the dicyanoargentate complex: AgCIl
+ 2CN-
->
[Ag(CNhr
+ Cl-
The safest way to study this reaction is as follows: decant the liquid from the precipitate, and wash it 2-3 times with water by decantation. Then apply the reagent. Sodium thiosulphate dissolves the precipitate with the formation of a dithiosulphatoargentate complex: AgCIl + 2S20~72
->
[Ag(S203hl3- + Cl-

Silver(l) 3.6
This reaction takes place when fixing photographic negatives or positive prints after development. Sunlight or ultraviolet irradiation decomposes the silver chloride precipitate, which turns to greyish or black owing to the formation of silver metal: 2AgCll
(hv) -------+
2Agl + Cl2
The reaction is slow and the actual reaction mechanism is very complicated. Other silver halides show similar behaviour. Photography is based on these reactions. In the camera these processes are only initiated; the photographic material has to be 'developed' to complete the reaction. Greyish or black silver particles appear on places irradiated by light; a 'negative' image of the object is therefore obtained. The excess of silver halide has to be removed (to make the developed negative insensitive to light) by fixation.
2. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) in neutral or acidic medium black precipitate of silver sulphide
2Ag+
+ H 2 S -+ Ag 2 S1 + 2H+
Hot concentrated nitric acid decomposes the silver sulphide, and sulphur remains in the form of a white precipitate: 3Ag2 S1 + 8HN0 3 -+ Sl
+ 2NOj + 6Ag+ + 6N0 3 + 4H 2 0
If the mixture is heated with concentrated nitric acid for a considerable time, sulphur is oxidized to sulphate and the precipitate disappears: Sl + 2HN0 3 -+ SO~-
+ 2NOj + 2H+
The precipitate is insoluble in ammonium sulphide, ammonium polysulphide, ammonia, potassium cyanide, or sodium thiosulphate. Silver sulphide can be precipitated from solutions containing diammine-, dicyanato- or dithiosulphato-argentate complexes with hydrogen sulphide.
3. Ammonia solution
brown precipitate of silver oxide

-+
2Ag+
+ 2NH3 + H 20
Ag 201 + 2NHt
;solves in excess
The reaction reaches an equilibrium and therefore precipitation is incomplete at any stage. (If ammonium nitrate is present in the original solution or the solution is strongly acidic no precipitation occurs.) The precipitate dissolves in excess of the reagent, and diammineargentate complex ions are formed: Ag 201 + 4NH3
+ H 20
-+
2[Ag(NH3hl+
+ 20H-
The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.)
4. Sodium hydroxide
brown precipitate of silver oxide: Ag 2 01
2Ag+
+ 20H-
-+
+ H20
A well-washed suspension of the precipitate shows a slight alkaline reaction owing to the hydrolysis equilibrium: Ag2 01 + H 20 <=! 2Ag(OHhl <=! 2Ag+
+ 20H73
3.6
The precipitate is insoluble in excess reagent. The precipitate dissolves in ammonia solution (a) and in nitric acid (b):
Ag 201
+ 4NH3 + H 20 Ag 201 + 2H+

----+ Agll
----+ 2[Ag(NH3hl+ ----+ 2Ag+
+ 20H-
(a)
(b)
+ H 20
5. Potassium iodide
Ag+
yellow precipitate of silver iodide:
+ 1-
The precipitate is insoluble in dilute or concentrated ammonia, but dissolves readily in potassium cyanide (POISON) (a) and in sodium thiosulphate (b):
AgI AgI
KzCr0 4
+ 2CN-
----+ [Ag(CNhr
+ 1+ 1-
(a) (b)
+ 2S20~+ CrO~-
----+ [Ag(S203hf-
6. Potassium chromate in neutral solution

2Ag+ ----+ Ag2Cr041
red precipitate of silver chromate:
1
red AgzCr04
Spot test place a drop of the test solution on a watch glass or on a spot plate, add a drop of ammonium carbonate solution and stir (this renders any mercury(I) or lead ions unreactive by precipitation as the highly insoluble carbonates). Remove one drop of the clear liquid and place it on drop-reaction paper together with a drop of the potassium chromate reagent. A red ring of silver chromate is obtained. The reaction can be used for a microscopic test when a piece of potassium chromate crystal has to be dropped into the test solution. The formation of needle-like red crystals of silver chromate can be observed distinctly. The precipitate is soluble in dilute nitric acid (a) and in ammonia solution (b):
2Ag2Cr041 Ag2Cr041
+ 2H+ ;:::::
4Ag+
+ Cr20~- + H 20 + CrO~-
(a) (b)
+ 4NH3
----+ 2[Ag(NH3hl+
The acidified solution turns to orange because of the formation of dichromate.

KCN
1
white AgCN
7. Potassium cyanide (POISON) when added dropwise to a neutral solution of silver nitrate: white precipitate of silver cyanide:
Ag+
+ CN-
----+ AgCNl
Dissolves in excess
When potassium cyanide is added in excess, the precipitate disappears owing to the formation of dicyanoargentate ions:
AgCNl
+ CN-
----+ [Ag(CNhr
Na zC0 3
8. Sodium carbonate
2Ag+
yellowish-white precipitate of silver carbonate:
1
white Ag Z C0 3 Turns brown
+ CO~-
----+ Ag 2C0 31
When heating, the precipitate decomposes and brown silver oxide precipitate is formed:
Ag2C0 31----+ Ag 201
+ CO 2i
74
Silver(l)
3.6
Nitric acid and ammonia solution dissolve the precipitate. 9. Disodium hydrogen phosphate in neutral solution silver phosphate: 3Ag+ + HPol---+
yellow precipitate of
Ag3P04 1 + H+
Nitric acid and ammonia solution dissolve the precipitate.

5ilver mirror test
10. Hydrazine sulphate (saturated) when added to a solution of diammineargentate ions, forms finely divided silver metal, while gaseous nitrogen is evolved: 4[Ag(NH3hl+
+ H 2N-NH 2 ' H 2S04

---+
---+
4Agl
+ N2 i + 6NHt + 2NH3 + SO~-
If the vessel in which the reaction is carried out is clean, silver adheres to the glass walls forming an attractive mirror. Procedure fill two-thirds of a test-tube with chromo sulphuric acid (concentrated), and set aside overnight (note that chromo sulphuric acid is highly corrosive). Next day empty the test-tube, rinse cautiously with running cold water, then with distilled water. Into this test-tube pour 2 ml silver nitrate (O.IM) and 2ml distilled water. Then add dilute ammonia (2M) dropwise, mixing the solution vigorously by shaking, until the last traces of the silver oxide precipitate disappear. Then add 2 ml saturated hydrazine sulphate solution and shake the mixture vigorously. The silver mirror forms within a few seconds. The solution should be discarded after the test (cf. reaction I). The silver mirror can be removed most easily by dissolving it in nitric acid (8M).
Rhodanine
1
vUet ppt
II. 4-Dimethylaminobenzylidenerhodanine (in short: rhodanine reagent, 0.3% solution in acetone) reddish-violet precipitate in slightly acid solutions:
HN-CO
I C=CH I SC \1 S
0
~
1
!. II
CH]
AgN-CO
\\
N
\
+ Ag +
I --+ SC \
CH]
I S
I C=CH
0"
'I
CH] NI \ CH]
'\
Mercury, copper, gold, platinum, and palladium salts form similar compounds and therefore interfere. Spot test to I drop of the test solution add I drop nitric acid (2M), then 1 drop of the reagent. A red-violet precipitate or stain is formed if silver ions are present. Alternatively, the test may be performed on a spot plate, or in a semimicro test tube; in the latter case the excess of the reagent is extracted with diethyl ether or amyl alcohol, when violet specks of the silver complex will be visible under the yellow solvent layer. In the presence of mercury, gold, platinum, or palladium first add I drop potassium cyanide (10%, HIGHLY POISONOUS) solution to the test solution then follow the procedure given above. To detect silver in a mixture of lead chloride, mercury(I) chloride. and silver chloride (Group I), the mixture is treated with 10% potassium cyanide solution whereby mercury(II) cyanide, mercury, and dicyanoargentate
75
3.7
[Ag(CN)2r are fonned: after filtration (or centrifugation), a little of the clear filtrate is treated on a spot plate with a drop of the reagent and 2 drops nitric acid (2M). A red colouration is fonned in the presence of Ag in weakly acid solution.
Atomic spectrometry
12. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry silver cannot be easily detected with the air/acetylene flame; however, using a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame good emission readings are obtainable at 328.07 nm, when 10 ppm silver can be identified. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using an air/acetylene flame and a silver hollow-cathode lamp I ppm silver can be easily detected at 328.07nm. (c) Silver standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.5747 g analytical grade silver nitrate AgN0 3 in water and dilute to I litre.
13. Dry test (blowpipe test) when a silver salt is heated with alkali carbonate on charcoal, a white malleable bead without an incrustation of the oxide results; this is readily soluble in nitric acid. The solution is immediately precipitated by dilute hydrochloric acid, but not by very dilute sulphuric acid (difference from lead).
Dry test
3.7
Seco'nd group of cations: mercury(ll), lead(ll), bismuth(lIl), copper(II), cadmium(lI), arsenic(III) and (V), antimony(III) and (V), and tin(ll) and (IV)
Second group of cations Hg(II). Pb(II). Bi(III). Cu(II). Cd(II). As(III). As(V). Sb(III). Sb(V). Sn(II). Sn(IV)
Cu sub-group
Group reagent hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution). Group reaction precipitates of different colours; mercury(II) sulphide HgS (black), lead(II) sulphide PbS (black), copper(II) sulphide CuS (black), cadmium sulphide CdS (yellow), bismuth(III) sulphide Bi 2S3 (brown), arsenic(III) sulphide AS 2 S3 (yellow), arsenic(V) sulphide As 2 S5 (yellow), antimony(III) sulphide Sb 2S3 (orange), antimony(V) sulphide Sb2S5 (orange), tin (II) sulphide SnS (brown), and tin (IV) sulphide SnS2 (yellow). Cations of the second group are traditionally divided into two sub-groups; the copper sub-group and the arsenic sub-group. The basis of this division is the solubility of the sulphide precipitates in ammonium polysulphide. While sulphides of the copper sub-group are insoluble in this reagent, those of the arsenic sub-group do dissolve with the fonnation of thiosalts. The copper sub-group consists of mercury(II), lead(II), bismuth(III), copper(II), and cadmium(II). ftlthough the bulk of lead(II) ions are precipitated with dilute hydrochloric acid together with other ions of Group I, this precipitation is rather incomplete owing to the relatively high solubility of lead(II) chloride. In the course of systematic analysis therefore lead ions will still be present when the precipitation of the second group of cations is the task. Reactions of lead(II) ions were already described with those of the cations of the first group (see Section 3.4). The chlorides, nitrates, and sulphates of the cations of the copper subgroup are quite soluble in water. The sulphides, hydroxides, and carbonates
76
Mercury(lI)
3.8
As sub-group
are insoluble. Some of the cations of the copper sub-group (mercury(II), copper(II), and cadmium(II tend to form complexes (ammonia, cyanide ions, etc.). The arsenic sub-group consists of the ions arsenic(III), arsenic(V), antimony(III), antimony(V), tin(II) and tin(IV). These ions have amphoteric character: their oxides form salts both with acids and bases. Thus, arsenic(III) oxide can be dissolved in hydrochloric acid (6M), and arsenic(III) cations are formed: AS 20 3 + 6HCI
---+
2As 3+ + 6CI-
+ 3H 20
At the same time arsenic(III) oxide dissolves in sodium hydroxide (2M), forming arsenite anions: AS 2 0 3 + 60H---+
2AsO~-
+ 3H 2 0
The dissolution of sulphides in ammonium polysulphide can be regarded as the formation of thiosalts from anhydrous thioacids. Thus the dissolution of arsenic(III) sulphide (anhydrous thioacid) in ammonium sulphide (anhydrous thiobase) yields the formation of ammonium and thioarsenite ions (ammonium thioarsenite: a thiosalt): As 2 S3 1 + 3S 2---+
2AsS~-
All the sulphides of the arsenic sub-group dissolve in (colourless) ammonium sulphide except tin(II) sulphide: to dissolve the latter, ammonium polysulphide is needed, which acts partly as an oxidizing agent, thiostannate ions being formed: SnSl + S~---+
SnS~-
Note that while tin is bivalent in the tin (II) sulphide precipitate, it is tetravalent in the thiostannate ion. Arsenic(III), antimony(III), and tin (II) ions can be oxidized to arsenic(V), antimony(V), and tin (IV) ions respectively. On the other hand, the latter three can be reduced by proper reducing agents. The oxidation-reduction potentials of the arsenic(V)-arsenic(III) and antimony(V)-antimony(IlI) systems vary with pH, therefore the oxidation or reduction of the relevant ions can be assisted by choosing an appropriate pH for the reaction.
3.8
Mercury, Hg (Ar: 200.59) - mercury(ll)
The most important physical and chemical properties of the metal were described in Section 3.5.
-g(lI) reactions
Reactions of mercury(Il) ions The reactions of mercury(II) ions can be studied with a dilute solution of mercury(II) nitrate (O.05M). All compounds of mercury are toxic!
1. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) in the presence of dilute (M) hydrochloric acid, initially a white precipitate of mercury(II) chlorosulphide forms, which reacts with further amounts of hydrogen
77
3.8
sulphide and finally a black precipitate of mercury(II) sulphide is formed: 3Hg2+ + 2Cl- + 2H 2S ----> Hg 3S2C1 2! + 4H+ Hg3S2C1 2!
(Ks = 4 x 10- 54 ).
+ H 2S ----> 3HgS! + 2H+ + 2Cl-
Mercury(II) sulphide is one of the least soluble precipitates known The precipitate is insoluble in water, hot dilute nitric acid, alkali hydroxides, or (colourless) ammonium sulphide. Sodium sulphide (2M) dissolves the precipitate when the disulphomercurate(II) complex ion is formed: 2HgS! + S2- ----> [HgS 21 Adding ammonium chloride to the solution, mercury(II) sulphide precipitates again. Aqua regia dissolves the precipitate: 3HgS! + 6HCl + 2HN0 3 ----> 3HgCl 2 + 3S!
+ 2NO, + 4H 20
Mercury(II) chloride is practically undissociated under these circumstances. Sulphur remains as a white precipitate, which however dissolves readily if the solution is heated, to form sulphuric acid: 2HN0 3 + S!
---->
SO~-
+ 2H+ + 2NO,
2. Ammonia solution white precipitate with a mixed composition; essentially it consists of mercury(II) oxide and mercury(II) amidonitrate:
white ppt of mixed composition
2Hg2+
+ NO.3 + 4NH3 + H 20
---->
HgO' Hg(NH2)N0 3!
+ 3NHt
The salt, like most of the mercury compounds, sublimes at atmospheric pressure.
NaOH
1
yellow HgO
3. Sodium hydroxide when added in small amounts brownish-red precipitate with varying composition; if added in stoichiometric amounts the precipitate turns to yellow when mercury(II) oxide is formed:
Hg2+
+ 20H-
---->
HgO!
+ H 20
The precipitate is insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide. Acids dissolve the precipitate readily. This reaction is characteristic for mercury(II) ions, and can be used to differentiate mercury(II) from mercury(I).
KI
1
red Hgl2
4. Potassium iodide when added slowly to the solution mercury(II) iodide:
red precipitate of
Hg2+
Dissolves in excess
+ 2r
---->
HgI2!
The precipitate dissolves in excess reagent, when colourless tetraiodomercurate(II) ions are formed: 2HgI2 + 2r ----> [HgI 1
4
An alkaline solution of potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) serves as a selective and sensitive reagent for ammonium ions (Nessler's reagent, cf. Section 3.38, reaction 2).
78
Bismuth(llI)
3,9
KCN no effect
5. Potassium cyanide (POISON) does not cause any change in dilute solutions (difference from other ions of the copper sub-group).
SnCI 2
1
white Hg 2 Ci 2
With excess, black Hg
Cu
1
Hg deposit
6. Tin ( II) chloride when added in moderate amounts: white, silky precipitate of mercury(I) chloride (calomel): 2Hg2+ + Sn 2+ + 2Cl- ~ Hg 2Cl 21 + Sn 4+ This reaction is widely used to remove the excess oftin(II) ions, used for prior reduction, in oxidation-reduction titrations. If more reagent is added, mercury(I) chloride is further reduced and black precipitate of mercury is formed: Hg2Cl21 + Sn2+ ~ 2Hgl + Sn4+ + 2Cl7, Copper sheet or coin reduces mercury(II) ions to the metal: Cu + Hg2+ ~ Cu2+ + Hgl For practical hints for the test see Section 3.5, reaction 11. S. Diphenylcarbazide reacts with mercury(II) ions in a similar way to mercury(I), For details see Section 3,5, reaction 13,
Co(SCN)2
1
blue ppt
9, Cobalt ( II) thiocyanate test to the test solution add an equal volume of the reagent (about 10%, freshly prepared), and stir the wall of the vessel with a glass rod, A deep-blue crystalline precipitate of cobalt tetrathiocyanatomercurate(II) is formed: Hg2+ + C0 2+ + 4SCN- ~ Co[Hg(SCN)411
Drop test place a drop of the test solution on a spot plate, add a small crystal of ammonium thiocyanate followed by a little solid cobalt(II) acetate, A blue colour is produced in the presence of mercury(II) ions. Sensitivity 0,5 J.lg Hg2+. Concentration limit 1 in 105 . 10, Atomic spectrometric tests tion 14.
these were discussed in Section 3.5, reac-
11, Dry test all mercury compounds, irrespective of their valency state, form mercury metal when heated with excess anhydrous sodium carbonate, For practical hints see Section 3,5, reaction 15.
3,9 Bismuth, Bi (Ar: 208,98)
Bismuth is a brittle, crystalline, reddish-white metaL It melts at 271.5'C. It is insoluble in hydrochloric acid because of its standard potential (0.2 Y), but dissolves in oxidizing acids such as concentrated nitric acid (a), aqua regia (b), or hot, concentrated sulphuric acid (c),
+ 6N0:l + 2NOr + 4H 20 Bi + 3HCl + HN0 3 ~ Bi 3+ + 3Cl- + NOr + 2H 2 0
2Bi + SHN0 3 ~ 2Bi3+
(a) (b) (c)

79
3.9
Bismuth forms tervalent and pentavalent ions. Tervalent bismuth ion Bi3+ is the most common. The hydroxide, Bi(OHh, is a weak base; bismuth salts therefore hydrolyse readily, when the following process occurs: Bi3+ + H 2 0;::::! BiO+
+ 2H+
The bismuthyl ion, BiO+, forms insoluble salts, like bismuthyl chloride, BiOCI, with most ions. If we want to keep bismuth ions in solution, we must acidify the solution, when the above equilibrium shifts towards the left. Pentavalent bismuth forms the bismuth ate Bi0.3 ion. Most of its salts are insoluble in water.
Bi(lll) reactions
Reactions of hismuth(IIl) ions These reactions can be studied with a O.2M solution of bismuth(III) nitrate, which contains about 3-4% nitric acid.
1. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) of bismuth sulphide: 2Bi 3+ + 3H 2 S ----+ Bi 2 S31 + 6H+
black precipitate
The precipitate is insoluble in cold, dilute acid and in ammonium sulphide. Boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid dissolves the precipitate, when hydrogen sulphide gas is liberated: Bi 2S31 + 6HCl ----+ 2Bi3+
+ 6Cl- + 3H2 Sr
Hot dilute nitric acid dissolves bismuth sulphide, leaving behind sulphur in the form of a white precipitate: Bi 2 S31 + 8H+ + 2N0.3 ----+ 2Bi 3+ + 3S1 + 2NOr + 4H 2 0
NH3
1
white basic salt
2. Ammonia solution white basic salt of variable composition. The approximate chemical reaction is: Bi 3+ + NO.3 + 2NH3 + 2H 2 0 ----+ Bi(OHhN0 31 + 2NHt The precipitate is insoluble in excess reagent (distinction from copper or cadmium). 3. Sodium hydroxide
NaOH
white precipitate of bismuth(III) hydroxide:
1
white Bi(OH)3
Bi3+
+ 30H-
----+ Bi(OHh1
The precipitate is very slightly soluble in excess reagent in cold solution, 2-3mg bismuth dissolves per lOOml sodium hydroxide (2M). The precipitate is soluble in acids: Bi(OHh1
+ 3H+
----+ Bi3+
+ 3H 20
When boiled, the precipitate loses water and turns yellowish-white: Bi(OHh1----+ BiO'OH1
+ H 20
Both the hydrated and the dehydrated precipitate can be oxidized by 4-6 drops of concentrated hydrogen peroxide when yellowish-brown bismuthate
80
Bismuth(llI)
3.9
ions are formed: BiOOH!

KI
+ H 20 2 ---+ Bi03 + H+ + H 2 0
black precipitate of bismuth(III)
!
black Bil3
4. Potassium iodide when added dropwise iodide:
Bi3+
Dissolves in excess as orange complex
+ 3r ---+ Bi13!
The precipitate dissolves readily in excess reagent, when orange-coloured tetraiodobismuthate ions are formed: Bi13! + 1- t==! [Bil4r When diluted with water, the above reaction is reversed and black bismuth iodide is reprecipitated. Heating the precipitate with water, it turns orange, owing to the formation of bismuthyl iodide: Bi13! + H 20
---+
BiOI!
+ 2H+ + 21-
Sn(ll) in alkaline medium black Bi
S. Sodium tetrahydroxostannate( II) (0. 125M, freshly prepared) in cold solution bismuth(III) ions are reduced to bismuth metal, which separates in the form of a black precipitate. First the sodium hydroxide present in the reagent reacts with bismuth(III) ions (cf. reaction 3), bismuth(III) hydroxide is then reduced by tetrahydroxostannate(II) ions to form bismuth metal and hexahydroxostannate(IV) ions:
Bi3+ 2Bi(OHh!
+ 30H-
---+ ---+
Bi(OHh! 2Bi!
+ 3[Sn(OH)4]2-
+ 3[Sn(OH)6]2-
The reagent must be freshly prepared, and the test must be carried out in cold solution. Test by induced reaction in the absence of bismuth(III) ions, the reaction between tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) ions (cf. Section 3.4, reaction 4) and tetrahydroxostannate(II) is slow: [Pb(OH)4]2-
+ [Sn(OH)4]2- ~ Pb! + [Sn(OH)6]2- + 20H-
With dilute solutions (using O.2SM lead nitrate and O.12SM sodium tetrahydroxostannate(II) reagent), the formation of the black precipitate of lead metal is not observable within an hour. In the presence of bismuth the reaction is accelerated; at the same time bismuth is also precipitated: [Pb(OH)4]22Bi(OHh!
_:ed reactions
+ [Sn(OH)4f- ~ Pb! + [Sn(OH)6]2- + 20H-
+ 3[Sn(OH)4]2- ~ 2Bi! + 3[Sn(OH)6]2-
Such reactions are called induced reactions (that is, bismuth induces the reduction of lead). They are distinguished from catalytic processes by the fact that the inductor is used up itself in the course of the reaction (and not regenerated, as in a catalytic process). Induced reactions are quite common among oxidation-reduction processes. Silver, copper, and mercury interfere with the reaction. Copper can be deactivated by the addition of some potassium cyanide.
81
3.9
H2 0
1
white basic salt
6. Water when a solution ofa bismuth salt is poured into a large volume of water, a white precipitate of the corresponding basic salt is produced. This is soluble in dilute mineral acids, but is insoluble in tartaric acid (distinction from antimony) and in alkali hydroxides (distinction from tin).
Bi 3+ + NO)
+ H20 Bi 3+ + Cl- + H 2 0
----> ---->
BiO(N03 H
+ 2H+
BiOCIl + 2H+
Pyrogallol
1
yellow ppt
7. Pyrogallol (IO%,freshly prepared) reagent when added in slight excess to a hot, faintly acid solution of bismuth ions produces a yellow precipitate of bismuth pyrogallate:
Bi3+ + C6H 3 (OHh
---->
Bi(C6H303H + 3H+
It is best to neutralize the test solution first by ammonia against litmus paper, then add some drops of dilute nitric acid, and then the reagent. The test is a very sensitive one. Antimony interferes and should be absent.
Specific test with cinchonine + KI
8. Cinchonine-potassium iodide reagent (1%) orange-red colouration or precipitate in dilute acid solution. Test on filter paper moisten a piece of drop-reaction paper with the reagent and place a drop of the slightly acid test solution upon it. An orange-red spot is obtained. Sensitivity 0.15 I-lg Bi. Concentration limit 1 in 350000. The test may also be carried out on a spot plate. Lead, copper, and mercury salts interfere because they react with the iodide. Nevertheless, bismuth may be detected in the presence of salts of these metals as they diffuse at different rates through the capillaries of the paper, and are fixed in distinct zones. When a drop of the test solution containing bismuth, lead, copper, and mercury ions is placed upon absorbent paper impregnated with the reagent, four zones can be observed: (i) a white central ring, containing the mercury; (ii) an orange ring, due to bismuth; (iii) a yellow ring of lead iodide; and (iv) a brown ring of iodine liberated by the reaction with copper. The thicknesses of the rings will depend upon the relative concentrations of the various metals.
Test with 8hydroxyquinoline + KI
9. 8-Hydroxyquinoline (5%) andpotassium iodide (6M) in acidic medium precipitate of 8-hydroxyquinoline-tetraiodobismuthate Bi 3+ + C9 H 7 0N + H+
red
+ 4r
---->
C 9 H 70N HBiI4l
If other halide ions are absent, the reaction is characteristic for bismuth.
Atomic spectrometry
10. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry about 10 ppm bismuth can be detected in an air/acetylene flame at 223.06 nm; the test becomes more sensitive in a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using an air/acetylene flame, 1 ppm bismuth can be identified at 223.06 nm, with a bismuth hollowcathode lamp.
82
Copper(lI)
3.10
(c) Bismuth standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.0000 g analytical grade bismuth metal in 50 ml concentrated nitric acid, and dilute the solution to I litre.
Dry test
11. Dry test (blowpipe test) when a bismuth compound is heated on charcoal with sodium carbonate in the blowpipe flame, a brittle bead of metal, surrounded by a yellow incrustation of the oxide, is obtained.
3.10
Copper, Cu (Ar: 63.55)
Copper is a light-red metal which is soft, malleable, and ductile. It melts at 1038C. Because of its positive standard electrode potential (+0.34 V for the CujCu 2+ couple), it is insoluble in hydrochloric acid and in dilute sulphuric acid, although in the presence of oxygen some dissolution might take place. Moderately concentrated nitric acid (8M) dissolves copper readily: 3Cu + 8HN0 3 ----> 3Cu2+ + 6N0 3 + 2NOT + 4H 20 Hot, concentrated sulphuric acid also dissolves copper: Cu + 2H 2S04 ----> Cu 2+ + SO~- + S02 T + 2H 20 Copper is readily dissolved in aqua regia: 3Cu + 6HCl + 2HN0 3 ----> 3Cu2+ + 6Cl- + 2NOT + 4H 20 There are two series of copper compounds. Copper(l) compounds are derived from the red copper(I) oxide CU20 and contain the copper(I) ion Cu +. These compounds are colourless. Most copper(I) salts are insoluble in water, and their behaviour generally resembles that of the silver(l) compounds. They are readily oxidized to copper(II) compounds, which are derivable from the black copper(II) oxide, CuO. Copper(II) compounds contain the copper(IJ) ion, Cu 2+. Copper(II) salts are generally blue both in solid, hydrated form and in dilute aqueous solution; the colour is characteristic really for the tetraaquocuprate(II) ion [Cu(H 20)4l 2+ only: The limit of visibility of the colour of the tetraaquocuprate(II) complex (i.e. the colour of copper(II) ions in aqueous solutions) is 500llg in a concentration limit of 1 in 104. Anhydrous copper(JI) salts, like anhydrous copper(II) sulphate CUS04, are white (or slightly yellow). In aqueous solutions the blue tetraaquo complex ion is always present; for the sake of simplicity however in this text it will be denoted as the simple copper(IJ) ion Cu 2+. In analytical practice only the copper(II) ion is important; therefore only its reactions are described.
Cu(ll) reactions
Reactions of copper ( II) ions These reactions can be studied with a 0.25M solution of copper(II) sulphate.
1. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) of copper(II) sulphide: Cu2+ + H 2S ----> CuSl + 2H+
black precipitate
83
3.10
Ks(CuS; 25 DC) = 10- 44 Sensitivity 1 Ilg Cu 2+. Concentration limit 1 in 5x 106 . The solution must be acidic (M in hydrochloric acid) in order to obtain a crystalline, easily filterable precipitate. In the absence of acid, or in very slightly acid solutions, a colloidal, brownish-black precipitate or colouration is obtained. By adding some acid and boiling, coagulation can be achieved. The precipitate is insoluble in boiling dilute (M) sulphuric acid (distinction from cadmium), in sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphide and ammonium sulphide. It is only very slightly soluble in polysulphides. Hot, concentrated nitric acid dissolves the copper(II) sulphide, leaving behind sulphur as a white precipitate:
3CuSl + SHN0 3 ----; 3Cu 2+ + 6N0 3 + 3S1 + 2NOj + 4H 20 When boiled for longer, sulphur is oxidized to sulphuric acid and a clear, blue solution is obtained: Sl + 2HN0 3 ----; 2H+ + SO~- + 2NOj Potassium cyanide (POISON) dissolves the precipitate, when colourless tetracyanocuprate(l) ions and disulphide ions are formed: 2CuSl + SCN- ----; 2[Cu(CN)4]3-
+ S~-
Note that this is an oxidation-reduction process (copper is reduced, sulphur is oxidized) coupled with a formation of a complex. When exposed to air, in the moist state, copper(II) sulphide tends to oxidize to copper(lI) sulphate: CuSl
+ 202 ----; CUS04
and therefore becomes water soluble. A considerable amount of heat is liberated during this process. A filter paper with copper(II) sulphide precipitate on it should never be thrown into a waste container, with paper or other inflammable substances in it. Instead the precipitate should be washed away first with running water.
NH3
L
bl ue basic salt
2. Ammonia solution when added sparingly (basic copper sulphate):
blue precipitate of a basic salt
2Cu 2+ + SO~- + 2NH3 + 2H 2 0 ----; Cu(OHh 'CuS041 + 2NHt which is soluble in excess reagent, when a deep blue colouration is obtained owing to the formation of tetramminocuprate(lI) complex ions: Cu(OHh 'CuS041 + SNH 3 ----; 2[Cu(NH 3)4f+ + SO~- + 20HIf the solution contains ammonium salts (or it was highly acidic and larger amounts of ammonia were used up for its neutralization), precipitation does not occur at all, but the blue colour is formed right away. The reaction is characteristic for copper(II) ions in the absence of nickel.
Dissolves in excess as blue tetrammine complex
84
Copper(lI)
3.10
NaOH
1
blue Cu(OHh
3. Sodium hydroxide in cold solution hydroxide: Cu2+ + 20H- ---7 Cu(OHhl
blue precipitate of copper(II)
The precipitate is insoluble in excess reagent. When heated, the precipitate is converted to black copper(II) oxide by dehydration: Cu(OHhl
---7
CuOl
+ H 20
In the presence of a solution of tartaric acid or of citric acid, copper(II) hydroxide is not precipitated by solutions of caustic alkalis, but the solution is coloured an intense blue. If the alkaline solution is treated with certain reducing agents, such as hydroxylamine, hydrazine, glucose, and acetaldehyde, yellow copper(l) hydroxide is precipitated from the warm solution. It is converted into red copper(I) oxide CU20 on boiling. The alkaline solution of copper(II) salt containing tartaric acid is usually known as Fehling's solution; it contains the complex ion [Cu(C 4H 20 6 h1 2-.
KI
white Cui + dark solution of 13
4. Potassium iodide precipitates copper(l) iodide, which is white, but the solution is intensely brown because of the formation of tri-iodide ions (iodine): 2Cu2+ + 51- ---7 2Cull + 13
Adding an excess of sodium thiosulphate to the solution, tri-iodide ions are reduced to colourless iodide ions and the white colour of the precipitate becomes visible. The reduction with thiosulphate yields tetrathionate ions: 13
+ 2S20~-
---7
31-
+ S40~-
These reactions are used in quantitative analysis for the iodometric determination of copper.
KCN
5. Potassium cyanide (POISON) when added sparingly forms first a yellow precipitate of copper(II) cyanide: Cu2+ + 2CN- ---7 Cu(CNhl
The precipitate quickly decomposes into white copper(l) cyanide and cyanogen (HIGHLY POISONOUS GAS): 2Cu(CN2)l---7 2CuCNl + (CNhi Excess reagent dissolves the precipitate, and the colourless tetracyanocuprate(l) complex is formed: CuCNl
;;solves in excess as
. Jb.Jrless complex
+ 3CN-
---7
[Cu(CN)41 3 -
The complex is so stable (i.e. the concentration of copper(I) ions is so low) that hydrogen sulphide cannot precipitate copper(l) sulphide from this solution (distinction from cadmium, cf. Section 3.11, reactions 1 and 4).
1
bIadr: Cu(SC N 12
6. Potassium thiocyanate black precipitate of copper(II) thiocyanate: Cu2+ + 2SCN- ---7 Cu(SCNhl
85
3.10
Turns slowly white
The precipitate decomposes slowly to form white copper(I) thiocyanate and thiocyanogen is formed: 2Cu(SCNhl ~ 2CuSCNl
+ (SCNh i
Thiocyanogen decomposes rapidly in aqueous solutions. Copper(II) thiocyanate can be transformed to copper(I) thiocyanate immediately by adding a suitable reducing agent. A saturated solution of sulphur dioxide is the most suitable agent: 2Cu(SCNhl + S02 + 2H 20 ~ 2CuSCNl
Fe
+ 2SCN- + SO~- + 4H+
1
Cu
7. Iron if a clean iron nail or a blade of a penknife is immersed in a solution of a copper salt, a red deposit of copper is obtained: Cu2+ + Fe ~ Fe2+ + Cu and an equivalent amount of iron dissolves. The electrode potential of copper (more precisely of the copper-copper(II) system) is more positive than that of iron (or the iron-iron(II) system).
Specific test with cupron
8. Benzoin-a-oxime (or cupron) (5% in alcohol) (C6H5 CHOH C(=NOH) C 6H 5) forms a green precipitate of copper(JI) benzoin oxime CU(C I4 H l1 0 2N), insoluble in dilute ammonia. In the presence of metallic salts which are precipitated by ammonia, their precipitation can be prevented by the addition of sodium potassium tartrate (10%). The reagent is specific for copper in ammoniacal tartrate solution. Large amounts of ammonium salts interfere and should be removed by evaporation and heating to glowing; the residue is then dissolved in a little dilute hydrochloric acid. Treat some drop-reaction paper with a drop of the weakly acid test solution and a drop of the reagent, and then hold it over ammonia vapour. A green colouration is obtained. Sensitivity O.lllg Cu. Concentration limit 1 in 5 x 105 . If other ions, precipitable by ammonia solution, are present, a drop of potassium sodium tartrate solution (10%) is placed on the paper before the reagent is added. 9. Salicylaldehyde oxime (salicylaldoxime) (1 %)
O
~
Salicylaldoxime
ICH=NOH OH
1
green ppt
forms a greenish-yellow precipitate of copper salicylaldoxime Cu(C 7 H 60 2Nh in acetic acid solution, soluble in mineral acids. Only palladium and gold interfere giving Pd(C 7H 60 2Nh and metallic gold respectively in acetic acid solution; they should therefore be absent. Place a drop of the test solution, which has been neutralized and then acidified with acetic acid, in a micro test-tube and add a drop of the
86
Copper(lI)
3.10
reagent. A yellow-green precipitate or opalescence (according to the amount of copper present) is obtained. Sensitivity 0.5 J.lg Cu. Concentration limit I in 105. 10. Dithio oxamide (or rubeanic acid) (0.5%) H 2N-C-C-NH 2
S S
:eanic acid :; ack ppt
II II
black precIpItate of copper rubeanate Cu[C(=NH)Sb from ammoniacal or weakly acid solution. The precipitate is formed in the presence of alkali tartrates, but not in alkali-cyanide solutions. Only nickel and cobalt ions react under similar conditions yielding blue and brown precipitates respectively. Copper may, however, be detected in the presence of these elements by utilizing the capillary separation method on filter paper. Mercury(I) should be absent as it gives a black stain with ammonia. Place a drop of the neutral test solution upon drop-reaction paper, expose it to ammonia vapour and add a drop of the reagent. A black or greenishblack spot is produced. Sensitivity 0.01 J.lg Cu. Concentration limit 1 in 2 x 106 . Traces of copper in distilled water give a positive reaction, hence a blank test must be carried out with the distilled water. In the presence of nickel, proceed as follows. Impregnate drop-reaction paper with the reagent and add a drop of the test solution acidified with acetic acid, (2M). Two zones or circles are formed: the central olive-green or black ring is due to copper and the outer blue-violet ring to nickel. Sensitivity 0.05 J.lg Cu in the presence of20000 times that amount of nickel. Concentration limit 1 in 106 . In the presence of cobalt, the central green or black ring, due to copper, is surrounded by a yellow-brown ring of cobalt rubeanate. Sensitivity 0.25 J.lg Cu in the presence of 20000 times that amount of cobalt. Concentration limit 1 in 2 x 105. 11. Catalytic test iron(III) salts react with thiosulphate according to the equations: (a) Fe 3+ + 2S20~- --> [Fe(S203hr
(b)
Catalytic test
Reaction (a) is fairly rapid; reaction (b) is a slow one, but is enormously accelerated by traces of copper. If the reaction is carried out in the presence of a thiocyanate, which serves as an indicator for the presence of iron(III) ions and also retards reaction (b), then the reaction velocity, which is proportional to the time taken for complete decolourization, may be employed for detecting minute amounts of copper(lI) ions. Tungsten and, to a lesser extent, selenium cause a catalytic acceleration similar to that of copper: they should therefore be absent.
87
3.11
Upon adjacent cavities ofa spot plate, place a drop of the test solution and a drop of distilled water. Add to each 1 drop iron (III) thiocyanate (O.05M) and 3 drops sodium thiosulphate (O.5M). The decolourization of the copper-free solution is complete in 1.5-2 minutes: if the test solution contains Illg copper, the decolourization is instantaneous. For smaller amounts of copper, the difference in times between the two tests is still appreciable. Sensitivity O.21lg Cu 2+. Concentration limit 1 in 2 x 106 .
Atomic spectrometry
12. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry about 10 ppm copper can be identified in an air/acetylene flame at 324.75 nm. The test is more sensitive with a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame, 1 ppm copper can be easily identified at 324.75 nm. In the absence of transition metals the test is more sensitive. A copper or brass hollow-cathode lamp can be used. (c) Copper standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 3.9294 g analytical grade copper sulphate pentahydrate CUS04' 5H 20 in water and dilute to 1 litre. when copper compounds are heated with alkali carbonate upon charcoal, red metallic copper is obtained but no oxide is visible. (b) Borax bead green while hot, and blue when cold after heating in an oxidizing flame; red in a reducing flame, best obtained by the addition of a trace of tin. (c) Flame test green, especially in the presence of halides, e.g. by moistening with concentrated hydrochloric acid before heating.
13. Dry tests (a) Blowpipe test
Dry tests
3.11
Cadmium, Cd (Ar: 112.40)
Cadmium is a silver-white, malleable and ductile metal. It melts at 321 DC. It dissolves slowly in dilute acids with the evolution of hydrogen (owing to its negative electrode potential): Cd + 2H+
---->
Cd2+ + H2i
Cadmium forms bivalent ions which are colourless. Cadmium chloride, nitrate, and sulphate are soluble in water; the sulphide is insoluble with a characteristic yellow colour. All compounds of cadmium are toxic!
Cd (II) reactions
Reactions of cadmium(II) ions These reactions can be studied most conveniently with a O.25M solution of cadmium sulphate.
1. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) of cadmium sulphide:
H2 S
1
yellow CdS
yellow precipitate
Cd 2+ + H 2 S ----> CdSl
+ 2H+
The reaction is reversible; if the concentration of strong acid in the solution is above O.5M, precipitation is incomplete. Concentrated acids
88
Cadmium(II)
3.11
dissolve the precipitate for the same reason. The precipitate is insoluble in potassium cyanide (POISON); this distinguishes cadmium ions from copper.
NH3
1
white Cd(OH)2
2. Ammonia solution when added dropwise hydroxide:
white precipitate of cadmium(lI)
Cd 2+ + 2NH3
+ 2H 2 0
~ Cd(OHhl
+ 2NHt
The precipitate dissolves in acid when the equilibrium shifts towards the left. An excess of the reagent dissolves the precipitate, when tetramminecadmiate(lI) ions are formed: Cd(OHhl
+ 4NH3
--->
[Cd(NH3)4f+
+ 20H-
The complex is colourless.

"JaOH ,',-:e Cd(OH)2
3. Sodium hydroxide
white precipitate of cadmium(lI) hydroxide:
Cd2 + + 20H- ~ Cd(OHhl The precipitate is insoluble in excess reagent; its colour and composition remain unchanged when boiled. Dilute acids dissolve the precipitate by shifting the equilibrium to the left.
KCN
1
white Cd(CNh
4. Potassium cyanide (POISON) white precipitate of cadmium cyanide, when added slowly to the solution:
Cd 2 + + 2CN-
--->
Cd(CNhl
:'s:: ~'es in excess
An excess of the reagent dissolves the precipitate, with the formation of tetracyanocadmiate(lI) ions: Cd(CNhl
+ 2CN-
--->
[Cd(CN)4l 2-
The colourless complex is not very stable; when hydrogen sulphide gas is introduced, cadmium sulphide is precipitated: [Cd(CN)4l 2-
+ H 2 S ---> CdSl + 2H+ + 4CN-
The marked differences in the stabilities of the copper and cadmium tetracyanato complexes serves as the basis for the separation of copper and cadmium ions.
5. Potassium iodide
: :JeCfic test with :,s( p-nitrophenyl) carbazide
forms no precipitate (distinction from copper).
6. Bis(p-nitrophenyl) carbazide (0.1%)
NH-NH-Q-,\: N0 1
c=o
\H-NH-Q-N0 1
forms a brown-coloured product with cadmium hydroxide, which turns greenish-blue with formaldehyde. Place a drop of the acid, neutral or ammoniacal test solution on a spot plate and mix it with 1 drop sodium hydroxide (2M) solution and 1 drop potassium cyanide (10%) solution. Introduce 1 drop of the reagent and
89
3.11
2 drops formaldehyde solution (40%). A brown precipitate is formed, which very rapidly becomes greenish-blue. The reagent alone is red in alkaline solution and is coloured violet with formaldehyde, hence it is advisable to compare the colour produced in a blank test with pure water when searching for minute amounts of cadmium. Sensitivity 0.81!g Cd. Concentration limit I in 60000. In the presence of considerable amounts of copper, 3 drops each of the potassium cyanide and formaldehyde solution should be used; the sensitivity is 41!g Cd in the presence of 400 times that amount of copper.
Specific test with 'Cadion 28'
7. 4- N itronaphthalene-diazoamino-azo-benzene ('Cadion 2B') (0.02%)
O,N-8-N=N- NH ON=N-Q
Cadmium hydroxide forms a red-coloured lake with the reagent, which contrasts with the blue tint of the latter. Place a drop of the reagent upon drop-reaction paper, add one drop of the test solution (which should be slightly acidified with acetic acid (2M) containing a little sodium potassium tartrate), and then one drop potassium hydroxide (2M). A bright-pink spot, surrounded by a blue circle, is produced. Sensitivity 0.0251!g Cd.
Atomic spectrometry
8. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry emission in an air/acetylene flame is low, but lOppm cadmium can be identified in a nitrous oxide/ acetylene flame at 326.11 nm. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame I ppm cadmium can be easily tested and even 0.1 ppm identified at 228.80 nm, using a cadmium hollow-cathode lamp. (c) Cadmium standard, IOOOppm dissolve 2.1930g analytical grade cadmium sulphate CdS0 4 8/3H 2 0 in water and dilute to 1 litre. 9. Dry tests (a) Blowpipe test all cadmium compounds when heated with alkali carbonate on charcoal give a brown incrustation of cadmium oxide CdO. (b) Ignition test cadmium salts are reduced by sodium oxalate to elemental cadmium, which is usually obtained as a metallic mirror surrounded by a little brown cadmium oxide. Upon heating with sulphur, the metal is converted into yellow cadmium sulphide. Place a little of the cadmium salt mixed with an equal weight of sodium oxalate in a small ignition tube, and heat. A mirror of metallic cadmium with brown edges is produced. Allow to cool, add a little flowers of sulphur and heat again. The metallic mirror is gradually converted into the orangecoloured sulphide, which becomes yellow after cooling. Do not confuse this with the yellow sublimate of sulphur.
Dry tests
90
Arsenic(lIl)
3.12
3.12
Arsenic, As (Ar: 74.92) - arsenic(llI)
Arsenic is a steel-grey, brittle solid with a metallic lustre. It sublimes on heating, and a characteristic, garlic-like odour is apparent; on heating in a free supply of air, arsenic burns with a blue flame yielding white fumes of arsenic(III) oxide. The element is insoluble in hydrochloric acid and in dilute sulphuric acid: it dissolves readily in dilute nitric acid yielding arsenite ions and in concentrated nitric acid, aqua regia or sodium hypochlorite solution forming arsenate: As + 4H+ 3As + 5HN0 3(conc) 2As + 50Cl-
+ NO.1 + 2H2 0
----t
AsH
+ NOj + 2H 20 + 5NOj + 9H+ + 5Cl- + 6H+
----t
3AsO~2AsO~-
+ 3H 20
----t
Two series of compounds of arsenic are common: that of arsenic(III) and arsenic(V). Arsenic(lII) compounds can be derived from the amphoteric arsenic trioxide AS 2 0 3, which yields salts both with strong acids (e.g. arsenic(III) chloride, AsCI 3), and with strong bases (e.g. sodium arsenite, Na3As03)' In strongly acidic solutions, therefore, the arsenic(III) ion ASH is stable. In strongly basic solutions, the arsenite ions AsOj- are predominant. Arsenic(V) compounds are derived from arsenic pentoxide, As 2 0 S ' This is the anhydride of arsenic acid, H 3As0 4, which forms salts such as sodium arsenate Na3As04' Arsenic(V) therefore exists in solutions predominantly as the arsenate AsO~- ion. All compounds of arsenic are toxic!
As(lll) reactions
Reactions of arsenic (Ill) ions A O.IM solution of arsenic(III) oxide, AS 20 3, or sodium arsenite, Na3As03, can be used for these experiments. Arsenic(III) oxide does not dissolve in cold water, but by boiling the mixture for 30 minutes, dissolution is complete. The mixture can be cooled without the danger of precipitating the oxide.
1. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) of arsenic(III) sulphide: 2As H + 3H 2 S ----t As 2S31 + 6H+
yellow precipitate
The solution must be strongly acidic; if there is not enough acid present a yellow colouration is visible only, owing to the formation of colloidal AS 2 S3. The precipitate is insoluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid (distinction and method of separation from Sb2 S3 and SnS2), but dissolves in hot concentrated nitric acid: 3As 2S3 + 28HN0 3 + 4H 20 AS 2 S3 + 60H----t
6AsO~-
+ 9S0~- + 36H+ + 28NOj
It is also readily soluble in solutions of alkali hydroxides, and ammonia:

----t
AsOj-
+ AsSj- + 3H 20
Ammonium sulphide also dissolves the precipitate: AS 2S3 + 3S2- ----t 2AsS~91
3.12
In both cases thioarsenite (AsS~-) ions are formed. On reacidifying, these both decompose, when arsenic(III) sulphide and hydrogen sulphide are formed:
2AsS~-
+ 6H+ ----+ AS 2 S31 + 3H2 Sj
Yellow ammonium sulphide (ammonium polysulphide) (NH4hS2 dissolves the precipitate, and thioarsenate AsS~- ions are formed: AS 2S3!
+ 4S~-
----+
2AsS~-
+ S~-
Upon acidifying this solution, yellow arsenic(V) sulphide is precipitated. It is, however, contaminated with sulphur because of the decomposition of the excess polysulphide reagent:
2AsS~-
+ 6H+
----+ ----+
As 2Ss1 + 3H 2Sj H 2 Sj + S1
In
S~-
+ 2H+
2. Silver nitrate
AsO~-
yellow precipitate of silver arsenite (distinction from arsenates):
neutral solution
+ 3Ag+ ----+ Ag3As0 3!
The precipitate is soluble both in nitric acid and ammonia.

3. Magnesia mixture (a solution containing MgCI2 , NH4 CI, and a little NH3 ) no precipitate (distinction from arsenate).
A similar result is obtained with the magnesium nitrate reagent (a solution containing Mg(N0 3h, NH 4N0 3 , and a little NH3)'
4. Copper sulphate solution green precipitate of copper arsenite (Scheele's green), variously formulated as CuHAs0 3 and CU3 (As0 3 h' xH 2 0, from neutral solutions, soluble in acids, and also in ammonia solution forming a blue solution. The precipitate also dissolves in sodium hydroxide solution; upon boiling, copper(l) oxide is precipitated.
green ppt
Iodine
1
redox reaction
5. Potassium tri-iodide (solution of iodine in potassium iodide) arsenite ions and is decolourized:
AsO~-
oxidizes
+ 13 + H 20;::::t AsO~- + 31- + 2H+
The reaction is reversible, and an equilibrium is reached. If the hydrogen ions formed in this reaction are removed by adding sodium hydrogen carbonate as a buffer, the reaction goes to completion.
Bettendorf's test
6. Tin ( II) chloride solution and concentrated hydrochloric acid (Bettendorff 's Test) a few drops of the arsenite solution are added to 2 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid and 0.5 ml saturated tin(II) chloride solution, and the solution is gently warmed; the solution becomes dark brown and finally black, due to the separation of elemental arsenic:
2As H
+ 3Sn 2+ ----+ 2As! + 3Sn4+
If the test is made with the sulphide precipitated in acid solution, only mercury will interfere; by converting the arsenic into magnesium ammonium
92
Arsenic(V)
3.13
arsenate and heating to redness, the pyroarsenate Mg2As 20 7 remains and any mercury salts present are volatilized. This forms the basis of a delicate test for arsenic. Mix a drop of the test solution in a micro crucible with 1-2 drops concentrated ammonia solution, 2 drops of hydrogen peroxide (3%), and 2 drops M magnesium sulphate solution. Evaporate slowly and finally heat until fuming ceases. Treat the residue with 1-2 drops of a solution of tin(II) chloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid, and warm slightly. A brown or black precipitate or colouration is obtained. Sensitivity Il!g As. Concentration limit 1 in 50000.
Atomic spectrometry
7. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame 10 ppm arsenic can be identified at 235.00 nm. The test can be made more sensitive using a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy using an arsenic hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 1 ppm can be identified at 193.70 nm. Results are subject to background interferences, therefore it is better to use a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. (c) Arsenic standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.3203 g analytical grade arsenic(III) oxide AS 20 3 in 50 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid under gentle warming. Dilute with water to 1 litre.
3.13
Arsenic, As (A,: 74.92) - arsenic(V)
The properties of arsenic were summarized in Section 3.12.

As(V) reactions
Reactions of arsenate ions A 0.1 M solution of disodium hydrogen arsenate Na2HAs04 . 7H 20 can be used for the study of these reactions. The solution should contain some dilute hydrochloric acid. All compounds of arsenic are toxic!
1. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) no immediate precipitate in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid. If the passage of the gas is continued, a mixture of arsenic(III) sulphide, AS 2S3 , and sulphur is slowly precipitated. Precipitation is more rapid in hot solution.
H2 S
yellow AS 2 S 3 + S
AsO~2AsO~-
+ H 2 S ---> AsO~- + Sl + H 20
+ 3H 2S + 6H+ ---> As 2 S31 + 6H 2 0
If a large excess of concentrated hydrochloric acid is present and hydrogen sulphide is passed rapidly into the cold solution, yellow arsenic pentasulphide AS 2 S5 is precipitated:
2AsO~-
+ 5H 2 S + 6H+
--->
As 2S5 1 + 8H 2 0
Arsenic pentasulphide, like the trisulphide, is readily soluble in alkali hydroxides or ammonia, ammonium sulphide, ammonium polysulphide,
93
3.13
and in sodium or ammonium carbonate: As 2 Ss1 + 60HAs 2Ss1 + 3S2As 2 Ss1 + 6S~As 2 Ss1 + 3CO~--> --> --> -->
AsS~-
+ AS0 3S3- + 3H 2 0 + 3S~-
2AsS~-
2AsS~AsS~-
+ AS0 3S3- + 3C02
Upon acidifying these solutions with hydrochloric acid, arsenic pentasulphi de is reprecipitated:
2AsS~-
+ 6H+
-->
As 2 Ss1 + 3H 2 Sj
For the rapid precipitation of arsenic from solutions of arsenates without using a large excess of hydrochloric acid, sulphur dioxide may be passed into the slightly acid solution in order to reduce the arsenic to the tervalent state and then the excess of sulphur dioxide is boiled off; on conducting hydrogen sulphide into the warm reduced solution, immediate precipitation of arsenic trisulphide occurs. The precipitation can be greatly accelerated by the addition of small amounts of an iodide, say, I ml of a 0.05M solution, and a little concentrated hydrochloric acid. The iodide acts as a catalyst.
AgN0 3
1
brown Ag 3 As0 4
2. Silver nitrate solution brownish-red precipitate of silver arsenate Ag 3As0 4 from neutral solutions (distinction from arsenite and phosphate which yield yellow precipitates), soluble in acids and in ammonia solution, but insoluble in acetic acid.
AsO~-
+ 3Ag+
-->
Ag 3As0 41
This reaction may be adapted as a sensitive test for arsenic in the following manner. The test is applicable only in the absence of chromates, hexacyanoferrate(II) and (III) ions, which also give coloured silver salts insoluble in acetic acid. Place a drop of the test solution in a micro crucible, add a few drops of concentrated ammonia solution and of 3% hydrogen peroxide, and warm. Acidify with acetic acid and add 2 drops silver nitrate solution. A brownish-red precipitate or colouration appears. Sensitivity 61lg As. Concentration limit I in 8000.
Magnesia mixture
1
white ppt
3. Magnesia mixture (see Section 3.12, reaction 3) white, crystalline precipitate of magnesium ammonium arsenate Mg(NH 4)As0 4 6H 2 0 from neutral or ammoniacal solution (distinction from arsenite):
AsO~-
+ Mg2+ + NHt
-->
MgNH4As041
For some purposes (e.g. the detection of arsenate in the presence of phosphate), it is better to use the magnesium nitrate reagent (a solution containing Mg(N0 3b NH 4Cl, and a little NH3)' Upon treating the white precipitate with silver nitrate solution containing a few drops of acetic acid, red silver arsenate is formed (distinction from
94
Tests for arsenic
3.14
phosphate): MgNH4As041 + 3Ag+

(NH 4 )2 Mo0 4
---+
Ag 3As0 41 + Mg2+ + NHt
1
yellow ppt
4. Ammonium molybdate solution when the reagent and nitric acid are added in considerable excess to a solution of an arsenate, a yellow crystalline precipitate of ammonium arsenomolybdate, (NH 4hAsMo I2 0 40 , is obtained on boiling (distinction from arsenites which give no precipitate, and from phosphates which yield a precipitate in the cold or upon gentle warming). The precipitate is insoluble in nitric acid, but dissolves in ammonia solution and in solutions of caustic alkalis.
AsO~- + 12MoO~- + 3NHt + 24H+
---+
(NH4hAsMo120401 + 12H 2 0
The precipitate in fact contains trimolybdate (Mo30io) ions; each replacing one oxygen in AsO~-. The composition of the precipitate should be written as (NH4h [As(M0301O)4l.
KI
1
brown 12
In excess
! Ii
5. Potassium iodide solution in the presence of concentrated hydrochloric acid, iodine is precipitated; upon shaking the mixture with 1-2 ml of chloroform, the latter is coloured violet by the iodine. The reaction may be used for the detection of arsenate in the presence of arsenite; oxidizing agents must be absent. Excess of the reagent dissolves iodine to form tri-iodide ions,
AsO~- + 2H+ +
2r ;::::! AsO~- + 121 +H 20
12 + 1-
---+
13
The reaction is reversible (cf. Section 3.12, reaction 5); a large amount of acid must be present to complete this reaction.
5. Atomic spectrometric tests reaction 7.
3.14
these have been described in Section 3.12,
Special tests for small amounts of arsenic
These tests are applicable to all arsenic compounds, and play an important role in forensic analysis.
Marsh's test
I. Marsh's test this test, which must be carried out in the fume cupboard, is based upon the fact that all soluble compounds of arsenic are reduced by 'nascent' hydrogen in acid solution to arsine, AsH 3 , a colourless, extremely poisonous gas with a garlic-like odour. If the gas, mixed with hydrogen, is conducted through a heated glass tube, it is decomposed into hydrogen and metallic arsenic, which is deposited as a brownish-black 'mirror' just beyond the heated part of the tube. On igniting the mixed gases, composed of hydrogen and arsine (after all the air has been expelled from the apparatus), they burn with a dark blue flame and white fumes of arsenic(III) oxide are evolved; if the inside of a small porcelain dish is pressed down upon the flame, a black deposit of arsenic is obtained on the cool surface, and the deposit is readily soluble in sodium hypochlorite or bleaching powder solution (distinction from antimony).
96
3.14
CaCI~ ~'P---
Glass wool moistened with Pb (CHJCOO)~ solution
I::;::;;;~~--Zn
and dilute H: S04
Fig. 3.1
The following reactions take place during these operations:
+ 3Zn + 3H+ -+ AsH 3 i + 3Zn2 + AsO~- + 4Zn + IIH+ -+ AsH 3i + 4Zn 2+ + 4H 20

As3+ 4AsH3 i
-+
(heat)
-+
-+
4Asl + 6H 2 i AS 2 0 3 + 3H 2 0
2AsO~-
2AsH3 i + 30 2 2Asl + 50Cl-
+ 3H 20
-+
+ 5Cl- + 6H+
The Marsh test is best carried out as follows. The apparatus is fitted up as shown in Fig. 3.1. A conical flask of about 125 ml capacity is fitted with a two-holed rubber stopper carrying a thistle funnel reaching nearly to the bottom of the flask and a 5-7 mm right-angle tube; the latter is attached by a short piece of 'pressure' tubing to a V-tube filled with glass wool moistened with lead acetate solution to absorb any hydrogen sulphide evolved (this may be dispensed with, if desired, as its efficacy has been questioned), then to a small tube containing anhydrous calcium chloride of about 8 mesh, then to a hard glass tube, about 25 cm long and 7 mm diameter, constricted twice near the middle to about 2 mm diameter, the distance between the constrictions being 6-8 cm. The drying tubes and the tube ABC are securely supported by means of clamps. All reagents must be arsenic-free. Place 15-20 grams of arsenic-free zinc in the flask and add dilute sulphuric acid (3M) until hydrogen is vigorously evolved. The purity of the reagents is tested by passing the gases, by means of a delivery tube attached by a short piece of rubber tubing to the end of C, through silver nitrate solution (O.lM) for several minutes; the absence of a black precipitate or suspension proves that appreciable quantities of arsenic are not present. The black precipitate is silver: AsH 3 i
+ 6Ag+
-+
As3+
+ 3H+ + 6Agl
The solution containing the arsenic compound is then added in small amounts at a time to the contents of the flask. If much arsenic is present, there will be an almost immediate blackening of the silver nitrate solution.
88
Tests for arsenic
3.14
Disconnect the rubber tube at C. Heat the tube at A to just below the softening point; a mirror of arsenic is deposited in the cooler, less constricted portion of the tube. A second flame may be applied at B to ensure complete decomposition (arsine is extremely poisonous). When a satisfactory mirror has been obtained, remove the flames at A and B and apply a light at C. Hold a cold porcelain dish in the flame, and test the solubility of the black or brownish deposit in sodium hypochlorite solution. Smaller amounts of arsenic may be present in the silver nitrate solution as arsenious acid and can be detected by the usual tests, e.g. by hydrogen sulphide after removing the excess of silver nitrate with dilute hydrochloric acid, or by neutralizing and adding further silver nitrate solution, if necessary. The original Marsh test involved burning and deposition of the arsenic upon a cold surface. Nowadays the mirror test is usually applied. The silver nitrate reaction (sometimes known as Hofmann's test) is very useful as a confirmatory test.
Gutzeit's test
2. Gutzeit's test this is essentially a modification of Marsh's test, the chief difference being that only a test-tube is required and the arsine is detected by means of silver nitrate or mercury(II) chloride. Place 1-2 g arsenic-free zinc in a test-tube, add 5-7 ml dilute sulphuric acid, loosely plug the tube with purified cotton wool and then place a piece of filter paper moistened with 20% silver nitrate solution on top of the tube (Fig. 3.2). It may be necessary to warm the tube gently to produce a regular evolution of hydrogen. At the end of a definite period, say 2 minutes, remove the filter paper and examine the part that covered the test-tube; usually a light-brown spot is obtained owing to the traces of arsenic present in the reagents. Remove the cotton-wool plug, add 1 ml of the solution to be tested, replace the cotton wool and silver nitrate paper, the latter displaced so that a fresh portion is exposed. After 2 minutes, assuming that the rate of evolution of gas is approximately the same, remove the filter paper and examine the two spots. If much arsenic is present, the second spot (due to metallic silver), will appear black.
Filter paper moistened with AgNO) solution Cotton wool
==t---Dilute H 2S04
~~;t.---Zinc
Fig. 3.2
97
3.14
Hydrogen sulphide, phosphine PH 3 and stibine SbH 3 give a similar reaction. They may be removed by means of a purified cotton-wool plug impregnated with copper(I) chloride. The use ofmercury(II) chloride paper, prepared by immersing filter paper in a 5% solution of mercury(II) chloride in alcohol (POISON) and drying in the atmosphere out of contact with direct sunlight, constitutes an improvement. This is turned yellow by a little arsine and reddish-brown by larger quantities. Filter paper, impregnated with a 0.33M aqueous solution of 'gold chloride' [sodium tetrachloroaurate(III)], NaAuCI4 ' 2H 2 0, may also be employed when a dark-red to blue-red stain is produced. A blank test must be performed with the reagent in all cases. In this reaction gold is formed: AsH3 + 2Au H _ AsH + 2Au! + 3H+ The test may be performed on the semimicro scale with the aid of the apparatus shown in Fig. 3.3. Place 10 drops of the test solution in the semimicro test-tube, add a few granules of arsenic-free zinc and 1 ml dilute sulphuric acid. Insert a loose wad of pure cotton wool moistened with lead nitrate solution in the funnel, and on top of this place a disc of dropreaction paper impregnated with 20% silver nitrate solution; the paper may be held in position by a watch glass or microscope slide. Warm the test-tube gently (if necessary) on a water bath to accelerate the reaction, and allow to stand. Examine the silver nitrate paper after about 5 minutes. A grey spot will be obtained; this is occasionally yellow, due to the complex Ag 3 As' 3AgN0 3 For minute quantities of arsenic, it is convenient to use the apparatus depicted in Fig. 2.53. Mix a drop of the test solution with a few grains of zinc and a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid in the micro test-tube. Insert the funnel with a flat rim, and place a small piece of drop-reaction paper moistened with 20% silver nitrate solution on the flat surface. A grey stain will be obtained. Sensitivity Illg As. Concentration limit 1 in 50000. A more sensitive test is provided by drop-reaction paper impregnated with gold chloride reagent (a 0.33M solution of NaAuCl 4 2H 2 0). Perform the test as described in the previous paragraph: a blue to blue-red stain of metallic gold is obtained after standing for 10-15 minutes. It is essential to perform a blank test with the reagents to confirm that they are arsenic-free. Sensitivity 0.051lg As. Concentration limit 1 in 100000.
3. Fleitmann's test this test depends upon the fact that nascent hydrogen generated in alkaline solution, e.g. from aluminium or zinc and sodium hydroxide solution, reduces arsenic(III) compounds to arsine, but does not affect antimony compounds. A method of distinguishing arsenic and antimony compounds is thus provided. Arsenates must first be reduced to the tervalent state before applying the test. The modus operandi is as for the Gutzeit test, except that zinc or aluminium and sodium hydroxide solution
Fig. 3.3
Fleitmann's test
98
Antimony(llI)
3.15
replace zinc and dilute sulphuric acid. It is necessary to warm the solutions. A black stain of silver is produced by the action of the arsine. The apparatus of Fig. 3.3 may be used on the semimicro scale. Place 1 ml test solution in the test-tube, add some pure aluminium turnings, and 1 ml2M potassium hydroxide solution. Gentle warming is usually necessary. A yellow or grey stain is produced after several minutes.
Dry tests
4. Dry tests (a) Blowpipe test arsenic compounds when heated upon charcoal with sodium carbonate give a white incrustation of arsenic(III) oxide, and an odour of garlic is apparent while hot. (b) Black mirror when heated with excess of potassium cyanide (POISON) and of anhydrous sodium carbonate in a dry bulb tube, a black mirror of arsenic, soluble in sodium hypochlorite solution, is produced in the cooler part of the tube.
3.15 Antimony, Sb (A,: 121.75) - antimony(lIl)
Antimony is a lustrous, silver-white metal, which melts at 630C. It is insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and in dilute sulphuric acid. In hot, concentrated sulphuric acid it dissolves slowly forming antimony(III) ions: 2Sb + 3H 2 S04
+ 6H+
-->
2Sb3+
+ 3S02 r + 6H 20
Nitric acid oxidizes antimony to an insoluble product, which can be regarded as a mixture of Sb2 0 3 and Sb2 0 5 . These anhydrides, in turn, can be dissolved in tartaric acid. A mixture of nitric acid. and tartaric acid dissolves antimony easily. Aqua regia dissolves antimony, when antimony(III) ions are formed: Sb + HN0 3 + 3HCl
-->
Sb3+
+ 3Cl- + NOr + 2H 2 0
Two series of salts are known, with antimony(III) and antimony(V) ions in them; these are derived from the oxides Sb 2 0 3 and Sb 2 0 5 . Antimony(III) compounds are easily dissolved in acids, when the ion Sb 3+ is stable. If the solution is made alkaline, or the concentration of hydrogen ions is decreased by dilution, hydrolysis occurs when antimonyl, SbO+, ions are formed: Sb 3+ + H 2 0 ~ SbO+
+ 2H+
Antimony(V) compounds contain the antimonate ion, sbol-. Their characteristics are similar to the corresponding arsenic compounds.
Sb(lll) reactions
Reactions of antimony( Ill) ions A O.2M solution of antimony(III) chloride, SbCI 3 , can be used to study these reactions. This can be prepared either by dissolving the solid antimony(III) chloride or antimony(III) oxide, Sb20 3 , in dilute hydrochloric acid.
1. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) orange-red precipitate of antimony trisulphide, Sb 2 S3 , from mildly acidic solutions. The precipitate is soluble in warm concentrated hydrochloric acid [distinction 99
3.15
and method of separation from arsenic(III) sulphide and mercury(II) sulphide], in ammonium polysulphide (forming a thioantimonate), and in alkali hydroxide solutions (forming antimonite and thioantimonite). 2Sb 3 + + 3H2 S ----> Sb2 S3 1 + 6H+ Sb2 S3 1 + 6HCI Sb2 S3 1 + 4S~2Sb 2 S3 1 + 40H----> ----> ---->
2Sb 3 + + 6CI- + 3H 2 Si
2SbS~-
+ S~-
SbO z + 3SbS z + 2H 2 0
Upon acidification of the thioantimonate solution with hydrochloric acid, antimony pentasulphide is precipitated initially but usually decomposes partially into the trisulphide and sulphur:
2SbS~-
+ 6H+
---->
Sb2 Ss1 + 3H 2 Si
Sb2 Ss 1 ----> Sb 2 S3 1 + 2S1 Acidification of the antimonite-thioantimonite mixture leads to the precipitation of the trisulphide: SbO + 3SbS + 4H+
H20
---->
2Sb 2 S3 1 + 2H 2 0
!
white basic salt
2. Water when the solution is poured into water, a white precipitate of antimonyl chloride SbO CI is formed, soluble in hydrochloric acid and in tartaric acid solution (difference from bismuth). With a large excess of water the hydrated oxide Sb2 0 3 . xH 2 0 is produced. 3. Sodium hydroxide or ammonia solution white precipitate of the hydrated antimony(III) oxide Sb 2 0 3 xH 2 0 soluble in concentrated (5M) solutions of caustic alkalis forming antimonites.
NaOH
!
white Sb 2 0 3
2Sb3+ + 60HSb2 0 3 1 + 20HZn
----> ---->
Sb2 0 3 1 + 3H 2 0 2SbO
z+ H 0
2
!
black Sb
a black precipitate of antimony is produced. If a little of the antimony trichloride solution is poured upon platinum foil and a fragment of metallic zinc is placed on the foil, a black stain of antimony is formed upon the platinum; the stain (or deposit) should be dissolved in a little warm dilute nitric acid and hydrogen sulphide passed into the solution after dilution: an orange precipitate of antimony trisulphide will be obtained.
4. Zinc
2Sb3+ + 3Znl
---->
2Sbl + 3Zn2 +
Some stibine SbH 3 may be evolved when zinc is used; it is preferable to employ tin. 2Sb3+
+ 3Snl ----> 2Sbl + 3Sn2+
A modification of the above test is to place a drop of the solution containing antimony upon a silver foil and to touch the foil through the drop with a piece of tin or zinc. A black spot consisting of antimony is formed.
100
Antimony(lll)
3.15
Fe
!
black Sb
5. Iron wire black precipitate of antimony. This may be confirmed as described in reaction 4. 2Sb3+
+ 3Fe -+ 2Sbl + 3Fe2+

yellow colouration owing to the formation of a
KI
!
yellow colour
6. Potassium iodide solution complex salt. Sb3+
+ 61-
-+
[SbI 6 ]3-
Rhodamine- B violet colour
7. Rhodamine-B (or tetraethylrhodamine) reagent
violet or blue colouration with pentavalent antimony. Trivalent antimony does not respond to this test, hence it must be oxidized with potassium or sodium nitrite in the presence of strong hydrochloric acid. In Group lIB SbCl 3 is always formed together with SnCl4 when the precipitate is treated with hydrochloric acid: by oxidizing Sb(III) to Sb(V) with a little solid nitrite, an excellent means of testing for Sb in the presence of a large excess of Sn is available. Mercury, gold, thallium, molybdates, vanadates, and tungstates in solution give similar colour reactions. The test solution should be made strongly acidic by adding hydrochloric acid (6M). Antimony should be oxidized to Sb(V) with the addition of a little solid sodium or potassium nitrite (avoiding a large excess). Place 1 ml reagent on a spot plate and add 1 ml of the test solution. The bright-red colour of the reagent changes to blue. Sensitivity 0.5 ~g Sb and applicable in the presence of 12500 times that amount of Sn. Concentration limit 1 in 100000.
Molybdenum blue test
8. Phosphomolybdic acid reagent (H3 [PMo 12 0 40 }) 'molybdenum blue' is produced by antimony(III) salts. Of the ions in Group II, only tin(II) interferes with the test. The test solution may consist of the filtered solution obtained by treating the Group lIB precipitate with hydrochloric acid: the antimony is present as Sb3+ and the tin as Sb4 +, which has no effect upon the reagent. Place a drop of the test solution upon filter paper which has been impregnated with the phosphomolybdic acid reagent and hold the paper in steam. A blue colouration appears within a few minutes. Sensitivity 0.2 ~g Sb. Concentration limit 1 in 250000. Alternatively, place 1 ml test solution in a semimicro test-tube, add 0.51 ml reagent, and heat for a short time. The reagent is reduced to a blue compound, which can be extracted with amyl alcohol.
101
3.16
Tin(II) chloride reduces not only the reactive phosphomolybdic acid but also its relatively unreactive (e.g. ammonium or potassium) salts to 'molybdenum blue'. The composition of this compound is usually given as Mo 20 s; the real molecular unit however contains 154 molybdenum atoms with attendant ligands in a cyclic arrangement I. However, antimony(III) salts do not reduce ammonium phosphomolybdate: Sn 2+ may thus be detected in the presence of Sb 3+. Impregnate filter paper with a solution of phosphomolybdic acid and then hold it for a short time over ammonia gas to form the yellow, sparingly soluble ammonium salt; dry. Place a drop of the test solution on this paper: a blue spot appears if tin(II) is present. Sensitivity 0.031lg Sn. Concentration limit 1 in 650000.
Atomic spectrometry
9. Atomic spectrometric tests tests for antimony by atomic spectrometry are not sensitive. (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame about 100ppm antimony can be identified at 607.90nm. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using an antimony hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 50 ppm can be identified at 206.83nm. (c) Antimony standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.0000 g analytical grade antimony metal in a solution made up from 10ml concentrated hydrochloric acid, 109 analytical grade tartaric acid and a few drops of concentrated nitric acid. After complete dissolution dilute with water to 1 litre.
Antimony, Sb (Ar: 121.75) - antimony(V)
3.16
The physical and chemical properties of antimony have been described in Section 3.15.
Sb(V) reactions
Reactions of antimony( V) ions Antimony(V) ions are derived from the amphoteric oxide Sb 20 s . In acids this oxide dissolves under the formation of the antimony(V) cation Sb s+: Sb 20 s + lOH+ <= 2Sb s+ + 5H 20 In alkalis, on the other hand, the antimonate SbO~- ion is formed:
Sb 20 s + 30H-
<= 2SbO~- + 3H+
SbO~- is a simplified expression of the composition of the antimonate ion; in fact it exists in the hydrated form, which may be termed hexahydroxoantimonate(V). Its formation from Sb 20 s with alkalis may be described by the reaction:
Sb 20 s + 20H-
+ 5H 20 <= 2[Sb(OH)6r
For the study of these reactions, an acidified 0.2M solution of potassium hexahydroxoantimonate K[Sb(OH)6J can be used. Alternatively, antimony pentoxide Sb 2 0 s may be dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid.
1. A. Mi.iller: Angew. Chern. 1996, 35, 1206
102
Antimony(V)
3.16
1. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) orange-red precipitate of antimony pentasulphide, Sb 2SS , in moderately acid solutions. The precipitate is soluble in ammonium sulphide solution (yielding a thioantimonate), is soluble in alkali hydroxide solutions, and is also dissolved by concentrated hydrochloric acid with the formation of antimony trichloride and the separation of sulphur. The thio salt is decomposed by acids, the pentasulphide being precipitated.
2Sb S+ + 5H 2S ----> Sb 2Ss1 + 10H+ Sb2Ss1 + 3S 2Sb2Ss1 + 60HSb2Ss1 + 6H+

2SbS~----> ----> ----> ---->
2SbS~-
Sb0 3 S3- + SbS~- + 3H 20 2Sb 3+ + 2S1 + 3H 2 ST Sb 2 Ss1 + 3H 2 ST
+ 6H+
Sb0 3S3H2 0
+ SbS~- + 6H+ ----> Sb2 Ss1 + 3H20
!
white basic salts
2. Water white precipitate of basic salts with various compositions; ultimately antimonic acid is formed:
The precipitate dissolves both in acids and alkalis (but not carbonates).
KI
III
alkali
3. Potassium iodide solution
in acidic solution iodine is formed:
1
brown 12
Sb S+ + 21-
;::::Z
Sb 3+
+ 121
Dissolves in excess
If the Sb s+ ions are in excess, iodine crystals precipitate out and float on the surface of the solution. When heated the characteristic violet vapour of iodine appears. If the reagent is added in excess, brown tri-iodide ions are formed which screen the yellow colour of hexaiodoantimonate(III) ions:
Zn or Sn
1
black Sb
4. Zinc or tin acid:
black precipitate of antimony in the presence of hydrochloric

----> ---->
2Sb S+ + 5Zn1 2Sb s+ + 5Sn1
2Sb1 2Sb1
+ 5Zn 2+ + 5Sn 2+
Some stibine (SbH 3 ) is also generated by zinc.

5. Rhodamine-B reagent see antimony(III) compounds (Section 3.15, reaction 7). There is no need for preliminary oxidation in this case. 6. Atomic spectrometric tests reaction 9.

103
3.18
3.17
Special tests for small amounts of antimony
1. Marsh's test this test is carried out exactly as described for arsenic. The stibine, SbH 3 (mixed with hydrogen), which is evolved, burns with a faintly bluish-green flame and produces a dull black spot upon a cold porcelain dish held in the flame; this deposit is insoluble in sodium hypochlorite or bleaching powder solution, but is dissolved by a solution of tartaric acid (difference from arsenic). The gas is also decomposed by passage though a tube heated to dull redness. A lustrous mirror of antimony is formed in a similar manner to the arsenic mirror, but it is deposited on both sides of the heated portion of the tube because of the greater instability of the stibine. This mirror may be converted into orange-red antimony trisulphide by dissolving it in a little boiling hydrochloric acid and passing hydrogen sulphide into the solution. When the stibine-hydrogen mixture is passed into a solution of silver nitrate (Hofmann's test) a black precipitate of silver antimonide Ag 3 Sb is obtained; this is decomposed by the excess of silver nitrate into silver and antimony(III) oxide: SbH 3 + 3Ag+ 2Ag3 Sbl + 6Ag+
---> --->
Ag 3 Sbl
+ 3H 20
+ 3H+ 12Agl + Sb20 3 1+ 6H+
It is best to dissolve the precipitate in a solution of tartaric acid and to test for
antimony with hydrogen sulphide in the usual manner.

2. Gutzeit's test a brown stain is produced which is soluble in 80% alcohol, provided the concentration of antimony is not too high.
3. Fleitmann's test negative results are obtained when this is applied to antimony compounds (distinction from arsenic).
4. Dry test (blowpipe test) when antimony compounds are heated with sodium carbonate upon charcoal, a brittle metallic bead, surrounded by a white incrustation, is obtained.
3.18
Tin, Sn (A,: 118.69) -tin(lI)
Tin is a silver-white metal which is malleable and ductile at ordinary temperatures, but at low temperatures it becomes brittle due to transformation into a different allotropic modification. It melts at 231.8C. The metal dissolves slowly in dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acid with the formation of tin(II) salts: Sn + 2H+ ---> Sn2+ + H2 i Dilute nitric acid dissolves tin slowly without the evolution of any gas, tin(II) and ammonium ions are formed: 4Sn + lOH+ + NO:] ---> 4Sn2+ + NHt + 3H 20
104
Tin(lI)
3.18
With concentrated nitric acid a vigorous reaction occurs. In this case a white solid, usually formulated as hydrated tin(IV) oxide Sn02 xH 20 and sometimes known as meta stannic acid, is produced:
In the presence of antimony and tartaric acid tin dissolves readily in nitric acid (induced dissolution) because of complex formation. If larger amounts of iron are present, the formation of metastannic acid is again prevented. In hot, concentrated sulphuric acid tin (IV) ions are formed during dissolution: Sn + 4H 2S04 ----+ Sn4+ + 2S0~- + 2S02 i + 4H 20 Aqua regia dissolves tin readily, when again tin(IV) ions are formed: 3Sn + 4HN0 + 12HCI ----+ 3Sn4+ + 12CI- + 4NOi + 8H 0
3 2
Tin can be bivalent and tetravalent in its compounds. The tin(H) or stannous compounds are usually colourless. In acid solution the tin (H) ions Sn2 + are present, while in alkaline solutions tetrahydroxostannate(H) ions [Sn(OH)4]2- are to be found. These two are readily transformed into each other: Sn2+ + 40H- <=t [Sn(OH)4fTin(H) ions are strong reducing agents. Tin(lV) or stannic compounds are more stable. In aqueous solution they can be present as the tin(IV) ions Sn4+ or as hexahydroxostannate(IV) ions [Sn(OH)6]z-. These again form an equilibrium system: Sn4+
+ 60H- <=t [Sn(OH)6]2-
In acid solutions the equilibrium is shifted towards the left, while in alkaline medium it is shifted towards the right.
Sn(ll) reactions
Reactions of tin ( 1/) ions A 0.25M solution of tin(H) chloride, SnCl z 2H 20, can be used for studying these reactions. The solution should contain free hydrochloric acid (100 ml concentrated HCI per litre). 1. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) brown precipitate of tin(H) sulphide, SnS, from mildly acidic solutions (say in the presence of 0.25-0.3M hydrochloric acid or pH c. 0.6). The precipitate is soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid (distinction from arsenic(III) sulphide and mercury(H) sulphide); it is also soluble in yellow [(NH4hSx], but not in colourless [(NH 4hS], ammonium sulphide solution to form a thiostannate. Treatment of the solution of ammonium thiostannate with an acid yields a yellow precipitate of tin(IV) sulphide, SnSz.
Snz+ + HzS SnSl + S~SnS~-
----+ ----+ ----+
SnSl
+ 2H+ + HzSi
105
SnS~-
+ 2H+
SnS21
3.18
Tin(II) sulphide is practically insoluble in solutions of caustic alkalis; hence, if potassium hydroxide solution is employed for separating Group IIA and Group lIB, the tin must be oxidized to the tetravalent state with hydrogen peroxide before precipitation with hydrogen sulphide.
NaOH
1
white Sn(OH)z dissolves in excess
2. Sodium hydroxide solution in excess alkali:
white precipitate of tin (II) hydroxide, soluble
Sn H Sn(OHhl
+ 20H- +=! Sn(OHhl + 20H- +=! [Sn(OH)4J 2-
With ammonia solution, white tin (II) hydroxide is precipitated, which cannot be dissolved in excess ammonia.
HgClz
1
white HgzCl z
3. Mercury ( II) chloride solution a white precipitate ofmercury(I) chloride (calomel) is formed if a large amount of the reagent is added quickly: SnH + 2HgCl - t Hg Cl 1 + Sn 4+ + 2CI2 2 2
If however tin(II) ions are in excess, the precipitate turns grey, especially on warming, owing to further reduction to mercury metal: Sn 2+ + Hg Cl 1 - t 2Hgl + Sn4+ + 2CI2 2
All compounds of mercury are POISONOUS!

4. Bismuth nitrate and sodium hydroxide solutions bismuth metal (cf. Section 3.9, reaction 5).
Zn
black precipitate of
1
spongy Sn
5. Metallic zinc spongy tin is deposited which adheres to the zinc. If the zinc rests upon platinum foil, as described in Section 3.15, reaction 4, and the solution is weakly acid, the tin is partially deposited upon the zinc in a spongy form but does not stain the platinum. The precipitate should be dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid and the mercury(II) chloride test applied. 6. Cacotheline reagent (a nitro-derivative of brucine, C21H2107N3) violet colouration with tin(II) salts. The test solution should be acidic (2M HCI), and if tin is in the tetravalent state, it should be reduced previously with aluminium or magnesium, and the solution filtered. Both cacotheline and brucine are strongly toxic! The following interfere with the test: strong reducing agents (hydrogen sulphide, dithionites, sulphites and selenites); V, U, Te, Hg, Bi, Au, Pd, Se, Te, Sb, Mo, W, Co and Ni. The reaction is not selective, but is fairly sensitive: it can be used in the analysis of the Group lIB precipitate. Since iron(II) ions have no influence on the test, it may be applied to the tin solution which has been reduced with iron wire. Impregnate some drop-reaction paper with the reagent and, before the paper is quite dry, add a drop of the test solution. A violet spot, surrounded by a less coloured zone, appears on the yellow paper. Alternatively, treat a little of the test solution in a micro test-tube with a few drops of the reagent. A violet (purple) colouration is produced.
Cacotheline
1
violet colour
106
Tin(IV)
3.19
Sensitivity 0.21lg Sn. Concentration limit I in 250000.

Diazine colour change blue
1
violet red
7. Diazine green reagent (dyestuff formed by coupling diazotized safranine with dimethylaniline) (Janus green) tin(II) chloride reduces the blue diazine green to the red safranine, hence the colour change is blueviolet - red. Titanium(III) chloride reacts similarly, but iron(II) salts and similar reducing agents have no effect. The reagent is therefore useful in testing for tin in the mixed sulphides of antimony and tin obtained in routine qualitative analysis. The solution of the sulphides in hydrochloric acid is reduced with iron wire, aluminium, or magnesium powder and a drop of the reduced solution employed for the test. Mix I drop of the test solution on a spot plate with I ml of the reagent. The colour changes from blue to violet or red. It is advisable to carry out a blank test. Sensitivity 21lg Sn. Concentration limit 1 in 25000. 8. Atomic spectrometric tests the air/acetylene flame is not recommended for these, as several metals interfere in this relatively cold flame. (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame 1 ppm tin can be identified at 284.00 nm. At the same wavelength the air/acetylene flame sensitivity is increased twofold, but Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn interfere, together with larger amounts of other metals. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a tin hollow-cathode lamp and a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame, 1 ppm can be identified at 224.61 nm. With an air, acetylene flame at the same wavelength sensitivity is somewhat higher, but the danger of interference from the presence of other metals is considerable. (c) Tin standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.0000 g analytical grade tin metal in a mixture of 200 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid and 5 ml of concentrated nitric acid. Dilute the solution with water to I litre.
Atomic spectrometry
3.19
Tin, Sn (Ar: 118.69) - tin(IV)
The properties of metallic tin were discussed at the beginning of Section 3.18.
S n (I V) reacti ons
Reactions of tin (IV) ions To study these reactions use a 0.25M solution of ammonium hexachlorostannate(IV) by dissolving 92g (NH 4 h[SnCl 61 in 250 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid and diluting the solution to 1 litre with water.
I. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) yellow precipitate of tin(IV) sulphide SnS2 from dilute acid solutions (0.3M). The precipitate is soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid [distinction from arsenic(III) and mercury(II) sulphides], in solutions of alkali hydroxides, and also in ammonium sulphide and ammonium polysulphide. Yellow tin(IV) sulphide
107
3.20
is precipitated upon acidification.
+ 2H 2S ---> SnS21 + 4H+ SnS21 + S2- ---> SnS~SnS21 + 2S~- ---> SnS~- + S~ SnS~- + 2H+ ---> SnS21 + H 2Si
No precipitation of tin(IV) sulphide occurs in the presence of oxalic acid, due to the formation of the stable complex ion of the type [Sn(C 20 4)4(H 20hl 4-; this forms the basis of a method of separation of antimony and tin.
NaOH
SnH
1
white Sn(OH)4 dissolves in excess
2. Sodium hydroxide solution gelatinous white precipitate of tin(lV) hydroxide, Sn(OH)4, soluble in excess of the precipitant forming hexahydroxostannate(IV) Sn4+ + 40H- ---> Sn(OH)41
Sn(OH)41
+ 20H- ;::::: [Sn(OH)6f-
With ammonia and with sodium carbonate solutions, a similar precipitate is obtained which, however, is insoluble in excess reagent.
3. Mercury(II) chloride solution
Fe
no precipitate (difference from tin(II)).
1
redox reaction Sn(ll)
4. Metallic iron reduces tin(IV) ions to tin(II): Sn4+ + Fe ---> Fe2+ + Sn2+
If pieces of iron are added to a solution, and the mixture is filtered, tin(II) ions can be detected with mercury(II) chloride reagent. A similar result is obtained on boiling the solution with copper or antimony.
5. Atomic spectrometric tests reaction 8.
Dry tests
all tin compounds when heated with sodium carbonate, preferably in the presence of potassium cyanide, on charcoal give white, malleable and metallic globules of tin which do not mark paper. Part of the metal is oxidized to tin(IV) oxide, especially on strong heating, which forms a white incrustation on the charcoal. (b) Borax bead test a borax bead, which has been coloured pale blue by a trace of copper salt, becomes a clear ruby red in the reducing flame if a minute quantity of tin is added.
3.20 Third group of cations: iron(ll) and (III), aluminium(lll), chromium(lIl) and (VI), nickel(II), cobalt(II), manganese(ll) and (VII), and zinc(ll)
Group reagent hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) in the presence of ammonia and ammonium chloride, or ammonium sulphide solution.
108
Iron(lI)
3.21
Third group of cations Fe(II), Fe(III), AI(III), Cr(III), Cr(VI), Ni(II), Co(II), Mn(II), Mn(VII), Zn(ll)
Group reaction precipitates of various colours: iron(II) sulphide (black), aluminium hydroxide (white), chromium(III) hydroxide (green), nickel sulphide (black), cobalt sulphide (black), manganese(II) sulphide (pink), and zinc sulphide (white). The metals of this group are not precipitated by the group reagents for Groups I and II, but are all precipitated, in the presence of ammonium chloride, by hydrogen sulphide from their solutions made alkaline with ammonia solution. The metals, with the exception of aluminium and chromium which are precipitated as the hydroxides owing to the complete hydrolysis of the sulphides in aqueous solution, are precipitated as the sulphides. Iron, aluminium, and chromium (often accompanied by a little manganese) are also precipitated as the hydroxides by ammonia solution in the presence of ammonium chloride, whilst the other metals of the group remain in solution and may be precipitated as sulphides by hydrogen sulphide. It is therefore usual to subdivide the group into the iron group (iron, aluminium, and chromium) or Group lIlA and the zinc group (nickel, cobalt, manganese, and zinc) or Group IIIB.
3,21
Iron, Fe (Ar: 55.85) - iron(ll)
Chemically pure iron is a silver-white, tenacious, and ductile metal. It melts at 1535C. The commercial metal is rarely pure and usually contains small quantities of carbide, silicide, phosphide, and sulphide of iron, and some graphite. These contaminants play an important role in the strength of iron structures. Iron can be magnetized. Dilute or concentrated hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric acid dissolve iron, when iron(lI) salts and hydrogen gas are produced. Fe + 2H+ ~ Fe2+ + H2i Fe + 2HCl ~ Fe2+ + 2Cl-
+ H2 i + 6H 20
Hot, concentrated sulphuric acid yields iron(III) ions and sulphur dioxide: 2Fe + 3H2S04 + 6H+ ~ 2Fe 3+ + 3S0 2i With cold dilute nitric acid, iron(II) and ammonium ions are formed: 4Fe + IOH+ + N0 3 ~ 4Fe2+ + NHt + 3H 20 Cold, concentrated nitric acid renders iron passive; in this state it does not react with dilute nitric acid nor does it displace copper from an aqueous solution of a copper salt. 8M or hot, concentrated nitric acid dissolves iron with the formation of nitrogen oxide gas and iron(lII) ions: Fe + HN0 3 + 3H+ ~ Fe 3+ + NOi
+ 2H 2 0
Iron forms two important series of salts. The iron(lI) (or ferrous) salts are derived from iron(lI) oxide FeO. In solution they contain the cation Fe2+ and normally possess a slight-green colour. Intensively coloured ion-association and chelate complexes are also common. Iron(lI) ions can be oxidized easily to iron(III); they are therefore
109
3.21
strong reducing agents. The less acidic the solution the more pronounced this effect; in neutral or alkaline media even atmospheric oxygen will oxidize iron(lI) ions. Solutions of iron(lI) must be slightly acidic if they are to be kept for a longer time. An acidified solution of Mohr's salt (cf. below) is stable for several months. Iron(III) (or ferric) salts are derived from iron(III) oxide Fe203' They are more stable than the iron(lI) salts. In their solution the pale-yellow Fe 3+ cations are present; if the solution contains chloride, the colour becomes stronger. Reducing agents convert iron(III) ions to iron(II).
Fe(ll) reactions
Reactions of iron (II) ions Use a freshly prepared 0.5M solution ofiron(lI) sulphate FeS04' 7H 20 or iron (II) ~monium sulphate (Mohr's salt; FeS04' (NH 4hS04' 6H 20), acidified with 50 ml M H 2S04 per litre, for the study of these reactions. 1. Sodium hydroxide solution white precipitate of iron(lI) hydroxide, Fe(OH)z, in the complete absence of air, insoluble in excess, but soluble in acids. Upon exposure to air, iron(lI) hydroxide is rapidly oxidized, yielding ultimately reddish-brown iron(lI!) hydroxide. Under ordinary conditions it appears as a dirty-green precipitate; the addition of hydrogen peroxide immediately oxidizes it to iron(III) hydroxide.
NaOH
!
white Fe(OH)2. turns dark
Fe2+ + 20H4Fe(OHh
-+
Fe(OHh!
+ 2H 20 + O 2 -+ 4Fe(OH)3! 2Fe(OHh + H 20 2 -+ 2Fe(OHh!
white Fe(OH)2. turns dark
2. Ammonia solution precipitation ofiron(II) hydroxide occurs (cf. reaction I). If, however, larger amounts of ammonium ions are present, the dissociation of ammonium hydroxide is suppressed, and the concentration of hydroxyl ions is lowered to such an extent that the solubility product of iron(lI) hydroxide, Fe(OH)z, is not attained and precipitation does not occur. Similar remarks apply to the other divalent elements of Group III, nickel, cobalt, zinc and manganese and also to magnesium. 3. Hydrogen sulphide no precipitation takes place in acid solution since the sulphide ion concentration, [S2-], is insufficient to exceed the solubility product of iron(lI) sulphide. If the hydrogen-ion concentration is reduced, and the sulphide-ion concentration correspondingly increased, by the addition of sodium acetate solution, partial precipitation of black iron(lI) sulphide, FeS, occurs.
(NH 4 l2 S
!
black FeS
4. Ammonium sulphide solution black precipitate of iron(lI) sulphide, readily soluble in acids with evolution of hydrogen sulphide. The moist precipitate becomes brown upon exposure to air, due to its oxidation to basic iron(III) sulphate Fe20(S04h. Fe2+ + S2- -+ FeS!
FeS! + 2H+
-+
Fe 2+ + H 2Sj
4FeS! + 90 2 -+ 2Fe20(S04h!
110
Iron(lI)
3.21
KCN
1
brown Fe(CNh, dissolves in excess
5. Potassium cyanide solution (POISON) yellowish-brown precipitate of iron(II) cyanide, soluble in excess reagent when a pale-yellow solution of hexacyanoferrate(II) (ferrocyanide) [Fe(CN)6J 4- ions is obtained: Fe2+ + 2CN- ----t Fe(CNhl
Fe(CNhl + 4CN-
----t
[Fe(CN)6J 4-
The hexacyanoferrate(II) ion, being a complex ion, does not undergo the typical reactions of iron(II). The iron present in such solutions may be detected by decomposing the complex ion by boiling the solution with concentrated sulphuric acid in a fume cupboard with good ventilation, when carbon monoxide gas is formed (together with hydrogen cyanide, if potassium cyanide is present in excess): [Fe(CN)6J 4- + 6H 2S0 4 + 6H 20 ----t Fe2+ + 6COj + 6NHt + 6S0~A dry sample which contains alkali hexacyanoferrate(II) decomposes on ignition to iron carbide, alkali cyanide, and nitrogen, By dissolving the residue in acid, iron can be detected in the solution. Because of the toxic nature of the carbon monoxide gas, this operation must again be carried out in a fume cupboard.
K4 [Fe(CN)6]
1
white K2Fe[Fe(CN)6]
6, Potassium hexacyanoferrate( II) solution in the complete absence of air a white precipitate of potassium iron(II) hexacyanoferrate(II) is formed: Fe2+ + 2K+ + [Fe(CN)6J 4- ----t K2Fe[Fe(CN)611
Under ordinary atmospheric conditions a pale-blue precipitate is obtained (cf. reaction 7).
K3 [Fe(CN)6]
1
Turnbull's blue
a dark-blue precipitate is obtained, First hexacyanoferrate(III) ions oxidize iron(II) to iron(III), when hexacyanoferrate(II) is formed: Fe 2+ + [Fe(CN)6J 3- ----t Fe 3+ + [Fe(CN)6J 47, Potassium hexacyanoferrate( III) solution
and these ions combine to a precipitate called Turnbull's blue: 4Fe 3+ + 3[Fe(CN)6J 4- ----t Fe4[Fe(CN)6h Note that the composition of this precipitate is identical to that of Prussian blue (cf. Section 3.22, reaction 6). Earlier it was suggested that its composition was iron(II) hexacyanoferrate(III), Fe3[Fe(CN)6h, hence the different name. The identical composition and structure of Turnbull's blue and Prussian blue has recently been proved by M6ssbauer spectroscopy, The precipitate is decomposed by sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, iron(III) hydroxide being precipitated.
8, Ammonium thiocyanate solution no colouration is obtained with pure iron(II) salts (distinction from iron(III) ions).
9, 2,2' -Bipyridyl reagent
111
3.21
2.2'-Bipyridyl
1
red colour Specific for Fe(ll)
deep-red complex bivalent cation [Fe(C 5 H4Nh12+ with iron(II) salts in mineral acid solution. Iron(III) ion does not react. Other metalIic ions react with the reagent in acid solution, but the intensities of the resulting colours are so feeble that they do not interfere with the test for iron provided excess reagent is employed. Large amounts of halides and sulphates reduce the solubility of the iron(II) bipyridyl complex and a red precipitate may be formed. Treat a drop of the faintly acidified test solution with 1 drop of the reagent on a spot plate: a red colouration is obtained. Alternatively, treat dropreaction paper (Whatman No. 3 M.M., 1st quality), which has been impregnated with the reagent and dried, with a drop of the test solution: a red or pink spot is produced. Sensitivity 0.3 Ilg Fe2+. Concentration limit 1 in 1 600000. If appreciable quantities of iron(III) salts are present and traces of iron(II) salts are sought, it is best to carry out the reaction in a micro crucible lined with paraffin wax and to mask iron(III) ions as [FeF 613- by the addition of a few drops of potassium fluoride solution. 10. Dimethylglyoxime reagent soluble red iron(II) dimethylglyoxime in ammoniacal solution. Iron(III) salts give no colouration, but nickel, cobalt, and large quantities of copper salts interfere and must be absent. The test may be carried out in the presence of potassium cyanide solution in which nickel dimethylglyoxime (cf. Section 3.27, reaction 8) dissolves. Mix a drop of the test solution with a smalI crystal of tartaric acid; introduce a drop of the reagent, folIowed by 2 drops ammonia solution. A red colouration appears. Sensitivity 0.04 Ilg Fe z+. Concentration limit 1 in 125000. The colouration fades on standing owing to the oxidation of the iron(II) complex. Ifit is desired to detect iron(III) ions by this test, they must first be reduced by a little hydroxylamine hydrochloride.
11. l,lO-Phenanthroline reagent
Dimethylglyoxime
1
red colour
1.10- Phenanthroline
1
red colour
red colouration due to the complex cation [Fe(C 12 H gN zhl z+ in faintly acid solution. Iron(III) has no effect and must first be reduced to the bivalent state with hydroxylamine hydrochloride if the reagent is to be used in testing for iron. Place a drop of the faintly acid test solution on a spot plate and add 1 drop of the reagent. A red colour is obtained. Concentration limit 1 in 1 500000.
Atomic spectrometry
6b
12. Atomic spectrometric tests iron emits a large number of spectrum lines in the ultraviolet region. The lines recommended below are the most often used ones for quantitative work.
112
Iron(lIl) 3.22 (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame 1 ppm iron can be identified at 371.99 nm. The nitrous oxide/acetylene flame allows a more sensitive test. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using an iron hollow-cathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 1 ppm can be identified at 248.33 nm. (c) Iron standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.0000 g analytical grade iron (e.g. iron wire) in a mixture of 20 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid and 5 ml concentrated nitric acid. After complete dissolution, heat the solution on a water bath until all chlorine and nitrous gases disappear. Cool, and dilute the solution to I litre.
3.22
Iron, Fe (A,: 55.85) - iron(llI)
The most important characteristics of the metal have been described in Section 3.21. Fe(lll) reactions Reactions of iron(III) ions use a 0.5M solution of iron(III) chloride FeCl 3 6H 20. The solution should be clear yellow. If it turns brown, due to hydrolysis, a few drops of hydrochloric acid should be added.
1. Ammonia solution reddish-brown, gelatinous precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide Fe(OHh, insoluble in excess of the reagent, but soluble in acids: Fe 3+ + 3NH3 + 3H 20 ----+ Fe(OHhl + 3NHt
NH3 brown Fe(OHh

1
The solubility product ofiron(III) hydroxide is so small (3.8 x 10-38 ) that complete precipitation takes place even in the presence of ammonium salts (distinction from iron(II), nickel, cobalt, manganese, zinc, and magnesium). Precipitation does not occur in the presence of certain organic acids. lron(I1I) hydroxide is converted during strong heating into iron(III) oxide; the ignited oxide is soluble with difficulty in dilute acids, but dissolves on vigorous boiling with concentrated hydrochloric acid. 2Fe(OHhl Fe203 NaOH brown Fe(OH)3
1
+ 6H+
+ 3H 20 ----+ 2Fe3+ + 3H 20
----+
Fe203
2. Sodium hydroxide solution reddish-brown precIpItate of iron(III) hydroxide, insoluble in excess of the reagent (distinction from aluminium and chromium): Fe 3+ + 30H- ----+ Fe(OHhl 3. Hydrogen sulphide gas in acidic solution reduces iron(III) ions to iron(I1) and sulphur is formed as a milky-white precipitate: 2Fe3+ + H 2S ----+ 2Fe2+ + 2H+ + Sl If a neutral solution of iron(III) chloride is added to a freshly prepared, saturated solution of hydrogen sulphide, a bluish colouration appears first, followed by the precipitation of sulphur. The blue colour is due to a colloidal
113
H2 S
1 reduction to Fe(ll) +white S
Test for H2 S solutions
3.22
solution of sulphur of extremely small particle size. This reaction can be used to test the freshness of hydrogen sulphide solutions. The finely distributed sulphur cannot be readily filtered with ordinary filter papers. By boiling the solution with a few torn pieces of filter paper the precipitate coagulates and can be filtered.
(NH 4 l2S
reduction + precipitation of black FeS + S
4. Ammonium sulphide solution a black precipitate, consisting of iron(II) sulphide and sulphur is formed: 2Fe 3+ + 3S 2- --+ 2FeS1 + Sl
In hydrochloric acid the black iron(II) sulphide precipitate dissolves and the white colour of sulphur becomes visible: FeS1 + 2H+ --+ H 2Sj + Fe2+ From alkaline solutions black iron(III) sulphide is obtained: 2Fe3+ + 3S 2- --+ Fe2S31 On acidification with hydrochloric acid iron(III) ions are reduced to iron(II) and sulphur is formed: Fe2S31 + 4H+ --+ 2Fe2+ + 2H 2Sj + Sl The damp iron (II) sulphide precipitate, when exposed to air, is slowly oxidized to brown iron(III) hydroxide: 4FeS1
+ 6H 20 + 302 --+ 4Fe(OHh1 + 4S1
The reaction is exothermal. Under certain conditions so much heat may be produced that the precipitate dries out, and the filter paper, with the finely distributed sulphur on it, catches fire. Sulphide precipitates therefore should never be placed in a waste bin, but should rather be washed away under running water; only the filter paper should be thrown away.
KCN
1
brown Fe(CNh
5. Potassium cyanide (POISON) when added slowly, produces a reddishbrown precipitate of iron(III) cyanide: Fe 3+ + 3CN- --+ Fe(CNh1
In excess reagent the precipitate dissolves giving a yellow solution, when hexacyanoferrate(III) ions are formed: Fe(CNh1 + 3CN- --+ [Fe(CN)6J 3These reactions should be carried out in a fume cupboard, as the free acid present in the iron(III) chloride solution forms hydrogen cyanide gas with the reagent: H+
Dissolves in excess
+ CN-
--+
HCNj
Iron(III) ions cannot be detected in a solution of hexacyanoferrate(lII) with the usual reactions. The complex has to be decomposed first by evaporating with concentrated sulphuric acid or by igniting a solid sample, as described with hexacyanoferrate(II) (cf. Section 3.21, reaction 5).
114
Iron(llI)
3.22
K4[Fe(CN)6]
1
Prussian blue
6. Potassium hexacyanoferrate( II) solution iron(III) hexacyanoferrate (Prussian blue): 4Fe 3+ + 3 [Fe(CN)6J 4- --> Fe4[Fe(CN)6h
intense blue precipitate of
(cf. Section 3.21, reaction 7). The precipitate is insoluble in dilute acids, but decomposes in concentrated hydrochloric acid. A large excess of the reagent dissolves it partly or entirely, when an intense blue solution is obtained. Sodium hydroxide turns the precipitate red as iron(III) oxide and hexacyanoferrate(II) ions are formed:
Oxalic acid also dissolves Prussian blue forming a blue solution; this process was once used to manufacture blue writing inks. If iron(lII) chloride is added to an excess of potassium hexacyanoferrate(II), a product with the composition KFe[Fe(CN)6J is formed. This tends to form colloidal solutions ('Soluble Prussian Blue') and cannot be filtered.
K3 [Fe(CN)6]
1
brown colour
7. Potassium hexacyanoferrate( III) a brown colouration is produced, due to the formation of an undissociated complex, iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(III): Fe 3+ + [Fe(CN)6J 3- --> Fe[Fe(CN)6J
Upon adding hydrogen peroxide or some tin(II) chloride solution, the hexacyanoferrate(lII) part of the compound is reduced and Prussian blue is precipitated.
Na2HP04
1
yellow FeP0 4
8. Disodium hydrogen phosphate solution iron(III) phosphate is formed: Fe 3+ + HPO~- --> FeP041 + H+
a yellowish-white precipitate of
The reaction is reversible, because a strong acid is formed which dissolves the precipitate. It is advisable to add small amounts of sodium acetate, which acts as a buffer.
NaCH 3 COO
1
red colour or precipitate
9. Sodium acetate solution a reddish-brown colouration is obtained, attributed to the formation of a complex ion with the composition [Fe3(OHh(CH3COO)6t. The reaction
3Fe 3+ + 6CH 3COO-
+ 2H 20;::::! [Fe3(OHh(CH3COO)6J+ + 2H+
becomes complete only if the strong acid, which is formed, is removed by the addition of an excess of the reagent, which acts as a buffer. If the solution is diluted and boiled, a reddish-brown precipitate of basic iron(III) acetate is formed: [Fe3(OHh(CH3COO)6J+
+ 4H 20-->
--> 3Fe(OHhCH 3COOl
+ 3CH 3COOH + H+
115
3.22
The excess of acetate ions acts again as a buffer and the reaction goes to completion.
Cupferron
1
brown ppt
10. Cupferron reagent, the ammonium salt of nitrosophenylhydroxylamine, C 6 H 5 N(NO)ONH4 reddish-brown precipitate is formed in the presence of hydrochloric acid:
Fe3+
+ 3C6H5N(NO)ONH4 ---> Fe[C6H5N(NO)Oh! + 3NHt
The precipitate is soluble in ether. It is insoluble in acids, but can be decomposed by ammonia or alkali hydroxides, when iron(III) hydroxide precipitate is formed.
NH 4 SCN
1
red colour
11. Ammonium thiocyanate solution in slightly acidic solution a deep-red colouration is produced (difference from iron(II) ions), due to the formation of a non-dissociated iron(III) thiocyanate complex:
Fe3+
Specific for Fe(lll)
+ 3SCN-
--->
Fe(SCNh
This neutral molecule can be extracted by ether or amyl alcohol. Fluorides and mercury(II) ions bleach the colour because of the formation of the more stable hexafluoroferrate(III) [FeF 6l3 - complex and the non-dissociated mercury(II) thiocyanate species: Fe(SCNh
+ 6F-
---> --->
[FeF6l3-
+ 3SCN-
2Fe(SCNh + 3Hg2+
2Fe 3+ + 3Hg(SCNh
The presence of nitrites should be avoided because in acidic solution they form nitrosyl thiocyanate NOSCN which yields a red colour, disappearing on heating. The reaction can be adapted as a spot test and may be carried out as follows. Place a drop of the test solution on a spot plate and add 1 drop of O.IM ammonium thiocyanate solution. A deep-red colouration appears. Sensitivity 0.2511g Fe3+. Concentration limit 1 in 200000. Coloured salts, e.g. those of copper, chromium, cobalt, and nickel, reduce the sensitivity of the test.
Ferron greenish-blue colour
12. Ferron (8-hydroxy-7-iodoquinoline-5-sulphonic acid) reagent
green or greenish-blue colouration with iron(III) salts in faintly acid solution (pH 2.5-3.0). Iron(II) does not react: only copper interferes. Place a few drops of the slightly acid test solution in a micro test-tube and add 1 drop of the reagent. A green colouration appears. Sensitivity 0.511g Fe3+. Concentration limit 1 in 1000000.
116
Iron(llI)
3.22
Reduction of Fe(lll)
13. Reduction of iron(III) to iron(II) ions in acid solution this may be accomplished by various agents. Zinc or cadmium metal, or their amalgams (i.e. alloys with mercury) may be used:
2Fe3+ 2Fe3+
+ Zn ----> Zn2+ + 2Fe2+ + Cd ----> Cd 2+ + 2Fe2+
The solution will contain zinc or cadmium ions, respectively, after the reduction. In acid solutions these metals will dissolve further with liberation of hydrogen; they should therefore be removed from the solution once the reduction has been accomplished. Tin(II) chloride, potassium iodide, hydroxylamine hydrochloride, hydrazine sulphate, or ascorbic acid can also be used: 2Fe3+
+ Sn 2+ ----> 2Fe 2+ + Sn4+ + H 20 + 4H+
2Fe 3+ + 3r ----> 2Fe2+ + 13 4Fe 3+ + 2NH 20H ----> 4Fe 2+ + N 2 0 4Fe3+
+ 4H+ 2Fe3+ + C 6 H 8 0 6 ----> 2Fe 2+ + C 6 H 6 0 6 + 2H+

the product of the reduction with ascorbic acid being dehydroascorbic acid. Hydrogen sulphide (cf. reaction 3) and sulphur dioxide gas reduce iron(III) ions also: 2Fe3+ 2Fe3+
Oxidation of Fe(ll)
+ N2H4
----> 4Fe 2+ + N2
+ H 2S ----> 2Fe2+ + Sl + 2H+

----> 2Fe2+ + SO~-
+ S02 + 2H 20
+ 4H+
14. Oxidation of iron (II) ions to iron(III) oxidation occurs slowly upon exposure to air. Rapid oxidation is effected by concentrated nitric acid, hydrogen peroxide, concentrated hydrochloric acid with potassium chlorate, aqua regia, potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, and cerium(IV) sulphate in acid solution. 4Fe 2+ + O 2 + 4H+ ----> 4Fe3+ + 2H 20 3Fe 2+ + HN0 3 + 3H+ ----> NOr + 3Fe 3+ + 2H 20 2Fe2+ + H 20 2 + 2H+ ----> 2Fe3+ + 2H 20
+ Cl- + 3H 20 2Fe2+ + HN0 3 + 3HCI----> 2Fe3+ + NOClr + 2CI- + 2H 20 5Fe2+ + MnOi + 8H+ ----> 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H 20 6Fe2+ + Cr20~- + l4H+ ----> 6Fe 3+ + 2Cr 3+ + 7H 20 Fe2+ + Ce4+ ----> Fe3+ + Ce 3+
6Fe2+
+ CI0 3 + 6H+
---->
6Fe3+
117
3.23
Distinction of Fe(ll) and Fe(lll)
15. Distinctive tests for iron (II) and iron (III) ions iroo(II) can be detected most reliably with 2,2'-bipyridyl (cf. reaction 9, Section 3.21); the test is conclusive also in the presence of iron(III). In turn, iroo(III) ions can be detected with ammonium thiocyanate solution (cf. reaction 11). It must be remembered that even freshly prepared solutions of pure iron(II) salts contain some iron(lII) and the thiocyanate test will be positive with these. If however iron(III) is reduced by one of the ways described in reaction 13, the thiocyanate test will be negative. 16. Atomic spectrometric tests these have been described in Section 3.21, reaction 12.
Dry tests
when iron compounds are heated on charcoal with sodium carbonate, grey metallic particles of iron are produced; these are ordinarily difficult to see, but can be separated from the charcoal by means of a magnet. (b) Borax bead test with a small quantity of iron, the bead is yelIowishbrown while hot (and yellow when cold) in an oxidizing flame, and pale green in a reducing flame; with large quantities of iron, the bead is reddish-brown in an oxidizing flame.
3.23
Aluminium, AI (Ar: 26.98)
Aluminium is a white, ductile and malIeable metal; the powder is grey. It melts at 659C. Exposed to air, aluminium objects are oxidized on the surface, but the oxide layer protects the object from further oxidation. Dilute hydrochloric acid dissolves the metal readily, dissolution is slower in dilute sulphuric or nitric acid: 2Al + 6H+ --+ 2AI3+ + 3H 2 i The dissolution process can be speeded up by the addition of some mercury(II) chloride to the mixture. Concentrated hydrochloric acid also dissolves aluminium: 2Al + 6HCl
--+
2A1 3+ + 3H 2 i
+ 6Cl-
Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves aluminium with the liberation of sulphur dioxide: 2Al + 6H 2 S04 --+ 2A1 3+ + 3S0~-
+ 3S0 2 i + 6H 2 0
Concentrated nitric acid renders the metal passive. With alkali hydroxides a solution of tetrahydroxoaluminate is formed: 2Al + 20H-
+ 6H 20
--+
2[Al(OH)4r
+ 3H 2i
Aluminium is tervalent in its compounds. Aluminium ions (AI 3+) form colourless salts with colourless anions. Its halides, nitrate, and sulphate are water-soluble; these solutions display acidic reactions owing to hydrolysis. Aluminium sulphide can be prepared in the dry state only, in aqueous
118
Aluminium(llI)
3.23
solutions it hydrolyses and aluminium hydroxide, AI(OHh, is formed. Aluminium sulphate forms double salts with sulphates of monovalent cations, with attractive crystal shapes; these are called alums.
AI (III) reactions
Reactions of aluminium(III) ions Use a O.33M solution of aluminium chloride, AICl 3, or a O.166M solution of aluminium sulphate, AI 2 (S04k 16H20, or potash alum, K 2S04 . AI 2 (S04k24H 20, to study these reactions. I. Ammonia solution white gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide, AI(OH)3, slightly soluble in excess of the reagent. The solubility is decreased in the presence of ammonium salts. A small proportion of the precipitate passes into the solution as colloidal aluminium hydroxide (aluminium hydroxide sol): the sol is coagulated on boiling the solution or upon the addition of soluble salts (e.g. ammonium chloride) yielding a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide, known as aluminium hydroxide gel. To ensure complete precipitation the ammonia solution is added in slight excess and the mixture boiled until the liquid has a slight odour of ammonia. When freshly precipitated, it dissolves readily in strong acids and bases, but after boiling it becomes sparingly soluble: A1 3+ + 3NH3 + 3H 0 -+ AI(OHhl + 3NHt
2
NH3
1
white AI(OHh
NaOH
1
white AI(OHh Dissolves in excess
2. Sodium hydroxide solution white precipitate of aluminium hydroxide: A1 3+ + 30H- -+ AI(OHhl
The precipitate dissolves in excess reagent, forming tetrahydroxoaluminate IOns: AI(OHh
+ OH-
-+
[AI(OH)4r
The reaction is a reversible one, and any reagent which will reduce the hydroxyl-ion concentration sufficiently should cause the reaction to proceed from right to left with the consequent precipitation of aluminium hydroxide. This may be effected with a solution of ammonium chloride (the hydroxylion concentration is reduced owing to the formation of the weak base ammonia, which can be readily removed as ammonia gas by heating) or by the addition of acid; in the latter case, a large excess of acid causes the precipitated hydroxide to redissolve. [AI(OH)4r
+ NHt -+ AI(OH)Jl + NH3 i + H 2 0 [AI(OH)4r + H+ ~ AI(OHhl + H 2 0 AI(OHh + 3H+ 1 ~ AI3+ + 3H2 0
The precipitation of aluminium hydroxide by solutions of sodium hydroxide and ammonia does not take place in the presence of tartaric acid, citric acid, sulphosalicylic acid, malic acid, sugars, and other organic hydroxy compounds, because of the formation of soluble complex salts. These organic substances must therefore be decomposed by gentle ignition or by evaporating with concentrated sulphuric or nitric acid before aluminium can be precipitated in the ordinary course of qualitative analysis.
119
3.23
( NH 4lz S
3. Ammonium sulphide solution
a white precipitate of aluminium hydroxide:
1
hydrolysis white AI(OH)3
2AI3+
+ 3S - + 6H 20
2
--->
2AI(OHhl + 3H 2Sj
The characteristics of the precipitate are the same as mentioned under reaction 2.
4. Sodium acetate solution no precipitate is obtained in cold, neutral solutions, but on boiling with excess reagent, a voluminous precipitate of basic aluminium acetate AI(OHhCH 3COO is formed:
CH 3COONa
1
white basic salt
AI3+
Na2HP04
+ 3CH 3 COO- + 2H 2 0
--->
AI(OHhCH 3 COOl
+ 2CH 3 COOH
1
white AIP0 4
5. Disodium hydrogen phosphate solution aluminium phosphate:
white gelatinous precipitate of
A1 3+ + HPO~- ~ AIP0 41 + H+ The reaction is reversible; strong acids dissolve the precipitate. However, the precipitate is insoluble in acetic acid (difference from phosphates of alkaline earths, which are soluble). The precipitate can also be dissolved in sodium hydroxide.
Aluminon red lake on AI(OHlJ
6. 'Aluminon' reagent (tri-ammonium aurine-tricarboxylate)

COONH. H.NOOC D-OH
Ho-b-CQ=o
COONH.
This dye is adsorbed by aluminium hydroxide giving a bright-red adsorption complex or 'lake'. The test is applied to the precipitate of aluminium hydroxide obtained in the usual course of analysis, since certain other elements interfere. Dissolve the aluminium hydroxide precipitate in 2 ml 2M hydrochloric acid, add 1 ml 6M ammonium acetate solution and 2 ml 0.1 % aqueous solution of the reagent. Shake, allow to stand for 5 minutes, and add excess of ammoniacal ammonium carbonate solution to decolourize excess dyestuff and lakes due to traces of chromium(lII) hydroxide and silica. A bright-red precipitate (or colouration), persisting in the alkaline solution, is obtained. Iron interferes with the test and should be absent.
Alizarin red lake on AI(OH)3
7. Alizarin reagent
~OH
~ o
red lake with aluminium hydroxide.
120
Aluminium(llI)
3.23
Soak some quantitative filter (or drop-reaction) paper in a saturated alcoholic solution of alizarin and dry it. Place a drop of the acid test solution on the paper and hold it over ammonia fumes until a violet colour (due to ammonium alizarin ate) appears. In the presence of large amounts of aluminium, the colour is visible almost immediately. It is best to dry the paper at 100C when the violet colour due to ammonium alizarinate disappears owing to its conversion into ammonia and alizarin: the red colour of the alizarin lake is then clearly visible. Sensitivity 0.15 J.lg AI. Concentration limit 1 in 333000. Iron, chromium, uranium, thorium, titanium, and manganese interfere, but this may be obviated by using paper previously treated with potassium hexacyanoferrate(II). The interfering ions are thus 'fixed' on the paper as insoluble hexacyanoferrate(II)s, and the aluminium solution diffuses beyond as a damp ring. Upon adding a drop of a saturated alcoholic solution of alizarin, exposing to ammonia vapour and drying, a red ring of the alizarin-aluminium lake forms round the precipitate. Uranium hexacyanoferrate(II), owing to its slimy nature, has a tendency to spread outwards from the spot and thus obscure the aluminium lake; this difficulty is surmounted by dipping the paper after the alizarin treatment in ammonium carbonate solution which dissolves the uranium hexacyanoferrate(II).
Alizarin S
8. Alizarin red S (or sodium alizarin sulphonate) reagent (0.1%)
1
red lake on AI(OH)3
c6::,N.
o
red precipitate or lake in ammoniacal solution, which is fairly stable to dilute acetic acid. Place a drop of the test solution (which has been treated with just sufficient amount of M sodium hydroxide solution to give the tetrahydroxoaluminate ion [AI(OH)4r) on a spot plate, add 1 drop of the reagent, then drops of acetic acid until the violet colour just disappears. Add I drop in excess. A red precipitate or colouration appears. Sensitivity 0.7 J.lg AI. Concentration limit 1 in 80000. A blank test should be made on the sodium hydroxide solution. Salts of Cu, Bi, Fe, Be, Zr, Ti, Co, Ce, rare earths, Zn, Th, U, Ca, Sr, and Ba interfere.
Quinalizarin
1
red colour or ppt
9. Quinalizarin (or 1,2,5,8-tetrahydroxyanthraquinone) reagent (0.05% in pyridine)
~OH
YYJ
OH 0
red precipitate or colouration under the conditions given below.

121
3.24
Place a drop of the test solution upon the reagent paper; hold it for a short time over a bottle containing concentrated ammonia solution and then over glacial acetic acid until the blue colour (ammonium quinalizarinate) first formed disappears and the unmoistened paper regains the brown colour of free quinalizarin. A red-violet or red spot is formed. Sensitivity 0.005 Ilg Al (drop of 0.1 ml). Concentration limit 1 in 2000000.
Atomic spectrometry
10. Atomic spectrometric tests tests for aluminium are less sensitive and require the nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. The dry test (see below) is perhaps more reliable and should be carried out to verify the spectrometric result. (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame 1 ppm aluminium can be identified at 396.15 nm. The sensitivity with the air/acetylene flame is much reduced and some metals (e.g. iron) interfere. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using an aluminium hollowcathode lamp and a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame, 1 ppm can be identified through the doublet at 309.28/29 nm. (c) Aluminium standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 17.583 g analytical grade potassium aluminium sulphate dodecahydrate KAl(S04h 12H 20 in water and dilute to 1 litre. 11. Dry tests aluminium compounds when heated with sodium carbonate upon charcoal in the blowpipe flame give a white infusible solid, which glows when hot. If the residue is moistened with one or two drops of cobalt nitrate solution and again heated, a blue infusible mass (Thenard's blue, or cobalt meta-aluminate) is obtained. It is important not to use excess cobalt nitrate solution since this yields black cobalt oxide C0 30 4 upon ignition, which masks the colour of the Thenard's blue. 2Al20 3 + 2C0 2+ + 4N0,3 ~ 2CoAl20 4 + 4N0 2i
Dry tests
+ O 2i
An alternative method for carrying out this test is to soak some ashless filter paper in aluminium salt solution, add a drop or two of cobalt nitrate solution and then to ignite the filter paper in a crucible; the residue is coloured blue.
3.24
Chromium, Cr (A,: 51.996) - chromium(III)
Chromium is a white, crystalline metal and is not appreciably ductile or malleable. It melts at 1765C. The metal is soluble in dilute or concentrated hydrochloric acid. If air is excluded, chromium(II) ions are formed: Cr + 2H+ ~ Cr2+ + H2i Cr + 2HCl ~ Cr2+ + 2Cl-
+ H2 i
In the presence of atmospheric oxygen, chromium gets partly or wholly oxidized to the tervalent state: 4Cr2+ + O 2 + 4H+ ~ 4Cr3+ + 2H 20
122
Chromium(lIl)
3.24
Dilute sulphuric acid attacks chromium slowly, with the formation of hydrogen. In hot, concentrated sulphuric acid chromium dissolves readily, to form chromium(III) ions and sulphur dioxide: 2Cr + 6H 2S04 ---> 2Cr3+ + 3S0~- + 3S0 2i + 6H 20 Both dilute and concentrated nitric acid render chromium passive, as does cold, concentrated sulphuric acid and aqua regia. In aqueous solutions chromium forms three types of ions: the chromium(II) and chromium(III) cations and the chromate (and dichromate) anion, in which chromium has an oxidation state of +6. The chromium(II) (or chromous) ion (Cr 2+) is derived from chromium(II) oxide CrO. These ions form blue coloured solutions. Chromium(II) ions are rather unstable, as they are strong reducing agents - they decompose even water slowly with the formation of hydrogen. Atmospheric oxygen oxidizes them readily to chromium(III) ions. As they are only rarely encountered in inorganic qualitative analysis, they will not be dealt with here. Chromium(lIl) (or chromic) ions (Cr3+) are stable and are derived from dichromium trioxide (or chromium trioxide) Cr203' In solution they are either green or violet. In the green solutions the pentaquomonochlorochromate(III) [Cr(H 20)sClf"" or the tetraquodichlorochromate(III) [Cr(H20)4CI2t complex is present (chloride may be replaced by another monovalent anion), while in the violet solutions the hexaquochromate(III) ion [Cr(H 20)6f+ is present. Chromium(III) sulphide, like aluminium sulphide, can be prepared only in the dry state; it hydrolyses readily with water to form chromium(III) hydroxide and hydrogen sulphide. In the chromate. crO~-, or dichromate, Cr20~-, anions, chromium is hexavalent with an oxidation state of + 6. These ions are derived from chromium trioxide cr0 3. Chromate ions are yellow while dichromates have an orange colour. Chromates are readily transformed into dichromates on addition of acid:
The reaction is reversible. In neutral (or alkaline) solutions the chromate ion is stable, while, if acidified, dichromate ions will be predominant. Chromate and dichromate ions are strong oxidizing agents. Their reactions will be dealt with among the reactions of anions (Section 4.33).
Cr( III) reactions
Reactions of chromium(III) ions To study these reactions use a O.33M solution of chromium(III) chloride CrCI 3 6H 20 or a O.166M solution of chromium(III) sulphate Cr2(S04h 15H 20.
1. Ammonia solution grey-green to grey-blue gelatinous precipitate of chromium(III) hydroxide, Cr(OHh, slightly soluble in excess of the precipitant in the cold forming a violet or pink solution containing complex hexamminechromate(III) ion; upon boiling the solution, chromium hydroxide is precipitated. Hence for complete precipitation of chromium as the hydroxide, it is essential that the solution be boiling and excess aqueous
123
NH3
1
grey-green Cr(OHlJ
Dissolves in excess
3.24
ammonia solution be avoided. 3 Cr + + 3NH3 + 3H 2 0 -- Cr(OHhl + 3NHt Cr(OHhl + 6NH3 -- [Cr(NH 3)613+
+ 30H-
In the presence of acetate ions and the absence of other trivalent metal ions, chromium(III) hydroxide is not precipitated. The precipitation of chromium(III) hydroxide is also prevented by tartrates and by citrates.
NaOH
2. Sodium hydroxide solution
precipitate of chromium(III) hydroxide
1
grey-green Cr(OH)3
Cr3+ + 30H- -- Cr(OHhl The reaction is reversible; on the addition of acids the precipitate dissolves. In excess reagent, the precipitate dissolves readily, tetrahydroxochromate(III) ions (or chromite ions) being formed: Cr(OHh
Dissolves in excess
+ OH-;::::! [Cr(OH)4r
The solution is green. The reaction is reversible; on (slight) acidification and also on boiling chromium(III) hydroxide precipitates again. On adding hydrogen peroxide to the alkaline solution of tetrahydroxochromate(III), a yellow solution is obtained, owing to the oxidation of chromium(III) to chromate: 2[Cr(OH)4r
+ 3H 20 2 + 20H- -- 2CrO~- + 8H 20
After decomposing the excess of hydrogen peroxide by boiling, chromate ions may be identified in the solution by one of its reactions (cf. Section 4.33).
Na Z C0 3
3. Sodium carbonate solution
precipitate of chromium(III) hydroxide: -- 2Cr(OHhl
1
hydrolysis to Cr(OH)3 ( NH 4lz S
2Cr3+
+ 3CO~- + 3H 2 0 + 3S 2- + 6H 20
+ 3C02 i
precipitate of chromium(III) hydroxide:
1
hydrolysis to Cr(OHlJ
2Cr3+
-- 2Cr(OHhl
+ 3H 2Si
Oxidation to Cr(VI)
5. Chromate test chromium(III) ions can be oxidized to chromate in several ways. (a) Adding an excess of sodium hydroxide to a chromium(III) salt followed by a few ml of 10% hydrogen peroxide (cf. reaction 2). The excess of hydrogen peroxide can be removed by boiling the mixture for a few minutes. (b) Hydrogen peroxide can be replaced by a little solid sodium perborate, NaB0 3 4H 2 0, in experiment (a). Perborate ions, when hydrolysed, form hydrogen peroxide. In alkaline medium this reaction can be written as:
B0 3 + 20H- -- BO~-
+ H 20 2
(c) Oxidation can be carried out with bromine water in alkaline solution (i.e. by hypobromite): 2Cr3+ + 30Br- + 100H- -- 2CrO~- + 3Br- + 5H 0
2
124
Chromium(llI)
3.24
The excess of bromine can be removed by the addition of phenol, which gives tribromophenol. (d) In acid solution chromium(III) ions can be oxidized by potassium (or ammonium) peroxodisulphate: 2Cr3+
+ 3S20~- + 8H 20
----+
2CrO~-
+ 16H+ + 6S0~-
One drop of dilute silver nitrate must be added to speed up the reaction. Silver ions act as catalysts. Halides must be absent; they can be removed easily by evaporating the solution with concentrated sulphuric acid until fumes of sulphur trioxide appear. After co~ng, the solution can be diluted and the test carried out. The excess of peroxodisulphate can be decomposed by boiling:
2S20~Identification as CrO~-
+ 2H 20
----+
4S0~-
+ 4H+ + O 2i
6. Identification of chromium after oxidation to chromate having carried out the oxidation with one of the methods described under reaction 5, chromate ions may be identified with one of the following tests: (a) Barium chloride test after acidifying the solution with acetic acid and adding barium chloride solution, a yellow precipitate of barium chromate is formed:
(b) Chromium pentoxide (chromium peroxide, peroxochromic acid) test on acidifying the solution with dilute sulphuric acid, adding 2~3 ml of ether or amyl alcohol to the mixture and finally adding some hydrogen peroxide, a blue colouration is formed, which can be extracted into the organic phase by gently shaking. During the reaction chromium pentoxide is formed:
Chromium pentoxide has the following structure:

0 ...... /0
II Because of the two peroxide groups the compound is often called chromium
peroxide. The name peroxochromic acid is less appropriate, because the compound does not contain hydrogen at all. In aqueous solution the blue colour fades rapidly, because chromium pentoxide decomposes to chromium(III) and oxygen: 4CrOs
I/Cr ...... 1
+ 12H+ ----+ 4Cr3+ + 70 2i + 6H 20
(c) 1,5-Diphenylcarbazide test in dilute mineral acid solution diphenylcarbazide produces a soluble violet colour, which is a characteristic test for chromium. During the reaction chromate is reduced to chromium(III), and diphenylcarbazone is formed; these reaction products in turn produce a
125
3.24
complex with the characteristic colour:

/
NH-NH-C6H5 3C=O
"- NH-NH-C6H5
diphenylcarbazide
+ 4CrO~- + 20H+
/
---+
N=N-C6H5
3C=O
"- N=N-C6 H5
+ Cr3+ + l6H 2 0
diphenylcarbazone
/N=N~C6H513+
C-O-Cr [
6
"- N=N-C / H5
diphenylcarbazone-chromium(III) complex
The reaction can be applied as a drop test for chromium; in this case the preliminary oxidation to chromate can also be made on the spot plate. Place a drop of the test solution in mineral acid on a spot plate, introduce a drop of saturated bromine water followed by 2-3 drops 2M potassium hydroxide (the solution must be alkaline to litmus). Mix thoroughly, add a crystal of phenol, then a drop of the 1,5-diphenylcarbazide reagent (l % in ethanol), and finally M sulphuric acid dropwise until the red colour (from the reaction between diphenylcarbazide and alkali) disappears. A blueviolet colouration is obtained. Sensitivity 0.25l!g Cr. Concentration limit I in 2000000. Alternatively, mix a drop of the acidified test solution on a spot plate with 2 drops 0.1 M potassium peroxodisulphate solution and I drop o. I M silver nitrate solution, and allow to stand for 2-3 minutes. Add a drop of the reagent. A violet or red colour is formed. Sensitivity 0.8l!g Cr. Concentration limit I in 600000. (d) Chromo tropic acid test the sodium salt of 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene-3,6-disulphonic acid (or chromotropic acid)
gives a red colouration (by transmitted light) with an alkali chromate in the presence of nitric acid. Chromium(III) salts may be oxidized with hydrogen peroxide and alkali to chromate, and then acidified with nitric acid before applying the test. The nitric acid serves to eliminate the influence of Fe, U, and Ti, which otherwise interfere. Place a drop of the test solution in a semimicro test-tube, add a drop of the reagent, a drop of dilute nitric acid (8M), and dilute to about 2 m!. Chromates give a red colouration: this is best observed with a white light behind the tube. Concentration limit I in 5000.
126
Cobalt(ll)
3.26
Atomic spectrometry
7. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame lOppm chromium can be identified at 425.44nm. With the nitrous oxide/ acetylene flame the sensitivity increases tenfold. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a chromium hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 1 ppm can be identified at 357.87 nm. The nitrous oxide/acetylene flame allows somewhat better sensitivity, and the signal is less prone to interference by transition metals and phosphate. (c) Chromium standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 2.8290 g analytical grade potassium dichromate K2Cr207 in water and dilute to 1 litre.
all chromium compounds when heated with sodium carbonate on charcoal yield a green infusible mas~ chromium(III) oxide Cr203' (b) Borax bead test the bead is coloured green in both oxidizing and reducing flames, but is not very characteristic. (c) Fusion with sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate in a loop of platinum wire or upon platinum foil or upon the lid of a nickel crucible results in the formation of a yellow mass of alkali chromate. Cr2(S04h
Dry tests
+ 5Na2C03 + 3KN03
--+
2Na2Cr04 + 3KN0 2 + 3Na2S04
+ 5C0 2i
3.25
Oxoanions of Group III metals: chromate and permanganate
Chromate and nermanganate
1
reduced to Cr(lll) and Mn(ll) in systematic analysis
The oxoanions of certain Group III metals, like chromate CrO~- (and dichromate, Cr20~-) as well as permanganate MnO,j, are reduced by hydrogen sulphide in hydrochloric acid media to chromium(III) and manganese(II) ions respectively. In the course of the systematic analysis of an unknown sample (cf. Chapter 5), these anions will already be converted into the corresponding Group III cations when the separating process reaches this stage. If therefore chromium(III) and/or manganese(II) are found, the initial oxidation states of these metals should be tested in the original sample. The reactions of these ions are described in Chapter 4; those of chromates and dichromates in Section 4.33, and the reactions of permanganates in Section 4.34.
Cobalt, Co (A,: 58.93)
3.26
Cobalt is a steel-grey, slightly magnetic metal. It melts at l490C. The metal dissolves readily in dilute mineral acids: Co + 2H+ --+ C0 2+ + H2 i The dissolution in nitric acid is accompanied by the formation of nitrogen oxide: 3Co + 2HN0 3 + 6H+
--+
3Co2+
+ 2NOi + 4H 20
127
3.26
In aqueous solutions cobalt is normally present as the cobalt(II) ion C0 2+; sometimes, especially in complexes, the cobalt(III) ion C0 3+ is encountered. These two ions are derived from the oxides CoO and C02 0 3 respectively. The cobalt(II)-cobalt(III) oxide C0 30 4 is also known. In the aqueous solutions of cobalt(II) compounds the red C0 2+ ions are present. Anhydrous or undissociated cobalt(II) compounds are blue. If the dissociation of cobalt compounds is suppressed, the colour of the solution turns gradually to blue. Cobalt(III) ions C0 3+ are unstable, but their complexes are stable both in solution and in dry form. Cobalt(II) complexes can easily be oxidized to cobalt(III) complexes.
Co(ll) reactions
Reactions of cohalt(II) ions The reactions of cobalt(II) ions can be studied with a O.5M solution of cobalt(II) chloride CoCl2 6H 20 or cobalt(II) n~~late Co(N0 3h 6H 20. 1. Sodium hydroxide solution in cold a blue basic salt is precipitated: C0 2+ + OH- + N0 3 ----> Co(OH)N0 3l Upon warming with excess alkali (or sometimes merely upon addition of excess reagent) the basic salt is converted into a pink precipitate of cobalt(II) hydroxide: Co(OH)N0 3l
NaOH
1
pink CO(OH)2
+ OH-
---->
Co(OHhl + N0 3
Some of the precipitate however passes into solution. The hydroxide is slowly transformed into the brownish-black cobalt(III) hydroxide on exposure to the air: 4Co(OHhl
+ O2 + 2H 20
---->
4Co(OHhl
Cobalt(II) hydroxide precipitate is readily soluble in ammonia or concentrated solutions of ammonium salts, provided that the mother liquor is alkaline.
NH3
1
basic salt
2. Ammonia solution in the absence of ammonium salts small amounts of ammonia precipitate the basic salt as in reaction 1: C02+ + NH3
+ H 20 + N0 3 ----> Co(OH)N0 3l + NHt
Dissolves in excess
The excess of the reagent dissolves the precipitate, when hexamminecobaltate(II) ions are formed: Co(OH)NOd
+ 6NH3
---->
[Co(NH3)6l2+
+ N0 3 + OH-
The precipitation of the basic salt does not take place at all if larger amounts of ammonium ions are present, but the complex is formed in one step.
(NH 4 l2S
1
black CoS
3. Ammonium sulphide solution black precipitate of cobalt(II) sulphide from neutral or alkaline solution: C02+ + S2- ----> CoSl
128
Cobalt(II)
3.26
The precipitate is insoluble in dilute hydrochloric or acetic acids (though precipitation does not take place from such media). Hot, concentrated nitric acid or aqua regia dissolve the precipitate, and white sulphur remains: 3CoSl + 2HN0 3 + 6H+ CoSl + HN0 3 + 3HCl
----+ ----+
3C0 2+ + 3S1 + 2NOj C0 2+ + Sl
+ 4H 2 0
+ NOClj + 2Cl- + 2H 2 0
On longer heating the mixture becomes clear because sulphur is oxidized to sulphate.
KCN
1
brown CO(CN)2
4. Potassium cyanide solution (POISON) cobalt(II) cyanide: C0 2 + + 2CN----+
reddish-brown precipitate of
Co(CNhl
Dissolves in excess
The precipitate dissolves in excess reagent; a brown solution o-r-hexacyanocobaltate(II) is formed: Co(CNhl + 4CN----+
[CO(CN)6J 4 -
On acidification in the cold with dilute hydrochloric acid the precipitate reappears: [CO(CN)6J 4 -
+ 4H+
----+
Co(CNhl
+ 4HCNj
The experiment must be carried out in a fume cupboard with good ventilation. If the brown solution is boiled for a longer time in air, or if some hydrogen peroxide is added and the solution heated, it turns yellow because hexacyanocobaltate(III) ions are formed: 4[Co(CN)61 4 -
+ O 2 + 2H 2 0
----+
4[Co(CN)61 3-
+ 40H-
2[Co(CN)6l 4 KN0 2
+ H 2 0 2 ----+ 2[Co(CN)6l 3 - + 20H-
1
yellow K3[Co(N0 2)6]
5. Potassium nitrite solution yellow precipitate of potassium hexanitritocobaltate(III), K 3 [Co(N0 2 )6l 3H 2 0: C0 2+ + 7NO + 2H+ + 3K+
----+
K 3 [Co(N0 2 )611
+ NOj + H 20
Specific for Co
The test can be carried out most conveniently as follows: to a neutral solution of cobalt(II) add acetic acid, then a freshly prepared saturated solution of potassium nitrite. If the concentration of cobalt(II) in the test solution is high enough, the precipitate appears immediately. Otherwise the mixture should either be slightly heated, or the wall of the vessel should be rubbed with a glass rod. The reaction can also be used for testing for potassium and for nitrite ions. Nickel ions do not react if acetic acid is present. 6. Ammonium thiocyanate test (Vogel reaction) on adding a few crystals of ammonium thiocyanate to a neutral or acid solution of cobalt(II) a blue colour appears owing to the formation of tetrathiocyanatocobaltate(II) ions: C0 2 + + 4SCN----+
NH 4 SCN
1
blue colour
[CO(SCN)4f129
3.26
If amyl alcohol or diethyl ether is added, the free acid H 2 [Co(SCN)4J is formed and dissolved by the organic solvent (distinction from nickel). The test is rendered more sensitive if the solution is acidified with concentrated hydrochloric acid, when the equilibrium
shifts towards the formation of the free acid, which then can be extracted with amyl alcohol or ether. The reaction may be employed as a spot test as follows. On a spot plate, mix 1 drop test solution with 5 drops saturated solution of ammonium thiocyanate in acetone. A green to blue colouration appears. Sensitivity 0.5 J.lg Co. Concentration limit 1 in 100000. If iron is present mix 1-2 drops of the slightly acid test solution with a few milligrams of ammonium or sodium fluoride on a spot plate. Add 5 drops saturated solution of ammonium thiocyanate in acetone. A blue colouration is produced. Sensitivity 1 J.lg Co in the presence of 100 times that amount of Fe. Concentration limit 1 in 50000.
l-Nitroso-2-naphthol
7. I-Nitroso-2-naphthol reagent
1
reddish-brown ppt
~OH
NO
~
Selective for Co
reddish-brown precipitate of slightly impure cobalt(III)-nitroso-2-naphthol CO(CIOH602Nh (a chelate complex) in solutions acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute acetic acid: the precipitate may be extracted by chloroform to give a claret-coloured solution. The technique for using the reaction as a spot test is as follows. Place a drop of the faintly acid test solution on drop-reaction paper, and add a drop of the reagent. A brown stain is produced. Sensitivity 0.05 J.lg Co. Concentration limit 1 in 1000000.
8. Sodium I-nitroso-2-hydroxynaphthalene-3:6-disulphonate (nitroso- R-salt) reagent
Nitroso-R-salt
1
red colour
deep-red colouration. The test is applicable in the presence of nickel; tin and iron interfere and should be removed; the colouration produced by iron is prevented by the addition of an alkali fluoride. Place a drop of the neutral test solution (buffered with sodium acetate) on a spot plate, and add 2-3 drops of the reagent. A red colouration is obtained. Concentration limit 1 in 500000.
130
Nickel(lI)
3.27
Atomic spectrometry
9. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry reliable results can only be obtained with a high-temperature nitrous oxide/acetylene flame, when 5 ppm cobalt can be identified at 345.35 nm. With an air/acetylene flame only about 100 ppm cobalt produces a distinct analytical signal. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a cobalt hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 1 ppm can be identified at 240.73nm. (c) Cobalt standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 4.9383 g analytical grade cobalt(II) nitrate hexahydrate Co(N0 3 h 6H 20 in water and dilute to 1 litre. 10. Dry tests (a) Blowpipe test all cobalt compounds when ignited with sodium carbonate on charcoal give grey, slightly metallic beads of cobalt. If these are removed, placed upon filter paper and dissolved by the addition of a few drops of dilute nitric acid, a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid added and the filter paper dried, the latter is coloured blue by the cobalt chloride produced. (b) Borax bead test this gives a blue bead in both the oxidizing and reducing flames. Cobalt metaborate CO(B02h, or the complex salt Na2Co(B02)4, is formed. The presence of a large proportion of nickel does not interfere.
Dry tests
.~
3.27
Nickel, Ni (Ar: 58.71)
Nickel is a hard, silver-white metal; it is ductile and malleable. It melts at 1455C. It is slightly magnetic. Hydrochloric acid (both dilute and concentrated) and dilute sulphuric acid dissolve nickel with the formation of hydrogen: Ni + 2H+ ----> Ni 2+ + H2i Ni
+ 2HCI ----> NiH + 2Cl- + H2 i
These reactions accelerate if the solution is heated. Concentrated, hot sulphuric acid dissolves nickel with the formation of sulphur dioxide: Ni
+ H 2S04 + 2H+
---->
NiH
+ S02 i + 2H 20
Dilute and concentrated nitric acid dissolve nickel readily in cold: 3Ni + 2HN0 3 + 6H+ ----> 3Ni 2+ + 2NOi + 4H 20 The stable nickel(II) salts are derived from nickel(II) oxide, NiO, which is a green substance. The dissolved nickel(II) salts are green, owing to the colour of the hexaquonickelate(II) complex [Ni(H 20)6l 2+; in short, however, this will be regarded as the simple nickel(II) ion NiH. A brownishblack nickel(III) oxide Ni 20 3 also exists, but this dissolves in acids forming nickel(II) ions. With dilute hydrochloric acid this reaction yields chlorine gas: Ni 20
3
+ 6H+ + 2Cl-
---->
2Ni 2+ + Cl2i
+ 3H 20
131
3.27
N i (II) reactions
Reactions ofnickel( II) ions For the study of these reactions use a O.5M solution of nickel sulphate NiS0 4 7H 20 or nickel chloride NiCI 2 6H 20. 1. Sodium hydroxide solution
Ni 2+ + 20H~
--->
NaOH
green precipitation of nickel(II) hydroxide:
1
green Ni(OHh
Ni(OHh!
The precipitate is insoluble in excess reagent. No precipitation occurs in the presence of tartrate or citrate, owing to complex formation. Ammonia dissolves the precipitate; in the presence of excess alkali hydroxide, ammonium salts will also dissolve the precipitate: Ni(OHh! Ni(OHh!
+ 6NH3
---> --->
[Ni(NH3)6]2+ [Ni(NH3)6]2+
+ 20H~
+ 6NHt + 40H~
+ 6H 20
The solution of hexamminenickelate(II) ions is deep blue; it can be easily mistaken for copper(II) ions, which form the blue tetramminecuprate(II) ions in an analogous reaction (cf. Section 3.10). The solution does not' oxidize on boiling with free exposure to air or upon the addition of hydrogen peroxide (difference from cobalt). The green nickel(II) hydroxide precipitate can be oxidized to black nickel(III) hydroxide with sodium hypochlorite solution: 2Ni(OHh
+ ClO~ + H 20
--->
2Ni(OHh!
+ Cl~
Hydrogen peroxide solution, however, does not oxidize nickel(II) hydroxide, but the precipitate catalyses the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water 2H 20 2
Ni(OHhl
) 2H 20
+ O 2r
without any other visible change.

NH3
2. Ammonia solution
2 Ni + + 2NH3
green precipitate of nickel(II) hydroxide:

--->
1
green Ni(OHh Dissolves in excess
+ 2H 20
--->
Ni(OHh!
+ 2NHt + 20H~
which dissolves in excess reagent: Ni(OHh!
+ 6NH3
[Ni(NH3)6]2+
the solution turns deep blue (cf. reaction 1). If ammonium salts are present, no precipitation occurs, but the complex is formed immediately.
(NH 4 hS
1
black NiS
3. Ammonium sulphide solution black precipitate of nickel sulphide from neutral or slightly alkaline solutions:
Ni2+
+ S2~
--->
NiS!
If the reagent is added in excess, a dark-brown colloidal solution is formed which runs through the filter paper. If the colloidal solution is boiled or if it is rendered slightly acid with acetic acid and boiled, the colloidal solution (hydrosol) is coagulated and can then be filtered. The presence of large quantities of ammonium chloride usually prevents the formation of the sol. Nickel sulphide is practically insoluble in cold dilute hydrochloric acid
132
Nickel(lI)
3.27
(distinction from the sulphides of manganese and zinc) and in acetic acid, but dissolves in hot concentrated nitric acid and in aqua regia with the separation of sulphur: 3NiSl + 2HN0 3 + 6H+ -+ 3Ni 2+ + 2NOl + 3S1 + 4H 20 NiSl + HN0 3 + 3HCl -+ Ni 2+ + Sl + NOCll + 2Cl- + 2H 20 On longer heating, sulphur dissolves and the solution becomes clear: Sl Sl
+ 2HN0 3 -+
SO~SO~-
+ 2H+ + 2NOl + 6Cl- + 3NOCil + 8H+ + 2H20
+ 3HN03 + 9HCl -+
4. Hydrogen sulphide (gas or saturated aqueous solution) only part of the nickel is precipitated as nickel sulphide from neutral solutions and the reaction is slow; no precipitation occurs from solutions containing mineral acid or much acetic acid. Complete precipitation occurs, however, from solutions made alkaline with ammonia solution, or from solutions containing excess of alkali acetate made slightly acid with acetic acid.
KCN
1
green Ni(CN)z
5. Potassium cyanide solution (POISON) cyanide
green precipitate of nickel(II)
NiH
+ 2CN-
-+
Ni(CNhl
oisso Iyes
in excess
The precipitate is readily soluble in excess reagent, when a yellow solution appears owing to the formation of tetracyanonickelate(II) complex ions: Ni(CNhl
+ 2CN-
-+
[Ni(CN)4f-
Dilute hydrochloric acid decomposes the complex, and the precIpitate appears again. A fume cupboard with good ventilation must be used for this test: [Ni(CN)4]2-
+ 2H+ -+ Ni(CNhl + 2HCNl
If the solution of tetracyanonickelate(II) is heated with sodium hypobromite solution (prepared in situ by adding bromine water to sodium hydroxide solution), the complex decomposes and a black nickel(III) hydroxide precipitate is formed (difference from cobalt ions): 2[Ni(CN)4]2-
+ OBr- + 40H- + H 20
-+
2Ni(OHhl + 8CN-
+ Br-
Excess potassium cyanide and/or excess bromine water should be avoided, because these react with the formation of cyanogen bromide, which is poisonous and causes watering of the eyes: CN-
+ Br2 -+
BrCNl + Br-
6. Potassium nitrite solution no precipitate is produced in the presence of acetic acid (difference from cobalt).
l-Nitroso-2-naphthol
1
brown ppt
7. I-Nitroso-2-naphthol reagent (cf Section 3.26, reaction 7) brown precipitate of composition Ni(CIOH602Nh, which is soluble in hydrochloric acid (different from cobalt, which produces a reddish-brown precipitate, insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid).
133
3.27
Dimethylglyoxime
1
red ppt Specific for Ni
8. Dimethylglyoxime reagent (C4 H 8 0 2 N 2 ) red precIpitate of nickel dimethylglyoxime from solutions just made alkaline with ammonia or acid solutions buffered with sodium acetate:
H
(/' ' 0
H C
3
"c~ '\ .... ~c""" I Ni I

C ...... C ~. ".""~,,
N
CH
3
+2H+
CH j
H3C
'-
...
: 0
Iron(lI) (red colouration), bismuth (yellow precipitate), and larger amounts of cobalt (brown colouration) interfere in ammoniacal solution. The influence of interfering elements (Fe 2+ must be oxidized to Fe 3+, say, by hydrogen peroxide) can be eliminated by the addition of a tartrate. When large quantities of cobalt salts are present, they react with the dimethylglyoxime and a special procedure must be adopted (see below). Oxidizing agents must be absent. Palladium, platinum, and gold give precipitates in acid solution. The spot test technique is as follows. Place a drop of the test solution on drop-reaction paper, add a drop of the above reagent and hold the paper over ammonia vapour. Alternatively, place a drop of the test solution and a drop of the reagent on a spot plate, and add a drop of dilute ammonia solution. A red spot or precipitate (or colouration) is produced. Sensitivity 0.16 J,lg Ni. Concentration limit 1 in 300000. Detection of traces ofnickel in cobalt salts the solution containing the cobalt and nickel is treated with excess concentrated potassium cyanide (POISON) solution, followed by 30% hydrogen peroxide whereby the complex cyanides [CO(CN)6]3- and [Ni(CN)4]4- respectively are formed. Upon adding 40% formaldehyde solution the hexacyanocobaltate(III) is unaffected (and hence remains inactive to dimethylglyoxime) whereas the tetracyanatonickelate(II) decomposes with the formation of nickel cyanide, which reacts immediately with the dimethylglyoxime. [Ni(CN)4]2Ni(CNhl
Atomic spectrometry
+ 2HCHO
---4
+ 2C4 H 8 0 2N 2
---4
+ 2CH 2(CN)ONi(C4H 7 02N2hl + 2HCNj

Ni(CNhl
9. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame 1 ppm nickel can be identified at 341.48 nm. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a nickel hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 0.1 ppm can be identified at 341.48 nm. (c) Nickel standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 4.9533 g analytical grade nickel(II) nitrate hexahydrate Ni(N0 3h 6H 20 in water and dilute to 1 litre.
134
Manganese(lI)
3.28
Dry tests
all nickel compounds, when heated with sodium carbonate on charcoal, yield grey, slightly magnetic scales of metallic nickel. These can be placed on a strip of filter paper and dissolved by a few drops of 8M nitric acid. After adding a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid, the paper can be dried by moving it back and forth in a flame, or by placing it on the outside of a test-tube containing hot water. The paper acquires a green colour owing to the formation of nickel(II) chloride. On moistening the filter paper with ammonia solution and adding a few drops of dimethylglyoxime reagent, a red colour is produced. (b) Borax bead test this is coloured brown in the oxidizing flame, due to the formation of nickel meta borate, Ni(B02h, or of the complex metaborate Na2[Ni(B02)4], and grey, due to metallic nickel, in the reducing flame.
3.28
Manganese, Mn (Ar: 54.938) - manganese(lI)
Manganese is a greyish-white metal, similar in appearance to cast iron. It melts at about 1250C. It reacts with warm water forming manganese(II) hydroxide and hydrogen: Mn + 2H 20
--->
Mn(OHhl + H2 i
Dilute mineral acids and also acetic acid dissolve it with the production of manganese(II) salts and hydrogen: Mn + 2H+
--->
Mn2+ + H2 i
When it is attacked by hot, concentrated sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide is evolved: Mn + 2H 2S04 ---> Mn2+ + SO~- + S02 i + 2H 20 Six oxides of manganese are known: MnO, Mn203, Mn02, Mn03, Mn207, and Mn304. The first five of these correspond to oxidation states +2, +3, +4, +6 and +7 respectively, while the last, Mn304, is a manganese(II)-manganese(III) oxide (MnO Mn203). The manganese(II) cations are derived from manganese(II) oxide. They form colourless salts, although if the compound contains water of crystallization, and in solutions they are slightly pink; this is due to the presence of the hexaquomanganate(II) ion [Mn(H 20)6]2+. Manganese(III) ions are unstable; some complexes, containing manganese in the +3 oxidation state, are however known. They are easily reduced to manganese(II) ions. Although they can be derived from the manganese(III) oxide, Mn203, the latter, when treated with mineral acids, produces manganese(II) ions. If hydrochloric acid is used, chlorine is the by-product: Mn2031 + 6HCI
--->
2Mn2+ + Cl2i + 4CI- + 3H 20
With sulphuric acid, oxygen is formed: 2Mn203 + 4H 2S0 4 ---> 4Mn2+
+ O 2i + 4S0~- + 4H 20
135
3.28
Manganese(IV) compounds, with the exception of the manganese(IV) oxide (or manganese dioxide), Mn02, are unstable, as both the manganese(IV) ion, Mn4+, and the manganate(IV) (or manganite) ion, MnO~-, are easily reduced to manganese(II). When dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, manganese(IV) oxide produces manganese(II) ions as well as chlorine and oxygen gas respectively: Mn021 2Mn021
+ 4HCI ----> Mn2+ + CI 2i + 2CI- + 2H 20
+ 2H 2S04 ----> 2Mn2+ + O 2i + 2S0~- + 2H 20
Manganese(VI) compounds contain the manganate(VI) MnO~- anion. This is stable in alkaline solutions, and possesses a green colour. Upon neutralization a disproportionation reaction takes place; manganese dioxide precipitate and manganate(VII) (permanganate) ions are formed:
3MnO~-
+ 2H 20
---->
Mn021
+ 2M nO:! + 40H-
If manganese(VI) oxide is treated with acids, manganese(II) IOns are produced. With hot, concentrated sulphuric acid, the reaction 2Mn03
+ 2H 2 S04 ----> 2Mn2+ + 20 2i + 2S0~- + 2H 20
takes place. Manganese(VII) compounds contain the manganate(VII) or permanganate ion, MnO:!. Alkali permanganates are stable compounds, producing violet-coloured solutions. They are all strong oxidizing agents. In this section, the reactions ofmanganese(II) ions will be dealt with, while reactions of permanganates will be described among the reactions of anions (cf. Section 4.34).
Mn(ll) reactions
Reactions of manganese ( II) ions F or the study of these reactions a O.25M solution of manganese(II) chloride MnCI 2 4H 20 or manganese(II) sulphate MnS04 4H 20 can be used.
NaOH
1
white Mn(OHh
I. Sodium hydroxide solution ganese(II) hydroxide: Mn2+
an initially white precipitate of man-
+ 20H-
---->
Mn(OHhl
Turns dark
The precipitate is insoluble in excess reagent. It rapidly oxidizes on exposure to air, becoming brown, when hydrated manganese dioxide, MnO(OHh, is formed: 2Mn(OHhl
+ O2 ----> 2MnO(OHhl
Hydrogen peroxide converts manganese(II) hydroxide rapidly into hydrated manganese dioxide: Mn(OHhl
NH3
+ H 2 0 2 ----> MnO(OHhl + H 20
!
white Mn(OH)2
2. Ammonia solution partial precipitation of(initially) white manganese(II) hydroxide: Mn 2+ + 2NH3 + 2H 20;:::! Mn(OHhl + 2NHt
136
Manganese(lI)
3.28
The precipitate is soluble in ammonium salts, when the reaction proceeds towards the left.
(NH 4 )zS
pink precipitate ofmanganese(II) sulphide:
1
pink MnS
Mn2+
+ S2-
----+
MnS!
The precipitate also contains loosely-bound water. It is readily soluble in mineral acids (different from nickel and cobalt) and even in acetic acid (distinction from nickel, cobalt, and zinc): MnS! + 2H+ MnS! + 2CH 3COOH
Na2HP04
----+ ----+
Mn2+ + H 2Sj Mn2+ + H 2Sj + 2CH 3COO-
1
pink ppt
4. Disodium hydrogen phosphate solution pink precipitate of manganese ammonium phosphate Mn(NH 4)P0 4 7H 20, in the presence of ammonia (or ammonium ions):
Mn2+ + NH3 + HPO~-
----+
Mn(NH4)P04!
If ammonium salts are absent, manganese(II) phosphate is formed: 3Mn 2+ + 2HPO~----+
Mn3(P04h!
+ 2H+
Both precipitates are soluble in acids.

Pb0 2
1
oxidation to permanganate
S. Lead dioxide and concentrated nitric acid on boiling a dilute solution of manganese(II) ions, free from hydrochloric acid and chlorides, with lead dioxide (or red lead, which yields the dioxide in the presence of nitric acid) and a little concentrated nitric acid, diluting somewhat and allowing the suspended solid containing un attacked lead dioxide to settle, the supernatant liquid acquires a violet-red (or purple) colour due to permanganic acid. The latter is decomposed by hydrochloric acid and hence chlorides should be absent. SPb0 2 + 2Mn2+ + 4H+
----+
2Mn04 + SPb2+ + 2H20
(NH 4 )zS2 0 a
1
6. Ammonium or potassium peroxodisulphate solid (NH4hS20g or K 2S20 g is added to a dilute solution of manganese(II) ions, free of chloride. The solution is acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, and a few drops of dilute silver nitrate (which acts as a catalyst) are added; on boiling, a reddishviolet solution is formed, owing to the presence of permanganate:
2Mn2+ + SS20~- + 8H 20
----+
2Mn04 + lOS0~- + 16H+
The solution must be dilute (max 0.02M), otherwise manganese dioxide precipitate is formed. Spot test place a drop of the test solution in a micro crucible, add 1 drop O.IM silver nitrate solution, and stir. Introduce a few mg solid ammonium peroxodisulphate and heat gently. The characteristic colour of permanganate appears. Sensitivity O.lllg Mn. Concentration limit 1 in SOO 000.
137
3.28
NaBi0 3
1
7. Sodium bismuthate (NaBi0 3 ) when this solid is added to a cold solution of manganese(II) ions in dilute nitric acid or in dilute sulphuric acid, the mixture stirred and excess reagent filtered off (preferably through glass wool or a sintered glass funnel), a solution of permanganate is produced.
2Mn2+ + 5NaBi0 3 + 14H+ ----., 2Mn04
+ 5Bi3+ + 5Na+ + 7H20
The spot-test technique is as follows. Place a drop of the test solution on a spot plate, add a drop of concentrated nitric acid and then a little sodium bismuthate. The purple colour of permanganic acid appears. If the solution is so dark that the colour cannot be detected, dilute the mixture with water until the colour appears. Sensitivity 25 Ilg Mn (in 5 ml). Concentration limit 1 in 200000.
Atomic spectrometry
8. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame 10 ppm manganese can be identified at 403.08 nm. Using nitrous oxide/ acetylene flame the sensitivity increases tenfold. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a manganese hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 0.1 ppm can be identified at the 279.48 nm resonance line. (c) Manganese standard, lOOOppm dissolve 3.6021 g analytical grade manganese(II) chloride tetrahydrate MnCI 2 4H 20 in a mixture of 50 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid and 50 ml water. After complete dissolution, dilute with water to I litre. 9. Dry tests (a) Borax bead test The bead produced in the oxidizing flame by small amounts of manganese salts is violet whilst hot and amethyst-red when cold; with larger amounts of manganese the bead is almost brown and may be mistaken for that of nickel. In the reducing flame the manganese bead is colourless whilst that due to nickel is grey. (b) Fusion test Fusion of any manganese compound with sodium carbonate and an oxidizing agent (potassium chlorate or potassium nitrate) gives a green mass of alkali manganate. The test may be carried out either by heating upon a piece of platinum foil with potassium nitrate and sodium carbonate (if platinum foil is not available, a piece of broken porcelain may be employed), or by fusing a bead of sodium carbonate with a small quantity of the manganese compound in the oxidizing flame and dipping the fused mass whilst hot into a little powdered potassium chlorate or nitrate and reheating.
Dry tests
Fusion oxidation to manganate
+ 2KN0 3 + 2Na2C03 = Na2Mn04 + 2KN0 2 + Na2S04 + 2C0 2T 3MnS04 + 2KCl0 3 + 6Na2C03 = 3Na2Mn04 + 2KCl
MnS04
+ 3Na2S04 + 6C0 2T
138
Zinc(lI)
3.29
3.29
Zinc, Zn (Ar: 65.38)
Zinc is a bluish-white metal; it is fairly malleable and ductile at IlO-I50C. It melts at 410C and boils at 906C. The pure metal dissolves very slowly in acids and in alkalis; the presence of impurities or contact with platinum or copper, produced by the addition of a few drops of the solutions of the salts of these metals, accelerates the reaction. This explains the solubility of commercial zinc. The latter dissolves readily in dilute hydrochloric acid and in dilute sulphuric acid with the evolution of hydrogen: Zn + 2H+ ~ Zn 2+ + H 2j Dissolution occurs in very dilute nitric acid, but no gas is evolved: 4Zn + lOH+ + N0 3 ~ 4Zn 2+ + NHt + 3H20 On increasing the concentration of nitric acid, dinitrogen oxide (N2 0) and nitrogen oxide (NO) are formed: 4Zn + IOH+ + 2N0 3 ~ 4Zn 2+ + N 20j + 5H 20 3Zn + 8HN0 3 ~ 3Zn2+ + 2NOj + 6N0 3 + 4H 20 Concentrated nitric acid has little effect on zinc because of the low solubility of zinc nitrate in such a medium. With hot, concentrated sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide is evolved: Zn + 2H 2S04 ~ Zn 2+ + S02 j + SO~- + 2H 20 Zinc also dissolves in alkali hydroxides, when tetrahydroxozincate(II) is formed: Zn
+ 20H- + 2H 20
~ [Zn(OH)4J 2 -
+ H2 j
Zinc forms one series of salts only; these contain the zinc(II) cation, derived from zinc oxide, ZnO.
Zn (II) reactions
Reactions of zinc(ll) ions A O.25M solution of zinc sulphate ZnS04' 7H 20 can be used to study these reactions.
1. Sodium hydroxide solution white gelatinous precipitate of zinc hydroxide: Zn 2+ + 20H- +=! Zn(OHhl
NaOH
1
white Zn(OHh
Dissolves in excess
The precipitate is soluble in acids: Zn(OHhl + 2H+ +=! Zn 2+ + 2H 20 and also in the excess of the reagent: Zn(OHhl
+ 20H- +=! [Zn(OH)4J 2-
Zinc hydroxide is thus an amphoteric compound.

NH3
1
white Zn(OH)2 dissolves in excess
2. Ammonia solution white precipitate of zinc hydroxide, readily soluble in excess reagent and in solutions of ammonium salts owing to the production of tetramminezincate(II). The non-precipitation of zinc hydroxide by ammonia solution in the presence of ammonium chloride is due to the
139
3.29
lowering of the hydroxyl-ion concentration to such a value that the solubility product of Zn(OHh is not attained. Zn 2+ + 2NH3 + 2H 20;::: Zn(OHhl + 2NHt Zn(OHhl
(NH 4 )zS
+ 4NH3 ;::: [Zn(NH3)4f+ + 20H-
1
white ZnS
3. Ammonium sulphide solution white precipitate of zinc sulphide, ZnS, from neutral or alkaline solutions; it is insoluble in excess reagent, in acetic acid, and in solutions of caustic alkalis, but dissolves in dilute mineral acids. The precipitate thus obtained is partially colloidal; it is difficult to wash and tends to run through the filter paper, particularly on washing. To obtain the zinc sulphide in a form which can be readily filtered, the precipitation is conveniently carried out in boiling solution in the presence of excess ammonium chloride. The precipitate is washed with dilute ammonium chloride solution containing a little ammonium sulphide. Zn 2+ + S2- ----> ZnSl 4. Hydrogen sulphide gas partial precipitation of zinc sulphide in neutral solutions; when the concentration of acid produced is about 0.3M (pH about 0.6), the sulphide-ion concentration derived from the hydrogen sulphide is depressed so much by the hydrogen-ion concentration from the acid that it is too low to exceed the solubility product of ZnS, and consequently precipitation ceases. Zn2+ + H 2S;::: ZnSl + 2H+
When alkali acetate is added to the solution, the hydrogen-ion concentration is reduced because of the formation of the feebly dissociated acetic acid, the sulphide-ion concentration is correspondingly increased, and precipitation is almost complete. Zn 2+ + H 2S + 2CH 3COO- ----> ZnSl + 2CH 3COOH Zinc sulphide is also precipitated from alkaline solutions of tetrahydroxozincate: [Zn(OH)4f-
+ H 2S ----> ZnSl + 20H- + 2H 20
Na2HP04
1
white Zn3(P04)z
5. Disodium hydrogen phosphate solution white precipitate of zinc phosphate: 3Zn2+ + 2HPO~-;::: Zn3(P04hl + 2H+ In the presence of ammonium ions zinc ammonium phosphate is formed: Zn 2+ + NHt + HPO~- ;::: Zn(NH4)P041 + H+
Both precipitates are soluble in dilute acids, when the reactions are reversed. Also, both precipitates are soluble in ammonia: Zn3(P04h + 12NH3 Zn(NH 4)P0 4 + 3NH3
----> ---->
3[Zn(NH3)4]2+ + 2PO~ [Zn(NH 3)4]2+ + HPO~-
140
Zinc(lI)
3.29
K 4[Fe(CN)6l
1
white ppt
6. Potassium hexacyanoferrate( II) solution white precipitate of variable composition; if the reagent is added in some excess, the composition of the precipitate is K2Zn3 [Fe( CN)6h:
3Zn2+ + 2K+
+ 2[Fe(CN)61 4-
-+
K2Zn3[Fe(CN)6b
The precipitate is insoluble in dilute acids, but dissolves readily in sodium hydroxide:
This reaction can be used to distinguish zinc from aluminium.

Quinaldic acid white ppt
7. Quinaldic acid reagent (quinoline-i-carboxylic acid, C9 H 6 N' C0 2 H) upon the addition of a few drops of the reagent to a solution of a zinc salt which is faintly acid with acetic acid, a white precipitate of the zinc complex Zn(CIOH6N02h' H 20 is obtained. The precipitate is soluble in ammonia solution and in mineral acids, but is reprecipitated on neutralization. Copper, cadmium, uranium, iron, and chromium ions give precipitates with the reagent and should be absent. Cobalt, nickel, and manganese ions have no effect. This is an extremely sensitive test for zinc ions, and is a useful confirmatory test for zinc isolated from the Group IIIB separation. The reagent is, however, expensive. The reaction is best carried out on the semimicro scale or as a spot test. 8. Ammonium tetrathiocyanatomercurate( II)~copper sulphate test Acidify the solution faintly with a few drops of M sulphuric or 2M acetic acid. Add 0.1 ml of 0.25M copper(lI) sulphate solution, followed by 2 ml of ammonium tetrathiocyanatomercurate(lI) reagent. A violet precipitate is obtained. The test is rendered still more sensitive by boiling the mixture for 1 minute, cooling and shaking with a little amyl alcohol; the violet precipitate collects at the interface. Iron salts produce a red colouration; this disappears when a little alkali fluoride is added. Copper salts alone do not form a precipitate with the ammonium tetrathiocyanatomercurate(II) reagent, whilst zinc ions, if present alone, form a white precipitate:
Test with
CUS04
+ (NH4lzlHg(SCN)4l
1
violet ppt
In the presence of copper ions, the copper complex coprecipitates with that of zinc, and the violet (or blackish-purple) precipitate consists of mixed crystals of Zn[Hg(SCN)41 + Cu[Hg(SCN)41. Place a drop or two of the test solution, which is slightly acid (preferably with sulphuric acid), on a spot plate, add 1 drop 0.25M copper sulphate solution and 1 drop ammonium tetrathiocyanatomercurate(lI) reagent. A violet (or blackish-purple) precipitate appears. The reaction may be conducted in a semimicro test-tube; here 0.3~0.5 ml amyl alcohol is added. The violet precipitate collects at the interface. Concentration limit 1 in 10000.
141
3.29
Rinmann's green test
Specific for Zn
9. Rinmann's green test the test depends upon the production of Rinmann's green (largely cobalt zincate CoZn02) by heating the salts or oxides of zinc and cobalt. An excess of cobalt(II) oxide must be avoided for it leads to a red-brown colouration: oxidation to cobalt(III) oxide produces a darkening of colour. Optimum experimental conditions are obtained by converting the zinc into the hexacyanocobaltate(III). K+ + [CO(CN)6l 3 - + Zn 2+ = KZn[Co(CN)6l Ignition of the latter leads to zinc oxide and cobalt(II) oxide in the correct proportion for the formation of cobalt zincate, whilst carbon from the filter paper (see below) prevents the formation of cobalt(III) oxide. All other metals must be removed. Place a few drops of the neutral (litmus) test solution upon potassium hexacyanocobaltate(III) (or cobalticyanide, Rinmann's green) test paper. Dry the paper over a flame and ignite in a small crucible. Observe the colour of the ash against a white background: part of it will be green. Sensitivity 0.61lg Zn. Concentration limit I in 3000. The potassium hexacyanocobaltate(III) (or cobalticyanide) test paper is prepared by soaking drop-reaction paper or quantitative filter paper in a solution containing 4 g potassium hexacyanocobaltate(III) and 1 g potassium chlorate in 100ml water, and drying at room temperature or at 100C. The paper is yellow and keeps well.
Dithizone red colour extractable
10. Diphenylthiocarbazone ( dithizone) test dithizone forms complexes with a number of metal ions, which can be extracted with chloroform. The zinc complex, formed in neutral, alkaline or acetic acid solutions, is red:
C6 H3
C6 H3
- - S=C
"N=N'
NH-N /
------C6H3
"
.............. / ........... N=NH

C6H 3/
.' Zn
..........
"N=N"
C=S+2H+
Acidify the test solution with acetic acid, and add a few drops of the reagent. The organic phase turns red in the presence of zinc. Cu 2+, Hg2+, Hg~+, Ag +, Au 3+, and Pd 2+ ions interfere. Upon adding sodium hydroxide solution to the mixture and shaking, the aqueous phase turns red also. This reaction is characteristic for zinc only. (In alkaline solutions the sensitivity of the test is less.) Limit of detection in neutral medium 0.0251lg Zn 2+; in acetic acid or sodium hydroxide medium 0.91lg Zn 2+.
142
Fourth group of cations
3.30
The test can be applied in the presence of 2000 times those amounts of Ni and Ai.
Atomic spectrometry
II. Atomic spectrometric tests (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame lOppm zinc can be identified at 213.86nm. The nitrous oxide/acetylene flame provides a tenfold increase in sensitivity. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a zinc or brass hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 0.1 ppm can be identified at 213.86nm. (c) Zinc standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 4.3980 g analytical grade zinc sulphate heptahydrate ZnS04' 7H 20 in water and dilute to I litre. 12. Dry tests (blowpipe tests) compounds of zinc when heated upon charcoal with sodium carbonate yield an incrustation of the oxide, which is yellow when hot and white when cold. The metal cannot be isolated owing to its volatility and subsequent oxidation. If the incrustation is moistened with a drop of cobalt nitrate solution and again heated, a green mass (Rinmann's green), consisting largely of cobalt zincate CoZn02 is obtained. An alternative method is to soak a piece of ashless filter paper in the zinc salt solution, add I drop cobalt nitrate solution and to ignite in a crucible or in a coil of platinum wire. The residue is coloured green.
Dry tests
3.30
Fourth group of cations: barium(II), strontium(II), and calcium(ll)
Group reagent I M solution of ammonium carbonate. The reagent is colourless, and displays an alkaline reaction because of hydrolysis:
CO~Fourth group of cations Ba(II), 5r(II), Ca(ll)
+ H 20;:::: HC0 3 + OH+ 2CH 3 COOH --> CO 2i + H 20 + 2CH 3 COO-
The reagent is decomposed by acids (even by acetic acid), when carbon dioxide gas is formed:
CO~-
The reagent has to be used in neutral or slightly alkaline media. Commercial ammonium carbonate always contains ammonium hydrogen carbonate (NH 4HC0 3 ) and ammonium carbamate NH 40(NH 2)CO. These compounds have to be removed before attempting the group reaction as thealkaline earth salts of both are soluble in water. This can be done by boiling the reagent solution for a while; both ammonium hydrogen carbonate and ammonium carbamate are converted to ammonium carbonate in this way: 2HC0 3
-->
CO~-
+ CO 2i + H 20
143
3.31
Group reaction cations of the fourth group react neither with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide nor ammonium sulphide, but ammonium carbonate (in the presence of moderate amounts of ammonia or ammonium ions) forms white precipitates. The test has to be carried out in neutral or alkaline solutions. In the absence of ammonia or ammonium ions, magnesium will also be precipitated. The white precipitates formed with the group reagent are: barium carbonate BaC0 3 , strontium carbonate SrC0 3 , and calcium carbonate CaC03 . The three alkaline earth metals decompose water at different rates, forming hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Their hydroxides are strong bases, although with different solubilities: barium hydroxide is the most soluble, while calcium hydroxide is the least soluble among them. Alkaline earth chlorides and nitrates are very soluble; the carbonates, sulphates, phosphates, and oxalates are insoluble. The sulphides can be prepared only in the dry state; they all hydrolyse in water, forming hydrogen sulphides and hydroxides, e.g. 2BaS + 2H 20 ----+ 2Ba2+ + 2SH- + 20HUnless the anion is coloured, the salts form colourless solutions. Because the alkaline earth ions behave very similarly to each other in aqueous solutions, it is very difficult to distinguish them and especially to separate them. There are, however, differences in the solubilities of some of their salts in non-aqueous media. Thus, 100 g anhydrous ethanol dissolves 12.5 g calcium chloride, 0.91 g strontium chloride, and only 0.012 g barium chloride (all anhydrous salts). One hundred grams of a 1 + 1 mixture of diethyl ether and anhydrous ethanol dissolves more than 40 g anhydrous calcium nitrate; the solubilities of anhydrous strontium and barium nitrates in this solution are negligible. These differences can be utilized for separations.
3.31
Barium, Ba (A,: 137.34)
Barium is a silver-white, malleable and ductile metal, which is stable in dry air. It reacts with the water in humid air forming oxide or hydroxide. It melts at 710C. It reacts with water at room temperature forming barium hydroxide and hydrogen: Ba + 2H20 ----+ Ba2+ + H2 i + 20HDilute acids dissolve barium readily with the evolution of hydrogen: Ba + 2H+
----+
Ba2+
+ H2i
Barium is bivalent in its salts forming the barium(II) cation Ba2+. Its chloride and nitrate are soluble, but on adding concentrated hydrochloric or nitric acids to barium solutions, barium chloride or nitrate may precipitate out.
Ba (II) reactions
Reactions of barium(Il) ions Use a 0.25M solution of barium chloride BaCl 2 ' 2H 20 or barium nitrate Ba(N0 3 h for the study of these reactions.
144
Barium(lI)
3.31
1. Ammonia solution no precipitate of barium hydroxide because of its relatively high solubility. If the alkaline solution is exposed to the atmosphere, some carbon dioxide is absorbed and a turbidity, due to barium carbonate, is produced. A slight turbidity may occur when adding the reagent; this is due to small amounts of ammonium carbonate, often present in an aged reagent.
(NH 4lzC0 3
1
white BaC0 3
2. Ammonium carbonate solution white precipitate of barium carbonate, soluble in acetic acid and in dilute mineral acids.
Ba2+
+ CO~-
---+
BaC0 3 1
The precipitate is slightly soluble in solutions of ammonium salts of strong acids.

(COONH 4)2
1
white Ba(COOlz
3. Ammonium oxalate solution white precipitate of barium oxalate Ba(COOh, slightly soluble in water (0.09 g per litre; Ks = 1.7 x 10- 7), but readily dissolved by hot dilute acetic acid (distinction from calcium) and by mineral acids.
Ba2+
+ (COO)~- += Ba(COOhl
H 2 S0 4
1
white BaS04
4. Dilute sulphuric acid heavy, white, finely divided precipitate of barium sulphate BaS04, practically insoluble in water (2.5 mg 1-1; Ks = 9.2 x lO- ll ), almost insoluble in dilute acids and in ammonium sulphate solution, but appreciably soluble in boiling concentrated sulphuric acid. By precipitation in boiling solution, or preferably in the presence of ammonium acetate, a more readily filterable form is obtained.
Ba2+ + SO~BaS041
---+ ---+
BaS041 Ba 2+ + 2HSOi
+ H 2S04(conc.)
If barium sulphate is boiled with a concentrated solution of sodium carbonate, partial transformation into the less soluble barium carbonate occurs in accordance with the equation: BaS041
+ CO~- += BaC0 3 1 + SO~-
Owing to the reversibility of the reaction, the transformation is incomplete. Barium sulphate precipitate may also be dissolved in a hot 5% solution of disodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate (Na2EDTA) in the presence of ammonia.
Saturated CaS04
1
white BaS04
5. Saturated calcium sulphate solution immediate white preCIpItate of barium sulphate. A similar phenomenon occurs if saturated strontium sulphate reagent is used. The explanation of these reactions is as follows: of the three alkaline earth sulphates barium sulphate is the least soluble. In the solutions of saturated calcium or strontium sulphate the concentration of sulphate ions is high enough to cause precipitation with larger amounts of barium, because the product of ion concentrations exceeds the value of the solubility product:
SO~-
+ Ba2+ += BaS041
145
3.31
K 2 Cr0 4 1
yellow BaCr04
6. Potassium chromate solution a yellow precipitate of barium chromate, practically insoluble in water (3.2 mg 1-1, Ks = 1.6 x 10- 1 ):
Ba2+ + CrO~---->
BaCr04l
The precipitate is insoluble in dilute acetic acid (distinction from strontium and calcium), but readily soluble in mineral acids. The addition of acid to potassium chromate solution causes the yellow colour of the solution to change to reddish-orange, owing to the formation of dichromate:
2CrO~-
+ 2H+ +=! Cr20~- + H 20
The solubility products for SrCr04 and CaCr04 are much larger than for BaCr04 and hence they require a larger CrO~- ion concentration to precipitate them. The addition of acetic acid to the K2Cr04 solution lowers the CrO~- ion concentration sufficiently to prevent the precipitation of SrCr04 and CaCr04 but it is maintained high enough to precipitate BaCr04'
Na rhodizonate reddish ppt
7. Sodium rhodizonate (rhodizonic acid, sodium salt) reagent

CO--CO--C.ONa CO--CO--C .ONa
reddish-brown precipitate of the barium salt of rhodizonic acid in neutral solution. Calcium and magnesium salts do not interfere; strontium salts react like those of barium, but only the precipitate due to the former is completely soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. Other elements, e.g. those precipitated by hydrogen sulphide and by ammonium sulphide, should be absent. The reagent should be confined to testing for elements in Group IV. Place a drop of the neutral or faintly acidic test solution upon dropreaction paper and add a drop of the reagent. A brown or reddish-brown spot is obtained. Sensitivity 0.25 ~g Ba. Concentration limit I in 200000. In the presence of strontium the reddish-brown stain of barium rhodizonate is treated with 0.5M hydrochloric acid; the strontium rhodizonate dissolves, whilst the barium derivative is converted into the brilliant-red acid salt. The reaction is best carried out on drop-reaction paper as above. Treat the reddish-brown spot with a drop ofO.5M hydrochloric acid when a bright-red stain is formed if barium is present. If barium is absent, the spot disappears. Sensitivity 0.5 ~g Ba in the presence of 50 times that amount of Sr. Concentration limit I in 90000.
Organic solvents
8. Anhydrous ethanol and ether a 1 + 1 mixture of these solvents does not dissolve anhydrous barium nitrate or barium chloride (distinct from strontium and calcium). The salts must be heated to 180C before the test to remove all water of crystallization. The test can be used for the separation of barium from strontium and/or calcium.
146
Strontium(lI)
3.32
Atomic spectrometry
9. Atomic spectrometric tests in air/acetylene flames a number of ions (like phosphate, sulphate, aluminium) decrease the emission and absorption signals of barium (and all of the alkaline earth metals). Adding an equal volume of a 25% solution of lanthanum chloride heptahydrate LaCI 3 7H 2 0 eliminates these interferences. Addition of lanthanum is not required if the nitrous oxide/acetylene flame is used. (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame 1 ppm barium can be identified at 455.4 nm. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a barium hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 0.1 ppm can be identified at 553.55nm. (c) Barium standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.4369 g analytical grade barium carbonate BaC0 3 in 15 ml 2M hydrochloric acid. After complete dissolution dilute with water to 1 litre.
10. Dry test (flame colouration) barium salts, when heated in a nonluminous Bunsen flame, impart a yellowish-green colour to the flame. Since most barium salts, with the exception of the chloride, are non-volatile, the platinum wire is moistened with concentrated hydrochloric acid before being dipped into the substance. The sulphate is first reduced to the sulphide in the reducing flame, then moistened with concentrated hydrochloric acid, and reintroduced into the flame.
Flame colour green
3.32
Strontium, Sr (A,: 87.62)
Strontium is a silver-white, malleable and ductile metal. It melts at 771C. Its properties are similar to those of barium.
Sr(ll) reactions
Reactions of strontium(lI) ions For the study of these reactions a 0.25M solution of strontium chloride SrCI 2 ' 6H 20 or strontium nitrate Sr(N0 3h can be used.
1. Ammonia solution
no precipitate. white precipitate of strontium carbonate:
(NH 4 hC0 3
2. Ammonium carbonate solution
1
white SrC0 3
Strontium carbonate is somewhat less soluble than barium carbonate; otherwise its characteristics (slight solubility in ammonium salts, decomposition with acids) are similar to those of the latter.
H 2 S0 4
3. Dilute sulphuric acid white precipitate of strontium sulphate:

Sr2+ + SO~--->
1
white SrS04
SrS04!
The solubility of the precipitate is low but not negligible (0.097 g 1-1, Ks = 2.8 x 10- 7). The precipitate is insoluble in ammonium sulphate solution even on boiling (distinction from calcium) and slightly soluble in boiling hydrochloric acid. It is almost completely converted into the corresponding
14~
3.32
carbonate by boiling with a concentrated solution of sodium carbonate: SrS04 + CO~- +=! SrC0 3 1 + SO~Strontium carbonate is less soluble than strontium sulphate (solubility: 5.9mg SrC0 3 1- 1, Ks = 1.6 X 10-9 at room temperature). After filtering the solution the precipitate can be dissolved in hydrochloric acid, thus strontium ions can be transferred into the solution.
Saturated CaS04
1
white SrS04 (COONH 4lz
4. Saturated calcium sulphate solution white precipitate of strontium sulphate, formed slowly in the cold but more rapidly on boiling (distinction from barium). 5. Ammonium oxalate solution Sr2+ white precipitate of strontium oxalate
1
white Sr(COO)2
+ (COO)~-
---->
Sr(COOhl
The precipitate is sparingly soluble in water (0.039 g I-I, Ks = 5 x 10- 8 ). Acetic acid does not attack it; mineral acids, however, dissolve the precipitate.
K2Cr0 4
6. Potassium chromate solution Sr + + CrO~2
yellow precipitate of strontium chromate:
1
yellow SrCr04
---->
SrCr041
The precipitate is appreciably soluble in water (1.2 g I-I , Ks = 3.5 x 10- 5), no precipitate occurs therefore in dilute solutions of strontium. The precipitate is soluble in acetic acid (distinction from barium) and in mineral acids, for the same reasons as described under barium (cf. Section 3.31, reaction 6).
Na rhodizonate
1
brown ppt
7. Sodium rhodizonate reagent reddish-brown precipitate of strontium rhodizonate in neutral solution. The test is applied to the elements of Group IV. Barium reacts similarly and a method for the detection of barium in the presence of strontium has already been described (Section 3.31, reaction 7). To detect strontium in the presence of barium, the latter is converted into the insoluble barium chromate. Barium chromate does not react with sodium rhodizonate, but the more soluble strontium chromate reacts normally. If barium is absent, place a drop of the neutral test solution on dropreaction paper or on a spot plate, and add a drop of the reagent. A brownish-red colouration or precipitate is produced. Sensitivity 41!g Sr. Concentration limit 1 in 13000. If barium is present, proceed as follows. Impregnate some quantitative filter paper or drop-reaction paper with a saturated solution of potassium chromate, and dry it. Place a drop of the test solution on this paper and, after a minute, place 1 drop of the reagent on the moistened spot. A brownish-red spot or ring is formed. Sensitivity 41!g Sr in the presence of 80 times that amount of Ba. Concentration limit I in 13000. For further details of the reagent, see Section 3.31, reaction 7. 8. Anhydrous ethanol and ether a I + I mixture of these solvents does not dissolve anhydrous strontium nitrate, but does dissolve anhydrous strontium chloride. The test can be utilized for the separation of calcium, strontium, and barium.
Organic solvents
148
Calcium(lI)
3.33
The test can be carried out as follows: precipitate strontium as the carbonate. Filter the precipitate, dissolve one part of it in hydrochloric acid, another in nitric acid. Evaporate the two solutions on separate watch glasses to dryness, heat the residue to 180C for 30 minutes, and try to dissolve the residues in a few millilitres of the solvent.
Atomic spectrometry
9. Atomic spectrometric tests the atomic spectrometric behaviour of strontium is very similar to that of barium (cf. Section 3.31, reaction 9). The use of lanthanum to eliminate interferences is recommended in air/ acetylene flames. (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame 1 ppm strontium can be identified at 460.73 nm. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a strontium hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 0.1 ppm can be identified at 460.73nm. (c) Strontium standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.6849 g analytical grade strontium carbonate SrC0 3 in IS ml 2M hydrochloric acid. After complete dissolution, dilute with water to 1 litre. 10. Dry test (flame colouration) volatile strontium compounds, especially the chloride, impart a characteristic carmine-red colour to the non-luminous Bunsen flame (see remarks under barium).
Flame colour red
3.33
Calcium, Ca (Ar: 40.08)
Calcium is a silver-white, rather soft metal. It melts at 84SC. It is attacked by atmospheric oxygen and humidity, when calcium oxide and/or calcium hydroxide is formed. Calcium decomposes water forming calcium hydroxide and hydrogen. Calcium forms the calcium(II) cation Ca2+ in aqueous solutions. Its salts are normally white powders and form colourless solutions, unless the anion is coloured. Solid calcium chloride is hygroscopic and is often used as a drying agent. Calcium chloride and calcium nitrate dissolve readily in ethanol or in a 1 + 1 mixture of anhydrous ethanol and diethyl ether.
Ca (II) reactions
Reactions of calcium ( 1/) ions To study these reactions a O.SM solution of calcium chloride CaCI 2 . 6H 20 can be used. 1. Ammonia solution no precipitate, as calcium hydroxide is fairly soluble. With an aged precipitant a turbidity may occur owing to the formation of calcium carbonate (cf. Section 3.31, reaction 1).
(NH 4 hC0 3
1
white CaC0 3
2. Ammonium carbonate solution carbonate: Ca2+ + CO~---->
white amorphous precipitate of calcium
CaC0 3 !
On boiling, the precipitate becomes crystalline. The precipitate is soluble in water which contains excess carbonic acid (e.g. freshly prepared soda
149
3.33
water) because of the formation of soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate: CaC0 3 1 + H 2 0
+ CO 2 f=! Ca 2+ + 2HC03"
On boiling the precipitate appears again, because carbon dioxide is removed during the process and the reaction proceeds towards the left. Barium and strontium ions react in a similar way. The precipitate is soluble in acids, even in acetic acid.
H 2 S0 4
1
white CaS04
3. Dilute sulphuric acid white precipitate of calcium sulphate Ca2+ + SO~- -+ CaS041
The precipitate is appreciably soluble in water (0.61 g Ca2 +, 2.06 g CaS04 or 2.61 g CaS04' 2H 2 0 I-I, Ks = 2.3 x 10- 4); that is, more soluble than barium or strontium sulphate. In the presence of ethanol the solubility is much less. The precipitate dissolves in hot, concentrated sulphuric acid: CaS04 + H 2 S04 f=! 2H+
+ [Ca(S04hf-
The same complex is formed if a precipitate is heated with a 10% solution of ammonium sulphate, leading to partial dissolution.
4. Saturated calcium sulphate strontium and barium).
(COONH 4lz
no precipitate is formed (difference from
1
white Ca(COO)2
5. Ammonium oxalate solution white precipitate of calcium oxalate, immediately from concentrated and slowly from dilute solutions:
Ca2+ + (COO)~-
-+
Ca(COOhl
Precipitation is facilitated by making the solution alkaline with ammonia. The precipitate is practically insoluble in water (6.53 mg Ca(COO)21-1, Ks = 2.6 x 10- 9 ), insoluble in acetic acid, but readily soluble in mineral acids.
6. Potassium chromate solution no precipitate from dilute solutions, nor from concentrated solutions in the presence of acetic acid (cf. Section 3.31, reaction 6).
K4 [Fe(CN)6l
1
white K2Ca[Fe(CN)6l
7. Potassium hexacyanoferrate( II) solution white precipitate of a mixed salt: Ca2+ + 2K+ + [Fe(CN)61 4- -+ K Ca[Fe(CN)611
2
In the presence of ammonium chloride the test is more sensitive. In this case potassium is replaced by ammonium ions in the precipitate. The tests can be used to distinguish calcium from strontium; barium and magnesium ions however interfere.
Na dihydroxytartrate osazone yellow ppt
8. Sodium dihydroxytartrate osazone [sodium salt of succinic acid-dioxo-2,3bis(phenylhydrazone) J reagent

C6 H,. NH--N=C--COONa CfiH,. NH--N=C--COONa
yellow sparingly-soluble precipitate of the calcium salt. All other metals, with the exception of alkali and ammonium salts, must be absent. Magnesium
150
Calcium(ll)
3.33
does not interfere provided its concentration does not exceed 10 times that of the calcium. Place a drop of the neutral test solution on a black spot plate or upon a black watch glass, and add a tiny fragment of the solid reagent. If calcium is absent, the reagent dissolves completely. The presence of calcium is revealed by the formation over the surface of the liquid of a white film which ultimately separates as a dense precipitate. Sensitivity O.Olllg Ca. Concentration limit 1 in 5000000. This reagent is useful inter alia for the rapid differentiation between tap and distilled water: a positive result is obtained with a mixture of 1 part of tap water and 30 parts of distilled water.
Picrolonic acid
9. Picrolonic acid (or I-p-nitrophenyl-3-methyl-4-nitro-5-pyrazolone) reagent

02N.CH -C.CH 3
1
white ppt of rectangular crystals
CO
NO l
"
II
N/
characteristic rectangular crystals of calcium picrolonate Ca(CIOH70sN4h8H201 in neutral or acetic acid solutions. Strontium and barium form precipitates but of different crystalline form. Numerous elements, including copper, lead, thorium, iron, aluminium, cobalt, nickel, and barium, interfere. Place a drop of the test solution (either neutral or acidified with acetic acid) in the depression of a warm spot plate and add I drop of a saturated solution of picrolonic acid. Characteristic rectangular crystals are produced. Sensitivity IOOllg (in 5 ml). Concentration limit 1 in 50000. The sensitivity is 0.01 Ilg (in 0.01 ml) under the microscope.
Microscopic test
10. Calcium sulphate dihydrate (microscope) test This is an excellent confirmatory test for calcium in Group IV; it involves the use of a microscope (magnification about 1IOx). The saIts should preferably be present as nitrates. Evaporate a few drops of the test solution on a watch glass to dryness on a water bath, dissolve the residue in a few drops of water, transfer to a microscope slide, and add a minute drop of dilute sulphuric acid. (It may be necessary to warm the slide gently on a water bath until crystallization just sets in at the edges.) Upon observation through a microscope, bundles of needles or elongated prisms will be visible if calcium is present. Concentration limit 1 in 6000. 11. Anhydrous ethanol or a 1 + 1 mixture of anhydrous ethanol and diethyl ether, dissolves both anhydrous calcium chloride and calcium nitrate. For practical details see Section 3.32, reaction 8.
151
Organic solvents
3.35
Atomic spectrometry
12. Atomic spectrometric tests the atomic spectrometric behaviour of calcium is very similar to that of barium (cf. Section 3.31, reaction 9). The use of lanthanum to eliminate interferences is recommended in air/acetylene flames. (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame 0.1 ppm calcium can be identified at 422.67 nm. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a calcium hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 0.1 ppm can be identified at 422.67nm. (c) Calcium standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 2.4972 g analytical grade calcium carbonate CaC0 3 in 15 ml 2M hydrochloric acid. After complete dissolution dilute with water to 1 litre. 13. Dry test (flame colouration) volatile calcium compounds impart a yellowish-red colour to the Bunsen flame (see remarks under barium).
Flame colour: yellowish-red
3.34
Fifth group of cations: magnesium(II), sodium(I), potassium(I), and ammonium(l)
fifth group of cations Mg(II). Na(I). K(I). NH4(I)
Group reagent there is no common reagent for the cations of this group. Group reaction cations of the fifth group do not react with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide, ammonium sulphide or (in the presence of ammonium salts) with ammonium carbonate. Special reactions or flame tests can be used for their identification. Of the cations of this group, magnesium displays similar reactions to those of cations in the fourth group. However, magnesium carbonate, in the presence of ammonium salts, is soluble, and therefore during the course of systematic analysis (when considerable amounts of ammonium salts are building up in the solution) magnesium will not precipitate with the cations of the fourth group. The reactions of ammonium ions are quite similar to those of the potassium ion, because the ionic radii of these two ions are almost identical.
3.35
Magnesium, Mg (Ar: 24.305)
Magnesium is a white, malleable and ductile metal. It melts at 650C. It burns readily in air or oxygen with a brilliant white light, forming the oxide MgO and some nitride Mg 3 N 2 . The metal is slowly decomposed by water at ordinary temperature, but at the boiling point of water the reaction proceeds rapidly: Mg + 2H 20
--->
Mg(OHhl + H2 i
IS
Magnesium hydroxide, if ammonium salts are absent, insoluble. Magnesium dissolves readily in acids: Mg + 2H+
152
--->
practically
Mg2+
+ H2 i
Magnesium(ll)
3.35
Magnesium forms the bivalent cation Mg2+. Its oxide, hydroxide, carbonate, and phosphate are insoluble; the other salts are soluble. They taste bitter. Some of the salts are hygroscopic.
Mg(ll) reactions
Reactions ofmagnesium(II) ions To study these reactions a O.5M solution of magnesium chloride MgCI 6 6H 20 or magnesium sulphate MgS0 4 7H20 can be used. 1. Ammonia solution hydroxide:
NH3
partial precipitation of white, gelatinous magnesium Mg(OHhl
1
white Mg(OHh
Mg2+
+ 2NH3 + 2H 20
--->
+ 2NHt
The precipitate is very sparingly soluble in water (l2mgl- 1, Ks = 3.4 x 10- 11 ), but readily soluble in ammonium salts.
NaOH
1
white Mg(OH)2
2. Sodium hydroxide solution white precipitate of magnesium hydroxide, insoluble in excess reagent, but readily soluble in solutions of ammonium salts:
(NH 4hC0 3
1
white MgC0 3
3. Ammonium carbonate solution in the absence of ammonium salts a white precipitate of basic magnesium carbonate:
In the presence of ammonium salts no precipitation occurs, because the equilibrium NHt
+ CO~-;::::! NH3 + HC0 3
is shifted towards the formation of hydrogen carbonate ions. The solubility product of the precipitate being high (Ks of pure MgC0 3 is I x 10- 5 ), the concentration of carbonate ions necessary to produce a precipitate is not attained.
Na2C03
1
white MgC0 3 Na2HP04
4. Sodium carbonate solution white, voluminous precipitate of basic carbonate (cf. reaction 3), insoluble in solutions of bases, but readily soluble in acids and in solutions of ammonium salts. 5. Disodium hydrogen phosphate solution white crystalline precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate Mg(NH 4 )P0 4 ' 6H 2 0 in the presence of ammonium chloride (to prevent precipitation of magnesium hydroxide) and ammonia solutions:
1
white ppt
The precipitate is sparingly soluble in water, soluble in acetic acid and in mineral acids. The precipitate separates slowly from dilute solutions because of its tendency to form supersaturated solutions; this may usually be overcome by cooling and by rubbing the test-tube or beaker beneath the surface of the liquid with a glass rod.
153
3.35
A white flocculant precipitate of magnesium hydrogen phosphate, MgHP0 4 , is produced in neutral solutions. Mg2+
Diphenyl carbazide
+ HPO~-
-t
MgHP0 4 1
1
violet colour
6. Diphenylcarbazide reagent (C6H5' NH NH CO NH NH C6H 5) (0.2%) The magnesium salt solution is treated with sodium hydroxide solution - a precipitate of magnesium hydroxide will be formed - then with a few drops of the diphenylcarbazide reagent and the solution filtered. On washing the precipitate with hot water, it will be seen to have acquired a violet-red colour due to the formation of a complex salt or an adsorption complex. Metals of Groups II and III interfere and should therefore be absent.
Oxine yellow ppt
7. 8-Hydroxyquinoline or 'oxine' reagent (2% in acetic acid)
N W
I~
h
~
OH
when a solution of a magnesium salt, containing a little ammonium chloride, is treated with 1-2 ml reagent which has been rendered strongly ammoniacal by the addition of 3-4 ml dilute ammonia solution and the mixture heated to the boiling point, a yellow precipitate of the complex salt Mg(C9H60N)z '4H 20 is obtained. All other metals, except sodium and potassium, must be absent.
4-(4-Nitrophenylazo)resorcinol
8. 4-(4-Nitrophenylazo)-resorcinol (or magneson /) reagent (0.5%)
1
blue lake on Mg(OHh
02N-o-N=NVOH
OH
this test depends upon the adsorption of the reagent, which is a dyestuff, upon Mg(OHh in alkaline solution whereby a blue lake is produced. Two ml test solution, acidified slightly with hydrochloric acid, is treated with 1 drop of the reagent and sufficient 2M sodium hydroxide solution to render the solution strongly alkaline (say 2-3 mI). A blue precipitate appears. The spot-test technique is as follows. Place a drop of the test solution on a spot plate and add 1-2 drops of the reagent. It is essential that the solution be strongly alkaline; the addition of I drop of 2M sodium hydroxide may be advisable. According to the concentration of magnesium a blue precipitate is formed or the reddish-violet reagent assumes a blue colour. A comparative test on distilled water should be carried out. Sensitivity 0.51lg Mg. Concentration limit 1 in 100000. Filter or drop-reaction paper should not be used.
154
Magnesium(ll)
3.35
An alternative agent is 4-nitrobenzeneazo-I-naphthol or magneson II
OZNON=N-Q-0H
It yields the same colour changes as magneson I, but has the advantage that it is more sensitive (sensitivity: 0.21-lg Mg; concentration limit: I in 250000) and the blank test is not so deeply coloured. Its mode of use is identical with that described above for magneson I.
Titan yellow
1
red colour or ppt
9. Titan yellow reagent titan yellow (also known as clayton yellow) is a water-soluble yellow dyestuff. It is adsorbed by magnesium hydroxide producing a deep-red colour or precipitate. Barium and calcium do not react but intensify the red colour. All elements of Groups I to III should be removed before applying the test. Place a drop of the test solution on a spot plate, introduce a drop of reagent and a drop of 2M sodium hydroxide. A red colour or precipitate is produced. An alternative technique is to treat 0.5 ml neutral or slightly acidic test solution with 0.2 ml 2M sodium hydroxide solution. A red precipitate or colouration is produced. Sensitivity 1.51-lg Mg. Concentration limit I in 33000. 10. Quinalizarin reagent (0.05% in NaOH) blue precipitate or cornflowerblue colouration with magnesium salts. The colouration can be readily distinguished from the blue-violet colour of the reagent. Upon the addition of a little bromine water, the colour disappears (difference from beryllium). The alkaline earth metals and aluminium do not interfere under the conditions of the test, but all elements of Groups I to III should be removed. Phosphates and large amounts of ammonium salts decrease the sensitivity of the reaction. Place a drop of the test solution and a drop of distilled water in adjacent cavities of a spot plate and add 2 drops of the reagent to each. If the solution is acid, it will be coloured yellowish-red by the reagent. Add 2M sodium hydroxide until the colour changes to violet and a further excess to increase the volume by 25-50%. A blue precipitate or colouration appears. The blank test has a blue-violet colour. Sensitivity 0.25 I-lg Mg. Concentration limit I in 200000.
Ouinalizarin
1
blue colour or ppt
Atomic spectrometry
II. Atomic spectrometric tests the atomic spectrometric behaviour of magnesium is very similar to that of barium (cf. Section 3.31, reaction 9). The use of lanthanum to eliminate interferences is recommended in air/ acetylene flames. (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame I ppm magnesium can be identified at 285.21 nm.
155
3.36
(b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a magnesium hollowcathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame, 0.1 ppm can be identified at 285.21 nm. (c) Magnesium standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.0000 g analytical grade magnesium metal in 50 ml 6M hydrochloric acid, and dilute with water to 1 litre.
Dry test
12. Dry test (blowpipe test) all magnesium compounds when ignited on charcoal in the presence of sodium carbonate are converted into white magnesium oxide, which glows brightly when hot. Upon moistening with a drop or two of cobalt nitrate solution and reheating strongly, a pale-pink mass is obtained.
3.36
Potassium, K CAr: 39.098)
Potassium is a soft, silver-white metal. Potassium melts at 63.5C. It remains unchanged in dry air, but is rapidly oxidized in moist air, becoming covered with a blue film. The metal decomposes water violently, evolving hydrogen and burning with a violet flame: 2K+
+ 2H 20
-+
2K+
+ 20H- + H2 i
Potassium is usually kept under liquid paraffin. Potassium salts contain the monovalent cation K+. These salts are usually soluble and form colourless solutions, unless the anion is coloured.
K(I) reactions
Reactions of potassium( J) ions can be used for these tests.
solution of potassium chloride, KCl, yellow pre-
Na3[Co(N02)6]
1
yellow K3[Co(NO z)6]
1. Sodium hexanitritocobaltate(III) solution Na3[Co(N02)6] cipitate of potassium hexanitritocobaltate(III):
The precipitate is insoluble in dilute acetic acid. If larger amounts of sodium are present (or if the reagent is added in excess) a mixed salt, K 2Na[Co(N0 2)6], is formed. The precipitate forms immediately in concentrated solutions and slowly in diluted solutions; precipitation may be accelerated by warming. Ammonium salts give a similar precipitate and must be absent. In alkaline solutions a brown or black precipitate of cobalt(III) hydroxide CO(OH)3 is obtained. Iodides and other reducing agents interfere and should be removed before applying the test.
Tartaric acid
1
white K-H-tartrate
2. Tartaric acid solution (or sodium hydrogen tartrate solution) talline precipitate of potassium hydrogen tartrate:
white crys-
(a)
and
(b)
156
Potassium(l)
3.36
If tartaric acid is used, the solution should be buffered with sodium acetate, because the strong acid, formed in reaction (a), dissolves the precipitate. Strong alkalis also dissolve the precipitate. The precipitate is slightly soluble in water (3.26 g 1-1, Ks = 3 x 10- 4 ), but quite insoluble in 50% ethanol. Precipitation is accelerated by vigorous agitation of the solution, by scratching the sides of the vessel with a glass rod, and by adding alcohol. Ammonium salts yield a similar precipitate and must be absent.
HCI0 4
1
white KCI0 4
3. Perchloric acid solution (HCI0 4 ) white crystalline precipitate of potassium perchlorate KCI0 4 from moderately dilute solutions.
K+
+ CIOi
--+
KCI0 4 1
The precipitate is slightly soluble in water (3.2 g I-I and 198 g I-I at and 100C respectively), and virtually insoluble in absolute alcohol. The alcoholic solution should not be heated as a dangerous explosion may result. This reaction is unaffected by the presence of ammonium salts.
oC
H2 [PtCI 6 )
1
white K2 [PtCI 6 )
4. Hexachloroplatinic( IV) acid (H2 [ PtCI6 ]) reagent potassium hexachloroplatinate(IV):
yellow precipitate of
Precipitation is instantaneous from concentrated solutions; in dilute solutions, precipitation takes place slowly on standing, but may be hastened by cooling and by rubbing the sides of the vessel with a glass rod. The precipitate is slightly soluble in water, but is almost insoluble in 75% alcohol. Ammonium salts give a similar precipitate and must be absent. As it is expensive, only small quantities of the reagent should be employed and all precipitates placed in the platinum residues bottle.
Na3 [CO(N0 2)6)
+ KN0 3
1
yellow ppt
5. Sodium hexanitritocobaltate( III)-silver nitrate test this is a modification of reaction 1 and is applicable to halogen-free solutions. Precipitation of potassium salts with sodium hexanitritocobaltate(III) and silver nitrate solution gives the compound K 2Ag[Co(NH 2)6], which is less soluble than the corresponding sodium compound K 2Na[Co(N0 2)6] and hence the test is more sensitive. Lithium, thallium, and ammonium salts must be absent because they give precipitates with sodium hexanitritocobaitate(III) solution. Place a drop of the neutral or acetic acid test solution on a black spot plate, and add a drop of O.lM silver nitrate solution and a small amount of finely powdered sodium hexanitritocobaltate(III). A yellow precipitate of turbidity appears. Sensitivity Illg K. Concentration limit 1 in 50000. If silver nitrate solution is not added, the sensitivity is 41lg K.
157
3.36
p-Dipicrylamine
6. p-Dipicrylamine (or hexanitrodiphenylamine) reagent
1
orange ppt
the hydrogen atom of the NH group is replaceable by metals, the sodium salt is soluble in water to yield a yellow solution. With solutions of potassium salts, the latter gives a crystalline orange-red precipitate of the potassium derivative. The test is applicable in the presence of 80 times as much sodium and 130 times as much lithium. Ammonium salts should be removed before applying the test. Magnesium does not interfere. Place a drop of the neutral test solution upon drop-reaction paper and immediately add a drop of the slightly alkaline reagent. An orange-red spot is obtained, which is unaffected by treatment with 1-2 drops of 2M hydrochloric acid. Sensitivity 3 f..lg K. Concentration limit I in 10 000.
Na tetraphenylboron
1
white ppt
7. Sodium tetraphenylboron test potassium forms a white precipitate in neutral solutions or in the presence of acetic acid:
K+
+ [B(C 6 H s )4r
---; K[B(C 6 Hs)411
The precipitate is almost insoluble in water (0.053 g I-I , Ks = 2.25 x 10- 8 ); potassium is precipitated quantitatively if a small excess of the reagent is applied (0.1-0.2%). The precipitate is soluble in strong acids and alkalis, and also in acetone. Rubidium, caesium, thallium(I), and ammonium ions interfere.
Atomic spectrometry
8. Atomic spectrometric tests to minimize ionization of potassium, lowtemperature flames should be applied. (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame 0.1 ppm potassium can be identified at 766.49 nm. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a potassium hollowcathode lamp (or an electrode less potassium discharge tube) and an air/ acetylene flame, 0.1 ppm can be identified at 766.49 nm. (c) Potassium standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 1.9067 g analytical grade potassium chloride KCI in water and dilute to I litre. 9. Dry test (flame colouration) potassium compounds, preferably the chloride, colour the non-luminous Bunsen flame (violet). The yellow flame produced by small quantities of sodium obscures the violet colour, but by viewing the flame through two thicknesses of cobalt blue glass, the yellow sodium rays are absorbed and the reddish-violet potassium flame becomes visible. A solution of chrome alum (3IOgl- I ), 3cm thick, also makes a good filter.
Flame colour: violet
158
Sodium(l)
3.37
3.37
Sodium, Na (A,: 22.99)
Sodium is a silver-white soft metal melting at 97SC. It oxidizes rapidly in moist air and is therefore kept under liquid paraffin. The metal reacts violently with water forming sodium hydroxide and hydrogen: 2Na + 2H 20 ~ 2Na+
+ 20H- + H2i
In its salts sodium is present as the monovalent cation Na+. These salts form colourless solutions unless the anion is coloured; almost all sodium salts are soluble in water.
Na(l) reactions
Reactions ofsodium(I) ions To study these reactions a M solution of sodium chloride, NaCl, can be used. 1. Uranyl magnesium acetate solution yellow, crystalline precipitate of sodium magnesium uranyl acetate NaMg(U0 2h(CH 3 COO)9 9H 20 from concentrated solutions. The addition of about one-third volume of alcohol helps the precipitation.
Uranyl-Mg-acetate
t
yellow ppt
Na+
+ Mg2+ + 3UO~+ + 9CH 3 COO-
~ NaMg(U0 2h(CH 3 COO)9!
2. Chloroplatinic acid, tartaric acid or sodium hexanitritocobaltate( III) solution no precipitate with solutions of sodium salts.
U ranyl- Zn- acetate
t
yellow ppt
3. Uranyl zinc acetate reagent as a delicate test for sodium, the uranyl zinc acetate reagent is sometimes preferred to that employing uranyl magnesium acetate. The yellow crystalline sodium zinc uranyl acetate, NaZn(U0 2h(CH 3 COO)9 '9H20, is obtained. The reaction is fairly selective for sodium. The sensitivity of the reaction is affected by copper, mercury, cadmium, aluminium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, zinc, calcium, strontium, barium, and ammonium when present in concentrations exceeding 5 g 1-1; potassium and lithium salts are precipitated if their concentration in solution exceeds 5 g I-I and 1 g 1-1 respectively. Place a drop of the neutral test solution on a black spot plate or upon a black watch glass, add 8 drops of the reagent, and stir with a glass rod. A yellow cloudiness or precipitate forms. Sensitivity 12.5 Ilg Na. Concentration limit 1 in 4000. 4. Atomic spectrometric tests these tests, taken at the 589.00/589.59 nm doublet, may be too sensitive for qualitative analysis, as contaminations from reagents can cause significantly high analytical signals. The test should be repeated at the 330.23/330.30 nm doublet, where sensitivities are lower. Colder air/acetylene flames are sufficient. (a) Flame atomic emission spectrometry with an air/acetylene flame 0.01 ppm sodium can be identified at the 589.00/589.59 nm doublet. (b) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry using a sodium hollow-cathode lamp (or an electrodeless sodium discharge tube) and an air/acetylene flame, 0.01 ppm can be identified at the 589.00/589.59nm doublet. (c) Sodium standard, 1000 ppm dissolve 2.5424 g analytical grade sodium chloride NaCl in water and dilute to I litre.
159
Atomic spectrometry
3.38
Flame colour: yellow
5. Dry test (flame c%uration) a non-luminous Bunsen flame is coloured an intense yellow by vapours of sodium salts. The colour is not visible when viewed through two thicknesses of cobalt blue glass. Minute quantities of sodium salts produce this colour and it is only when the colour is intense and persistent that appreciable quantities of sodium are present.
3.38
Ammonium ion, NHt (Mr : 18.038)
Ammonium ions are derived from ammonia, NH 3, and the hydrogen ion H+. The characteristics of these ions are similar to those of alkali metal ions. By electrolysis with a mercury cathode, ammonium amalgam can be prepared, which has similar properties to the amalgams of sodium or potassium. Ammonium salts are generally water-soluble compounds, forming colourless solutions (unless the anion is coloured). On heating, all ammonium salts decompose to ammonia and the appropriate acid. Unless the acid is nonvolatik, ammonium salts can be quantitatively removed from dry mixtures by heating. The reactions of ammonium ions are in general similar to those of potassium, because the sizes of the two ions are almost identical.
N H4 (I) reactions
Reactions of ammonium (I) ions To study these reactions a ammonium chloride NH 4 Cl can be used. 1. Sodium hydroxide solution
solution of
NaOH
ammonia gas is evolved on warming.
1
NH3 gas
NHt
+ OH-
-->
NH3
r + H 20
This may be identified (a) by its odour (cautiously smell the vapour after removing the test-tube or small beaker from the flame); (b) by the formation of white fumes of ammonium chloride when a glass rod moistened with concentrated hydrochloric acid is held in the vapour; (c) by its turning moistened red litmus paper blue or turmeric paper brown; (d) by its ability to turn filter paper moistened with mercury(I) nitrate solution black (this is a very dependable test);! and (e) filter paper moistened with a solution of manganese(II) chloride and hydrogen peroxide gives a brown colour, due to the oxidation of manganese by the alkaline solution thus formed. In test l(d) a mixture ofmercury(II) amidonitrate (white precipitate) and mercury (black precipitate) is formed: 2NH3
+ Hg~+ + N0 3 --> Hg(NH2)N0 31 + Hgl + NHt + Mn2+ + H 20 2 + H 20

-->
In test l(e) hydrated manganese(lV) oxide is formed: 2NH3

Nessler test brown colour or ppt
MnO(OHhl
+ 2NHt
2. Nessler's reagent (alkaline solution of potassium tetraiodomercurater II)) brown precipitate or brown or yellow colouration is produced
Arsine, however, blackens mercury(l) nitrate paper, and must therefore be absent.
160
Ammonium(l)
3.38
according to the amount of ammonia or ammonium ions present. The precipitate is a basic mercury(II) amido-iodine:
NHt
+ 2[HgI 4]2- + 40H-
---t
HgO Hg(NH2)Il
+ 71- + 3H 20
The test is an extremely delicate one and will detect traces of ammonia present in drinking water. All metals, except sodium or potassium, must be absent. The spot-test technique is as follows. Mix a drop of the test solution with a drop of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution on a watch glass. Transfer a micro drop of the resulting solution or suspension to drop-reaction paper and add a drop of Nessler's reagent. A yellow or orange-red stain or ring is produced. Sensitivity 0.3 Ilg NH3 (in 0.002 ml). A better procedure is to employ the technique described under the manganese(II) nitrate-silver nitrate reagent in reaction 9 below. A drop of Nessler's solution is placed on the glass knob of the apparatus. After the reaction is complete, the drop of the reagent is touched with a piece of drop-reaction or quantitative filter paper when a yellow colouration will be apparent. Sensitivity 0.25 Ilg NH 3.
Na3[Co(N02)6]
1
yellow (NH 4 h[Co(N0 2)6]
3. Sodium hexanitritocobaltate( III), (Na3[CO( N0 2)6}) yellow precipitate of ammonium hexanitritocobaltate(III), (NH 4h[Co(N0 2)6], similar to that produced by potassium ions:
3NHt
+ [CO(N0 2)6]3-
---t
(NH 4h[Co(N0 2)6]1 yellow precipitate of ammo-
H 2[PtCI 6]
1
yellow (NH 4 l2PtCI 6
4. Hexachloroplatinic( IV) acid (H2 [ PtCI6 }) nium hexachloroplatinate(IV)

2NHt
+ [PtCI 6]2-
---t
(NH 4h[PtCI 611
The characteristics of the precipitate are similar to that of the corresponding potassium salt, but differ from it in being decomposed by warming with sodium hydroxide solution with the evolution of ammonia gas.
Na- H -tartrate wh ite N H 4 - H -tartrate
5. Saturated sodium hydrogen tartrate solution (NaH C4 H 4 0 6 ) white precipitate of ammonium acid tartrate NH4 . H C4H4 06, similar to but slightly more soluble than the corresponding potassium salt, from which It IS distinguished by the evolution of ammonia gas on being heated with sodium hydroxide solution.
NHt
+ HC4H 40 6
---t
NH 4HC 4H 40d no precipitate (distinction
6. Perchloric acid or sodium perchlorate solution from potassium).

Tannic acid + AgN03
1
black Ag
7. Tannic acid-silver nitrate test the basis of this test is the reducing action of tannic acid (a glucoside of digallic acid) upon the silver ammine complex [Ag(NH3h]+ to yield black silver: it therefore precipitates silver in the presence of ammonia but not from a slightly acid silver nitrate solution.
161
3.38
Mix 2 drops 5% tannic acid (tannin) solution with 2 drops 20% silver nitrate solution, and place the mixture upon drop-reaction paper or upon a little cotton wool. Hold the paper in the vapour produced by heating an ammonium salt with sodium hydroxide solution. A black stain is formed on the paper or upon the cotton wool. The test is a sensitive one.
4- N itrobenzenediazonium chloride red colour
8. 4-Nitrobenzene-diazonium chloride reagent the reagent (1) yields a red colouration (due to 2) with an ammonium salt in the presence of sodium hydroxide solution.
OzNON=N-CI+NH;+20W --(1) _
OzNON=NONH4+CI-+H20
(2)
Place a drop of the neutral or slightly acid test solution on a spot plate, followed by a drop of the reagent and a small granule of calcium oxide between the two drops. A red zone forms around the calcium oxide. A blank test should be carried out on a drop of water. Sensitivity 0.71lg NH 3. Concentration limit I in 75000.
Test by liberating NH3 gas
9. Ammonia-formation test this is a more sensitive version of reaction 1. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 2.52 and consists of a small glass tube of I ml capacity, which can be closed with a small ground-glass stopper carrying a small glass hook at the lower end. Place a drop of the test solution or a little of the solid in the micro testtube, and add a drop of 2M sodium hydroxide solution. Fix a small piece of red litmus paper on the glass hook and insert the stopper into position. Warm to 40C for 5 minutes. The paper assumes a blue colour. Sensitivity O.Olllg NH 3 . Concentration limit 1 in 5000000. Cyanides should be absent, for they give ammonia with alkalis: CN-
+ 2H 20
-->
HCOO-
+ NH3 T
If, however, a little mercury(II) oxide or a mercury(II) salt is added, the alkali-stable mercury(II) cyanide Hg(CNh is formed and the interfering effect of cyanides is largely eliminated. An alternative method for carrying out the test is to employ the manganese(II) nitrate-silver nitrate reagent. Upon treating a neutral solution of manganese(II) and silver salts with ammonia, a black precipitate is formed: 4NH3
+ Mn2+ + 2Ag+ + 3H 20
-->
MnO(OHhl
+ 2Agl + 4NHt
Sensitivity 0.0051lg NH 3. Concentration limit 1 in 10 000 000.

Dry test
10. Dry test all ammonium salts are either volatilized or decomposed when heated to just below red heat. In some cases, where the acid is volatile, the vapours recombine on cooling to form a sublimate of the salt, e.g. ammonium chloride.
162
Chapter 4
Reactions of the anions
4.1
Scheme of classification
The methods available for the detection of anions are not as systematic as those which have been described in the previous chapter for cations. No really satisfactory scheme has yet been proposed which permits of the separation of the common anions into major groups, and the subsequent unequivocal separation of each group into its independent constituents. The following scheme of classification has been found to work well in practice; it is not a rigid one since some of the anions belong to more than one of the subdivisions. Essentially the processes employed may be divided into Class A, those involving the identification by volatile products obtained on treatment with acids, and Class B, those dependent upon reactions in solution. Class A is subdivided into (1) gases evolved with dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid, and (2) gases or vapours evolved with concentrated sulphuric acid. Class B is subdivided into (1) precipitation reactions, and (2) oxidation and reduction in solution.
Class A
Class A
"'-!)
Gases evolved With dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid Carbonate Hydrogen carbonate Sulphite Thiosulphate Sulphide Nitrite Hypochlorite Cyanide Cyanate
a
(2) Gases or acid vapours evolved with concentrated sulphuric acid: all anions in (1) plus
Fluoride Chloride Bromide Iodide Nitrate Borate a Formate Acetate Oxalate
H exafl uorosilica tea Chlorate: DANGER Perchlorate Permanganate: DANGER Bromate Hexacyanoferrate(II) and (III) Thiocyanate Tartrate Citrate
163
These are often included in Class B1.
4.2
Class B
Class B
(1) Precipitation reactions Sulphate Phosphate Succinate Arsenate Chromate Silicate Salicylate Peroxodisulphateb Phosphite Hypophosphite Arsenite Dichromate Hexafluorosilicate Benzoate
(2) Oxidation/reduction in solution Manganate Pennanganate Chromate Dichromate
b Strictly speaking, peroxodisulphates should be grouped with Class B2, but are best studied together with sulphates.
The reactions of all these anions will be systematically studied in the following pages. For convenience the reactions of certain organic acids are grouped together; these include acetates, formates, oxalates, tartrates, citrates, salicylates, benzoates, and succinates. It may be pointed out that acetates, fonnates, salicylates, benzoates, and succi nates themselves fonn another group; all give a characteristic colouration or precipitate upon the addition of iron(III) chloride solution to a practically neutral solution.
4.2 Carbonates, CO~-
Solubility all normal carbonates, with the exception of those of the alkali metals and of ammonium, are insoluble in water. The hydrogen carbonates (or bicarbonates) of calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium, and possibly of iron exist in aqueous solution; they are formed by the action of excess carbonic acid upon the nonnal carbonates either in aqueous solution or suspension and are decomposed on boiling the solutions.
CaC0 31 + H 2 0
+ CO 2 --+ Ca 2+ + 2HC03"
CO~- reactions
The hydrogen carbonates of the alkali metals are soluble in water, but are less soluble than the corresponding nonnal carbonates. To study these reactions a O.5M solution of sodium carbonate Na2C03 IOH 20 can be used.
I. Dilute hydrochloric acid decomposition with effervescence, due to the evolution of carbon dioxide:
CO~-
HCI
1
CO 2 gas
+ 2H+
--+
CO2T+ H 20
The gas can be identified by its property of rendering lime water (or baryta water) turbid: CO2 + Ca2+ + 20HCO 2 + Ba 2+ + 20H164
+ H 20 --+ BaC0 31 + H 20
--+
CaCOJl
Carbonate
4.2
Fig 4.1
Some natural carbonates, such as magnesite, MgC0 3 , siderite, FeC0 3 , and dolomite, (Ca,Mg)C0 3 , do not react appreciably in the cold; they must be finely powdered and the reaction mixture warmed. The lime water or baryta water test is best carried out in the apparatus shown in Fig. 4.1. An all-glass apparatus can be constructed of Quickfit test-tube MF 24/1 or round bottom flask FR SOilS, combined with joint cone with stem MF 15/1. The latter has to be bent by a glassblower. The solid substance is placed in the test-tube or small distilling flask (lO-25ml capacity), dilute hydrochloric acid added, and the cork immediately replaced. The gas which is evolved (warming may be necessary) is passed into lime water or baryta water contained in the test-tube; the production of a turbidity indicates the presence of a carbonate. It must be remembered that, with prolonged passage of carbon dioxide, the turbidity slowly disappears as a result of the formation of a soluble hydrogen carbonate: CaC0 3 1 + CO 2 + H 2 0
---+
Ca2+ + 2HC03"
Any acid which is stronger than carbonic acid (Kl = 4.31 x 10-7 ) will displace it, especially on warming. Thus, even acetic acid (K = 1.76 x 10- 5 ) will decompose carbonates; the weak boric acid (KI = 5.8 x 10- 1) and hydrocyanic acid (K = 4.79 x 10- 1) will not.
BaCI 2
1
white BaC0 3
2. Barium chloride (or calcium chloride) solution barium (or calcium) carbonate (soda water):
+ Ba 2+ ---+ BaC0 3 1 CO~- + Ca 2+ ---+ CaC0 3 1

CO~-
Only normal carbonates react; hydrogen carbonates do not. The precipitate is soluble in mineral acids and carbonic acid (soda water): BaC0 3 + 2H+ BaC0 3 + CO 2 + H 20
+ CO 2 i + H 2 0 ---+ BaH + 2HC03"

---+
BaH
165
4.3
AgN0 3
3. Silver nitrate solution

CO~-
white precipitate of silver carbonate:
1
white A9 2 C0 3 Turns dark
+ 2Ag+ --> Ag 2 C0 3 1
The precipitate is soluble in nitric acid and in ammonia. The precipitate becomes yellow or brown upon addition of excess reagent owing to the formation of silver oxide; the same happens if the mixture is boiled: Ag2 C0 3 1 --> Ag 2 01 + CO 2
The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction I.)
4. Sodium carbonate-phenolphthalein test this test depends upon the fact that phenolphthalein is turned pink by soluble carbonate and colourless by soluble hydrogen carbonates. Hence if the carbon dioxide liberated by dilute acids from carbonates is allowed to come into contact with phenolphthalein solution coloured pink by sodium carbonate solution, it may be identified by the decolourization which takes place
Phenolphthalein
1
decolourized by CO 2
CO 2 + CO~- + H 20
-->
2HC0 3
The concentration of the sodium carbonate solution must be such as not to be decolourized under the conditions of the experiment by the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Place 1-2 drops test solution (or a small quantity of the test solid) in the apparatus shown in Fig. 2.50 and place I drop sodium carbonatephenolphthalein reagent on the knob of the stopper. Add 3-4 drops M sulphuric acid and insert the stopper into position. The drop is decolourized either immediately or after a short time according to the quantity of carbon dioxide formed. Perform a blank test in a similar apparatus. Sensitivity 41lg CO 2 (in 2 drops of solution). Concentration limit 1 in 12500. Sulphides, sulphites, thiosulphates, cyanides, cyanates, fluorides, nitrites, and acetates interfere. The sulphur-containing anions can be quantitatively oxidized to sulphates by hydrogen peroxide. The modified procedure in the presence of these anions is therefore to stir a drop of the test solution with 4 drops 3% hydrogen peroxide, then to add 2 drops M sulphuric acid, and to contiflUe as above. Cyanides are rendered innocuous by treating the test solution with 4 drops of a saturated solution of mercury(II) chloride, followed by 2 drops sulphuric acid, etc.; the slightly dissociated mercury(II) cyanide is formed. Nitrites can be removed by treatment with aniline hydrochloride.
4.3
Hydrogen carbonates, HCOi
Most of the reactions of hydrogen carbonates are similar to those of carbonates. The tests described here are suitable for distinguishing hydrogen carbonates from carbonates.
166
Hydrogen carbonate
4.3
HC0 3 reactions
A freshly prepared O.5M solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHC0 3, or potassium hydrogen carbonate, KHC0 3, can be used to study these reactions.
Boiling
1. Boiling when boiling, hydrogen carbonates decompose:

2HC0 3 -+ CO~-
1
decomposes
+ H 20 + CO 2i
carbon dioxide, formed in this way, can be identified with lime water or baryta water (cf. Section 4.2, reaction 1).
MgS04 and HgCI2
1
differentiation of carbonate and hydrogen carbonate
2. Magnesium sulphate when magnesium sulphate is added to a cold solution of hydrogen carbonate, no precipitation occurs, while a white precipitate of magnesium carbonate, MgC0 3, is formed with normal carbonates. On heating the mixture, a white precipitate of magnesium carbonate is formed:
Mg2+
+ 2HC0 3 -+ MgC0 3 + H 20 + CO 2i
The carbon dioxide gas, formed in the reaction, can be detected with lime water or baryta water (cf. Section 4.2, reaction 1). 3. Mercury ( II) chloride (POISON) no precipitate is formed with hydrogen carbonate ions, while in a solution of normal carbonates a reddish-brown precipitate of basic mercury(II) carbonate (3HgO HgC0 3 = Hg4 0 3C0 3) is formed:
CO~-
+ 4Hg2+ + 3H 20
-+
Hg 4 0 3C0 31 + 6H+
the excess of carbonate acts as a buffer, reacting with the hydrogen ions formed in the reaction:
CO~Dry test
+ 2H+ -+ CO2i + H 20
1
decomposition
4. Dry test on heating some solid alkali hydrogen carbonate in a dry testtube carbon dioxide is evolved:
2NaHC0 3 -+ Na2C03
+ H 20 + CO 2i
The gas can be identified with lime water or baryta water (cf. Section 4.2, reaction I). The residue evolves carbon dioxide if, after cooling, dilute hydrochloric acid is poured on it: Na2C03
Test for HC0 3 in presence of CO-
+ 2H+
-+
2Na+
+ C0 2i + H 20
5. Test for hydrogen carbonate in the presence of normal carbonate adding an excess of calcium chloride to a mixture of carbonate and hydrogen carbonate the former is precipitated quantitatively: CO~- + Ca2+ -+ CaC0 31
On filtering the solution rapidly hydrogen carbonate ions pass into the filtrate. On adding ammonia to the filtrate, a white precipitate or cloudiness is obtained if hydrogen carbonates are present: 2HC0 3 + 2Ca2+ + 2NH3 -+ 2CaC0 31 + 2NHt
167
4.4
4.4
Sulphites, SO~-
SO~- reactions
Solubility only the sulphites of the alkali metals and of ammonium are soluble in water; the sulphites of the other metals are either sparingly soluble or insoluble. The hydrogen sulphites of the alkali metals are soluble in water; the hydrogen sulphites of the alkaline earth metals are known only in solution. A freshly prepared O.5M solution of sodium sulphite Na2S03 . 7H 20 can be used to study these reactions.
Dilute acids
1
decomposition
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid (or dilute sulphuric acid) decomposition, more rapidly on warming, with the evolution of sulphur dioxide:
SO~-
+ 2H+
--+
S02 i + H 20
The gas may be identified (i) by its suffocating odour of burning sulphur, (ii) by the green colouration, due to the formation of chromium(III) ions, produced when a filter paper, moistened with acidified potassium dichromate solution, is held over the mouth of the test-tube.
Another method of identifying the gas is (iii) to hold a filter paper, moistened with potassium iodate and starch solution, in the vapour, when a blue colour, owing to the formation of iodine, is observable:
BaCI 2
1
white BaS03
2. Barium chloride or strontium chloride solution barium (or strontium) sulphite:

SO~-
+ Ba2+
--+
BaS031
Dissolves in HCI
the precipitate dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid, when sulphur dioxide is evolved:
On standing, the precipitate is slowly oxidized to the sulphate and is then insoluble in dilute mineral acids; this change is rapidly effected by warming with bromine water or a little concentrated nitric acid or with hydrogen peroxide. 2BaS031 + O 2 --+ 2BaS041 BaSOd
+ Br2 + H 20 --+ BaS041 + 2Br- + 2H+ 3BaS031 + 2HN0 3 --+ 3BaS041 + 2NOi + H 20 BaS031 + H 20 2 --+ BaS041 + H 20
The solubilities at 18C of the sulphites of calcium, strontium, and barium are respectively 1.25gl- 1 , O.033gl- 1 , O.022gl- l .
168
Sulphite
4.4
AgN0 3
1
white A9 2S0 3
3. Silver nitrate solution no visible change occurs initially because of the formation of sulphitoargentate ions:
SO~-
+ Ag + -->
[AgS03r
on the addition of more reagent, a white, crystalline precipitate of silver sulphite is formed: [AgS03r
+ Ag+ + SO~-
-->
Ag2S0 3!
The precipitate dissolves if sulphite ions are added in excess: Ag2S0 3!

-->
2[AgS03r
On boiling the solution of the complex salt, or an aqueous suspension of the precipitate, grey metallic silver is precipitated: 2[AgS03r Ag 2S0 3!
+ H 20
+ SO~- + S02 j --> 2Ag! + SO~- + 2H+

-->
2Ag!
The precipitate is soluble in dilute nitric acid, and sulphur dioxide gas is evolved:
The precipitate also dissolves in ammonia. The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.)
KMn04 or K2Cr207 oxidizes to SO~-
4. Potassium permanganate solution, acidified with dilute sulphuric acid before the test decolourization owing to reduction to manganese(II) ions:
5S0~-
+ 2Mn04 + 6H+
-->
2Mn2+
+ 5S0~- + 3H 20
5. Potassium dichromate solution, acidified with dilute sulphuric acid before the test a green colouration, owing to the formation of chromium(III) ions: 3S0~- + Cr20~- + 8H+ --> 2Cr 3+ + 3S0~- + 4H 20
Pb(CH 3 COO)2
1
white PbS0 3 Dissolves in HN0 3
6. Lead acetate or lead nitrate solution white precipitate of lead sulphite: SO~- + Pb 2+ --> PbS0 3! The precipitate dissolves in dilute nitric acid. On boiling, the precipitate is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen and lead sulphate is formed: 2PbS0 3!
+ O 2 --> 2PbS04 !
This reaction can be used to distinguish sulphites and thiosulphates; the latter produce a black precipitate (cf. Section 4.5, reaction 5) on boiling.
Zn + H2 S0 4
1
reduction to H 2S
7. Zinc and sulphuric acid hydrogen sulphide gas is evolved, which may be detected by holding lead acetate paper to the mouth of the test-tube (cf. Section 4.6, reaction 1):
SO~-
+ 3Zn + 8H+ --> H 2Sj + 3Zn 2+ + 3H 20

169
4.4
Lime water white CaS03
8. Lime water this test is carried out by adding dilute hydrochloric acid to the solid sulphite, and bubbling the evolved sulphur dioxide through lime water (Fig. 4.1); a white precipitate of calcium sulphite CaS03 is formed. SO~- + Ca2+ --+ CaS03!
The precipitate dissolves on prolonged passage of the gas, due to the formation of hydrogen sulphite ions: CaS03! + S02 + H 20 --+ Ca2+ + 2HS0 3 A turbidity is also produced by carbonates; sulphur dioxide must therefore be first removed when testing for the latter. This may be effected by adding potassium dichromate solution to the test-tube before acidifying. The dichromate oxidizes and destroys the sulphur dioxide without affecting the carbon dioxide (cf. Section 4.2).
Fuchsin decolourization through reduction
9. Fuchsin test dilute solutions of triphenylmethane dyestuffs, such as fuchsin (for formula, see Section 4.15, reaction 9) and malachite green, are immediately decolourized by neutral sulphites. Sulphur dioxide also decolourizes fuchsin solution, but the reaction is not quite complete: nevertheless it is a very useful test for sulphur and acid sulphites; carbon dioxide does not interfere, but nitrogen dioxide does. If the test solution is acidic, it should preferably be just neutralized with sodium hydrogen carbonate. Thiosulphates do not interfere but sulphides, polysulphides, and free alkali do. Zinc, lead, and cadmium salts reduce the sensitivity of the test; hence the interference of sulphides cannot be obviated by the addition of these salts. Place 1 drop of the fuchsin reagent on a spot plate and add I drop of the neutral test solution. The reagent is decolourized. Sensitivity 1 Jlg S02' Concentration limit 1 in 50000. 10. Sodium nitroprusside-zinc sulphate test sodium nitroprusside solution reacts with a solution of a zinc salt to yield a salmon-coloured precipitate of zinc nitroprusside Zn[Fe(CN)sNO]. The latter reacts with moist sulphur dioxide to give a red compound of unknown composition; the test is rendered more sensitive when the reaction product is held over ammonia vapour, which decolourizes the unused zinc nitroprusside. Place a drop of the test solution (or a grain of the solid test sample) in the tube of Fig. 2.50 and coat the knob of the glass stopper with a thin layer of the zinc nitroprusside paste. Add a drop of 2M hydrochloric or sulphuric acid and close the apparatus. After the sulphur dioxide has been evolved, hold the stopper for a short time in ammonia vapour. The paste is coloured more or less deep red. Sensitivity 3.5 Jlg S02' Concentration limit 1 in 14000. The zinc nitroprusside paste is prepared by precipitating sodium nitroprusside solution with an excess of zinc sulphate solution and boiling for a few minutes: the precipitate is filtered and washed, and kept in a dark glass bottle or tube.
Zn[Fe(CN15NO]
1
red colour
170
Thiosulphate
4.5
The test is not applicable in the presence of sulphides and/or thiosulphates. These can be removed by the addition of mercury(II) chloride which reacts forming the acid-stable mercury(II) sulphide: Hg2+ Hg2+
+ S2-
....... HgS1 ....... HgS1
+ S20~- + H 20
+ SO~- + 2H+
Place a drop of the test solution and 2 drops of saturated mercury(II) chloride solution in the same apparatus (Fig. 2.50) and, after a minute, acidify with 2M hydrochloric or M sulphuric acid, and proceed as above. 20 J.tg Na2S03 can be detected in the presence of 900 J.tg Na2S203 and 1500 J.tg Na2S,
Distinction between SO~- and HS0 3
11. Distinction between sulphites and hydrogen sulphites solutions of normal alkali sulphites show an alkaline reaction against litmus paper, because of hydrolysis:
SO~-
+ H 20
~ HS03"
+ OH-
while the solution of alkali hydrogen sulphites is neutral. Adding a neutral solution of dilute hydrogen peroxide to the solution of normal sulphites, sulphate ions are formed and the solution becomes neutral:
SO~-
+ H 20 2 .......
SO~-
+ H 20
With hydrogen sulphites, the same test yields hydrogen ions: HS03"
+ H 20 2 ....... SO~- + H+ + H 2 0
and the solution shows a definite acid reaction. It must be emphasized that these tests alone are not specific for sulphites or hydrogen sulphites; their presence must be confirmed first by other reactions.
Thiosulphates, S20~-
4.5
S2 O~- reactions
Solubility most of the thiosulphates that have been prepared are soluble in water; those of lead, silver, and barium are very sparingly soluble. Many of them dissolve in excess sodium thiosulphate solution forming complex salts. To study these reactions use a 0.5M solution of sodium thiosulphate Na2S203 . 5H 20.
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid no immediate change in the cold with a solution of a thiosulphate; the acidified liquid soon becomes turbid owing to the separation of sulphur, and sulphurous acid is present in solution. On warming the solution, sulphur dioxide is evolved which is recognized by its odour and its action upon filter paper moistened with acidified potassium dichromate solution. The sulphur first forms a colloidal solution, which is gradually coagulated by the free acid present. Side reactions also occur giving rise to thionic acids.
Hel
1
slowly white ppt of sulphur
S20~-
+ 2H+ ....... Sl + S02 r + H 20

171
4.5
13
1
reduced to 1-
2. Potassium triiodide solution (solution of iodine in potassium iodide) colourized when a colourless solution of tetrathionate ions is formed:
13
de-
+ 2S20~-
---+
31-
+ S40~-
This reaction has important practical applications in the iodometric and iodimetric methods of titrimetric analysis. 1
BaCI 2
1
white BaS203
3. Barium chloride solution white precipitate of barium thiosulphate, BaS203, from moderately concentrated solutions.
S20~-
+ BaH ---+
BaS2031
Precipitation is accelerated by agitation and by rubbing the sides of the vessel with a glass rod. The solubility is 0.5 gl-l at 18C. No precipitate is obtained with calcium chloride solution since calcium thiosulphate is fairly soluble in water.
AgN0 3

S20~-
white precipitate of silver thiosulphate:
1
white Ag 2 S2 0 3
+ 2Ag+
---+
Ag 2S20 31
At first no precipitation occurs because the soluble dithiosulphatoargentate(I) complex is formed:

2S20~-
+ Ag+
---+
[Ag(S203h13-
The precipitate is unstable, turning dark on standing, when silver sulphide is formed: Ag 2S20 31 + H 20
---+
Ag 2S1
+ 2H+ + SO~-
This hydrolytic decomposition can be accelerated by warming.

Pb(CH 3 COOh
1
white PbS 2 0 3
5. Lead acetate or lead nitrate solution at first there is no change, but on further addition of the reagent a white precipitate of lead thiosulphate is formed: S20~- + Pb 2+ ---+ PbS 20 31
The precipitate is soluble in excess thiosulphate; for this reason no precipitation occurs initially. On boiling the suspension the precipitate darkens, forming finally a black precipitate of lead sulphide: PbS 20 31 + H 20
---+
PbSl
+ 2H+ + SO~-
This reaction can be applied to distinguish sulphite and thiosulphate ions (cf. Section 4.4, reaction 6).
KCN
1
formation of SCN-
6. Potassium cyanide solution (POISON) after first alkalizing the test solution with sodium hydroxide and adding potassium cyanide, thiocyanate ions are formed on boiling:
S20~-
+ CN-
---+
SCN-
+ SO~-
1 See Vogel's Textbook of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis. including Elementary Instrumental Analysis (4th edn) edited by J. Basset, R. C. Denney, G. H. Jeffery and J. Mendham, Longman 1978, p. 370 ff.
172
Thiosulphate
4.5
On acidifying the cold solution, in a well-ventilated fume cupboard, with hydrochloric acid and adding iron(III) chloride, the red colour of iron(lII) thiocyanate can be observed: 3SCN(NH4hMo04
+ Fe3+
~ Fe(SCNh
1
blue ring
7. Blue ring test when a solution of thiosulphate mixed with ammonium molybdate solution is poured slowly down the side of a test tube which contains concentrated sulphuric acid, a blue ring is formed temporarily at the contact zone. The colour is caused by the reduction of molybdate to molybdenum blue (see Section 6.6, reaction 3).
FeCI 3
1
violet complex
8. Iron ( III) chloride solution a dark-violet colouration appears, probably due to the formation of a dithiosulphatoiron(III) complex:
2S20~-
+ Fe3+ ~
[Fe(S203hr
On standing reduction to Fe 2+
on standing the colour disappears rapidly, while tetrathionate and iron(II) ions are formed: [Fe(S203hr + Fe3+ ~ 2Fe2+ + S40~The overall reaction can be written as the reduction of iron(III) by thiosulphate: 2S20~- + 2Fe 3+ ~ S40~- + 2Fe2+
[Ni(enl3](N0 3 h
1
violet ppt
9. Nickel ethylenediamine nitrate reagent [Ni(NH2 CH 2 CH 2 NH2hl(N0 3h, abbreviated to [Ni(enhl(N0 3h. When a neutral or slightly alkaline solution of a thiosulphate is treated with the reagent, a crystalline, violet precipitate of the complex thiosulphate is obtained:
[Ni(enhlz+
+ S20~-
~ [Ni(enhlS2031
Sulphites, sulphates, tetrathionates, and thiocyanates do not interfere, but hydrogen sulphide and ammonium sulphide decompose the reagent with the precipitation of nickel sulphide. Concentration limit 1 in 25000. By obvious modification the reaction may be used for the detection of nickel; it is applicable in the presence of copper, cobalt, iron, and chromium.
NaN 3 + 13
1
reaction catalysed
10. Catalytic test solutions of sodium azide, NaN 3, and iodine (as 13 ) do not react, but on addition of a trace of thiosulphate, which acts as a catalyst, there is an immediate vigorous evolution of nitrogen:
2N3
+ 13
31-
+ 3N 2i
Sulphides and thiocyanates act similarly and must therefore be absent. Mix a drop of the test solution and a drop of the iodine-azide reagent on a watch glass. A vigorous evolution of bubbles (nitrogen) ensues. Sensitivity 0.15 Ilg NaZSZ03 Concentration limit 1 in 330000.
173
4.6
4.6
Sulphides, S2-
Solubility the acid, normal, and polysulphides of alkali metals are soluble in water; their aqueous solutions exhibit an alkaline reaction because of hydrolysis.
+ H 20 SH- + H 20
S2-
+ OH~ H 2S + OH~ SH-
The normal sulphides of most other metals are insoluble; those of the alkaline earths are sparingly soluble, but are gradually changed by contact with water into soluble hydrogen sulphides: CaS + H 20 - Ca 2+ + SH- + OHThe sulphides of aluminium, chromium, and magnesium can only be prepared under dry conditions, as they are completely hydrolysed by water: Al 2S3 + 6H 20 - 2Al(OHhl + 3H 2Sj The characteristic colours and solubilities of many metallic sulphides have already been discussed in connection with the reactions of the cations in Chapter 3. The sulphides of iron, manganese, zinc, and the alkali metals are decomposed by dilute hydrochloric acid with the evolution of hydrogen sulphide; those of lead, cadmium, nickel, cobalt, antimony, and tin(JV) require concentrated hydrochloric acid for decomposition; others, such as mercury(II) sulphide, are insoluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid, but dissolve in aqua regia with the separation of sulphur. The presence of sulphide in insoluble sulphides may be detected by reduction with nascent hydrogen (derived from zinc or tin and hydrochloric acid) to the metal and hydrogen sulphide, the latter being identified with lead acetate paper (see reaction I below). An alternative method is to fuse the sulphide with anhydrous sodium carbonate, extract the mass with water, and to treat the filtered solution with freshly prepared sodium nitroprusside solution, when a purple colour will be obtained; the sodium carbonate solution may also be treated with lead nitrate solution when black lead sulphide is precipitated. For the study of these reactions a 2M solution of sodium sulphide Na 2S' 9H 20 can be used.
1. Dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acid hydrogen sulphide gas is evolved, which may be identified by its characteristic odour, and by the blackening of filter paper moistened with lead acetate solution:
sz-
reactions
Hel
1
HzS gas
+ 2H+ H 2S + Pb 2+ _
S2-
H 2Sj PbSl
+ 2H+
Alternatively, a filter paper moistened with cadmium acetate solution turns yellow: H 2S + Cd 2+ - CdSl + 2H+
174
Sulphide
4.6
A more sensitive test is attained by the use of sodium tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) solution, prepared by adding sodium hydroxide to lead acetate until the initial precipitate of lead hydroxide has just dissolved: Pb 2+ + 20HPb(OHh! + 20H[Pb(OH)4f--+ --+
Pb(OHh! [Pb(OH)41 2-
+ H 2S --+ PbS! + 20H- + 2H 20
Hydrogen sulphide is a good reducing agent. It reduces (1) acidified potassium permanganate, (2) acidified potassium dichromate, and (3) potassium triiodide (iodine) solution: 2MnO;
Cr20~-
+ SH 2S + 6H+
--+
2Mn2+
3
+ SS! + 8H 20
(I)
+ 3H 2S + 8H+ --+ 2Cr + + 3S! + 7H 20 13 + H 2S --+ 31- + 2H+ + S!
(2)
(3)
In each case sulphur is precipitated. Small quantities of chlorine may be produced in (1) and (2) if the hydrochloric acid is other than very dilute; this is avoided by using dilute sulphuric acid.
black precipitate of silver sulphide Ag2S, insoluble in cold, but soluble in hot, dilute nitric acid: S2-
+ 2Ag+
--+
Ag 2S! black precipitate oflead sulphide PbS (Section 3.4,
3. Lead acetate solution reaction 2).
4. Barium chloride solution

Ag
no precipitate.
1
black A9 2 S stain
S. Silver when a solution of a sulphide is brought into contact with a bright silver foil, a brown to black stain of silver sulphide is produced. The result is obtained more expeditiously by the addition of a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid. The stain may be removed by rubbing the foil with moist lime.
6. Sodium nitroprusside solution (Na2[ Fe(CN)5NO J) transient purple colour in the presence of solutions of alkalis. No reaction occurs with solutions of hydrogen sulphide or with the free gas: if, however, filter paper is moistened with a solution of the reagent made alkaline with sodium hydroxide or ammonia solution, a purple colouration is produced with free hydrogen sulphide.
Na2[Fe(CN)5NOj
1
purple colour
The spot-test technique is as follows. Mix on a spot plate a drop of the alkaline test solution with a drop of sodium nitroprusside. A violet colour
175
4.7
appears. Alternatively, filter paper impregnated with an ammoniacal (2M) solution of sodium nitroprusside may be employed. Sensitivity I flg Na2S. Concentration limit I in 50000.
NN-Dimethyl-pphenylened iam i ne
1
blue colour
7. Methylene blue test NN-Dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine is converted by iron(III) chloride and hydrogen sulphide in strongly acid solution into the water-soluble dyestuff, methylene blue:
(CHJhN0
ON(CHJh
+ H]S +
NH] H]N
+6Fe3+ - D
This is a sensitive test for soluble sulphides and hydrogen sulphide. Place a drop of the test solution on a spot plate, add a drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid, mix, then dissolve a few grains of NNdimethyl-p-phenylenediamine in the mixture (or add I drop I % solution of the chloride or sulphate) and add a drop of 0.5M iron(II1) chloride solution. A clear blue colouration appears after a short time (2-3 minutes). Sensitivity 1 flg H 2S. Concentration limit 1 in 50000.
NaN 3 + 13
reaction catalysed
8. Catalysis of iodine-azide reaction test solutions of sodium azide, NaN 3 , and of iodine (as 13 ) do not react, but on the addition of a trace of a sulphide, which acts as a catalyst, there is an immediate evolution of nitrogen:
2N3
+ 13 -> 3r- + 3N2i
Thiosulphates and thiocyanates act similarly and must therefore be absent. The sulphide can, however, be separated by precipitation with zinc or cadmium carbonate. The precipitated sulphide may then be introduced, say, at the end of a platinum wire into a semi micro test-tube or centrifuge tube containing the iodine-azide reagent, when the evolution of nitrogen will be seen. Mix a drop of the test solution and a drop of the reagent on a watch glass. An immediate evolution of gas in the form of fine bubbles occurs. Sensitivity 03 flg Na2S. Concentration limit 1 in 166000.
4.7
Nitrites, N0 2
Solubility silver nitrite is sparingly soluble in water. All other nitrites are soluble in water.
178
Nitrite
4.7
NO
z reactions
Hel
Use freshly prepared O.lM solution of potassium nitrite, KN0 2 , to study these reactions.
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid cautious addition of the acid to a solid nitrite in the cold yields a transient, pale-blue liquid (due to the presence of free nitrous acid, HN0 2, or its anhydride, N 20 3) and the evolution of brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide, the latter being largely produced by combination of nitric oxide with the oxygen of the air. Similar results are obtained with the aqueous solution.
1
blue colour
+
N0 2 gas
N0 2 + H+ ...... HN0 2 (2HN0 2 ...... H 20 + N 20 3 ) 3HN0 2 ...... HN0 3 + 2NOj 2NOj + 02j ...... 2N02j
FeS04
+ H 20
+ acid
1
brown ring
2. Iron ( II) sulphate solution when the nitrite solution is added carefully to a saturated solution of iron(II) sulphate acidified with dilute acetic acid or with dilute sulphuric acid, a brown ring, due to the compound [Fe, NO]S04, is formed at the junction of the two liquids. If the addition has not been made cautiously, a brown colouration results. This reaction is similar to the brown ring test for nitrates (see Section 4.18, reaction 3), for which a stronger acid (concentrated sulphuric acid) must be employed. N0 2 + CH 3 COOH ...... HN0 2 + CH 3 COO3HN0 2 ...... H 20 Fe2+ + SO~-
+ HN0 3 + 2NOj
+ NOj ......
[Fe, NO]S04
Iodides, bromides, coloured ions, and anions that give coloured compounds with iron(II) ions must be absent.
AgN0 3
no precipitate.
1
white AgN0 2
4. Silver nitrate solution concentrated solutions:
white crystalline precipitate of silver nitrite from
KI
1
brown 13
5. Potassium iodide solution the addition of a nitrite solution to a solution of potassium iodide, followed by acidification with acetic acid or with dilute sulphuric acid, results in the liberation of iodine, which may be identified by the blue colour produced with starch paste. A similar result is obtained by dipping potassium iodide-starch paper moistened with a little dilute acid into the solution. An alternative method is to extract the liberated iodine with chloroform (see Section 4.16, reaction 4).
2N02"
KMn04
+ 3r + 4CH 3 COOH ...... 13 + 2NOj + 4CH 3 COO- + 2H 20

decolourized by a solution of
1
decolourized by reduction
6. Acidified potassium permanganate solution a nitrite, but no gas is evolved.
5N0 2 + 2Mn04
+ 6H+ ...... 5N03 + 2Mn2+ + 3H 20

177
4.7
7. Ammonium chloride by boiling a solution of a nitrite with excess of the solid reagent, nitrogen is evolved and the nitrite is completely destroyed.
NOi
Urea
+ NHt
->
N2
r + 2H 20
N2 + CO 2 gases
8. Urea CO (NH2h when a solution of a nitrite is treated with solid urea and the mixture acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid, the nitrite is decomposed, and nitrogen and carbon dioxide are evolved.
CO(NH2h
Thiourea
+ 2HN0 2 -> 2N2 r + CO 2r + 3H20
N2 gas+
sew
9. Thiourea CS( NH2h when a dilute acetic acid solution of a nitrite is treated with a little solid thiourea, nitrogen is evolved and thiocyanic acid is produced. The latter may be identified by the red colour produced with dilute HCl and FeCl3 solution.
CS(NH2h
+ HN0 2 -> N2 r + H+ + SCN- + 2H 20
Thiocyanates and iodides interfere and, if present, must be removed either with excess of solid Ag 2 S04 or with dilute AgN0 3 solution before adding the acetic acid and thiourea.
Sulphamic acid
1
N2 gas
10. Sulphamic acid (HO' S02' NH2) when a solution of a nitrite is treated with solid sulphamic acid, it is completely decomposed:
HO' S02' NH2
+ HN0 2 -> N2 r + 2H+ + SO~- + H 20
No nitrate is formed in this reaction, and it is therefore an excellent method for the complete removal of nitrite. Traces of nitrates are formed with ammonium chloride, urea, and thiourea (reactions 7, 8, and 9).
Griess-Ilosvay test
1
red colour
11. Sulphanilic acid - I-naphthylamine reagent (Griess-Ilosvay test) this test depends upon the diazotization of sulphanilic acid by nitrous acid, followed by coupling with l-naphthylamine to form a red azo dye:
+2H2 0
N=N-OOC.CH J
AI Y
S03H
Specific for NOZ-
0 0 , . . . -+
. . . I /~ -"
NH,
HSOJ-o-~
-8-~
N=N
~\
I. II
NH,
+ CH)COOH
Iron(III) ions must be masked by tartaric acid. The test solution must be very dilute; otherwise the reaction does not go beyond the diazotization stage: O.2mg NOi I-I is the optimal concentration. Place a drop of the neutral or acid test solution on a spot plate and mix it with a drop of the sulphanilic acid reagent, followed by a drop of the 1naphthylamine reagent. A red colour is formed.
178
Cyanide
4.8
Sensitivity O.Olllg HN0 2 . Concentration limit 1 in 5000000.

Indole
12. Indole reagent
1
red colour
II OJ
~
NH
a red-coloured nitroso-indole is formed. Place a drop of the test solution in a semi micro test-tube, add 10 drops of the reagent and 5 drops of 8M sulphuric acid. A purplish-red colouration appears. Concentration limit 1 in 1 000000.
4.8
Cyanides, CN-
Solubility only the cyanides of the alkali and alkaline earth metals are soluble in water; the solutions have an alkaline reaction owing to hydrolysis.
CN- + H 20
HCN + OH-
CN- reactions
Mercury(II) cyanide, Hg(CNh, is also soluble in water, but is practically a non-electrolyte and therefore does not exhibit the ionic reactions of cyanides. Many of the metallic cyanides dissolve in solutions of potassium cyanide to yield complex salts. Use a freshly prepared solution ofO.1M potassium cyanide, KCN, to study these reactions. All cyanides are highly poisonous. The free acid, HCN, is volatile and is particularly dangerous so that all experiments in which the gas is likely to be evolved, or those in which cyanides are heated, must be carried out in the fume cupboard.
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid hydrocyanic acid, HCN, with an odour reminiscent of bitter almonds, is evolved in the cold. It should be smelt with great caution. A more satisfactory method for identifying hydrocyanic acid is to convert it into ammonium thiocyanate by allowing the vapour to come into contact with a little ammonium polysulphide on filter paper. The paper may be conveniently placed over the test-tube or dish in which the substance is being treated with the dilute acid. Upon adding a drop of iron(III) chloride solution and a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid to the filter paper, the characteristic red colouration, due to the iron (III) thiocyanate complex, Fe(SCNh, is obtained (see reaction 6 below). Mercury(II) cyanide is not decomposed by dilute acids.
HCI
1
HCN gas
CN- + H+
AgN0 3
HCNj
1
white AgCN
2. Silver nitrate solution white precipitate of silver cyanide, AgCN, readily soluble in excess of the cyanide solution forming the complex ion, dicyanoargentate(I) [Ag(CNhr (cf. Section 3.6, reaction 7).
179
4.8
3. Concentrated sulphuric acid heat a little of the solid salt with concentrated sulphuric acid; carbon monoxide is evolved which may be ignited and burns with a blue flame. All cyanides, complex and simple, are decomposed by this treatment.
2KCN + 2H 2S04 + 2H 20
Prussian blue test
---->
2COr
+ K 2S04 + (NH4hS04
4. Pruss ian blue test this is a delicate test and is carried out in the following manner. The solution of the cyanide is rendered strongly alkaline with sodium hydroxide solution, a few millilitres of a freshly prepared solution of iron(II) sulphate added (if only traces of cyanide are present, it is best to use a saturated solution ofiron(II) sulphate) and the mixture boiled. Hexacyanoferrate(II) ions are thus formed. Upon acidifying with hydrochloric acid (in order to neutralize any free alkali which may be present), a clear solution is obtained, which gives a precipitate of Prussian blue upon the addition of a little iron(I1I) chloride solution. If only a little cyanide has been used, or is present, in the solution to be tested, a green solution is obtained at first; this deposits Prussian blue on standing. 6CN- + Fe 2+ ----> [Fe(CN)6]43[Fe(CN)6]4-
+ 4Fe3+
---->
Fe4[Fe(CN)6hl
Hg 2 (N0 3 lz
1
Hg metal
5. Mercury(I) nitrate solution (POISON) grey precIpitate of metallic mercury (difference from chloride, bromide, and iodide):
2CN-
+ Hg~+
---->
Hgl
+ Hg( CNh
Mercury(II) cyanide is only slightly ionized in solution. To detect cyanide in the presence of mercury, an excess of potassium iodide should be added to the sample, when cyanide ions are liberated: Hg(CNh + 41---->
[HgI 4]2- + 2CN-
Mercury(II) cyanide is decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, when mercury(II) sulphide is precipitated (Ks = 4 x 10- 53 ). If the precipitate is filtered off, cyanide ions can be tested for in the solution: Hg(CNh
(NH 4 )2 Sx
+ H 2S ----> HgSl + 2HCN
sew
red colour with Fe 3+
6. Iron(III) thiocyanate test this is another excellent test for cyanides and depends upon the direct combination of alkali cyanides with sulphur (best derived from an alkali or ammonium polysulphide). A little ammonium polysulphide solution is added to the potassium cyanide solution contained in a porcelain dish, and the contents evaporated to dryness on the water bath in the fume cupboard. The residue contains alkali and ammonium thiocyanates together with any residual polysulphide. The latter is destroyed by the addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid. One or two drops of iron(III) chloride solution are then added. A blood-red colouration, due to the iron(lII) thiocyanate complex, is produced immediately:
CN3SCN180
+ S~-
---->
SCN-
+ S2-
+ Fe 3+ ---->
Fe(SCNh (cf. Section 4.10, reaction 6)
Cyanate
4.9
The spot-test technique is as follows. Stir a drop of the test solution with a drop of yellow ammonium sulphide on a watch glass and warm until a rim of sulphur is formed round the liquid (evaporation to dryness, other than on a water bath, should be avoided). Add 1-2 drops dilute hydrochloric acid, allow to cool, and add 1-2 drops 0.5M iron(III) chloride solution. A red colouration is obtained. Sensitivity Illg CN-. Concentration limit 1 in 50000. The test is applicable in the presence of sulphide or sulphite; if thiocyanate is originally present, the cyanide must be isolated first by precipitation, e.g. as zinc cyanide.
CuS
1
dissolves
7. Copper sulphide test solutions of cyanides readily dissolve copper(II) sulphide forming the colourless tetracyanocuprate(I) ions:
Note that the oxidation number of copper in the solution is + 1. The test is best carried out on filter paper or drop-reaction paper and is applicable in the presence of chlorides, bromides, iodides, and hexacyanoferrate(II) and (III) ions. Place a drop of a freshly prepared copper sulphide suspension on a filter paper (or on a spot plate) and add a drop of the test solution. The brown colour of copper sulphide disappears at once. Sensitivity 2.51lg CN-. Concentration limit 1 in 20000.
4.9
Cyanates, OCN-
OCN~
reactions
Solubility the cyanates of the alkalis and of the alkaline earths are soluble in water. Those of silver, mercury(l), lead, and copper are insoluble. The free acid is a colourless liquid with an unpleasant odour; it is very unstable. To study these reactions use a 0.2M solution of potassium cyanate, KOCN. 1. Dilute sulphuric acid vigorous effervescence, due largely to the evolution of carbon dioxide. The free cyanic acid, HOCN, which is liberated initially, is decomposed into carbon dioxide and ammonia, the latter combining with the sulphuric acid present to form ammonium sulphate. A little cyanic acid, however, escapes decomposition and may be recognized in the evolved gas by its penetrating odour. If the resulting solution is warmed with sodium hydroxide, ammonia is evolved (test with mercury(l) nitrate paper).
OCNHOCN + H+
+ H+
---+ ---+
HOCN CO 2 i
+ H 20
+ NHt
181
4.10
2. Concentrated sulphuric acid the reaction is similar to that with the dilute acid, but is somewhat more vigorous.
AgN0 3
1
white AgOCN
3. Silver nitrate solution white, curdy precipitate of silver cyanate, AgOCN, soluble in ammonia solution and in dilute nitric acid. The precipitate appears instantaneously, without complex formation (difference from cyanide):
OCN-
+ Ag + --+ AgOCN 1

CO(CH3COOlz
no precipitate.
1
blue complex
5. Cobalt acetate solution when the reagent is added to a concentrated solution of potassium cyanate, a blue colouration, due to tetracyanatocobaltate(II) ions, [CO(OCN)4f-, is produced. The colour is stabilized and intensified somewhat by the addition of ethanol.
40CN-
+ C0 2+ --+ [CO(OCN)4l 2-
CUS04
+ pyridine
1
blue ppt
6. Copper sulphate-pyridine test when a cyanate is added to a dilute solution of a copper salt to which a few drops of pyridine have been previously added, a lilac-blue precipitate is formed of the compound [CU(C5H5Nhl(OCNh; this is soluble in chloroform with the production of a sapphire-blue solution. Thiocyanates interfere; excess of copper solution should be avoided.
20CN-
+ Cu2+ + 2C5H5N --+
[CU(C5H5Nh](OCNh
Add a few drops of pyridine to 2-3 drops of a 0.25M solution of copper sulphate then introduce about 2ml chloroform followed by a few drops of the neutral cyanate solution. Shake the mixture briskly; the chloroform will acquire a blue colour. Concentration limit 1 part cyanate in 20000. The blue complex is stable in the presence of a moderate excess of acetic acid; the reaction can therefore be applied to the detection of cyanates in alkaline solution. The solution to be tested is added to the copper-pyridinechloroform mixture, acetic acid added slowly and the solution shaken vigorously after each addition. As soon as the solution is neutral, the chloroform will assume a blue colour.
4.10
Thiocyanates 2 , SCN-
Solubility silver and copper(I) thiocyanates are practically insoluble in water, mercury(II) and lead thiocyanates are sparingly soluble; the solubilities, in gl-l at 20 C, are 0.0003, 0.0005, 0.7, and 0.45 respectively. The thiocyanates of most other metals are soluble.
D
2 Raman spectra ofthiocyanates appear to indicate that the ion is -S-C=N rather than S=C=N-, since a line assignable to the triple bond and none for the double bond was observed. Salts will be written as, e.g. KSCN and the ion as SCN-.
182
Thiocyanate
4.10
SCN~reactions
To study these reactions use a O.lM solution of potassium thiocyanate, KSCN.

1. Sulphuric acid with the concentrated acid a yellow colouration is produced in the cold; upon warming a violent reaction occurs and carbonyl sulphide (burns with a blue flame) is formed.
SCN-
+ H 2S0 4 + H 20
--->
COST
+ NHt + SO~-
The reaction however is more complex than this, because sulphur dioxide (fuchsin solution decolourized) and carbon dioxide may also be detected in the gaseous decomposition products. In the solution some sulphur is precipitated, and formic acid can also be detected. With the 3M acid no reaction occurs in the cold, but on boiling a yellow solution is formed and sulphur dioxide and a little carbonyl sulphide are evolved. A similar but slower reaction takes place with M sulphuric acid.
AgN0 3
1
white AgSCN
2. Silver nitrate solution white, curdy precipitate of silver thiocyanate, AgSCN, soluble in ammonia solution but insoluble in dilute nitric acid.
+ Ag+ ---> AgSCN 1 AgSCNl + 2NH3 ---> [Ag(NH3hl+ + SCNSCNUpon boiling with Msodium chloride solution, the precipitate is converted into silver chloride: AgSCNl
+ Cl-
--->
AgCll
+ SCN-
(distinction and method of separation from silver halides). After acidification with hydrochloric acid, thiocyanate ions can be detected with iron(III) chloride (cf. reaction 6). The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.) Silver thiocyanate also decomposes upon ignition or upon fusion with sodium carbonate.
CUS04
1
black CU(SCN)2
3. Copper sulphate solution first a green colouration, then a black precipitate of copper(II) thiocyanate is observed:
2SCN- + Cu2+ ---> Cu(SCNhl Adding sulphurous acid (a saturated solution of sulphur dioxide) the precipitate turns into white copper(I) thiocyanate: 2Cu(SCNh
+ S02 + 2H 20
--->
2CuSCNl
+ 2SCN- + SO~- + 4H+
Hg(N0 3 )2
1
white Hg(SCN)2
4. Mercury ( II) nitrate solution (POISON) white precipitate ofmercury(II) thiocyanate Hg(SCNh, readily soluble in excess of the thiocyanate solution. If the precipitate is heated, it swells up enormously forming 'Pharaoh's serpents', a polymerized cyanogen product. 2SCNHg(SCNhl
+ Hg2+
---> --->
Hg(SCNhl [Hg(SCN)4l 2183
+ 2SCN-
4.10
Zn
+ HCI
1
H 2 S + HCN gases
5. Zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen cyanide (POISONOUS) are evolved:
SCNFeCI 3
+ Zn + 3H+
->
H 2 Sj
+ HCNj + Zn 2+
1
red complex
6. Iron ( Ill) chloride solution of a complex: 3SCN-
blood-red colouration, due to the formation
+ Fe3+ f=!
Fe(SCNh
In fact there are a series of complex cations and anions formed. The (uncharged) complex can be extracted by shaking with ether. The red colour is removed by fluorides, mercury(II) ions, and oxalates; when colourless, more stable complexes are formed: Fe(SCNh 4Fe(SCNh
+ 6F-
->
[FeF 6 l3 -
+ 3SCN-
+ 3Hg2+ -> 3[Hg(SCN)4f- + 4Fe3+

->
Fe(SCNh + 3(COO)~HN0 3 HCN
[Fe{(COOhhl 3- + 3SCN-
+ NO gases
7. Dilute nitric acid decomposition upon warming, a red colouration is produced, and nitrogen oxide and hydrogen cyanide (POISONOUS) are evolved:
SCN-
+ H+ + 2N03"
->
2NOj + HCNj
+ SO~-
With concentrated nitric acid a more vigorous reaction takes place, with the formation of nitrogen oxide and carbon dioxide.
Test by distillation
8. Distillation test free thiocyanic acid, HSCN, can be liberated by hydrochloric acid, distilled into ammonia solution, where it can be identified with iron(III) chloride (cf. reaction 6). This test may be applied to separate thiocyanate from mixtures with ions which would interfere with reaction 6. Place a few drops of the test solution in a semi micro test-tube, acidify with dilute hydrochloric acid, add a small fragment of broken porcelain and attach a gas absorption pipette (Fig. 2.28c) charged with a drop or two of ammonia solution. Boil the solution in the test-tube gently so as to distil any HSCN present into the ammonia solution. Rinse the ammonia solution into a clean semimicro test-tube, acidify slightly with dilute hydrochloric acid and add a drop of iron(III) chloride solution. A red colouration is obtained. 9. Cobalt nitrate solution blue colouration, due to the formation of [CO(SCN)4l 2- (Section 3.26, reaction 6), but no precipitate [distinction from cyanide, hexacyanoferrate(lI) and (III)]:
Co(N0 3 h
1
blue complex
4SCN-
+ C0 2+ ->
[CO(SCN)4l 2-
The spot-test technique is as follows. Mix a drop of the test solution in a micro crucible with a very small drop (0.02 ml) of 0.5M solution of cobalt nitrate and evaporate to dryness. The residue, whether thiocyanate is
184
Hexacyanoferrate(lI)
4.11
present or not, is coloured violet and the colour slowly fades. Add a few drops of acetone. A blue-green or green colouration is obtained. Sensitivity Illg SCN-. Concentration limit I i:;50 000. Nitrites yield a red colour due to nitrosyl thiocyanate and therefore interfere with the test.
NaN 3 +
13
1
reaction catalysed
10. Catalysis of iodine-azide reaction test traces of thiocyanates act as powerful catalysts in the otherwise extremely slow reaction between triiodide (iodine) and sodium azide: 13"
+ 2N3"
---; 3r
+ 3N2i
Sulphides (see Section 4.6, reaction 8) and thiosulphates (see Section 4.5, reaction 10) have a similar catalytic effect; these may be removed by precipitation with mercury(lI) nitrate solution: Hg2+ Hg2+
+ S2-
---; HgS! ---; HgS!
+ S20 j- + H 20
+ SO~- + 2H+
Considerable amounts of iodine retard the reaction; iodine should therefore be largely removed by the addition of an excess of mercury(lI) nitrate solution whereupon the complex [HgI 4 f- ion, which does not affect the catalysis, is formed. Mix a drop of the test solution with I drop of the iodine-azide reagent on a spot plate. Bubbles of gas (nitrogen) are evolved. Sensitivity 1.51lg KSCN. Concentration limit I in 30000.
Hexacyanoferrate(ll) ions, [Fe(CN)61 4 -
4.11
[Fe(CN)61 4 - reactions
Solubility the alkali and alkaline earth hexacyanoferrate(lI)s are soluble in water; those of the other metals are insoluble in water and in cold dilute acids, but are decomposed by alkalis. Use a 0.025\1 solution of potassium hexacyanoferrate(II), (often called potassium ferrocyanide), K 4 [Fe(CN)61 3H 20, to study these reactions.
1. Concentrated sulphuric acid complete decomposition occurs on prolonged boiling with the evolution of carbon monoxide, which burns with a blue flame:
cc H2 S0 4
1
decomposition
A little sulphur dioxide may also be produced, due to the oxidation of iron(lI) with sulphuric acid: 2Fe2+ + 2H 2S04
---;
2Fe3+
+ S02 i + SO~- + 2H 20
185
4.11
With dilute sulphuric acid, little reaction occurs in the cold, but on boiling, a partial decomposition of hexacyanoferrate(II) occurs with the evolution of hydrogen cyanide (POISON): [Fe(CN)61 4- + 6H+ ........ 6HCNj + Fe2+ Iron(II) ions, formed in this reaction, react with some of the undecomposed hexacyanoferrate, yielding initially a white precipitate of potassium iron(II) hexacyanoferra te(II): [Fe(CN)61 4- + Fe2+ + 2K+ ........ K2Fe[Fe(CN)611 This precipitate is gradually oxidized to Prussian blue by atmospheric oxygen (cf. Section 3.21, reaction 6).
AgN0 3
white precipitate of silver hexacyanoferrate(II): ........ A~[Fe(CN)611
1
white Ag 4 [Fe(CN)6]
[Fe(CN)61 4-
+ 4Ag+
The precipitate is insoluble in ammonia [distinction from hexacyanoferrate(III)] and nitric acid, but soluble in potassiu\1l cyanide and sodium thiosulphate: Ag4[Fe(CN)611 + 8CN- ........ 4[Ag(CNhr + [Fe(CN)61 4Ag4[Fe(CN)611 + 8S20~- ........ 4[Ag(S203h13- + [Fe(CN)61 4Upon warming with concentrated nitric acid, the precipitate is converted to orange-red silver hexacyanoferrate(lII), when it becomes soluble in ammonia: 3Ag4[Fe(CN)611
+ HN0 3 + 3H+ ........ + 2H 20
........ 3Ag3[Fe(CN)61! + 3Ag+ + NOj 3 Ag3[Fe(CN)611 + 6NH3 ........ 3[Ag(NH3ht + [Fe(CN)61 -
FeCI 3
1
blue ppt Prussian bl ue
3. Iron ( III) chloride solution precipitate of Prussian blue in neutral or acid solutions: 3[Fe(CN)61 4- + 4Fe 3+ ........ Fe4[Fe(CN)6h! the precipitate is decomposed by solutions of alkali hydroxides, brown iron(III) hydroxide being formed (cf. Section 3.22, reaction 6). The spot-test technique is as follows. Mix a drop of the test solution on a spot plate with a drop of iron(III) chloride solution. A blue precipitate or stain is formed. Sensitivity ll-lg [Fe(CN)61 4 -. Concentration limit 1 in 400000.
FeS04
1
white ppt turns blue
4. Iron ( II) sulphate solution white precipitate of potassium iron(II) hexacyanoferrate(II), K2Fe[Fe(CN)61, which turns rapidly blue by oxidation (see reaction 1 and also Section 3.21, reaction 6).
186
Hexacyanoferrate(llI)
4.12
CUS04
1
brown CU2 [Fe(CN)6J
5. Copper sulphate solution ferrate(II):
brown precipitate of copper hexacyanoCU2[Fe(CN)6]!
[Fe(CN)6]4- + 2Cu2+
----+
The precipitate is insoluble in dilute acetic acid, but decomposes in solutions of alkali hydroxides.
Th(N0 3 )4
1
white Th[Fe(CN)6J
6. Thorium nitrate solution ferrate(II):
white precipitate of thorium hexacyano-
[Fe(CN)6]4- 'f1'h4+
----+
Th[Fe(CN)6J!
It is difficult to filter this precipitate, as it tends to form a colloid. The reaction can be used to distinguish hexacyanoferrate(II) ions from hexacyanoferrate(III) and thiocyanate, which do not react.
HCI
1
free acid extractable
7. Hydrochloric acid if a concentrated solution of potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) is mixed with 6M hydrochloric acid, hydrogen hexacyanoferrate(II) is formed, which can be extracted by ether:
[Fe(CN)6]4-
+ 4H+ ;:::::! H 4[Fe(CN)6]
By evaporating the' ether, the substance is obtained as a white crystalline solid.

Dry test
8. Dry test all hexacyanoferrate(II) compounds are decomposed on heating, nitrogen and cyanogen being evolved:
3K4[Fe(CN)6]
----+
N2 j
+ 2!CNh j + 12KCN + Fe3C + C
4.12
Hexacyanoferrate(lIl) ions, [Fe(CN)6]3-
[Fe(CN)6J 3 - reactions
Solubility alkali and alkaline earth hexacyanoferrate(III)s are soluble in water, as is iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(III). Those of most other metals are insoluble or sparingly soluble. Metal hexacyanoferrate(III)s are in general more soluble than metal hexacyanoferrate(II)s. To study these reactions use a O.033M solution of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) K3[Fe(CN)6]'
cc H 2 S0 4
1
decomposition
I. Concentrated sulphuric acid on warming a solid hexacyanoferrate(IID with this acid, it is decomposed completely, carbon monoxide gas being evolved: K 3[Fe(CN)6]
+ 6H 2S04 + 6H 20
----+
----+
6COj
+ Fe3+ + 3K+ + 6NHt + 6S0~
With cold dilute sulphuric acid, no reaction occurs, but on boiling hydrocyanic acid (POISON) is evolved: [Fe(CN)6]3- + 6H+ ----+ Fe 3+ + 6HCNj This test must be carried out in a fume cupboard with good ventilation.
187
4.13
AgN0 3
1
orange Ag 3[Fe(CN)6]
2. Silver nitrate solution ferrate(III):
orange-red precipitate of silver hexacyano-
[Fe(CN)6J 3-
+ 3Ag+ -+ Ag3[Fe(CN)6Jl
The precipitate is soluble in ammonia [distinction from hexacyanoferrate(II)], but insoluble in nitric acid. The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.)
FeS04
1
blue ppt FeCI 3
3. Iron ( II) sulphate solution dark-blue precipitate of Prussian blue (formerly Turnbull's blue), in neutral or acid solution. (Section 3.21, reaction 7.) 4. Iron ( III) chloride solution brown colouration, owing to the formation of undissociated iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(III):
1
brown complex
(cf. Section 3.22, reaction 7).

CUS04
1
green CU3 [Fe(CN)6h
5. Copper sulphate solution ferrate(III):
green precipitate of copper(II) hexacyano-
2[Fe(CN)6J 3-
+ 3Cu2+ -+ CU3[Fe(CN)6hl
cc HCI
1
brown H3[Fe(CN)6]
6. Concentrated hydrochloric acid adding concentrated hydrochloric acid' to a saturated solution of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) in cold, a brown precipitate of free hydrogen hexacyanoferrate(III) (hexacyanoferric acid) is obtained: [Fe(CN)6J 3- + 3HCl-+ H3[Fe(CN)6Jl + 3Cl7. Potassium iodide solution iodine is liberated in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acids and may be identified by the blue colour produced with starch solution:
KI
1
oxidized to 13"
The reaction is reversible; in neutral solution iodine oxidizes hexacyanoferrate(II) ions.

Dry test
8. Action of heat alkali hexacyanoferrate(III)s decompose similarly to hexacyanoferrate(II)s (cf. Section 4.11, reaction 8):
4.13
Hypochlorites,OCISolubility all hypochlorites are soluble in water. They give an alkaline reaction because of hydrolysis:
188
Hypochlorite
4.13
OCI- reactions
In solution hypochlorites disproportionate, slowly in the cold but quickly when hot, forming chlorate and chloride ions: 30CI-+
CIO]
+ 2CI-
Thus, if these reactions are to be studied, the solution should be freshly prepared. By saturating 2M sodium hydroxide with chlorine gas, a M solution of sodium hypochlorite is obtained:
Chloride ions are invariably present and these will interfere with some ionic reactions.
HCI
1
CI 2 gas
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid the solution first turns yellow and later effervesces as chlorine is evolved:
OCl- + H+ HOCI + H+ + Cl-
-+ -+
HOCl CI 2 i + H 20
The gas may be identified (a) by its yellowish-green colour and irritating odour, (b) by its bleaching a wet litmus paper, and (c) by its action upon potassium iodide-starch paper, which it turns blue-black:
KI
!
oxidized to 13"
2. Potassium iodide-starch paper a bluish-black colour is formed in neutral or weakly alkaline solution as the result of separation of iodine:
If the solution is too alkaline the colour disappears because hypoiodite and iodide ions are formed:
Pb(CH 3 COOlz
1
oxidized to Pb0 2
3. Lead acetate or lead nitrate solution boiling:
brown lead dioxide is produced on
OCl- + Pb 2+ + H 20
Co(N0 3 lz
-+
Pb0 21 + 2H+ + Cl-
1
oxidized to black Co(OHh
4. Cobalt nitrate solution adding a few drops of the reagent to a solution of the hypochlorite, a black precipitate of cobalt(III) hydroxide is obtained:
2C02 + + OCl- + 5H 2 0
-+
2Co(OHhl + Cl- + 4H+
Hydrogen ions, formed in the reaction, are neutralized by the excess alkali present. On warming, oxygen is liberated (identified by the rekindling of a glowing splint), the cobalt acting as a catalyst:
189
4.14
Hg
1
brown ppt
5. Mercury on shaking a slightly acidified (use sulphuric acid) solution of a hypochlorite with mercury, a brown precipitate of basic mercury(II) chloride (HgClhO is formed:
HgCl 2Hg + 2H+
+ 20Cl- -
/
0
'"
HgCl
+ H 20
HgCll
The precipitate is soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, when undissociated mercury(II) chloride is formed:
'"
+ 2H+ + 2Cl- HgCl
2HgCl 2 + H 2 0
If the precipitate is separated from the excess of mercury, washed and dissolved in hydrochloric acid, mercury can be detected in the solution by passing hydrogen sulphide into it (cf. Section 3.8). Chlorine water, under similar conditions, produces a white precipitate of mercury(I) chloride Hg2 C12
4.14
Chlorides, CI-
CI- reactions
Solubility most chlorides are soluble in water. Mercury(l) chloride, Hg 2Cl 2, silver chloride, AgCl, lead chloride, PbCl 2 (this is sparingly soluble in cold but readily soluble in boiling water), copper(I) chloride, CuCl, bismuth oxychloride, BiOCl, antimony oxychloride, SbOCl, and mercury(II) oxychloride, Hg 20CI 2, are insoluble in water. To study these reactions use a O.lM solution of sodium chloride, NaCl. 1. Concentrated sulphuric acid considerable decomposition of the chloride occurs in the cold, becoming complete on warming, with the evolution of hydrogen chloride,
Cl-
cc
H 2 S0 4
1
HCI gas
+ H 2 S04 -
HClj
+ HS04
The product is recognized (a) by its pungent odour and the production of white fumes, consisting of fine drops of hydrochloric acid, on blowing across the mouth of the tube, (b) by the formation of white clouds of ammonium chloride when a glass rod moistened with ammonia solution is held near the mouth of the vessel, and (c) by its turning blue litmus paper red.
MnO(OH)2
+ H2S0 4
1
CI 2 gas
2. Manganese dioxide and concentrated sulphuric acid if the solid chloride is mixed with an equal quantity of precipitated manganese dioxide,3 concentrated sulphuric acid added and the mixture gently warmed, chlorine is
3 The commercial substance (pyrolusite) usually contains considerable quantities of chlorides.
190
Chloride
4.14
evolved which is identified by its suffocating odour, yellowish-green colour, its bleaching of moistened litmus paper, and turning of potassium iodide-starch paper blue. MnO(OHh
AgN0 3
~
+ 2H 2S04 + 2CI-
---; Mn2+
+ CI2i + 2S0~- + 3H 20
white AgCI
3. Silver nitrate solution white, curdy precipitate of silver chloride, AgCl, insoluble in water and in dilute nitric acid, but soluble in dilute ammonia solution, in potassium cyanide (POISON) and in sodium thiosulphate solutions (see under silver, Section 3.6, reaction I):
ClAgCll
+ Ag+
---; AgCIl ---; [Ag(NH3hJ+ ---; AgCll
+ 2NH3 [Ag(NH3hJ+ + Cl- + 2H+
+ Cl-
+ 2NHt
The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.) If the silver chloride precipitate is filtered off, washed with distilled water, and then shaken with sodium arsenite solution, it is converted into yellow silver arsenite (distinction from silver bromide and silver iodide, which are unaffected by this treatment). This may be used as a confirmatory test for a chloride.
Pb(CH 3 COOh
~
4. Lead acetate solution white precipitate of lead chloride, PbCI 2, from concentrated solutions (see under lead, Section 3.4, reaction 1):
white PbCI 2
2CIChromyl chloride test Selective for CI-
+ Pb 2+ ---; PbCI 21
5. Potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid (chromyl chloride test) assemble a small, preferably all-glass, distillation apparatus as shown in Fig. 4.1. Place 10 ml 2M sodium hydroxide in the recipient test-tube. The sample which contains chloride must be in solid form. Mix the sample thoroughly with about three times as much powdered potassium dichromate, and place the mixture in the distillation flask. Add an equal volume of concentrated sulphuric acid and warm the mixture gently.4 Deep-red vapours of chromyl chloride, Cr02CI2, are formed. When reacting with the sodium hydroxide in the recipient tube, chromyl chloride is converted to chromate ions, resulting in a yellow solution. The presence of chromate can be verified by appropriate reactions (cf. Section 4.33). One simple test is the following: acidify 2 ml of the solution in the test tube with 4 ml M sulphuric acid, add I ml amyl alcohol 5 followed by I ml of 10% hydrogen peroxide. After gentle shaking the organic layer turns blue (see
4 This test must not be carried out in the presence of chlorates because of the danger offorming explosive chlorine dioxide (Section 4.19, reaction 1). 5 Diethyl ether may also be used, but owing to its highly inflammable character and the possible presence of peroxides (unless previously removed by special treatment), it is preferable to employ amyl alcohol or, less efficiently, amyl acetate.
191
4.15
Section 4.33, reaction 4). Alternatively, the diphenylcarbazide test (Section 4.33, reaction 9) may be applied. The formation of chromate in the distillate indicates that chloride was present in the sample, as chromyl chloride is a volatile liquid (b.p. 116SC). 4CI-
+ Cr20~- + 6H+ ----+ 2Cr02Cl2l + 3H 20 Cr02Cl2l + 40H- ----+ CrO~- + 2CI- + 2H 20 + Cr20~- + 14H+ ----+ 3Cl2l + 2Cr3+ + 7H 20
Some chlorine may also be liberated, owing to the reaction: 6Cl-
and this decreases the sensitivity of the test. Bromides and iodides give rise to the free halogens, which yield colourless solutions with sodium hydroxide; if the ratio of iodide to chloride exceeds 1 : 15, the chromyl chloride formation is largely prevented and chlorine is evolved. 6 Fluorides give rise to the volatile chromyl fluoride, Cr02F2, which is decomposed by water, and hence should be absent or removed. Nitrites and nitrates interfere, as nitrosyl chloride may be formed. ChI orates must, of course, be absent. The chlorides of mercury, owing to their slight ionization, do not respond to this test. Only partial conversion to Cr02Cl2 occurs with the chlorides of lead, silver, antimony, and tin. The spot-test technique is as follows. Into the tube of Fig. 2.54 place a few milligrams of the solid sample (or evaporate a drop or two of the test solution in it), add a small quantity of powdered potassium dichromate and a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid. Place a column about 1 mm long of a 1% solution of diphenylcarbazide in alcohol into the capillary of the stopper and heat the apparatus for a few minutes. The chromyl chloride evolved causes the reagent to assume a violet colour. Sensitivity 1.5 j.lg Cl-. Concentration limit 1 in 30000.
4.15
Bromides, Br-
Br- reactions
Solubility silver, mercury(I), and copper(I) bromides are insoluble in water. Lead bromide is sparingly soluble in cold, but more soluble in boiling water. All other bromides are soluble. To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of potassium bromide KBr. 1. Concentrated sulphuric acid if concentrated sulphuric acid is poured on some solid potassium bromide, first a reddish-brown solution is formed, then reddish-brown bromine vapour accompanies the hydrogen bromide
6 The iodine reacts with the chromic acid yielding iodic acid: the latter, in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid and especially on warming, liberates chlorine from chlorides, regenerating iodide. This explains the failure to form chromyl chloride.
192
Bromide
4.15
(fuming in moist air) which is evolved: KBr + H 2S04 2KBr + 2H 2S04

.......
.......
HBrj Br2 j
+ HS04 + K+
+ S02 j + SO~- + 2K+ + 2H 20
These reactions are accelerated by warming. If concentrated phosphoric acid is substituted for the sulphuric acid and the mixture is warmed, only hydrogen bromide is formed: KBr + H 3 P0 4
.......
HBrj
+ H 2P04 + K+
The properties of hydrogen bromide are similar to those of hydrogen chloride.

cc H2S0 4 + Mn02 1
Br2 gas
2. Manganese dioxide and concentrated sulphuric acid when a mixture of a solid bromide, precipitated manganese dioxide, and concentrated sulphuric acid is warmed, reddish-brown vapour of bromine is evolved. Bromine is recognized (a) by its powerful irritating odour, (b) by its bleaching of litmus paper, (c) by its staining of starch paper orange-red and (d) by the red colouration produced upon filter paper impregnated with fluorescein (see reaction 8 below):
2KBr + Mn02
AgN0 3
+ 2H 2S0 4 ....... Br2 j + 2K+ + Mn2+ + 2S0~- + 2H 20
1
pale yellow AgBr
3. Silver nitrate solution curdy, pale-yellow precipitate of silver bromide, AgBr, sparingly soluble in dilute, but readily soluble in concentrated ammonia solution. The precipitate is also soluble in potassium cyanide and sodium thiosulphate solutions, but insoluble in dilute nitric acid.
Pb(CH 3 COO)2
4. Lead acetate solution
white crystalline precipitate of lead bromide:
1
white PbBr2
The precipitate is soluble in boiling water.

5. Chlorine water7 the addition of this reagent dropwise to a solution of a bromide liberates free bromine, which colours the solution orangered; if chloroform (2 mi) is added and the liquid shaken, the bromine dissolves in the solvent and, after allowing to stand, forms a reddishbrown solution below the colourless aqueous layer. With excess chlorine water, the bromine is converted into yellow bromine monochloride
7 In practice, it is more convenient to use dilute sodium hypochlorite solution, acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid.
193
4.15
and a pale yellow solution results (difference from iodide). 2BrBrz i

cc H 2S0 4
+ Clzi + Clzi
--. Brz i
+ 2Cl-
f=! 2BrCI
+ K2Cr207
1
Br2 gas
6. Potassium dichromate and concentrated sulphuric acid on gently warming a mixture of a solid bromide, concentrated sulphuric acid, and potassium dichromate (see chlorides, Section 4.14, reaction 5) and passing the evolved vapours into water, a yellowish-brown solution, containing free bromine but no chromium, is produced. A colourless (or sometimes a pale yellow) solution is obtained on treatment with sodium hydroxide solution; this does not give the chromate reaction with dilute sulphuric acid, hydrogen peroxide and amyl alcohol, or with the diphenyl carbazide reagent (distinction from chloride).
6KBr + KZCrZ07
+ 7H zS04 --. 3Brz i + 2Cr3+ + 8K+ + 7S0~- + 7H zO
7. Nitric acid hot, fairly concentrated (8M) nitric acid oxidizes bromides to bromine:
6BrFlu oresce i n test
+ 8HN0 3 --. 3Brz i + 2NOi + 6N0 3 + 4H 20
1
red eosin
8. Fluorescein test free bromine converts the yellow dyestuff fluorescein (1) into the red tetrabromofluorescein or eosin (2). Filter paper impregnated with fluorescein solution is therefore a valuable reagent for bromine vapour since the paper acquires a red colour.
H(XI0
~
HO~O~O
Br
Br
~.o
Br~C~Br
ACOOH
V
(1)
+4Br2-+
V
(2)
ACOOH +4Br-+4H+
Chlorine tends to bleach the reagent. Iodine forms the red-violet coloured iodoeosin and hence must be absent. If the bromide is oxidized to free bromine by heating with lead dioxide and acetic acid, practically no chlorine is simultaneously evolved from chlorides, and hence the test may be conducted in the presence of chlorides.
Place a drop of the test solution together with a few milligrams of lead dioxide and acetic acid in the apparatus of Fig. 2.53 and close the tube with the funnel stopper carrying a piece of filter paper which has been impregnated with the reagent and dried. Warm the apparatus gently. A circular red spot is formed on the yellow test paper.
194
Iodide
4.16
Alternatively, the apparatus of Fig. 2.54 may be used; a column, about 1 mm long, of the reagent, is employed. Sensitivity 21lg Br2' Concentration limit 1 in 25000.
Fuchsin test
9. Fuschin (or Magenta) test

H2N-( \
the dyestuff fuschin
1
violet colour
H'N~
CH)
Y-
_ + CONH2
CI-
forms a colourless addition compound with hydrogen sulphite. Free bromine converts the thus decolourized fuchsin into a blue or violet brominated dyestuff. Neither free chlorine nor free iodine affect the colourless fuchsin hydrogen sulphite compound, hence the reaction may be employed for the detection of bromides in the presence of chlorides and iodides. Place a drop of the test solution (or a few milligrams of the test solid) in the tube of the apparatus shown in Fig. 2.54, add 2-4 drops 25% chromic acid solution and close the apparatus with the 'head' which contains 1-2 drops of the reagent solution in the capillary. Warm the apparatus gently (do not allow it to boil). In a short time the liquid in the capillary assumes a violet colour. Sensitivity 31lg Br-. Concentration limit 1 in 50000. The reagent is prepared from 0.1 % fuchsin solution by just decolourizing it with a few drops of 0.5M sodium hydrogen sulphite solution.
4.16 Iodides, 1-
1- reactions
Solubility the solubilities of the iodides are similar to the chlorides and bromides. Silver, mercury(I), mercury(II), copper(I), and lead iodides are the least soluble salts. These reactions can be studied with a O.IM solution of potassium iodide, KI. 1. Concentrated sulphuric acid with a solid iodide, iodine is liberated; on warming, violet vapour is evolved, which turns starch paper blue. Some hydrogen iodide is formed - this can be seen by blowing across the mouth of the vessel, when white fumes are produced - but most of it reduces the sulphuric acid to sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and sulphur, the relative proportions of which depend upon the concentrations of the reagents.
cc H2 S0 4
1
oxidized to brown
13
+ 2H 2S04 ~ 13 i + SO~- + 2H 20 + S02 i r + H 2S04 ~ Hli + HS0 4 9r + 4H 2S04 ~ 31 3 i + Sl + 3S0~- + 4H 20 12r + 5H 2S04 ~ 413i + H 2Si + 4S0~- + 4H 20
3r
195
4.16
Pure hydrogen iodide is fonned on wanning with concentrated phosphoric acid: 1- + H 3P0 4 ----> HIi + H 2 P04" If manganese dioxide is added to the mixture, only iodine is fonned and the sulphuric acid does not get reduced: 31- + Mn02 + 2H 2S04 ----> 13i + Mn2+ + 2S0~- + 2H 20
AgN0 3
1
yellow Agi
2. Silver nitrate solution yellow, curdy precipitate of silver iodide AgI, readily soluble in potassium cyanide and in sodium thiosulphate solutions, very slightly soluble in concentrated ammonia solution, and insoluble in dilute nitric acid. 1- +Ag+
---->
AgI
Pb(CH 3 COOlz
1
yellow Pbl 2
el 2 !
brown colour, 13
3. Lead acetate solution yellow precipitate of lead iodide, Pb1 2, soluble in much hot water fonning a colourless solution, and yielding golden-yellow plates ('spangles') on cooling. 2r + Pb 2+ ----> Pbl 21 4. Chlorine water 8 when this reagent is added dropwise to a solution of an iodide, iodine is liberated, which colours the solution brown; on shaking with 1-2 ml chlorofonn it dissolves fonning a violet solution, which settles out below the aqueous layer. The free iodine may also be identified by the characteristic blue colour it forms with starch solution. If excess chlorine water is added, the iodine is oxidized to colourless iodic acid.
3r + Cl2i
13 + 8Cl 2i + 9H 20
K2Cr207 or NaN0 2
----> ---->
13 + 2CI310 3 + 16CI- + 18H+
1
brown colour. 13
5. Potassium dichromate and concentrated sulphuric acid only iodine is liberated, and no chromate is present in the distillate (see chlorides, Section 4.14, reaction 5) (difference from chloride). 61- + Cr20~- + 7H 2S04 ----> 31 2 i + 2Cr3+ + 7S0~- + 7H 20 6. Potassium nitrite solution iodine is liberated when this reagent is added to an iodide solution acidified with dilute acetic or sulphuric acid (difference from bromide and chloride). The iodine may be identified by colouring starch paste blue, or chlorofonn violet. . 31- + 2N02 + 4H+
---->
13 + 2NOi + 2H 20
CUS04
1
white Cui
+
brown colour, 13
7. Copper sulphate solution brown precipitate consisting of a mixture of copper(I) iodide, CuI, and iodine. The iodine may be removed by the addition of sodium thiosulphate solution or sulphurous acid, and a nearly white precipitate of copper(l) iodide obtained. 5r + 2Cu 2+ ----> 2Cull + 13 13 + 2S20~---->
31- + S40~-
8 In practice it is more convenient to use dilute sodium hypochlorite solution acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid.
196
Iodide
4.16
HgCI2
1
scarlet Hgl2
8. Mercury ( II) chloride solution (POISON) cury(II) iodide:
scarlet precipitate of mer-
2r + HgCl2 --> HgI21 + 2CI(note that mercury(II) chloride is practically undissociated in solution). The precipitate dissolves in excess potassium iodide, forming a tetraiodomercurate(II) complex: HgI21
+ 2r
-->
[HgI 4
f-
Starch
+
oxidizing agent
1
blue complex
9. Starch test iodides are readily oxidized in acid solution to free iodine by a number of oxidizing agents; the free iodine may then be identified by the deep-blue colouration produced with starch solution. The best oxidizing agent to employ in the spot test reaction is acidified potassium nitrite solution (cf. reaction 6):
31-
+ 2NO z + 4H+ --> 13 + 2NOj + 2H 20
Cyanides interfere because of the formation of cyanogen iodide: they are therefore removed before the test either by heating with sodium hydrogen carbonate solution or by acidifying and heating: 13
+ CN-
-->
ICNj
+ 21-
Mix a drop of the acid test solution on a spot plate with a drop of the reagent and add a drop of 50% potassium nitrite solution. A blue colouration is obtained. Sensitivity 2.51lg 12 Concentration limit 1 in 20000.
Ce(IV) + As(lll) reaction catalysed
10. Catalytic reduction of cerium ( IV) salts test the reduction of cerium(IV) salts in acid solution by arsenites takes place very slowly:
2Ce4 + + AsO~-
+ H 20
-->
2Ce 3+ + AsO!-
+ 2H+
III
Iodides accelerate this change, possibly owing to iodine liberated instantaneous reaction (i): 2Ce 4+ + 31-->
the
2Ce 3+ + 13
(i)
reacting further according to (ii):

AsO~-
+ 13 + H 20
-->
AsO!-
+ 3r + 2H+
(ii)
the iodide ion reacting again as in (i). The completion of the reduction is indicated by the disappearance of the yellow colour of the cerium(IV) solution. Osmium and ruthenium salts have a similar catalytic effect. Moderate amounts of chlorides, bromides, sulphates, and nitrates have no influence, but cyanides and also mercury(II), silver, and manganese salts interfere. Place a drop of the test solution together with a drop each of neutral or slightly acid 0.1 M sodium arsenite solution and O.IM cerium(IV) sulphate solution on a spot plate. The yellow colour soon disappears. Sensitivity 0.03 Ilg 1-. Concentration limit 1 in 1 000000.
197
4.17
4.17
Fluorides, F-
F- reactions
Solubility the fluorides of the common alkali metals and of silver, mercury, aluminium, and nickel are readily soluble in water, those of lead, copper, iron(III), barium, and lithium are slightly soluble, and those of the other alkaline earth metals are insoluble. To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of sodium fluoride, NaF. 1. Concentrated sulphuric acid with the solid fluoride, a colourless, corrosive gas, hydrogen fluoride, H 2 F 2, is evolved on wanning; the gas fumes in moist air, and the test-tube acquires a greasy appearance as a result of the corrosive action of the vapour on the silica in the glass, which liberates the gas, silicon tetrafluoride, SiF4 . By holding a moistened glass rod in the vapour, gelatinous silicic acid H 2Si0 3 is deposited on the rod; this is a product of the decomposition of the silicon tetrafluoride.
2F-
+ H 2 S04 ---- H2F2 i + SO~

+ 2H 20
Si0 2 + 2H2F2 ---- SiF4 i 3SiF4 i
+ 3H 20
---- 2[SiF 6 l2-
+ H 2Si0 3 1 + 4H+
Note that at room temperature hydrogen fluoride gas is almost completely dimerized, therefore its fonnula has been written as H 2F 2 . At elevated temperatures (say 90C) it dissociates completely to monomer hydrogen fluoride: H 2F 2
;:::::
2HF
The same result is more readily attained by mixing the solid fluoride with an equal bulk of silica, making into a paste with concentrated sulphuric acid and warming gently; silicon tetrafluoride is quickly evolved.
Etching glass
2. The etching test a clean watch glass is coated on the convex side with paraffin wax, and part of the glass is exposed by scratching a design on the wax with a nail or wire. A mixture of about 0.3 g fluoride and 1 ml concentrated sulphuric acid is placed in a small lead or platinum crucible, and the latter immediately covered with the watch glass, convex side down. A little water should be poured in the upper (concave) side of the watch glass to prevent the wax from melting. The crucible is very gently wanned (best on a boiling water bath). After 5-10 minutes, the hydrogen fluoride will have etched the glass. This is readily seen after removing the paraffin wax by holding above a flame or with hot water, and then breathing upon the surface of the glass. The test may also be conducted in a small lead capsule, provided with a close-fitting lid made from lead foil. A small hole of about 3 mm diameter is pierced in the lid. About 0.1 g suspected fluoride and a few drops concentrated sulphuric acid are placed in the clean capsule, and a small piece of glass (e.g. a microscope slide) is placed over the hole in the lid. Upon warming very gently (best on a water bath) it will be found that an etched spot appears on the glass where it covers the hole.
198
Nitrate
4.18
Chlorates, silicates, and borates interfere and should therefore be absent.

3. Silver nitrate solution water.
CaCI 2
no precipitate, since silver fluoride is soluble in
1
white CaF2
4. Calcium chloride solution white, slimy precipitate of calcium fluoride, CaF 2, sparingly soluble in acetic acid, but slightly more soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. 2F- + Ca2+ ~ CaF21
FeCI 3
1
white Na3[FeF6J
5. Iron ( III) chloride solution white crystalline precIpItate of sodium hexafluoroferrate(III) from concentrated solutions of fluorides, sparingly soluble in water. The precipitate does not give the reactions of iron (e.g. with ammonium thiocyanate), except upon acidification. 6F-
+ Fe3+ + 3Na+ ~ Na3[FeF611
Zr + alizarin
1
lake decolourizes
6. Zirconium-alizarin lake test hydrochloric acid solutions of zirconium salts are coloured reddish-violet by alizarin red S or by alizarin (see under aluminium, Section 3.23, reactions 8 and 9 and under zirconium, Section 6.18, reaction 12); upon adding a solution of a fluoride the colour of such solutions changes immediately to a pale yellow (that of the liberated alizarin sulphonic acid or alizarin) because of the formation of the colourless hexafluorozirconate(IV) ion [ZrF 6]2-. The test may be performed on a spot plate. Mix together on a spot plate 2 drops each (equal volumes) of a 0.1 % alizarin red S (sodium alizarin sulphonate) and 0.1 % zirconyl chloride solution. Upon the addition of a drop or two of the fluoride solution the zirconium lake is decolourized to a clear yellow solution.
4.18
Nitrates, N03"
N0 3 reactions
Solubility all nitrates are soluble in water. The nitrates of mercury and bismuth yield basic salts on treatment with water; these are soluble in dilute nitric acid. The reactions can be studied with a O.1M solution of potassium nitrate KN0 3
1. Concentrated sulphuric acid reddish-brown vapour of nitrogen dioxide, and pungent acid vapour of nitric acid which fumes in the air, are formed on heating the solid nitrate with the reagent. Dilute sulphuric acid has no effect (difference from nitrite):
cc H 2 S0 4
1
red N0 2 gas
4N0 3 + 2H 2S0 4 ~ 4N0 21 + O 2i

cc H 2 S0 4
+ 2S0~- + 2H 20
+ Cu
blue colour (Cu 2+) or red fumes (N0 2)
2. Concentrated sulphuric acid and bright copper turnings on heating these with the solid nitrate, reddish-brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide are evolved, and the solution acquires a blue colour owing to the formation of copper(II) ions. A solution of the nitrate may also be used; the sulphuric
199
4.18
acid is then added very cautiously. 2N0 3 + 4H 2S04 + 3Cu 2NOj

cc H 2 S0 4 + FeS04
---->
3Cu 2+ + 2NOj
+ 4S0~- + 4H 20
+ 02j ----> 2N0 2j
3. Iron ( II) sulphate solution and concentrated sulphuric acid (brown ring
1
brown ring
test) this test is carried out in either of two ways: (a) Add 3 ml freshly prepared saturated solution of iron(II) sulphate to 2 ml nitrate solution, and pour 3-5 ml concentrated sulphuric acid slowly down the side of the test-tube so that the acid forms a layer beneath the mixture. A brown ring will form where the liquids meet. (b) Add 4ml concentrated sulphuric acid slowly to 2 ml nitrate solution, mix the liquids thoroughly and cool the mixture under a stream of cold water from the tap. Pour a saturated solution of iron(II) sulphate slowly down the side of the tube so that it forms a layer on top of the liquid. A brown ring will form at the zone of contact of the two liquids. The brown ring is due to the formation of the [Fe(NO)]2+. On shaking and warming the mixture the brown colour disappears, nitrogen oxide is evolved, and a yellow solution of iron(III) ions remains. The test is unreliable in the presence of bromide, iodide, nitrite, chlorate, and chromate (see Section 5.9, reactions 3 and 4). 2N0 3 + 4H 2S0 4 + 6Fe2+ ----> 6Fe 3+ + 2NOj + 4S0~- + 4H 20 Fe2+ + NOj ----> [Fe(NO)f+
Bromides and iodides interfere because of the liberated halogen; the test is not trustworthy in the presence of chromates, sulphites, thiosulphates, iodates, cyanides, thiocyanates, hexacyanoferrate(II) and (III) ions. All of these anions may be removed by adding an excess of nitrate-free Ag2S04 to an aqueous solution (or sodium carbonate extract), shaking vigorously for 3-4 minutes, and filtering the insoluble silver salts, etc. Nitrites react similarly to nitrates. They are best removed by adding a little sulphamic acid (compare Section 4.7, reaction 10). The following reaction takes place in the cold: H 2N-HS0 3 + N0 2
---->
N2 j
+ SO~- + H+ + H 20
The spot-test technique is as follows. Place a crystal of iron(II) sulphate about as large as a pin head on a spot plate. Add a drop of the test solution and allow a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid to run in at the side of the drop. A brown ring forms round the crystal of iron(II) sulphate. Sensitivity 2.511g N0 3. Concentration limit 1 in 25000.
Reduction of nitrates
4. Reduction of nitrates in alkaline medium ammonia is evolved (detected by its odour; by its action upon red litmus paper and upon mercury(I) nitrate paper; or by the tannic acid-silver nitrate test, Section 3.38, reaction 7) when a solution of a nitrate is boiled with zinc dust or gently warmed with aluminium powder and sodium hydroxide solution. Excellent results are obtained by the use of Devarda's alloy (45% AI, 5% Zn, 50% Cu).
200
Nitrate
4.18
Ammonium ions must, of course, be removed by boiling the solution with sodium hydroxide solution (and, preferably, evaporating almost to dryness) before the addition of the metal.
+ 4Zn + 70H- + 6H 20 3N0 3 + 8AI + 50H- + 18H20

N0 3
+ 4[Zn(OH)4f---> 3NH3 i + 8[AI(OH)4r

--->
NH3 i
Nitrites give a similar reaction and may be removed most simply with the aid of sulphamic acid (see reaction 3). Another, but more expensive, procedure involves the addition of sodium azide to the acid solution; the solution is allowed to stand for a short time and then boiled in order to complete the reaction and to expel the readily volatile hydrogen azide: N0 2 + N3
+ 2H+ ---> N2 i + N 20i + H 20 N3 + H+ ---> HN3 i
Other nitrogen compounds which evolve ammonia under the above conditions are cyanides, thiocyanates, hexacyanoferrate(II) and (III) ions. These may be removed by treating the aqueous solution (or a sodium carbonate extract) with excess of nitrate-free silver sulphate, warming the mixture to about 60C, shaking vigorously for 3-4 minutes and filtering from the silver salts of the interfering anions and excess of precipitant. The excess silver ions are removed from the filtrate by adding an excess of sodium hydroxide solution, and filtering from the precipitated silver oxide. The filtrate is concentrated and tested with zinc, aluminium, or Devarda's alloy. Attention is directed to the fact that arsenites are reduced in alkaline solution by aluminium, Devarda's alloy, etc., to arsine, which blackens mercury(l) nitrate paper and also gives a positive tannic acid-silver nitrate test. Hence neither the mercury(I) nitrate test nor the tannic acid-silver nitrate test for ammonia is applicable if arsenites are present.
Diphenylamine
1
blue ring
5. Diphenylamine reagent (C6H5 NH C6 H 5) pour the nitrate solution carefully down the side of the test-tube so that it forms a layer above the solution of the reagent; a blue ring is formed at the zone of contact of the two liquids. The test is a very sensitive one, but unfortunately is also given by a number of oxidizing agents, such as nitrites, chlorates, bromates, iodates, permanganates, chromates, vanadates, molybdates, and iron(III) salts.
6. Nitron reagent (diphenyl-endo-anilo-dihydrotriazole C2oH16N4)
C6 H s - N - - N
Nitron
1
white ppt
HC ......... N/C
I:Z~II
I
C.Hs
white crystalline precipitate of nitron nitrate C 20 H 16N4,HN03 with solutions of nitrates. Bromides, iodides, nitrites, chromates, chlorates, perchlorates,
201
4.19
thiocyanates, oxalates, and picrates also yield insoluble compounds, and hence the reaction is not very characteristic.
Heating
1
decomposition
7. Action of heat the result varies with the metal. The nitrates of sodium and potassium evolve oxygen (test with glowing splint) and leave solid nitrites (brown fumes with dilute acid); ammonium nitrate yields dinitrogen oxide and steam; the nitrates of the noble metals leave a residue of the metal, and a mixture of nitrogen dioxide and oxygen is evolved; the nitrates of the other metals, such as those of lead and copper, evolve oxygen and nitrogen dioxide, and leave a residue of the oxide.
2NaN0 3 NH 4 N0 3
--+ --+
2NaN0 2 + O 2 i N 2 0i
+ 2H 2 0 2AgN0 3 --+ 2Ag + 2N02 i + O2 i 2Pb(N0 3 h --+ 2PbO + 4N0 2 i + O 2 i

Zn
1
reduction to N0 2
8. Reduction to nitrite test nitrates are reduced to nitrites by metallic zinc in acetic acid solution; the nitrite can be readily detected by means of the sulphanilic-acid-l-naphthylamine reagent (see under nitrites, Section 4.7, reaction 11). Nitrites, of course, interfere and are best removed with sulphamic acid (see reaction 3 above). Mix on a spot plate a drop of the neutral or acetic acid test solution with a drop of the sulphanilic acid reagent and a drop of the I-naphthylamine reagent, and add a few milligrams of zinc dust. A red colouration develops. Sensitivity 0.051lg NO}" . Concentration limit 1 in 1 000000.
4.19
Chlorates, CI03"
CI0 3 reactions
cc H 2 S0 4
Solubility all chlorates are soluble in water; potassium chlorate is one of the least soluble (66gl- 1 at 18C) and lithium chlorate one of the most soluble (3150 gl-l at 18C). To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of potassium chlorate. 1. Concentrated sulphuric acid (DANGER) all chI orates are decomposed with the formation of the greenish-yellow gas, chlorine dioxide, CI0 2 , which dissolves in the sulphuric acid to give an orange-yellow solution. On warming gently (DANGER) an explosive crackling occurs, which may develop into a violent explosion. In carrying out this test one or two small crystals of potassium chlorate (weighing not more than 0.1 g) are treated with 1 ml concentrated sulphuric acid in the cold; the yellow explosive chlorine dioxide can be seen on shaking the solution. The test-tube should not be warmed, and its mouth should be directed away from the experimenter.
1
CI0 2 gas (DANGER)
202
Chlorate 4.19
cc HCI CI0 2 + CI 2 gases (DANGER)
2. Concentrated hydrochloric acid all chi orates are decomposed by this acid, and chlorine, together with varying quantities of the explosive chlorine dioxide, is evolved; chlorine dioxide imparts a yellow colour to the acid. The mixture of gases is sometimes known as 'euchlorine'. The experiment should be conducted on a very small scale, and not more than 0.1 g potassium chlorate should be used. The following two chemical reactions probably occur simultaneously:
2KCl0 3 + 4HCl KCI0 3 + 6HCI

Reducing agents
---t
2Cl0 2 + C1 2 !
---t
+ 2K+ + 2CI- + 2H2 0 3C1 2 ! + K+ + Cl- + 3H 2 0
1
reduction to CI-
3. Potassium nitrite solution on warming this reagent with a solution of the chlorate, the latter is reduced to a chloride, which may be identified by adding silver nitrate solution after acidification with dilute nitric acid. The nitrite must, of course, be free from chloride. A solution of sulphurous acid or offormaldehyde (10%) acts similarly. Excellent results are obtained with zinc, aluminium or Devarda's alloy and sodium hydroxide solution (see under nitrates, Section 4.18, reaction 4); the solution is acidified with dilute nitric acid after several minutes boiling 9 and silver nitrate solution added.
ClUJ CIO)
+ 3N0 2
---t
+ 3H 2S0 3 ClO) + 3HCHO ClO) + 3Zn + 60H- + 3H20 ClO) + 2Al + 20H- + 3H 20
---t
---t
---t
---t
+ 3NO) Cl- + 3S0~- + 6H+ Cl- + 3HCOOH Cl- + 3[Zn(OH)412Cl- + 2[Al(OH)4r

Cl-
4. Silver nitrate solution no precipitate in neutral solution or in the presence of dilute nitric acid. Upon the addition of a little pure (chloridefree) sodium nitrite to the dilute nitric acid solution, a white precipitate of silver chloride is obtained because of the reduction of the chlorate to chloride (see reaction 3 above). No precipitate is obtained with barium chloride solution.
KI
1
brown colour, 13
5, Potassium iodide solution iodine is liberated if a mineral acid is present. If acetic acid is used, no iodine separates even on long standing (difference from iodate),
CIO)
FeS04
+ 91- + 6H+
---t
31)
+ Cl- + 3H 20
III
1
reduction to CI-
6. Iron ( II) sulphate solution reduction to chloride upon boiling presence of mineral acid (difference from perchlorate). CIO) + 6Fe 2+ + 6H+ ---t Cl- + 6Fe 3+ + 3H 20
the
Indigo + SO~-
1
colour bleaches
7. Indigo test a dilute solution of indigo in concentrated sulphuric acid is added to the chlorate solution until the latter has a pale-blue colour. Dilute sulphurous acid or sodium sulphite solution is then added drop by
91t is best to filter off the excess metal before adding the silver nitrate solution.
203
4.20
drop; the blue colour disappears. The chlorate is reduced by the sulphurous acid to chlorine or to hypochlorite, and the latter bleaches the indigo.
Aniline + cc H 2 S0 4
1
blue colour
8. Aniline sulphate test, (C6HS' NH2 hH2 S0 4 a small quantity of the solid chlorate (say, 0.05 g) (DANGER) is mixed with 1 ml concentrated sulphuric acid, and 2-3 ml aqueous aniline sulphate solution added; a deep-blue colour is obtained (distinction from nitrate). 9. Manganese ( II) sulphate-phosphoric acid test manganese(II) sulphate in concentrated phosphoric acid solution reacts with chlorates to form the violet-coloured diphosphatomanganate(lII) ion: CIO)
MnS04
+ H3 P0 4
1
violet complex
+ 6Mn 2+ + 12PO~- + 6H+ ---t 6[Mn(P04 hl 3- + Cl- + 3H20
Peroxodisulphates, nitrites, bromates, iodates, and also periodates react similarly. The first-named may be decomposed by evaporating the sulphuric acid solution with a little silver nitrate as catalyst. Place a drop of the test solution in a micro crucible and add a drop of the reagent. Warm rapidly over a micro burner and allow to cool. A violet colouration appears. Very pale colourations may be intensified by adding a drop of 1% alcoholic diphenylcarbazide solution when a deepviolet colour, due to an oxidation product of the diphenylcarbazide, is obtained. Sensitivity 0.05 Ilg CIO). Concentration limit 1 in 1 000000. The reagent is prepared by mixing equal volumes of saturated manganese(II) sulphate solution and concentrated phosphoric acid.
Heating
1
O2 gas
10. Action of heat all chi orates are decomposed by heat into chlorides and oxygen. Some perchlorate is usually formed as an intermediate product. The chloride is identified in the residue by extracting with water and adding dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate solution. An insoluble chlorate should be mixed with sodium carbonate before ignition.
2KCI0 3 ---t 2KCI + 30 2i 2KCI0 3 ---t KCI0 4
+ KCI + O 2i
4.20
Bromates, BrOi
Solubility silver, barium, and lead bromates are slightly soluble in water, the solubilities being respectively 2.0gl- 1, 7.0gl- 1 and 13.5gl- 1 at 20C; mercury(l) bromate is also sparingly soluble. Most of the other metallic bromates are readily soluble in water. To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of potassium bromate. I. Concentrated sulphuric acid add 2 ml acid to 0.5 g solid bromate; bromine and oxygen are evolved in the cold. 4KBr03
Br03 reactions
+ 2H 2S04 ---t 2Br2 i + 50 2i + 4K+ + 2S0~- + 2H 20
204
Bromate
4.20
AgN0 3
1
white AgBr03
2. Silver nitrate solution a white crystalline precipitate of silver bromate, AgBr03, is produced with a concentrated solution of a bromate. The precipitate is soluble in hot water, readily soluble in dilute ammonia solution forming a complex salt, and sparingly soluble in dilute nitric acid.
BrO)
+ Ag+ ---> AgBr031
The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.) Precipitates of the corresponding bromates are also produced by the addition of solutions of barium chloride, lead acetate or mercury(I) nitrate to a concentrated solution of a bromate. 2BrO) 2BrO) 2BrO)
+ BaH + Hg~+
--->
Ba(Br03hl
+ Pb 2+ ---> Pb(Br03hl
--->
Hg 2(Br03h 1
If the solution of silver bromate in dilute ammonia solution is treated dropwise with sulphurous acid solution, silver bromide separates: the latter dissolves in concentrated ammonia solution (difference from iodate).
S02 gas
1
reduction to Br-
3. Sulphur dioxide if the gas is bubbled through a solution of a bromate, the latter is reduced to a bromide (see bromides, Section 4.15). A similar result is obtained with hydrogen sulphide and with sodium nitrite solution (see under chlorates, Section 4.19, reaction 3).
BrO)
+ 3H 2S0 3 ---> Br- + 3S0~- + 6H+ BrO) + 3H 2S ---> Br- + 3S1 + 3H 20 BrO) + 3NOi ---> Br- + 3NO)
HBr
1
brown colour. Br2
4. Hydrobromic acid mix together solutions of potassium bromate and bromide, and acidify with dilute sulphuric acid; bromine is liberated as a result of interaction between the bromic and hydrobromic acids set free. The bromine may be extracted by adding a little chloroform.
BrO)
Heating
+ 5Br- + 6H+
--->
3Br2 i
+ 3H 20
1 O2
5. Action of heat potassium bromate on heating evolves oxygen and a bromide remains. Sodium and calcium bromates behave similarly, but cobalt, zinc, and other similar metallic bromates evolve oxygen and bromine, and leave an oxide.
2KBr03
MnS04
--->
2KBr + 30 2i
1
brown Mn02
6. Manganese ( II) sulphate test if a bromate solution is treated with a little of a 1 + 1 mixture of saturated manganese(II) sulphate solution and M sulphuric acid, a transient red colouration (due to manganese(III) ions) is observed. Upon concentrating the solution rapidly, brown, hydrated manganese dioxide separates. The latter is insoluble in dilute sulphuric acid, but dissolves in a mixture of dilute sulphuric and oxalic acids (difference
205
4.21
from chi orates and iodates, which neither give the colouration nor yield the brown precipitate). Br03 + 6Mn2+ + 6H+ ----; 6Mn 3+ + Br- + 3H 20 Br03 + 6Mn 3+ + 9H20 ----; 6Mn021 + Br- + 18H+ Mn021 + (COO)~-
+ 4H+ ----; Mn2+ + 2C02i + 2H 20
4.21
Iodates, 10 3
103" reactions cc H 2 S0 4 + FeS04
Solubility the iodates of the alkali metals are soluble in water; those of the other metals are sparingly soluble and, in general, less soluble than the corresponding chlorates and bromates. Some solubilities in g 1-1 at 20C are: lead iodate 0.03 (25C), silver iodate 0.06, barium iodate 0.22, calcium iodate 3.7, potassium iodate 81.3, and sodium iodate 90.0. lodic acid is a crystalline solid, and has a solubility of 2330 g 1-1 at 20e. To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of potassium iodate, KI0 3. 1. Concentrated sulphuric acid no action in the absence of reducing agents; readily converted to iodide in the presence of iron (II) sulphate: 103 + 6Fe 2+ + 6H+ ----; r + 6Fe3+ + 3H 20
1
brown ppt
12 (with excess 103")
If the iodate is in excess, iodine is formed because of the interaction of iodate and iodide (cf. reaction 6): 103
+ 5r + 6H+ ----; 3121 + 3H20
AgN0 3
1
white AgI0 3
2. Silver nitrate solution white, curdy precipitate of silver iodate, readily soluble in dilute ammonia solution, but sparingly soluble in dilute nitric acid.
+ Ag+ AglO31 + 2NH3

103
----; AglO31 ----; [Ag( NH 3hl+
+ 103
The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.) If the ammoniacal solution of the precipitate is treated dropwise with sulphurous acid solution, silver iodide is precipitated; the latter is not dissolved by concentrated ammonia solution (difference from bromate). [Ag(NH3hl+
BaCI 2
+ 103 + 3H 2S0 3 ----; Agl1 + 3S0~- + 2NHt + 4H+
1
white Ba(103h
3. Barium chloride solution white precipitate of barium iodate (difference from chlorate), sparingly soluble in hot water and in dilute nitric acid, but insoluble in alcohol (difference from iodide). If the precipitate of barium iodate is well washed, treated with a little sulphurous acid solution and 1-2 ml chloroform, the latter is coloured violet by the liberated iodine, and barium sulphate is precipitated: 210 3 + Ba2+ ----; Ba(103h1
Ba(10 3h1
206
+ 5H 2S0 3 ----; 121 + BaS041 + 4S0~- + 8H+ + H 20
Perchlorate Hg(N0 3 h
4.22
1
white Hg(10 3 )2
4. Mercury ( II) nitrate solution (POISON) white precipitate ofmercury(II) iodate (difference from chlorate and bromate), Lead acetate solution similarly gives a precipitate of lead iodate. Mercury(II) chloride solution, which is practically un-ionized (as mercuric chloride is covalent) gives no precipitate. 2103' 2103'
+ Hg2+
--->
Hg(10 3hl
+ Pb2+ ---> Pb(I03hl
S02 or H 2S
1
first brown ppt 12 In excess colourless (white ppt with H 2S)
5. Sulphur dioxide or hydrogen sulphide passage of sulphur dioxide or of hydrogen sulphide into a solution of an iodate, acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid, liberates iodine as a brown precipitate, which may be recognized by the addition of starch solution or chloroform. With an excess of either reagent, the iodine is further reduced to iodide.
+ 5H 2S0 3 ---> 121 + 5S0~- + 8H+ + H 20 121 + H 2S0 3 + H 20 ---> 21- + SO~- + 4H+ 2103' + 5H 2S + 2H+ ---> 121 + 5S1 + 6H 20 121 + H 2S ---> 2r + 2H+ + Sl
2103' 6. Potassium iodide solution mix together solutions of potassium iodide and potassium iodate, and acidify with hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or with tartaric acid solution; iodine is immediately liberated (use the chloroform test). 103'
KI
1
brown colour, 13
+ 81- + 6H+ ---> 313' + 3H 20
Heating
1
decomposition
7. Action of heat the alkali iodates decompose into oxygen and an iodide, Most iodates of the bivalent metals yield iodine and oxygen and leave a residue of oxide; barium iodate, exceptionally, gives the periodate (more precisely, hexoxoperiodate): 2KI0 3 2Pb(10 3h
---> --->
2KI + 30 2 i 212 i
+ 50 2i + 2PbO 5Ba( 103h ---> Ba5(106h + 412 i + 902i

4,22
Perchlorates, CI04'
CI0 4 reactions
Solubility the perchlorates are generally soluble in water. Potassium perchlorate is one of the least soluble (7.5 g 1-1 and 218 g 1-1 at ODC and lOODC respectively), and sodium perchlorate is one of the most soluble (2.096 g 1-1 at 25 D Q, Note that operations with perchlorates can be DANGEROUS. To study these reactions use a 2M solution of perchloric acid or solid sodium perchlorate, NaCI0 4 .
207
4.23
cc H2 S0 4
1
white fumes. HCI0 4
1. Concentrated sulphuric acid no visible action with the solid salt in cold, but on strong heating, white fumes of perchloric acid monohydrate are produced:
NaCI0 4 + H 2 S04 + H 2 0
-7
HCI0 4 H 2 0i + HSOi
+ Na+
Note that hot, concentrated perchloric acid EXPLODES if particles of dust, coal or filter paper, etc. fall into it.
KCI
1
white KCI0 4
2. Potassium chloride solution white precipitate of KCI0 4, insoluble in alcohol (see Section 3.36, reaction 3). Ammonium chloride solution gives a similar reaction:
CIO:! CIOi
+ K+
-7
KCI0 41 NH 4Cl0 41 no precipitate. A similar result is obtained with
+ NHt
-7
3. Barium chloride solution silver nitrate solution.
4. Indigo test no decolourization even in the presence of acid (difference from hypochlorite and chlorate). 5. Sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, or iron ( II) salts (difference from chlorate).
Ti 2 ( S0 4h
no reduction
1
reduction to CI-
6. Titanium ( III) sulphate solution in the presence of sulphuric acid, perchlorates are reduced to chlorides: CIOi + STi 3+ + SH+ - 7 Cl- + STi 4+ + 4H 0
2
Chloride ions can be identified in the solution with the usual tests (see Section 4.14).
CdS0 4 + NH3
1
white ppt
7. Tetramminecadmium perchlorate test when a neutral solution of perchlorate is treated with a saturated solution of cadmium sulphate in concentrated ammonia solution, a white crystalline precipitate of tetramminecadmium perchlorate is obtained:
2CIO:! + [Cd(NH 3 )4]2+
-7
[Cd(NH 3 )4](CI04hl
Sulphides interfere by precipitating cadmium as cadmium sulphide, and should therefore be absent.
Heating
1
O2 gas
S. Action ofheat oxygen is evolved from a solid perchlorate, and in the residue chloride ions can be tested (see Section 4.14): NaCl0 4
-7
NaCl
+ 20 2 i
4.23
The borates are derived from the three boric acids: orthoboric acid, H 3 B0 3 , pyroboric acid, H 2 B4 0 7 , and metaboric acid, HB0 2 . Orthoboric acid is a white, crystalline solid, sparingly soluble in cold but more soluble in hot
208
Borate
4.23
water; very few salts of this acid are definitely known. On heating orthoboric acid at 100C, it is converted into metaboric acid; at 140C pyroboric acid is produced. Most of the salts are derived from the meta- and pyro-acids. Owing to the weakness of boric acid, the soluble salts are hydrolysed in solution and therefore give an alkaline reaction. BOjB40~-
+ 3H20
;::::! ;::::! ;::::!
H 3B0 3 + 30H4H 3B0 3 + 20HH 3B0 3 + OH-
+ 7H 20 BOi + 2H 20
Borate reactions
Solubility the borates of the alkali metals are readily soluble in water. The borates of the other metals are, in general, sparingly soluble in water, but fairly soluble in acids and in ammonium chloride solution. To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of sodium tetraborate (sodium pyroborate, borax) Na2B407 10H 20. 1. Concentrated sulphuric acid no visible action in the cold, although orthoboric acid, H 3B0 3, is set free. On heating, however, white fumes of boric acid are evolved. If concentrated hydrochloric acid is added to a concentrated solution of borax, boric acid is precipitated:
cc H 2 S0 4
1
white fumes. H3 B0 3
Na2B407
+ H 2S04 + 5H 20 Na2B407 + 2HCI + 5H 20
+ 2Na+ + SO~-> 4H 3B0 3l + 2Na+ + 2CI->
4H 3B0 3i
Methyl borate flame test green flames
2. Concentrated sulphuric acid and alcohol (flame test) if a little borax is mixed with I ml concentrated sulphuric acid and 5 ml methanol or ethanol (the former is to be preferred owing to its greater volatility) in a small porcelain basin, and the alcohol ignited, the latter will burn with a greenedged flame, due to the formation of methyl borate B(OCH3h or of ethyl borate B(OC2HSh. Both these esters are POISONOUS. Copper and barium salts may give a similar green flame. The following modification of the test, which depends upon the greater volatility of boron trifluoride, BF 3, can be used in the presence of copper and barium compounds; these do not form volatile compounds under the experimental conditions given below. Thoroughly mix the borate with powdered calcium fluoride and a little concentrated sulphuric acid, and bring a little of the paste thus formed on the loop of a platinum wire, or upon the end of a glass rod, very close to the edge of the base of a Bunsen flame without actually touching it; volatile boron trifluoride is formed and colours the flame green.
H 3B0 3 + 3CH 30H Na2B407
->
B(OCH3h i + 3H 20
+ 6CaF2 + 7H2S04 ->

->
4BF3 i
+ 6CaS04 + 2Na+ + SO~- + 7H 20
Turmeric paper test
1
red or black colour
3. Turmeric (curcumin) paper test dip a piece of turmeric paper into a solution of borate, acidified with 2M hydrochloric acid. Dry the paper at 100C in a drying oven; it turns reddish-brown. Moisten the paper with a few drops of 2M sodium hydroxide; it now turns bluish-black or
209
4.23
greenish-black. This is a selective and sensitive test for borate. Oxidizing agents (like chromates, chlorates, nitrites) as well as iodides bleach the reagent paper and therefore should be absent. Turmeric paper can be prepared by immersing dry strips of filter paper in a saturated alcoholic solution of curcumin, followed by drying in air.
AgN0 3
1
white AgB0 2
4. Silver nitrate solution white precipitate of silver metaborate, AgB0 2, from fairly concentrated borax solution, soluble in both dilute ammonia solution and in acetic acid. On boiling the precipitate with water, it is completely hydrolysed and a brown precipitate of silver oxide is obtained. A brown precipitate of silver oxide is produced directly in very dilute solutions.
B40~-
+ 4Ag+ + H 20 2AgB0 21 + 3H 20
~ 4AgB0 21 + 2H+
~
Ag 201
+ 2H 3 B0 3
The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.) The boric acid, formed in this reaction, is practically undissociated.
BaCI 2 white Ba(B0 2 h
5. Barium chloride solution white precipitate of barium metaborate, Ba(B02h, from fairly concentrated solutions; the precipitate is soluble in excess reagent, in dilute acids, and in solutions of ammonium salts. Solutions of calcium and strontium chloride behave similarly.
B40~-
+ 2Ba 2+ + H 20
~ 2Ba(B02hl
+ 2H+
Heating
1
swelling
6. Action of heat powdered borax when heated in an ignition tube, or upon a platinum wire, swells up considerably, and then subsides, leaving a colourless glass of the anhydrous salt. The glass possesses the property of dissolving many oxides on heating, forming metaborates, which often have characteristic colours. This is the basis of the borax bead test for various metals (see Section 2.2, 5). 7. 4-Nitrobenzene-azo-chromotropic acid reagent (Chromo trope 2B)
Chromotrope 2B
1
colour changes to greenish blue
02N-o-N=N~
OH
OH
H03S~S03H
Borates cause the blue-violet reagent to assume a greenish-blue colour. Evaporate a drop of the slightly alkaline solution to dryness in a semimicro crucible. Stir the warm residue with 2-3 drops of the reagent. A greenish-blue colouration is obtained on cooling. A blank test should be performed simultaneously. Sensitivity 0.1 Ilg B. Concentration limit I in 500000. Oxidizing agents and fluorides interfere, the latter because of the formation of borofluorides. Oxidizing agents, including nitrates and chlorates, are rendered innocuous by evaporating with solid hydrazine sulphate, whilst
210
Sulphate
4.24
fluorides may be removed as silicon tetrafluoride by evaporation with silicic acid and sulphuric acid. The experimental details are as follows. Treat 2 drops of the test solution in a small porcelain crucible either with a little solid hydrazine sulphate or with a few specks of precipitated silica and 1-2 drops concentrated sulphuric acid, and heat cautiously until fumes of sulphuric acid appear. Add 3-4 drops of the reagent whilst the residue is still warm and observe the colour on cooling. Sensitivity 0.251lg B in the presence of 12000 times that amount of KCI0 3 or KN0 3 ; 0.51lg B in the presence of 2500 times that amount of NaF.
Mannitol
1
increased acid strength
8. Mannitol-bromothymol blue test boric acid acts as a very weak monobasic acid (Ka = 5.8 x 10- 10 ), but on the addition of certain organic polyhydroxy compounds, such as mannitol (mannite), glycerol, dextrose or invert sugar, it is transformed into a relatively strong acid, probably of the type:
-C-OH
HO
+
-C-OH
l
I
HO
'"
/
B-OH
The pH of the solution therefore decreases. Hence if the solution is initially almost neutral to bromothymol blue (green colour), then upon the addition of mannitol the colour becomes yellow. (It is advisable when testing for minute quantities of borates to recrystallize the mannitol from a solution neutralized to bromo thymol blue, wash with pure acetone and dry at 100"C.) Only periodate interferes with the test; it can be decomposed by heating on charcoal. Render the test solution almost neutral to bromothymol blue by treating it with dilute acid or alkali (as necessary) until the indicator turns green. Place a few drops of the test solution in a micro test-tube, and add a few drops of the reagent solution. A yellow colouration is obtained in the presence of a borate. It is advisable to carry out a blank test with distilled water simultaneously. Sensitivity O.OOlllg B. Concentration limit 1 in 30000000.
Sulphates, SO~-
4.24
Solubility the sulphates of barium, strontium, and lead are practically insoluble in water,10 those of calcium and mercury(lI) are slightly soluble, and most of the remaining metallic sulphates are soluble. Some basic sulphates such as those of mercury, bismuth, and chromium are also insoluble in water, but these dissolve in dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid.
10
Of these three sulphates, that of strontium is the most soluble.

211
4.24
SO~- reactions
Sulphuric acid is a colourless, oily, and hygroscopic liquid, of specific gravity 1.838. The pure, commercial, concentrated acid is a constant boiling point mixture, boiling point 338C and containing c. 98% acid. It is miscible with water in all proportions with the evolution of considerable heat; on mixing the two, the acid should always be poured in a thin stream into the water (if the water is poured into the heavier acid, steam may be suddenly generated which will carry with it some of the acid and may therefore cause considerable damage). To study these reactions use a 0.1 M solution of sodium sulphate, Na2S04lOH20.
1. Barium chloride solution white precipitate of barium sulphate, BaS04 (see under barium, Section 3.31), insoluble in warm dilute hydrochloric acid and in dilute nitric acid, but moderately soluble in boiling, concentrated hydrochloric acid: SO~- + Ba 2+ --+ BaS041
BaCI 2
1
white BaS04
The test is usually carried out by adding the reagent to the solution acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid; carbonates, sulphites, and phosphates are not precipitated under these conditions. Concentrated hydrochloric acid or concentrated nitric acid should not be used, as a precipitate of barium chloride or of barium nitrate may form; these dissolve, however, upon dilution with water. The barium sulphate precipitate may be filtered from the hot solution and fused on charcoal with sodium carbonate, when sodium sulphide will be formed. The latter may be extracted with water, and the extract filtered into a freshly prepared solution of sodium nitroprusside, when a transient, purple colouration is obtained (see under sulphides, Section 4.6, reaction 6). An alternative method is to add a few drops of very dilute hydrochloric acid to the fused mass, and to cover the latter with lead acetate paper; a black stain of lead sulphide is produced on the paper. The so-called Hepar reaction, which is less sensitive than the above two tests, consists of placing the fusion product on silver foil and moistening with a little water; a brownish-black stain of silver sulphide results. BaS04 + 4C + Na2CO) Na2S 2S2--+ --+ --+
Na2S + BaCO) 2Na+
+ 4COf
+ S2-
+ 4Ag + O 2 + 2H 20
2Ag2S1
+ 40H-
A more efficient method for decomposing most sulphur compounds is to heat them with sodium or potassium, and then test the solution of the product for sulphide. The test is rendered sensitive by heating the substance with potassium in an ignition tube, dissolving the melt in water, and testing for sulphide by the nitroprusside or methylene blue reactions (see under sulphides, Section 4.6, reactions 6 and 7). Heating substances with potassium metal is a DANGEROUS operation and must be carried out with appropriate equipment under supervision. The above tests (depending upon the formation of a sulphide) are not exclusive to sulphates but are given by most sulphur compounds. If,
212
Sulphate
4.24
however, the barium sulphate precipitated in the presence of hydrochloric acid is employed, then the reaction may be used as a confirmatory test for sulphates.
Pb(CH 3 COOlz
1
white PbS0 4
2. Lead acetate solution white precipitate of lead sulphate, PbS0 4 , soluble in hot concentrated sulphuric acid, in solutions of ammonium acetate and of ammonium tartrate (see under lead, Section 3.4, reaction 5), and in sodium hydroxide solution. In the last case sodium tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) is formed, and on acidification with hydrochloric acid, the lead crystallizes out as the chloride. If any of the aqueous solutions of the precipitate are acidified with acetic acid and potassium chromate solution added, yellow lead chromate is precipitated (see under lead, Section 3.4, reaction 6).
SO~-
+ Pb 2+ -+ PbS04 1
AgN0 3
1
white A9 2 S0 4
3. Silver nitrate solution white, crystalline precipitate of silver sulphate, Ag 2 S04 (solubility 5.8gl- 1 at 18C), from concentrated solutions.
SO~-
+ 2Ag+ -+ Ag2S0 41
Sodium rhodizonate test
1
removal of colour
4. Sodium rhodizonate test barium salts yield a reddish-brown precipitate with sodium rhodizonate (see under barium, Section 3.31, reaction 7). Sulphates and sulphuric acid cause immediate decolourization because of the formation of insoluble barium sulphate. This test is specific for sulphates. Place a drop of barium chloride solution upon filter or drop-reaction paper, followed by a drop of a freshly prepared 0.5% aqueous solution of sodium rhodizonate. Treat the reddish-brown spot with a drop of the acid or alkaline test solution. The coloured spot disappears. Sensitivity 41lg SO~-. Concentration limit I in 10 000. 5. Potassium permanganate-barium sulphate test if barium sulphate is precipitated in a solution containing potassium permanganate, it is coloured pink (violet) by adsorption of some of the permanganate. The permanganate which has been adsorbed on the precipitate cannot be reduced by the common reducing agents (including hydrogen peroxide); the excess of potassium permanganate in the mother liquor reacts readily with reducing agents, thus rendering the pink barium sulphate clearly visible in the colourless solution. Place 3 drops test solution in a semimicro centrifuge tube, add 2 drops 0.02M potassium permanganate solution and I drop barium chloride solution. A pink precipitate is obtained. Add a few drops 3% hydrogen peroxide solution or 0.5M oxalic acid solution (in the latter case it will be necessary to warm on a water bath until decolourization is complete). Centrifuge. The coloured precipitate is clearly visible. Sensitivity 2.51lg SO~-. Concentration limit I in 20000. 6. Mercury(II) nitrate solution (POISON) mercury(II) sulphate:
SO~-
KMn04 on BaS04
1
cannot be reduced
Hg(N0 3 lz
yellow precipitate of basic
1
yellow ppt
+ 3Hg2+ + 2H 2 0
-+
HgS04 2HgOl
+ 4H+
213
4.25
This is a sensitive test, given even by suspensions of barium or lead sulphates. Peroxodisulphates, S20~Solubility the best known peroxodisulphates, those of sodium, potassium, ammonium, and barium are soluble in water, the potassium salt being the least soluble (17.7 g I-I at OC). To study these reactions use a freshly prepared O.IM solution of ammonium peroxodisulphate (NH4hS20g.
1. Water all peroxodisulphates are decomposed on boiling with water into the sulphate, free sulphuric acid, and oxygen. The oxygen contains appreciable quantities of ozone, which may be detected by its odour or by its property of turning starch-iodide paper blue, A similar result is obtained with dilute sulphuric or nitric acid, With dilute hydrochloric acid, chlorine is evolved (cf. reaction 4 below), By dissolving the solid peroxodisulphate in concentrated sulphuric acid at OC, peroxomonosulphuric acid (Caro's acid), H 2SO S, is formed in solution; this possesses strong oxidizing properties,
4.25
S2 O~- reactions
Boiling
O2 + some 0 3 gas
2S20~3S20~-
+ 2H 20 + 3H 20
---+ ---+ ---+
4S0~-
+ 4H+ + O 2i 6S0~- + 6H+ + 0 3 i

13" + O 2i + H 20
0 3 i + 31- + 2H+
AgN0 3
1
black Ag 2 0 2
2. Silver nitrate solution black precipitate of silver peroxide, Ag 20 2, from concentrated solutions, If only a little silver nitrate solution is added followed by dilute ammonia solution, the silver peroxide, or the silver ion, acts catalytically leading to the evolution of nitrogen and the liberation of considerable heat.
S20~-
+ 2Ag+ + 2H 20
------>
Ag 20 21 + 2S0~- + 4H+
3S20~- + SNH 3 ~ N 2i + 6S0~- + 6NHt

3. Barium chloride solution no immediate precipitate in the cold with a solution of a pure peroxodisulphate; on standing for some time or on boiling, a precipitate of barium sulphate is obtained, due to the decomposition of the peroxodisulphate.
KI-
!
slowly brown colour,
13"
4. Potassium iodide solution iodine is slowly liberated in the cold and rapidly on warming (test with starch solution) (distinction from perborate and percarbonate, which liberate iodine immediately). Traces of copper catalyse the reaction.
S20~-
+ 3r
---+
13"
+ 2S0~-
MnS04
1
brown MnO(OH)2
5. Manganese ( II) sulphate solution brown precipitate in neutral or preferably alkaline solution. The precipitate is manganese(lV) dioxide hydrate with a composition approximating MnO(OHh,
S20~-
+ Mn2+ + 40H-
---+
MnO(OHhl + 2S0~- + H 20
214
Silicate
4.26
In the presence of nitric or sulphuric acid and small amounts of silver nitrate, permanganate ions are formed on warming, and the solution turns to violet: 5S20~- + 2Mn2+ + 8H 20 ----> 2Mn04 + lOS0~- + 16H+ Silver ions act as catalysts (cf. Section 3.28, reaction 6).
6. Potassium permanganate solution unaffected (distinction from hydrogen peroxide). Peroxodisulphates are also unaffected by a solution of titanium(lV) sulphate.
4.26
Silicates, SiO~The silicic acids may be represented by the general formula xSi0 2 yH 20. Salts corresponding to orthosilicic acid H 4 Si04 (Si0 2 2H 2 0), metasilicic acid H 2Si0 3 (Si0 2 H 2 0), and disilicic acid H 2Si 20 s (2Si0 2 H 2 0) are definitely known. The meta silicates are sometimes designated simply as silicates. Solubility only the silicates of the alkali metals are soluble in water; they are hydrolysed in aqueous solution and therefore give an alkaline reaction.
SiO~-
+ 2H 20
;::::!
H 2Si0 3 + 20H-
SiO~- reactions
To study these reactions use a M solution of sodium silicate, Na2Si03' Commercial (30%) water-glass solutions should be diluted with a fivefold amount of water.
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid add dilute hydrochloric acid to the solution of the silicate; a gelatinous precipitate of meta silicic acid is obtained, particularly on boiling. The precipitate is insoluble in concentrated acids. The freshly precipitated substance is appreciably soluble in water and in dilute acids. It is converted by repeated evaporation with concentrated hydrochloric acid on the water bath into a white insoluble powder (silica, Si02) If a dilute solution (say, 1-10%) of water glass is quickly added to moderately concentrated hydrochloric acid, no precipitation of silicic acid takes place; it remains in colloidal solution (sol).
SiO~-
Hel
1
white H 2 Si0 3
+ 2H+
---->
H 2Si0 31
NH 4 CI
1
white H2 Si0 3
2. Ammonium chloride or ammonium carbonate solution gelatinous precipitate of silicic acid. This reaction is important in routine qualitative analysis since silicates, unless previously removed, will be precipitated by ammonium chloride solution in Group IlIA.
SiO~-
+ 2NHt
---->
H 2 Si0 31 + 2NH3
AgN0 3
1
yellow Ag,Si0 3
3. Silver nitrate solution yellow precipitate of silver silicate, soluble in dilute acids and in ammonia solution:
SiO~-
+ 2Ag+
---->
Ag 2Si0 31
215
4.26
BaCI 2
1
white BaSi0 3
4. Barium chloride solution dilute nitric acid.
white precipitate of barium silicate, soluble in
Calcium chloride solution gives a similar precipitate of calcium silicate.

Microcosmic salt no fusion
5. Microcosmic salt bead test most silicates, and also silica, when fused in a bead of microcosmic salt, Na(NH 4)HP04 4H 20, in a loop of platinum wire give this test. The microcosmic salt first fuses to a transparent bead consisting largely of sodium metaphosphate (see Section 2.2, 6); when a minute quantity of the solid silicate or even of the solution is introduced into the bead (best achieved by dipping the hot bead into the substance) and the whole again heated, the silica produced will not dissolve in the bead, but will move in the fused mass, and is visible as white opaque masses or 'skeletons' in both the fused and the cold bead.
CaSi0 3 + NaP0 3 --> CaNaP04 + Si0 2

Fusion with Na2C03
1
soluble Na2Si03
Insoluble silicates are best brought into solution by fusing the powdered solid, mixed with six times its weight of anhydrous sodium carbonate, in a platinum crucible or upon platinum foil; the alkali carbonate reacts with the silicate yielding sodium silicate. The cold mass is then evaporated to dryness on the water bath with excess 6M hydrochloric acid; the alkali silicate is thereby decomposed yielding first gelatinous silicic acid and, ultimately, white, amorphous silica, whilst the metallic oxides derived from the insoluble silicate are converted into chlorides. The residue is extracted with boiling 6M hydrochloric acid; this removes the metals as chlorides and insoluble silica remains behind. A simpler, but not quantitative, method is to extract the melt with boiling water: sufficient sodium silicate passes into solution to give any of the reactions referred to above. Si0 2 + Na2C03
SiO~--> -->
C0 21 + Na2Si03 Si0 21 + H 20
+ 2H+
SiF 4 test specific for SiO~-
6. Silicon tetrafluoride test this test depends upon the fact that when silica (isolated from a silicate by treatment with ammonium chloride solution or with hydrochloric acid, etc.) is heated with less than an equivalent amount of calcium fluoride and some concentrated sulphuric acid, silicon tetrafluoride is evolved. The latter is identified by its action upon a drop of water held in a loop of platinum wire, when a turbidity (due to silica) is produced.
Si0 2 + 2CaF 2 + 2H 2 S04 --> 2CaS04 + SiF4I + 2H 20; 3SiF41 + 2H 20 --> Si0 21 + 2[SiF 6 l2- + 4H+ An excess of calcium fluoride should be avoided since a mixture of H2F2 and SiF4 will be formed and interfere with the test.
216
Hexafluorosilicate
4.27
Mix the solid substance (or, preferably, silicic acid isolated by treatment of the silicate with ammonium chloride solution) with one-third of its weight of calcium fluoride in a small lead (or platinum) capsule, and add sufficient concentrated sulphuric acid to form a thin paste: mix the contents of the capsule with a stout platinum wire. Warm gently (FUME CUPBOARD) and hold close above the mixture a loop of platinum wire supporting a drop of water. The drop of water will become turbid, due to the hydrolysis of the silicon tetrafluoride absorbed.
(N H4lz Mo0 4 + SnCI 2
1
blue colour (molybdenum blue)
7. Ammonium molybdate-tin ( II) chloride test the silicate is separated by volatilization as silicon tetrafluoride and the latter collected in a little sodium hydroxide solution. The resulting silicate is treated with ammonium molybdate solution and the ammonium salt of silicomolybdic acid, H4[SiMoI2040], is reduced by tin (II) chloride solution to 'molybdenum blue'. Tin(II) chloride does not reduce ammonium molybdate solution. Phosphates and arsenates give the same reaction, but do not interfere under the conditions of the test: large amounts of borates should be absent, but may be removed by warming with methanol and sulphuric acid. Place a little of the solid silicate in a small lead or platinum crucible, add a little sodium fluoride and a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid. Cover the crucible with a small sheet of cellophane from which is suspended a drop of 2M sodium hydroxide solution (freshly prepared from the analytical grade solid). Warm gently for 3-5 minutes over a micro burner with the crucible about 8 cm from the flame. Transfer the drop of sodium hydroxide solution to a porcelain micro crucible, add 2 drops ammonium molybdate reagent and then 2M acetic acid until slightly acidic. Then add a few drops ofO.25M tin (II) chloride followed by sufficient sodium hydroxide solution to dissolve the tin(II) hydroxide. A blue colouration is obtained. Concentration limit 1 in 10000. The reaction may be applied to aqueous solutions of silicates, but phosphates and arsenates must be absent.
4.27
Hexafluorosilicates (silicofluorides). [SiF 6 ]2-
Solubility most metallic hexafluorosilicates (with the exception of the barium and potassium salts which are sparingly soluble) are soluble in water. A solution of the acid (hydrofluorosilicic acid H 2[SiF 6 ]) is one of the products of the action of water upon silicon tetrafluoride, and is also formed by dissolving silica in hydrofluoric acid.
Si02 + 3H 2 F 2 ~ H 2[SiF6 ] + 2H 2 0 To study these reactions use a freshly prepared 0.1 M solution of sodium hexafluorosilicate.
CC
H 2 S0 4
1
SiF 4 +H 2 F2 gases
1. Concentrated sulphuric acid silicon tetrafluoride and hydrogen fluoride are evolved on warming the reagent with the solid salt. If the reaction is carried out in a platinum or lead capsule or crucible, the escaping gas will
217
4.28
etch glass and will cause a drop of water to become turbid (see under silicates, Section 4.26, reaction 6). Na2[SiF6]
BaCI 2
+ H 2S04 -+ SiF4 i + H2F2i + 2Na+ + SO~-
1
white Ba[SiF6J
2. Barium chloride solution white, crystalline precipitate of barium hexafluorosilicate, Ba[SiF6J, sparingly soluble in water (0.25 g 1-1 at 25C) and insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. The precipitate is distinguished from barium sulphate by the evolution of hydrogen fluoride and silicon fluoride, which etch glass, on heating with concentrated sulphuric acid in a lead crucible.
[SiF 6f-
+ BaH -+ Ba[SiF6Jl
KCI
1
white K2 [SiF 6J
3. Potassium chloride solution white, gelatinous precipitate of potassium hexafluorosilicate, K 2[SiF6], from concentrated solutions. The precipitate is slightly soluble in water (1.77 gl-I at 25C), less soluble in excess of the reagent and in 50% alcohol.
[SiF6f-
+ 2K+
-+
K 2[SiF 611 decomposition occurs with the separation of gelati-
NH3
1
white H 2 Si0 3
4. Ammonia solution nous silicic acid.
Heating
1
decomposition
5. Action of heat decomposition occurs into silicon tetrafluoride, which renders a drop of water turbid, and the metallic fluoride, which can be tested for in the usual manner (see under fluorides, Section 4.17).
Na2 [SiF6]
-+
SiF4 i
+ 2Na+ + 2F-
4.28
Orthophosphates, PO~-
Three phosphoric acids are known: orthophosphoric, H 3P0 4 ; pyrophosphoric, H 4P 20 7 ; and metaphosphoric, HP0 3. Salts of the three acids exist: the orthophosphates are the most stable and the most important; II solutions of pyro- and meta phosphates convert into orthophosphates slowly at room temperature, and more rapidly on boiling. Metaphosphates, unless prepared by special methods, are usually polymeric, i.e. are derived from (HP0 3)n' Orthophosphoric acid is a tribasic acid giving rise to three series of salts: primary orthophosphates, e.g. NaH 2P0 4 ; secondary orthophosphates, e.g. Na2HP04; and tertiary orthophosphates, e.g. Na3P04' If a solution of orthophosphoric acid is neutralized with sodium hydroxide solution using methyl orange as indicator, the neutral point is reached when the acid is converted into the primary phosphate; with phenolphthalein as indicator, the solution will react neutral when the secondary phosphate is formed;
They are often referred to simply as phosphates.
II
218
Orthophosphate
4.28
pol- reactions
AgN0 3
with 3 moles of alkali, the tertiary or normal phosphate is formed. NaH 2P0 4 is neutral to methyl orange and acid to phenolphthalein, Na2HP04 is neutral to phenolphthalein and alkaline to methyl orange, Na3P04 is alkaline to most indicators because of its extended hydrolysis. Ordinary 'sodium phosphate' is disodium hydrogen phosphate, Na2HP04 . 12H20. Solubility the phosphates of the alkali metals, with the exception of lithium and of ammonium, are soluble in water; the primary phosphates of the alkaline earth metals are also soluble. All the phosphates of the other metals, and also the secondary and tertiary phosphates of the alkaline earth metals, are sparingly soluble or insoluble in water. To study these reactions use a O.033M solution of disodium hydrogen phosphate Na2HP04 . 12H 20.
1
yellow A9 3 P0 4
1. Silver nitrate solution yellow precipitate of normal silver orthophosphate, Ag 3P0 4 (distinction from meta- and pyrophosphate), soluble in dilute ammonia solution and in dilute nitric acid.
+ 3Ag+ ----; Ag3P041 + H+ Ag 3P0 41 + 2H+ ----; H 2 POi + 3Ag+

HPO~-
Ag 3P0 41 + 6NH3 ----; 3[Ag(NH3ht
+ pol-
BaCI 2
1
white BaHP0 4
2. Barium chloride solution white, amorphous precipitate of secondary barium phosphate, BaHP04, from neutral solutions, soluble in dilute mineral acids and in acetic acid. In the presence of dilute ammonia solution, the less soluble tertiary phosphate, Ba3 (P0 4h. is precipitated.
HPO~-
+ Ba2+ ----; BaHP041

Ba3(P04hl
2HPO~Mg(N0 3 h
+ 3Ba2+ + 2NH3 ----;
+ 2NHt
+ NH 4 N0 3
1
white MgNH 4 P0 4
3. Magnesium nitrate reagent or magnesia mixture the former is a solution containing Mg(N0 3h, NH 4N0 3, and a little aqueous NH 3, and the latter is a solution containing MgCI 2, NH 4CI, and a little aqueous NH 3. The magnesium nitrate reagent is generally preferred since it may be employed in any subsequent test with silver nitrate solution. With either reagent a white, crystalline precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate, Mg(NH 4)P0 4 . 6H 20, is produced: this precipitate is soluble in acetic acid and in mineral acids, but practically insoluble in 2.5% ammonia solution (see under magnesium, Section 3.35, reaction 5; also under arsenic(V), Section 3.13, reaction 3).
HPO~-
+ Mg2+ + NH3
----; MgNH 4P0 41
Arsenates give a similar precipitate Mg(NH 4)As0 4 6H 20 with either reagent. They are most simply distinguished from one another by treating the washed precipitate with silver nitrate solution containing a few drops of dilute acetic acid: the phosphate turns yellow (Ag 3P0 4) whilst the arsenate assumes a brownish-red colour (Ag 3As0 4).
219
4.28
(NH 4 hMo0 4
1
yellow ppt
4. Ammonium molybdate reagent the addition of a large excess (2-3 ml) of this reagent to a small volume (0.5 ml) of a phosphate solution produces a yellow, crystalline precipitate of ammonium phosphomolybdate (ammonium dodecamolybdatophosphate) (NH 4h[PMo 12 0 40 1 or (NH 4h[P(M0 3 0 IO )4], the M0 30 lO group replacing each oxygen atom in phosphate. The resulting solution should be strongly acid with nitric acid; the latter is usually present in the reagent and addition is therefore unnecessary. Precipitation is accelerated by warming to a temperature not exceeding 40C, and by the addition of ammonium nitrate solution.
HPO~-
+ 3NHt + 12MoO~- + 23H+-+

-+ (NH 4h[P(M0 30
IO )411
+ 12H20
The precipitate is soluble in ammonia solution and in solutions of caustic alkalis. Large quantities of hydrochloric acid interfere with the test and should preferably be removed by evaporation to a small volume with excess concentrated nitric acid. Reducing agents, such as sulphides, sulphites, hexacyanoferrate(I1)s, and tartrates, seriously affect the reaction, and should be destroyed before carrying out the test. Arsenates give a similar reaction on boiling (see under arsenic, Section 3.13, reaction 4). Both ammonium phosphomolybdate and ammonium arsenomolybdate dissolve on boiling with ammonium acetate solution, but only the latter yields a white precipitate on cooling. Note: Commercial ammonium molybdate has the formula (NH4)6M07024 4H 20 (a heptamolybdate) and not (NH 4hMo0 4; but the ion MoO~- is employed in the equations for purposes of simplicity. This ion may exist under the experimental conditions of the reaction.
FeCI 3
1
yellow FeP0 4
5. Iron(III) chloride solution yellowish-white precipitate of iron(III) phosphate, FeP04, soluble in dilute mineral acids, but insoluble in dilute acetic acid.
HPO~-
+ Fe3+ -+ FeP041 + H+
Precipitation is incomplete owing to the free mineral acid produced. If the hydrogen ions, arising from the complete ionization of the mineral acid, are removed by the addition of the salt of a weak acid, such as ammonium or sodium acetate, precipitation is almost complete. This is the basis of one of the methods for the removal of phosphates, which interfere with the precipitation of Group IlIA metals, in qualitative analysis.
ZrO(N0 3 h
1
white ZrO(H P0 4 )
6. Zirconium nitrate reagent when the reagent is added to a solution of a phosphate containing hydrochloric acid not exceeding M in concentration, a white gelatinous precipitate of zirconyl phosphate ZrO(HP0 4) is obtained. This reaction forms the basis of a simple method for the removal of phosphate prior to the precipitation of Group IlIA.
HPO~-
+ Zr0 2+ -+ ZrO(HP04)l
In fact the precipitate is of variable composItion, depending on the concentrations of zirconium, phosphate, and hydrogen ions. Species like ZrO(H 2P0 4h and ZrP0 4 may also be formed.
220
Phosphite
4,30
Co(N0 3 )z on charcoal
1
blue mass
7. Cobalt nitrate test phosphates when heated on charcoal and then moistened with a few drops of cobalt nitrate solution give a blue mass of the phosphate, NaCoP0 4, This must not be confused with the blue mass produced with aluminium compounds (see Section 3.23). Na(NH 4)HP04 --- NaP0 3 + NH 3j NaP0 3 + CoO --- NaCoP0 4
+ H 20;
(NH 4 )zMo0 4
+
quinine
1
yellow ppt
8. Ammonium molybdate-quinine sulphate reagent phosphates give a yellow precipitate with this reagent: the exact composition appears to be unknown. Reducing agents (sulphides, thiosulphates, etc,) interfere since they yield 'molybdenum blue'; hexacyanoferrate(II) ions give a red colouration. Arsenates (warming is usually required), arsenites, chromates, oxalates, tartrates, and silicates give a similar reaction with some variation in the colour of the precipitate, All should be removed before applying the test. Place I ml test solution in a semimicro test-tube and add I ml reagent. A yellow precipitate is produced within a few minutes; gentle warming (water bath) is sometimes necessary, Concentration limit 1 in 20000.
Pyrophosphates, P20~-, and metaphosphates, P03'
4,29
Sodium pyrophosphate is prepared by heating disodium hydrogen phosphate: 2Na2HP04 --- Na4P207
+ H 20j
This is the normal salt. Acid salts, e.g, Na2H2P207, are known. Sodium metaphosphate (polymeric) may be prepared by heating microcosmic salt or sodium dihydrogen phosphate: Na(NH 4)HP0 4 --- NaP0 3 + NH3 j NaH 2P0 4 --- NaP0 3 + H 20j
p2 oj-, POJ" reactions Cf. Table 4.1
+ H 20j
A number of metaphosphates are known and these may be regarded as derived from the polymeric acid (HP0 3 )n, i.e. polymetaphosphoric acid. Calgon, used for water softening, is probably (NaP0 3)6 or Na2[Na4(P03)6]' Pyro- and metaphosphates give the ammonium molybdate test on warming for some time; this is doubtless due to their initial conversion in solution into orthophosphates, The chief differences between ortho-, pyro- and metaphosphates are incorporated in Table 4,1, To study these reactions use freshly prepared solutions of sodium pyrophosphate and sodium metaphosphate.
Phosphites, H PO~-
4.30
H P05- reactions
Solubility the phosphites of the alkali metals are soluble in water; all other metallic phosphites are insoluble in water. To study these reactions use a freshly prepared O.lM solution of sodium phosphite Na2HP03 . 5H 20,
221
Phosphite
Reactions of the anions4.30#
Table 4.1
Reactions of ortho-, pyro- and metaphosphates

Reagent Orthophosphate Pyrophosphate Metaphosphate
1. Silver nitrate solution.
Yellow ppt., soluble in dilute HN0 3 and in dilute NH3 solution.'
White ppt., soluble in dilute HN0 3 and in dilute NH J solution:' sparingly soluble in dilute acetic acid. No coagulation. Very pale blue ppt. White ppt., soluble in excess of reagent, but reprecipitated on boiling. White ppt.
2. Albumin and
No coagulation. Pale blue ppt. White ppt., insoluble in excess of the reagent. No ppt.
White ppt. (separates slowly), soluble in dilute HN0 3, in dilute NH3 solution" and in dilute acetic acid. Coagulation. No ppt. No ppt., even on boiling. No ppt.
3.
4.
5.
6.
dilute acetic acid. Copper sulphate solution. Magnesia mixture or Mg(N0 3Jz reagent. Cadmium acetate solution and dilute acetic acid. Zinc sulphate solution.
White ppt., soluble in dilute acetic acid.
White ppt., insoluble in dilute acetic acid; soluble in dilute NH3 solution: yielding a white ppt. on boiling.
White ppt. on warming; soluble in dilute acetic acid.
"The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion!
AgN0 3
1
white Ag 2 HP0 3
1. Silver nitrate solution white precipitate of silver phosphite, Ag2 HP0 3 , which soon passes in the cold into black metallic silver. Warming is necessary with dilute solutions. Upon adding the reagent to a warm solution of a phosphite, a black precipitate of metallic silver is obtained immediately.
+ 2Ag+ ----> Ag 2 HP0 3 ! Ag 2 HP0 3 + H 2 0 ----> 2Ag! + H 3P0 4 HPO~- + 2Ag+ + H 2 0 ----> 2Ag! + H 3 P0 4
BaCI 2
HPO~-
1
white BaHP0 3 HgCI2
2. Barium chloride solution white precipitate of barium phosphite, BaHP0 3 , soluble in dilute acids.
HPO~-
+ Ba2+
---->
BaHP0 3!
1
white Hg 2 C1 2
3. Mercury ( II) chloride solution (POISON) white precipitate of calomel in the cold; on warming with excess of the phosphite solution, grey, metallic mercury is produced.
HPO~-
+ 2HgCl 2 + H 20 + HPO~- + H 20
----> ---->
Hg 2 Ci 2 !
+ H 3P04 + 2Cl-
Hg 2 C1 2 !
2Hg! + H 3P0 4 + 2Cl-
Note that HgCl 2 and H 3 P0 4 are virtually undissociated.

222
Hypophosphite
4.31
4. Potassium permanganate solution no action with a cold solution acidified with acetic acid, but decolourized on warming. 5. Concentrated sulphuric acid no reaction in the cold with the solid salt, but on warming sulphur dioxide is evolved.
Na2HP03
+ H 2S04 H 3P0 3 + H 2S04
----t
----t
+ 2Na+ + HPO~- + H 20 S02 i + H 3P0 4 + H 20

S02 i
6. Zinc and dilute sulphuric acid phosphites are reduced by the nascent hydrogen to phosphine, PH 3, which may be identified as described in the Gutzeit test under arsenic (Section 3.14); the silver nitrate paper is stained first yellow and then black.
HPO~-
+ 3Zn + SH+
----t
PH 3i
+ 3Zn2+ + 3H 20
+ 6Ag+ + 3N03 Ag 3P3AgN0 31 + 3H 20

PH 3i
CUS04
----t
Ag 3P3AgN0 31(yellow)
----t
+ 3H+ 6Ag1(black) + H 3P0 3 + 3H+ + 3N0 3
1
blue CuHP0 3
7. Copper sulphate solution light-blue precipitate of copper phosphite, CuHP0 3; the precipitate merely dissolves when it is boiled with acetic acid (cf. hypophosphites, Section 4.31).
HPO~-
+ Cu 2+
----t
CuHP0 31 white precipitate, insoluble in acetic acid.
Pb(CH 3 COOh
S. Lead acetate solution
1
white PbHP0 3 Heating
1
PH 3 gas
9. Action of heat inflammable phosphine is evolved, and a mixture of phosphates is produced.
4.31
Hypophosphites, H 2 P02"
Solubility all hypophosphites are soluble in water. To study these reactions use a freshly prepared O.lM solution of sodium hypophosphite NaH 2P0 2 . H 20.
AgN0 3
1
white AgH 2 P0 2
1. Silver nitrate solution white preclpltate of silver hypophosphite, AgH 2P0 2, which is slowly reduced to silver at room temperature, but more rapidly on warming. Hydrogen is simultaneously evolved.
H 2P0 2 + Ag+ 2AgH 2P0 21 + 4H 20
----t
AgH 2P0 21 2Agl
----t
+ 2H 3P0 4 + 3H 2i
223
no precipitate.
4.33
HgCI2
1
white Hg 2 CI 2
3. Mercury ( II) chloride solution (POISON) white precipitate of calomel in the cold, converted by warming into grey, metallic mercury. H 2PO Z + 4HgCl2 + 2H 20 H 2PO Z + 2Hg2Cl21 + 2H 20
---> --->
2Hg2Cl 21 + H 3 P0 4 + 3H+ 4Hgl
+ 4Cl-
+ H 3 P0 4 + 3H+ + 4Cl-
CUS04
+ heat
1
red CuH
4. Copper sulphate solution no precipitate in the cold, but on warming red copper(I) hydride is precipitated.
3H 2PO Z + 4Cu2+ + 6H 20
--->
4CuHl + 3H 3 P0 4 + 5H+
When heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid, the precipitate decomposes to white copper(I) chloride precipitate and hydrogen gas. CuHl + HCl
KMn04 reduced to Mn 2+
--->
CuCll + H2 i reduced immediately in the cold to a
5. Potassium permanganate solution colourless solution.
5H 2 PO Z + 4Mn04"
+ 17H+ ---> 5H 3 P04 + 4Mn2+ + 6H 20
6. Concentrated sulphuric acid reduced to sulphur dioxide by the solid salt on warming.
NaH 2P0 2 + 4H 2S04
--->
2S0 2i
+ H 3 P04 + 3H+ + Na + + 2S0~- + 2H 20

hydrogen gas is evolved and
Some elemental sulphur may also be formed during the process.

cc NaOH
1
H2 gas
7. Concentrated sodium hydroxide solution phosphate ions formed on warming.
H 2PO Z + 20H-
--->
2H2 i
+ PO~-
8. Zinc and dilute sulphuric acid inflammable phosphine is evolved (see under phosphites, Section 4.30, reaction 6).
(NH 4 hMo0 4
1
molybdenum blue Heating
9. Ammonium molybdate solution reduced to 'molybdenum blue' in solution acidified with dilute sulphuric acid (difference from phosphite).
10. Action of heat
phosphine is evolved, and a pyrophosphate is produced.
4.32
Arsenites, AsO~-, and arsenates, AsO~-
See under arsenic, Sections 3.12 and 3.13.

Chromates, CrO~-, and dichromates, Cr20~-
4.33
The metallic chromates are usually coloured solids, yielding yellow solutions when soluble in water. In the presence of dilute mineral acids, i.e. of
224
Chromate and dichromate
4.33
hydrogen ions, chromates are converted into dichromates; the latter yield orange-red aqueous solutions. The change is reversed by alkalis, i.e. by hydroxyl ions.
2CrO~-
+ 2H+ ;:::::! Cr20~- + H 20 + 20H;:::::! 2CrO~-
or
Cr20~2CrO~-
+ H 20
;:::::! Cr20~-
The reactions may also be expressed as:
+ 2H+ ;:::::! 2HCr04
+ H 20
Croi-. Cr2 o~ reactions BaCI 2
Solubility the chromates of the alkali metals and of calcium and magnesium are soluble in water; strontium chromate is sparingly soluble. Most other metallic chromates are insoluble in water. Sodium, potassium, and ammonium dichromates are soluble in water. To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of potassium chromate, K2Cr04, or potassium dichromate, K2Cr207' 1. Barium chloride solution pale-yellow precipitate of barium chromate, BaCr04, insoluble in water and in acetic acid, but soluble in dilute mineral acids.
CrO~-
1
yellow BaCr04
+ Ba2+ ---> BaCr04!
Dichromate ions produce the same precipitate, but as a strong acid is formed, precipitation is only partial: Cr20~- + 2Ba2+ + H 20;:::::! 2BaCr04! + 2H+ If sodium hydroxide or sodium acetate IS added, precipitation becomes quantitative.
AgN0 3
1
red A92Cr04
2. Silver nitrate solution brownish-red precIpItate of silver chromate, Ag2Cr04, with a solution of a chromate. The precipitate is soluble in dilute nitric acid and in ammonia solution, but is insoluble in acetic acid. Hydrochloric acid converts the precipitate into silver chloride (white).
CrO~-
+ 2Ag+ ---> Ag2Cr04! + 2H+ ---> 4Ag+ + Cr20~- + H 20 + 2Cl--->
2Ag2Cr04! Ag2Cr04!
+ 4NH3 ---> 2[Ag(NH3hJ+ + CrO~

2AgCl!
Ag2Cr04!
+ CrO~-
The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.) A reddish-brown precipitate of silver dichromate, Ag2Cr207, is formed with a concentrated solution of a dichromate; on boiling with water, this is converted into the less soluble silver chromate.
Cr20~-
+ 2Ag+ + H 20
---> --->
Ag2Cr207! Ag2Cr04!
Ag2Cr207!
+ CrO~- + 2H+
225
4.33
Pb(CH 3 COO)2
1
yellow PbCr04
3. Lead acetate solution yellow precIpitate of lead chromate, PbCr04, insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in dilute nitric acid. CrO~- + Pb 2+ ---+ PbCr041
2PbCr041 + 2H+ ;::::t 2Pb 2+ + Cr20~-
+ H 20
The precipitate is soluble in sodium hydroxide solution; acetic acid reprecipitates lead chromate from such solutions. The solubility in sodium hydroxide solution is due to the formation of the soluble complex tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) ion, which suppresses the Pb 2+ ion concentration to such an extent that the solubility product of lead chromate is no longer exceeded, and consequently the latter dissolves. PbCr041 + 40H- ;::::t [Pb(OH)4]2H2 0 2
+ CrO~-
1
blue Cr05
1
decomposes to green Cr 3+
4. Hydrogen peroxide if an acid solution of a chromate is treated with hydrogen peroxide, a deep-blue solution of chromium pent oxide is obtained (cf. chromium, Section 3.24, reaction 6b). The blue solution is very unstable and soon decomposes, yielding oxygen and a green solution of a chromium(III) salt. The blue compound is soluble in amyl alcohol and also in amyl acetate and in diethyl ether, and can be extracted from aqueous solutions by these solvents to yield somewhat more stable solutions. Amyl alcohol is recommended. Diethyl ether is not recommended for general use owing to its highly inflammable character and also because it frequently contains peroxides after storage for comparatively short periods, and these may interfere. Peroxides may be removed from diethyl ether by shaking with a concentrated solution of iron(II) salt or with sodium sulphite. The blue colouration is attributed to the presence of chromium pentoxide, CrOs (cf. Section 3.24, reaction 6b).
CrO~-
+ 2H+ + 2H 20 2 ---+ CrOs + 3H 20
The enhanced stability in solutions of amyl alcohol, ether etc. is due to the formation of complexes with these oxygen-containing compounds. Carefully acidify a cold solution of a chromate with dilute sulphuric acid or dilute nitric acid, add 1-2 ml amyl alcohol, then I ml of 3% hydrogen peroxide solution dropwise and with shaking after each addition: the organic layer is coloured blue. The chromium pentoxide is more stable below ODC than at laboratory temperature.
H2 S 1 white S + green
colour. Cr 3+
5. Hydrogen sulphide an acid solution of a chromate is reduced by this reagent to a green solution of chromium(III) ions, accompanied by the separation of sulphur. 12
2CrO~-
+ 3H 2S + IOH+
---+
2Cr3+
+ 3S1 + 8H 20
12 In qualitative analysis the production of sulphur in the reduction of chromates may be troublesome, because the precipitate is almost colloidal and is difficult to filter. On adding a few strips of filter paper to the mixture and boiling, the precipitate coagulates and can be filtered easily. Alternatively, before the use of hydrogen sulphide, chromates can be reduced by heating the solid substance with concentrated hydrochloric acid, evaporating most of the acid and then diluting with water (see reaction 7).
226
Chromate and dichromate
4.33
Reducing agents
1
green solution. Cr 3+
6. Reduction of chromates and dichromates (a) Sulphur dioxide, in the presence of dilute mineral acid, reduces chromates or dichromates:
2CrO~~
+ 3S02 + 4H+ --+ 2Cr3+ + 3S0~~ + 2H2 0
The solution becomes green owing to the formation of chromium(I1I) ions. (b) Potassium iodide, in the presence of dilute mineral acid, can be used as a reductant. The colour of the solution becomes brown or bluish, according to the amounts of iodine and chromium(III) ions, which are formed in the reaction:
2CrO~~
+ 9r + 16H+ --+ 2Cr 3+ + 313 + SH 20
(c) Iron(I1) sulphate, in the presence of mineral acid, reduces chromates or dichromates smoothly: CrO~~ + 3Fe 2+ + SH+ --+ Cr 3+ + 3Fe 3+ + 4H 20 (d) Ethanol, again in the presence of mineral acid, reduces chromates or dichromates slowly in cold, but rapidly if the solution is heated:
2CrO~~
+ 3C2H 50H + 1OH+ --+ 2Cr3+ + 3CH 3CHOT + SH 20
The smell of acetaldehyde (CH 3 CHO) is easily observed if the mixture is heated.
HCI on solid chromates CI 2 gas + Cr 3+ ions
7. Reduction of solid chromates or dichromates with concentrated hydrochloric acid On heating a solid chromate or dichromate with concentrated hydrochloric acid, chlorine is evolved, and a solution containing chromium(III) ions is produced:
2K2Cr04 + 16HCl K2Cr207
--+
2Cr3+
+ 3Cl 2 T + 4K+ + 1OCl~ + SH 20
+ 14HCI --+ 2Cr 3+ + 3Cl2T + 2K+ + SCl~ + 7H 20
If the solution is evaporated almost to dryness (to remove chlorine), after dilution chromium(I1I) ions can be tested for in the solution (cf. Section 3.24).
Chromyl chloride test
S. Concentrated sulphuric acid and a chloride under chlorides, Section 4.14, reaction 5.
see chromyl chloride test
Diphenylcarbazide
1
red colour
9. 1,5-Diphenylcarbazide reagent (1% in ethanol) The solution is acidified with dilute sulphuric acid or with dilute acetic acid, and 1-2 ml of the reagent added. A deep-red colouration is produced. With small quantities of chromates, the solution is coloured violet. Full details of the use of the reagent as a spot test are given under chromium, Section 3.24, reaction 6c.
Chromotropic acid test
10. Chromo tropic acid test a red colouration, best seen by transmitted light, is given by chromates. For details, see under chromium, Section 3.24, reaction 6d.
227
4.34
4.34
Permanganates, Mn04
MnO:;- reactions
Solubility all permanganates are soluble in water, forming purple (reddishviolet) solutions. To study these reactions use a O.02M solution of potassium permanganate, KMn04'
1. Hydrogen peroxide the addition of this reagent to a solution of potassium permanganate, acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, results in decolourization and the evolution of pure but moist oxygen.
H 20 2 + H+
1
reduction to Mn2+
2Mn04
Reducing agents
+ 5H 20 2 + 6H+ ~ 5021 + 2Mn2+ + 8H 20
+ H+
1
reduction to colourless Mn2+
2. Reduction of permanganates in acid solutions the reduction proceeds to the formation of colourless manganese(I1) ions. The following reducing agents may be used: (a) Hydrogen sulphide: in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid the solution decolourizes and sulphur is precipitatedY
2Mn04
+ 5H 2S + 6H+
~ 5S1
+ 2Mn2+ + 8H 20
(b) Sulphur dioxide, in the presence of sulphuric acid, reduces permanganate instantaneously:
2MnOi
+ 5S02 + 2H 20
~ 5S0~-
+ 2Mn2+ + 4H+
Some dithionate (S20~-) may also be formed in this reaction, the quantity being dependent upon the experimental conditions:
2MnOi
+ 6S0 2 + 2H 20
~ 2Mn2+
+ S20~- + 4S0~- + 4H+
(c) Iron(I1) sulphate, in the presence of sulphuric acid, reduces permanganate to manganese(I1). The solution becomes yellow because of the formation of iron(III) ions. MnOi + 5Fe2+ + 8H+ ~ 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H 20 The yellow colour disappears if phosphoric acid or potassium fluoride is added; they form colourless complexes with iron(I1I). (d) Potassium iodide, in the presence of sulphuric acid, reduces permanganate with the formation of iodine:
2MnOi
+ 151- + 16H+ ~ 513 + 2Mn2+ + 8H 20
(e) Sodium nitrite, in the presence of sulphuric acid, reduces permanganate with formation of nitrate ions:
2MnOi
+ 5NOi + 6H+
~ 2Mn2+
+ 5N0 3 + 3H 20
13 To avoid the production of sulphur by the reduction of potassium permanganate by hydrogen sulphide in systematic qualitative analysis, the solution may be reduced with formaldehyde solution, or the solid substance may be boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid.
2Mn04
228
+ 5HCHO + 6H+
->
2Mn2+
+ 5HCOOH + 3H 20
Acetate
4.35
Some side reactions also take place, and the mixture has the smell of nitrogen oxide gas. (f) Oxalic acid, in the presence of sulphuric acid, produces carbon dioxide gas: 2MnO';
+ 5(COO)~- + 16H+ ---->
lOC0 2i
+ 2Mn2+ + 8H 20
This reaction is slow at room temperature, but is rapid at 60C. Manganese(II) ions catalyse the reaction; thus, the reaction is autocatalytic; once manganese(II) ions are formed, it becomes faster and faster. In alkaline solution the permanganate is decolourized, but (hydrated) manganese dioxide is precipitated. In the presence of sodium hydroxide solution, potassium iodide is converted into potassium iodate, and sodium sulphite solution into sodium sulphate on boiling.
+ 1- + 3H 20 2MnO'; + 3S0~- + 3H 20
2MnO';
cc HCI
+ 103 + 20H----> 2MnO(OHhl + 3S0~- + 20H----> 2MnO(OHhl
1
CI 2 gas
+ Mn2+
3. Concentrated hydrochloric acid all permanganates on boiling with concentrated hydrochloric acid evolve chlorine: 2MnO'; + 16HCI----> 5Cl 2i + 2Mn 2+ + 6Cl- + 8H 20 4. Sodium hydroxide solution upon warming a concentrated solution of potassium permanganate with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, a green solution of potassium manganate is produced and oxygen is evolved. When the manganate solution is poured into a large volume of water or is acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, the purple colour of the potassium permanganate is restored, and manganese dioxide is precipitated.
cc NaOH
1
reduction to green MnO~-
4MnO';
3MnO~-
+ 40H-
+ 3H 2 0
+ O 2i + 2H 2 0 ----> 2M nO'; + MnO(OHhl + 40H-
----> 4MnO~-
The latter reaction is in fact a disproportionation, when manganese(VI) is partly oxidized to manganese(VII) and partly reduced to manganese(lV). A manganate is produced when a manganese compound is fused with potassium nitrate and sodium carbonate (see Section 3.28, dry tests).
Heating solid KMn04
1
O 2 gas
5. Action of heat when potassium permanganate is heated in a test-tube, pure oxygen is evolved, and a black residue of potassium manganate K2Mn04 and manganese dioxide remains behind. Upon extracting with a little water and filtering, a green solution of potassium manganate is obtained.
2KMn04 ----> K2Mn04
+ Mn02 + O 2i
4.35
Acetates, CH 3 COO-
Solubility all normal acetates, with the exception of silver and mercury(l) acetates which are sparingly soluble, are readily soluble in water. Some
229
4.35
CH 3COO- reactions
basic acetates, e.g. those of iron, aluminium, and chromium, are insoluble in water. The free acid, CH 3 COOH, is a colourless liquid with a pungent odour (boiling point 117C, melting point 17C) and is miscible with water in all proportions; it has a corrosive action on the skin. To study these reactions use a 2M solution of sodium acetate CH 3 COONa3H 2 0.
1. Dilute sulphuric acid acetic acid, easily recognized by its vinegar-like odour, is evolved on warming.
H 2 S0 4
1
smell of vinegar
2. Concentrated sulphuric acid acetic acid is evolved on heating, together with sulphur dioxide, the latter tending to mask the penetrating odour of the concentrated acetic acid vapour. The test with dilute sulphuric acid, in which the acetic acid vapour is diluted with steam, is therefore to be preferred as a test for an acetate.
C2 H 5 0H + cc H 2 S0 4
1
ethyl acetate, pleasant odour
3. Ethanol and concentrated sulphuric acid 1 g of the solid acetate is treated with 1 ml concentrated sUlphuric acid and 2-3 m196% ethanol in a test-tube, and the whole gently warmed for several minutes; ethyl acetate CH 3COO C2HS is formed, which is recognized by its pleasant, fruity odour. On cooling and dilution with water on a clock glass, the fragrant odour will be more readily detected.
+ HS04 CH 3COOH + C 2 H sOH ----> CH 3COO'C 2 H si + H 20

---->
CH 3 COONa + H 2 S04
CH 3 COOH + Na+
(In the second reaction the sulphuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent.) It is preferable to use amyl alcohol because the odour of the resulting amyl acetate is more readily distinguished from the alcohol itself than is the case with ethanol. It is as well to run a parallel test with a known acetate and to compare the odours of the two products.
AgN0 3
1
white AgCH3COO
4. Silver nitrate solution a white, crystalline precipitate of silver acetate is produced in concentrated solutions in the cold. The precipitate is more soluble in boiling water (l0.4gl- 1 at 30C and 25.2gl- 1 at 80C) and readily soluble in dilute ammonia solution.
The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.) When heating the mixture, the precipitate redissolves without the formation of black precipitate of silver metal (distinction from formate ions).
5. Barium chloride, calcium chloride or mercury ( II) chloride solution no change in the presence of acetates (distinction from oxalates and formates).
230
Acetate
4.35
FeCI 3
1
red ppt
6. Iron(III) chloride solution deep-red colouration, owing to the formation of a complex ion, [Fe3(OHh(CH3COO)6l+. On boiling the red solution it decomposes and a brownish-red precipitate of basic iron(III) acetate is formed: 6CH 3COO- + 3Fe3+ + 2H 20 ---> [Fe3(OHh(CH3COO)6l+ + 2H+
[Fe3(OH)z(CH3COO)6l+
+ 4H 2 0
--->
--->
3Fe(OHhCH 3 COOl
+ 3CH 3 COOH + H+
Heating with As 2 0 3
1
cacodyl oxide
7. Cacodyl oxide reaction if a dry acetate, preferably that of sodium or potassium, is heated in an ignition tube or test-tube with a small quantity of solid arsenic(III) oxide, an extremely nauseating odour of cacodyl oxide is produced. All cacodyl compounds are extremely POISONOUS; the experiment must therefore be performed on a very small scale, and preferably in the fume cupboard. Mix not more than 0.2 g sodium acetate with 0.2 g arsenic(III) oxide in an ignition tube and warm; observe the extremely unpleasant odour that is produced.
CH 3 4CH 3COONa + As 2 0 3 ->
'"
CH 3 As-O-As /
CH 3/
La(N0 3 l3
'"
2Na2C03 CH 3
+ 2C02i
+ 12
1
blue colour on ppt
8. Lanthanum nitrate test treat 0.5 ml of the acetate solution with 0.5 ml 0.1 M lanthanum nitrate solution, add 0.5 ml 0.05M iodine solution and a few drops of dilute ammonia solution, and heat slowly to the boiling point. A blue colour is produced; this is probably due to the adsorption of the iodine by the basic lanthanum acetate. This reaction provides an extremely sensitive test for an acetate. Sulphates and phosphates interfere, but can be removed by precipitation with barium nitrate solution before applying the test. Propionates give a similar reaction. The spot-test technique is as follows. Mix a drop of the test solution on a spot plate with a drop of O.lM lanthanum nitrate solution and a drop of 0.005M iodine. Add a drop of M ammonia solution. Within a few minutes a blue to blue-brown ring will develop round the drop of ammonia solution. Sensitivity 50 Jlg CH 3 COO-. Concentration limit I in 2000. 9. Formation of indigo test the test depends upon the conversion of acetone, formed by the dry distillation of acetates (see reaction 10), into indigo. No other fatty acids give this test, but the sensitivity is reduced in their presence. Mix the solid test sample with calcium carbonate or, alternatively, evaporate a drop of the test solution to dryness with calcium carbonate; both operations may be carried out in the hard glass tube of Fig. 2.55. Cover the open end of the tube with a strip of quantitative filter paper moistened with a freshly prepared solution of 2-nitrobenzaldehyde in 2M sodium hydroxide, and hold the paper in position with a small glass cap or a small watch glass. Insert the tube into a hole in Teflon sheet and heat the tube gently. Acetone is evolved which colours the paper blue or bluishgreen. For minute amounts of acetates, it is best to remove the filter
231
Indigo test
4.36
paper after the reaction and treat it with a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid; the original yellow colour of the paper is thus bleached and the blue colour of the indigo is more readily apparent. Sensitivity 60llg CH 3COO-.
Heating
1
acetone vapours
10. Action of heat all acetates decompose upon strong ignition, yielding the highly inflammable acetone, CH 3COCH 3, and a residue which consists of the carbonates for the alkali acetates, of the oxides for the acetates of the alkaline earth and heavy metals, and of the metal for the acetates of silver and the noble metals. Carry out the experiment in an ignition tube with sodium acetate and lead acetate.
2CH 3COONa (CH 3COOh Pb

4.36
CH 3 'CO'CH 3T + Na2C03 CH 3COCH 3T + PbO + CO2
Formates, HCOOSolubility with the exception of the lead, silver, and mercury(l) salts which are sparingly soluble, most formates are soluble in water. The free acid, HCOOH, is a pungent smelling liquid (boiling point 100SC, melting point g0C), miscible with water in all proportions, and producing blisters when allowed to come into contact with the skin. To study these reactions use a M solution of sodium formate, HCOONa. 1. Dilute sulphuric acid formic acid is liberated, the pungent odour of which can be detected on warming the mixture.
HCOO- reactions
H 2 S0 4
1
HCOOH vapour
HCOO-
+ H+
HCOOHT
2. Concentrated sulphuric acid carbon monoxide (HIGHLY POISONOUS) is evolved on warming; the gas should be ignited and the characteristic blue flame observed. The test can be successfully carried out with solid sodium formate.
HCOONa + H 2 S04 ~ COT + Na+

C2 H 5 0H
+ HS04 + H 20
+ cc
1
H 2 S0 4
ethyl formate. pleasant odour
3. Ethanol and concentrated sulphuric acid a pleasant odour, owing to ethyl formate, is apparent on warming (for details, see under acetates, Section 4.35, reaction 3).
+ Na+ + HS04 HCOOH + C 2H sOH ~ HCOO' C2HS T + H 20

AgN0 3
HCOONa + H 2S04 ~ HCOOH
1
white HCOOAg
1
decomposes to Ag
4. Silver nitrate solution white precipitate of silver formate in neutral solutions, slowly reduced at room temperature and more rapidly on warming. A black precipitate of silver is formed (distinction from acetate). With very dilute solutions, the silver may be deposited in the form of a mirror on the walls of the tube.
HCOO-
+ Ag+
~
~
HCOOAgl 2Agl
2HCOOAgl
232
+ HCOOH + CO 2T
Formate
4.36
5. Barium chloride or calcium chloride solution oxalates).

FeCI 3
no change (distinction from
1
red colour
6. Iron ( III) chloride a red colouration, due to the complex [Fe3 (HCOO)6l 3+, is produced in practically neutral solutions; the colour is discharged by hydrochloric acid. If the red solution is diluted and boiled, a brown precipitate of basic iron(lII) formate is formed.
+ 3Fe3+ --+ [Fe3(HCOO)6l3+ [Fe3(HCOO)6l3+ + 4H 20 --+ 2Fe(OHhHCOOl + 4HCOOHj + Fe3+

6HCOOHgCI2
1
white Hg 2CI 2
1
decomposes
7. Mercury(II) chloride solution (POISON) white precipitate of mercury(I) chloride (calomel) is produced on warming; this passes into grey, metallic mercury, in the presence of excess formate solution (distinction from acetate).
+ 2HgCl 2 --+ Hg2Cl21 + 2Cl- + COj + CO 2 j + H 2 0 2HCOO- + Hg 2Cl 2 1 --+ 2Hgl + 2CI- + COj + CO 2j + H 20
2HCOOMercury formate test
8. Mercury ( II) formate test free formic acid is necessary for this test. The solution of sodium formate must be acidified with dilute sulphuric acid and shaken vigorously with a little mercury(II) oxide. The solution must then be filtered. The filtrate, when boiled, gives momentarily a white precipitate of mercury(I) formate, which rapidly changes to a grey precipitate of metallic mercury. 2HCOOH + HgO 2(HCOOhHg
--+ --+
(HCOOhHg + H 20 (HCOOhHg 21 + HCOOH + CO 2j
(HCOOhHg 2 1 --+ 2Hgl
+ HCOOH + CO 2 j
Formic acid and mercury(II) formate are almost completely undissociated under these circumstances. Note that all compounds of mercury are POISONOUS.
Mg
+ HCI
1
reduced to HCHO
9. Formaldehyde-chromotropic acid test formic acid, H COOH, is reduced to formaldehyde H CHO by magnesium and hydrochloric acid. The formaldehyde is identified by its reaction with chromotropic acid (see Section 3.24, reaction 6d) in strong sulphuric acid when a violet-pink colouration appears. Other aliphatic aldehydes do not give the violet colouration. Place a drop or two of the test solution in a semimicro test-tube, add a drop or two of dilute hydrochloric acid, followed by magnesium powder until the evolution of gas ceases. Introduce 3 ml 12M sulphuric acid and a little solid chromo tropic acid, and warm to 60C. A violet-pink colouration appears within a few minutes. Sensitivity 1.5 J..lg H COOH. Concentration limit 1 in 20000. 10. Action of heat cautious ignition of the formates of the alkali metals yields the corresponding oxalates (for tests, see Section 4.37) and hydrogen.
Heating
1
oxalate
2HCOONa
--+
(COOhNa2
+ H2 j
233
4.37
4.37
Oxalates, (COO)~Solubility the oxalates of the alkali metals and of iron(II) are soluble in water; all other oxalates are either insoluble or sparingly soluble in water. They are all soluble in dilute acids. Some of the oxalates dissolve in a concentrated solution of oxalic acid by virtue of the formation of soluble acid or complex oxalates. Oxalic acid (a dibasic acid) is a colourless, crystalline solid, (COOHh' 2H 20, and becomes anhydrous on heating to 110C; it is readily soluble in water (111 g 1-1 at 20C). To study these reactions a O.lM solution of sodium oxalate, (COONah, or ammonium oxalate, (COONH 4 h' H 20, should be used. Note that all oxalates are POISONOUS. 1. Concentrated sulphuric acid decomposition of all solid oxalates occurs with the evolution of carbon monoxide (POISON) and carbon dioxide; the latter can be detected by passing the escaping gases through lime water (distinction from formate) and the former by burning it at the mouth of the tube. With dilute sulphuric acid, there is no visible action; in the presence of manganese dioxide, however, carbon dioxide is evolved.
(COO)~- reactions
cc H 2 S0 4 CO
+ CO 2 gases
(COOHh -; H 20
(COO)~-
+ COr + CO 2r
+ Mn02 + 4H+ -; Mn2+ + 2C0 2 T+ 2H 20
(the concentrated sulphuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent).

AgN0 3
1
white A9 2 (COOh
2. Silver nitrate solution white, curdy precipitate of silver oxalate sparingly soluble in water, soluble in ammonia solution and in dilute nitric acid.
+ 2Ag+ -; (COOAgh! (COOAgh! + 4NH3 -; 2[Ag(NH3hl+ + (COO)~

(COOAgh! + 2H+ -; 2Ag+ + (COO)~- + 2H+ The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.)
(COO)~-
CaCI 2
1
white Ca(COOh
3. Calcium chloride solution white, crystalline precipitate of calcium oxalate from neutral solutions, insoluble in dilute acetic acid, oxalic acid, and in ammonium oxalate solution, but soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid and in dilute nitric acid. It is the least soluble of all oxalates (0.0067 g 1-1 at 13C) and is even precipitated by calcium sulphate solution and acetic acid. Barium chloride solution similarly gives a white precipitate of barium oxalate sparingly soluble in water (0.016 g 1-1 at 8C), but soluble in solutions of acetic and of oxalic acids.
(COO)~(COO)~-
+ Ca2+ -; (COOhCa!
+ BaH
-; (COOhBa!
KMn04
+ H+
reduced to Mn 2+
4. Potassium permanganate solution decolourized when warmed in acid solution to 60C (cf. Section 4.34, reaction 2f). The bleaching of permanganate solution is also effected by many other organic compounds but if the
234
Oxalate
4.37
evolved carbon dioxide is tested for by the lime water reaction (Section 4.2, reaction I), the test becomes specific for oxalates.
5(COO)~Resorcinol test blue colour
+ 2Mn04 + 16H+
--->
IOC0 2i
+ 2Mn2+ + 8H20
5. Resorcinol test place a few drops of the test solution in a test-tube: add several drops of dilute sulphuric acid and a speck or two of magnesium powder. When the metal has dissolved, add about 0.1 g resorcinol, and shake until dissolved. Cool. Carefully pour down the side of the tube 34 ml concentrated sulphuric acid. A blue ring will form at the junction of the two liquids. Upon warming the sulphuric acid layer at the bottom of the tube very gently (CAUTION), the blue colour spreads downwards from the interface and eventually colours the whole of the sulphuric acid layer. Citrates do not interfere. In the presence of tartrates, a blue ring is obtained in the cold or upon very gently warming (compare similar test under tartrates in Section 4.38).
Mn02 +acid
1
red complex
6. Manganese ( II) sulphate test a solution of manganese(II) sulphate is treated with sodium hydroxide and the resulting mixture warmed gently to oxidize the precipitate by atmospheric oxygen to hydrated manganese dioxide (cf. Section 3.28, reaction I). After cooling, the solution of the oxalate, acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, is added. The precipitate dissolves and a red colour is produced, which is probably due to the formation of trioxalato-manganate(III) complex ion:
7(COO)~-
+ 2MnO(OHhl + 8H+
--->
--->
2{Mn[(COOhh}3-
+ 2C02i + 6H 20
Heating
1
decomposition
7. Action of heat all oxalates decompose upon ignition. Those of the alkali metals and of the alkaline earths yield chiefly the carbonates and carbon monoxide; a little carbon is also formed. The oxalates of the metals whose carbonates are easily decomposed into stable oxides, are converted into carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and the oxide, e.g. magnesium and zinc oxalates. Silver oxalate yields silver and carbon dioxide; silver oxide decomposes on heating. Oxalic acid decomposes into carbon dioxide and formic acid, the latter being further partially decomposed into carbon monoxide and water. Note that carbon monoxide is poisonous!
7(COONah (COOhBa (COOhMg (COOAgh (COOHh HCOOH

Aniline blue test
---> ---> ---> ---> ---> --->
7Na2C03
+ 3COi + 2C02i + 2C
BaC0 3 + COi MgO + COi + C02 i 2Ag + 2C02i HCOOH + CO2i COi
+ H 20i
8. Formation of aniline blue test upon heating insoluble oxalates with concentrated phosphoric acid and diphenylamine, or upon heating together
235
4.38
oxalic acid and diphenylamine, the dyestuff aniline blue (or diphenylamine blue) is formed. Formates, acetates, tartrates, citrates, succinates, benzoates, and salts of other organic acids do not react under these experimental conditions. In the presence of other anions which are precipitated by calcium chloride solution, e.g. tartrate, sulphate, sulphite, phosphate, and fluoride, it is best to heat the precipitate formed by calcium chloride with phosphoric acid as detailed below. Place a few milligrams of the test sample (or, alternatively, use the residue obtained by evaporating 2 drops of the test solution to dryness) in a micro test-tube, add a little pure diphenylamine and melt over a free flame. When cold, take up the melt in a drop or two of alcohol when the latter will be coloured blue. Sensitivity 5 ~g (COOHh. Concentration limit I in 10 000.
4.38
Solubility tartaric acid, HOOC [CH(OH)hCOOH or H2 C4H 40 6 , is a crystalline solid, which is extremely soluble in water; it is a dibasic acid. Potassium and ammonium hydrogen tartrates are sparingly soluble in water; those of the other alkali metals are readily soluble. The normal tartrates of the alkali metals are easily soluble (those of the other metals being sparingly soluble in water) but dissolve in solutions of alkali tartrates forming complex salts, which often do not give the typical reactions of the metals present. To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of tartaric acid, H2 C 4H 40 6 , or a 0.1 M solution of potassium sodium tartrate, KNa C4H 40 6 4H 20. The latter solution is neutral.
cc H2 S0 4
1
decomposition
1. Concentrated sulphuric acid when a solid tartrate is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid, it is decomposed in a complex manner. Charring occurs almost immediately (owing to the separation of carbon), carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are evolved, together with some sulphur dioxide; the last-named probably arises from the reduction of the sulphuric acid by the carbon. An odour, reminiscent of burnt sugar, can be detected in the evolved gases. Dilute sulphuric acid has no visible action.
+ CO 2 T + 2C + 3H 20T C + 2H 2 S04 ----+ 2S0 2 T + CO 2 T + 2H 20T

H2 . C4H 40 6
----+
COT
AgN0 3
1
white A9 2 C4 H4 0 6
2. Silver nitrate solution white, curdy precipitate of silver tartrate, Ag 2 C4H 40 6 , from neutral solutions of tartrates, soluble in excess of the tartrate solution, in dilute ammonia solution and in dilute nitric acid. On warming the ammoniacal solution, metallic silver is precipitated; this can be deposited in the form of a mirror under suitable conditions.
C4H40~-
+ 2Ag+ + 4NH3
----+ ----+
Ag 2 C4H 40d 2[Ag(NH3hl+
Ag 2C4H 40d
236
+ C4H40~-
Tartrate
4.38
The silver mirror test is best performed as follows. The solution of the tartrate is acidified with dilute nitric acid, excess of silver nitrate solution added and any precipitate present filtered off. Very dilute ammonia solution (approximately 0.02M) is then added to the solution until the precipitate at first formed is nearly redissolved. The solution is filtered, and the filtrate collected in a clean test-tube; the latter is then placed in a beaker of boiling water. A brilliant mirror is formed on the sides of the tube after a few minutes. The mirror from the test-tube may be removed by dissolving it with 8M nitric acid. The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction l.)
CaCI 2
1
white CaC 4 H 4 0 6
3. Calcium chloride solution white, crystalline precipitate of calcium tartrate, Ca' C4H 40 6 , with a concentrated neutral solution. The precipitate is soluble in dilute acetic acid (difference from oxalate), in dilute mineral acids, and in cold alkali solutions. An excess of the reagent must be added because calcium tartrate dissolves in an excess of an alkali tartrate solution forming a complex tartrate ion, [Ca(C4H 40 6 h1 2-. Precipitation is slow in dilute solutions, but may be accelerated by vigorous shaking or by rubbing the walls of the test-tube with a glass rod.
C4H40~-
+ Ca 2+ ---->
CaC4H 40d
KCI
1
white KHC 4 H 4 0 6
4. Potassium chloride solution when a concentrated neutral solution of a tartrate is treated with a solution of a potassium salt (e.g. M potassium chloride or potassium acetate) and then acidified with acetic acid, a colourless crystalline precipitate of potassium hydrogen tartrate (winestone), KH C4H 40 6 , is obtained. The precipitate forms slowly in dilute solutions; crystallization is induced by vigorous shaking or by rubbing the walls of the vessel with a glass rod.
C4H40~-
+ K+ + CH 3COOH
---->
KH C4H 40d
+ CH 3COO-
FeS04
+ H2 0 2
1
violet colour
5. Fenton's test add I drop of a saturated solution of iron(II) sulphate to about 5 ml of the neutral or acid solution of the tartrate, and then 2-3 drops of hydrogen peroxide solution (3%). A deep-violet or blue colouration is developed on adding excess sodium hydroxide solution. The colour becomes more intense upon the addition of a drop of iron (III) chloride solution. The violet colour is due to the formation of a salt of dihydroxymaleic acid, C02 H C(OH)=C(OH) C0 2 H. The test is not given by citrates, malates or succinates. 6. Resorcinol test place a few drops of the test solution in a test-tube; add several drops of dilute sulphuric acid and a speck or two of magnesium powder. When the metal has dissolved, add about 0.1 g resorcinol, and shake until dissolved. Cool. Carefully pour down the side of the tube 34 ml concentrated sulphuric acid. Upon warming the sulphuric acid layer at the bottom of the tube very gently (CAUTION), a red layer (or ring) forms at the junction of the two liquids. With continued gentle heating,
237
Resorcinol test
4.38
the red colour spreads downwards from the interface and eventually colours the whole of the sulphuric acid layer. Citrates do not interfere. In the presence of oxalate, a blue ring is formed in the cold and on gentle warming of the sulphuric acid layer at the bottom of the tube the blue colouration spreads downwards into the concentrated acid layer and a red ring forms at the interface. The colour is due to the formation of a condensation product of resorcinol, C 6 H 4 (OHh, and glycollic aldehyde, CH 2 0H CHO, the latter arising from the action of the sulphuric acid upon the tartaric acid. The formula of the condensation product is CH 2 0H CH[C6 H 3 (OHhh.
CU(OH)2
+ alkali
1
dissolution
+
dark blue colour
7. Copper hydroxide test tartrates dissolve copper hydroxide in the presence of excess alkali hydroxide solution to form the dark-blue ditartratocuprate(II) ion, [Cu(C 4 H 4 0 6 hl 2 -, which is best detected by filtering the solution. If only small quantities of tartrate are present, the filtrate should be acidified with acetic acid and tested for copper by the potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) test. Arsenites, ammonium salts, and organic compounds convertible into tartaric acid also give a blue colouration, and should therefore be absent or be removed. The experimental details are as follows. Treat the test solution with an equal volume of 2M sodium or potassium hydroxide (or treat the test solid directly with a few ml of the alkali hydroxide solution, warm for a few minutes with stirring and then cool). Add a few drops of 0.25M copper sulphate solution (i.e. just sufficient to yield a visible precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide), shake the mixture vigorously for 5 minutes, and filter. If the filtrate is not clear, warm to coagulate the colloidal copper hydroxide and filter again. A distinct blue colouration indicates the presence of a tartrate. If a pale colouration is obtained, it is advisable to add concentrated ammonia solution dropwise when the blue colour intensifies; it is perhaps better to acidify with 2M acetic acid and add potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) solution to the clear solution whereupon a reddishbrown precipitate, or (with a trace of a tartrate) a red colouration, is obtained.
8. 1,1-Bi-2-naphthol test
OH
1.1-Bi-2-naphthol
1
green colour
when a solution of I, l-bi-2-naphthol in concentrated sulphuric acid is heated with tartaric acid, a green colouration is obtained. Oxalic, citric, succinic, and cinnamic acids do not interfere. Heat a few milligrams of the solid test sample or a drop of the test solution with 1-2 ml of the dinaphthol reagent in a water bath at 85"C for 30 minutes. A luminous green fluorescence appears during the heating; it intensifies on cooling, and at the same time the violet fluorescence of the reagent disappears. Sensitivity lO!lg tartaric acid. Concentration limit I in 5000.
238
Citrate
4.39
Heating
1
decomposition
9. Action of heat the tartrates and also tartaric acid decompose in a complex manner on heating; charring takes place, a smell of burnt sugar is apparent and inflammable vapours are evolved.
4.39
Solubility citric acid, HOOC CH 2 qOH)C0 2 H CH 2 . COOH H 2 0 or H 3 C 6H s07 . H 2 0, is a crystalline solid which is very soluble in water; it becomes anhydrous at 55C and melts at 160C. It is a tribasic acid, and therefore gives rise to three series of salts. The normal citrates of the alkali metals dissolve readily in water; other metallic citrates are sparingly soluble. The acid citrates are more soluble than the acid tartrates. To study these reactions use a 0.5M solution of sodium citrate, Na3 . C6H s07 2H2 0.
cc H 2 S0 4
+ heating
1
decomposition
1. Concentrated sulphuric acid when a solid citrate is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid, carbon monoxide (POISON) and carbon dioxide are evolved; the solution slowly darkens owing to the separation of carbon, and sulphur dioxide is evolved (compare tartrates, Section 4.38, which char almost immediately). The first products of the reaction are carbon monoxide and acetone dicarboxylic acid (1); the latter undergoes further partial decomposition into acetone (2) and carbon dioxide.
HOOC-CH 2 qOH)C02H CH 2 COOH

~
CO!
+ H 20! + HOOCCH 2 COCH2 COOH;

(1)
~
HOOC CH 2 CO CH 2 . COOH
~
CH 3 COCH 3!
(2)
+ 2C02 !
Use may be made of the intermediate formation of acetone dicarboxylic acid and of the interaction of the latter with sodium nitroprusside solution to yield a red colouration as a test for citrates. When about 0.5 g of a citrate or of citric acid is treated with 1 ml concentrated sulphuric acid for 1 minute, the mixture cooled, cautiously diluted with water, rendered alkaline with sodium hydroxide solution and then a few millilitres of a freshly prepared solution of sodium nitroprusside added, an intense red colouration results.
AgN0 3
1
white Ag 3 C6 H 5 0 7
2. Silver nitrate solution white, curdy preCIpItate of silver citrate, Ag 3. C6H s0 7, from neutral solutions. The precipitate is soluble in dilute ammonia solution, and this solution undergoes only very slight reduction to silver on boiling (distinction from tartrate).
C6HsO~~
+ 3Ag+ ~ Ag 3C6H s0 71 + C6HsO~~

239
Ag 3 C 6H s0 71 + 6NH3 ~ 3[Ag(NH3ht
4.40
CaCI 2
+ heat
1
white ppt
3. Calcium chloride solution no precipitate with neutral solutions in the cold (difference from tartrate), but on boiling for several minutes a crystalline precipitate of calcium citrate, Ca3 (C 6 H s07 h' 4H 20, is produced. If sodium hydroxide solution is added to the cold solution containing excess calcium chloride, there results an immediate precipitation of amorphous calcium citrate, insoluble in solutions of caustic alkalis, but soluble in ammonium chloride solution. On boiling the ammonium chloride solution, crystalline calcium citrate is precipitated, which is now insoluble in ammonium chloride.
Cd(CH 3 COO)z
1
white Cd 3 (C 6 H 5 0 7 )2
4. Cadmium acetate solution white, gelatinous preCIpItate of cadmium citrate Cd 3(C 6 H s07h. practically insoluble in boiling water, but readily soluble in warm acetic acid (tartrate gives no precipitate). 2C6HsO~- + 3Cd2+ ---+ Cd 3(C6H s0 7h! 5. Deniges's test add 0.5 ml acidified mercury(II) sulphate solution (POISON) to 3 ml citrate solution, heat to boiling and then add a few drops of 0.02M solution of potassium permanganate. Decolourization of the permanganate will take place rapidly and then, somewhat suddenly, a heavy white precipitate, consisting of the double salt of basic mercury(II) sulphate with mercury(II) acetone dicarboxylate
white ppt
+ decolourization
HgS0 4 2HgO' 2[CO(CH2' C02hHg]! is formed. Salts of the halogen acids interfere and must therefore be removed before carrying out the test.
Heating
1
decomposition
6. Action of heat citrates and citric acid char on heating; carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and acrid-smelling vapours are evolved.
4.40
Solubility salicylic acid, C 6 H 4 (OH)COOH (o-hydroxybenzoic acid), forms colourless needles, which melt at 155C. The acid is sparingly soluble in cold water, but more soluble in hot water, from which it can be recrystallized. It is readily soluble in alcohol and ether. With the exception of the lead, mercury, silver, and barium salts, the monobasic salts, C 6 H 4 (OH)COOM - these are the most commonly occurring salts - are readily soluble in cold water. To study these reactions use a 0.5M solution of sodium salicylate, C6H 4 (OH)COONa or NaC 7H s0 3.
cc H 2 S0 4
1
decomposition 240
I. Concentrated sulphuric acid solid sodium salicylate dissolves on warming; charring occurs slowly, accompanied by the evolution of carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide.
Salicylate
4.40
cc H 2 S0 4
+ CH 3 0H
1
methyl sal icylate, pleasant odour
2. Concentrated sulphuric acid and methanol ('oil of wintergreen' test) when 0.5 g of a salicylate or of salicylic acid is treated with a mixture of 1.5 ml concentrated sulphuric acid and 3 ml methanol and the whole gently warmed, the characteristic, fragrant odour of the ester, methyl salicylate(I) ('oil of wintergreen'), is obtained. The odour is readily detected by pouring the mixture into dilute sodium carbonate solution contained in a porcelain dish.
C 6H 4(OH)COOH
+ CH 30H ----> C 6H 4(OH)COOCH 3j(I) + H 20
(The sulphuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent.)

HCI
1
white salicylic acid AgN0 3
3. Dilute hydrochloric acid crystalline precipitate of salicylic acid from solutions of the salts. The precipitate is moderately soluble in hot water, from which it crystallizes on cooling. 4. Silver nitrate solution heavy, crystalline precipitate of silver salicylate, AgC 7 H s0 3, from neutral solutions; it is soluble in boiling water and crystallizes from the solution on cooling.
1
white ppt
C 6H 4(OH)COOFeCI 3
+ Ag+
---->
C6H 4(OH)COOAgl
1
violet colour
5. Iron ( III) chloride solution intense violet-red colouration with neutral solutions of salicylates or with free salicylic acid; the colour disappears upon the addition of dilute mineral acids, but not of a little acetic acid. The presence of a large excess of many organic acids (acetic, tartaric, and citric) prevents the development of the colour; but the addition of a few drops of dilute ammonia solution will cause it to appear.
6. Dilute nitric acid when a salicylate or the free acid is boiled with dilute nitric acid (2M) and the mixture poured into 4 times its volume of cold water, a crystalline precipitate of 5-nitrosalicylic acid is obtained. The precipitate is filtered off and recrystallized from boiling water; the acid, after drying, has a melting point of 226C.
HN0 3
1
white ppt
C6H 4(OH)COOH
+ HN0 3 ----> C6H3 (N02) (OH)COOHl + H 20
Polynitrosalicylic acids are formed when the concentration of nitric acid exceeds 2-3M. NITROSALICYLIC ACIDS MAY EXPLODE ON STRONG HEATING. This must be borne in mind when removing salicylates by oxidation with nitric acid and evaporating to dryness prior to the precipitation of Group IlIA. If salicylate is suspected, it is probably best to remove it by acidifying the concentrated solution with dilute hydrochloric acid: most of the salicylic acid will separate out upon cooling.
Soda lime phenol
7. Soda lime when salicylic acid or one of its salts is heated with excess of soda lime in an ignition tube, phenol, C6H sOH, is evolved, which may be recognized by its characteristic odour.
C 6H4(OH)COONa + NaOH
Heating
---->
C 6H sOHj
+ Na2C03
1
sublimation
8. Action of heat salicylic acid, when gradually heated above its melting point, sublimes. If it is heated rapidly, it is decomposed into carbon dioxide and phenol. Salicylates char on heating and phenol is evolved.
C6H 4(OH)COOH
---->
C 6H sOHj
+ CO 2j
241
4.41
CSH5COO- reactions
Solubility benzoic acid, C 6H 5COOH or H 'C7 H 50 2 , is a white crystalline solid; it has a melting point of 121 DC. The acid is sparingly soluble in cold water, but more soluble in hot water, from which it crystallizes out on cooling; it is soluble in alcohol and in ether. All the benzoates, with the exception of the silver and basic iron(III) salts, are readily soluble in cold water. To study these reactions use a 0.5M solution of potassium benzoate, C 6H 5COOK or K C 7 H 50 2 . 1. Concentrated sulphuric acid no charring occurs on heating solid benzoic acid with this reagent; the acid forms a sublimate on the sides of the test-tube and irritating fumes are evolved.
H 2 S0 4
1
white CSH5COOH
2. Dilute sulphuric acid white, crystalline precipitate of benzoic acid from cold solutions of benzoates. The acid may be filtered off, dried between filter paper or upon a porous tile and identified by means of its melting point (121 DC). If the latter is somewhat low, it may be recrystallized from hot water.
cc H 2 S0 4
+ C2 H50H
1
ethyl benzoate. pleasant odour
3. Concentrated sulphuric acid and ethanol heat 0.5 g of a benzoate or of benzoic acid with a mixture of 1.5 ml concentrated sulphuric acid and 3 ml ethanol for a few minutes. Allow the mixture to cool, and note the pleasant and characteristic aromatic odour of the ester, ethyl benzoate. The odour is more apparent if the mixture is poured into dilute sodium carbonate solution contained in an evaporating basin; oily drops of ethyl benzoate will separate out.
AgN0 3
1
white AgC6H5COO
4. Silver nitrate solution white precipitate of silver benzoate, Ag C 7H 50 2, from neutral solutions. The precipitate is soluble in hot water and crystallizes from the solution on cooling; it is also soluble in dilute ammonia solution.
+ Ag+ ---.. C6H5 'COOAg! C 6Hs' COOAg! + 2NH3 ---.. [Ag(NH3ht + C 6H 5 COOC6HS 'COOThe solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction l.)
FeCI 3
1
buff ppt
5. Iron ( III) chloride solution buff-coloured precipitate of basic iron(III) benzoate from neutral solutions. The precipitate is soluble in hydrochloric acid, with the simultaneous separation of benzoic acid (see reaction 2).
242
Succinate
4.42
Soda lime
1
benzene vapours
6. Soda lime benzoic acid and benzoates, when heated in an ignition tube with excess soda lime, are decomposed into benzene, C 6H 6, which burns with a smoky flame, and carbon dioxide, the latter combining with the alkali present.
C6HS COOH + 2NaOH

Heating
--->
C6H6 T + Na2C03
+ H 20T
1
decomposition
7. Action of heat when benzoic acid is heated in an ignition tube, it melts, evaporates, and condenses in the cool parts of the tube. An irritating vapour is simultaneously evolved, but no charring occurs. If a little of the acici or of one of its salts is heated upon platinum foil or broken porcelain it burns with a blue, smoky flame (distinction from succinate).
4.42 Solubility succinic acid, HOOCCH 2 CH 2 COOH or H2 C4H 40 4 (a dibasic acid), is a white, crystalline solid with a melting point of 182C; it boils at 235C with the formation of succinic anhydride, C4H 40 3, by the loss of one molecule of water. The acid is fairly soluble in water (68.4 g 1-1 at 20C), but more soluble in hot water; it is moderately soluble in alcohol and in acetone, slightly soluble in ether, and sparingly soluble in chloroform. Most normal succi nates are soluble in cold water; the silver, calcium, barium, and basic iron(III) salts are sparingly soluble. To study these reactions use a O.5M solution of sodium succinate, C 2H 4(COONah 6H 20 or Na2 C4H 40 4 6H 20.
cc H2 S0 4
+ heat
1
decomposition
1. Concentrated sulphuric acid the acid or its salts dissolve in warm, concentrated sulphuric acid without charring; if the solution is strongly heated, slight charring takes place and sulphur dioxide is evolved. Dilute sulphuric acid has no visible action. 2. Silver nitrate solution white precipitate of silver succinate, Ag 2 . C4H 40 4, from neutral solutions, readily soluble in dilute ammonia solution.
C2H4(COO)~-
AgN0 3
1
white Ag 2 C4 H4 0 4
+ 2Ag+ + 4NH3
---> --->
C 2H 4(COOAghl 2[Ag(NH3hl+
C 2H 4(COOAghl
+ C2H4(COO)~-
FeCI 3
1
brown ppt
3. Iron ( III) chloride solution light-brown precipitate of basic iron(III) succinate with a neutral solution; some free succinic acid is simultaneously produced, and the solution becomes slightly acidic. 3C2H4(COO)~- + 2Fe 3++ 2H 20 ---> ---> 2C 2H 4(COOhFe(OH)l + C 2H 4(COOHh
4. Barium chloride solution white precipitate of barium succinate from neutral or slightly ammoniacal solutions (distinction from benzoate). Precipitation is slow from dilute solutions, but may be accelerated by
243
BaCI 2
1
white BaC 4 H4 0 4
4.43
vigorous shaking or by rubbing the inner wall of the test-tube with a glass rod.
CaCI 2
1
white CaC 4 H4 0 4
5. Calcium chloride solution a precipitate of calcium succinate is very slowly produced from concentrated neutral solutions. C2H4(COO)~- + Ca2+ ---+ C 2H 4(COOhCal 6. Fluorescein test about 0.5 g of the acid or one of its salts is mixed with 1 g resorcinol, a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid added, and the mixture gently heated; a deep-red solution is formed. On pouring the latter into a large volume of water, an orange-yellow solution is obtained, which exhibits an intense green fluorescence. The addition of excess sodium hydroxide solution intensifies the fluorescence, and the colour of the solution changes to bright red. Under the influence of concentrated sulphuric acid, succinic anhydride (1) is first formed, and this condenses with the resorcinol (2) to yield succinylfluorescein (3).
CH1-CO ....... CH 2 -CO
(I)
Resorcinol
+ cc H 2 S0 4
1
green fluorescence
. . .0
+2
HO
o
~
(2)
I
OH
The quinoid structure (4) is predominant in alkaline solutions.

Heat decomposition
7. Action of heat when succinic acid or its salts are strongly heated in an ignition tube, a white sublimate of succinic anhydride, C4 H 4 0 3 , is formed and irritating vapours are evolved. If the ignition is carried out on platinum foil or upon broken porcelain, the vapour burns with a non-luminous, blue flame, leaving a residue of carbon (distinction from benzoate).
4.43
Hydrogen peroxide, H 2 0 2 (the perhydroxyl ion, OOH-)
Hydrogen peroxide is marketed as '20 volumes' (6%), '40 volumes' (12%) and '100 volumes' (30%) solutions. It decomposes slowly in cold, but rapidly on heating, to water and oxygen gas: 2H 20 2 ---+ 2H 20
H 2 0 2 and OOW reactions
+ O 2i
To study its reactions use a 3% (approximately M) solution of hydrogen peroxide. Alternatively, a molar solution of sodium peroxoborate NaB0 3 4H 2 0 can be used, which hydrolyses rapidly to form hydrogen
244
Hydrogen peroxide
4.43
peroxide: B0 3 + H 2 0
-+
H 2 0 2 + BO
The metaborate ion which is formed does not interfere with the reactions described below.
K2Cr207
+ ether
1
blue Cr05 solution in the organic layer
1. Chromium pentoxide test if an acidified solution of hydrogen peroxide is mixed with a little diethyl ether (highly inflammable), amyl alcohol or amyl acetate and a few drops of potassium dichromate solution added and the mixture gently shaken, the upper organic layer is coloured a beautiful blue. For further details, see Section 4.33, reaction 4, and Section 3.24, reaction 6b. The test will detect 0.1 mg of hydrogen peroxide. If ether is employed, a blank test must always be carried out with the ether alone because after standing it may contain organic peroxides which give the test. The peroxides may be removed by shaking II of ether with a solution containing 60 g FeS04 . 7H 20, 6 ml concentrated H 2S04, and 110 ml water, then with chromic acid solution (to oxidize any acetaldehyde produced), followed by washing with alkali and redistilling. The peroxides may also be removed by treatment with aqueous sodium sulphite. The use of amyl alcohol is, however, to be preferred. 2. Potassium iodide and starch if potassium iodide and starch are added to hydrogen peroxide, acidified previously with dilute sulphuric acid, iodine is formed slowly and the solution turns gradually to deeper and deeper blue:
KI
+ starch
1
oxidation to blue complex
H 20 2 + 2H+
+ 31-
-+
13
+ 2H 20
Molybdate ions accelerate this reaction. In the presence of 1 drop of 0.025M (0.4%) ammonium molybdate solution the reaction is instantaneous.
KMn04
+ H+
1
reduction to colourless Mn2+ TiCI 4
3. Potassium permanganate solution oxygen is evolved:
decolourized in acid solution and
2Mn04
+ 5H 2 0 2 + 6H+ -+ 2Mn2+ + 50 2i + 8H20
1
orange-red per-acid K3Fe(CN)6
4. Titanium ( IV) chloride solution orange-red colouration (see under titanium, Section 6.17, reaction 6). This is a very sensitive test.
5. Potassium hexacyanoferrate( III) and iron ( III) chloride to a nearly neutral solution of iron(III) chloride add some potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution. A yellow solution is obtained. To this, add a nearly neutral solution of hydrogen peroxide. The solution turns to green and Prussian blue separates slowly. Hydrogen peroxide reduces hexacyanoferrate(III) ions to hexacyanoferrate(II): 2[Fe(CN)6l 3- + H 2 0 2 -+ 2[Fe(CN)6l 4- + 2H+ + O2i
+ FeCI 3
1
slowly Prussian blue
Prussian blue is then produced from iron(III) and hexacyanoferrate(II) ions: 4Fe 3+ + 3[Fe(CN)6l 4- -+ Fe4[Fe(CN)6hl (cf. Section 3.22, reaction 6 and Section 3.21, reaction 7).
245
4.43
Other reducing agents, e.g. tin(II) chloride, sodium sulphite, sodium thiosulphate, etc., will reduce hexacyanoferrate(III) ions to hexacyanoferrate(II), so this reaction is not always a reliable test. The spot-test technique is as follows. In adjacent depressions of a spot plate place a drop of distilled water and a drop of the test solution. Add a drop of the reagent (equal volumes of 0.5M iron(III) chloride solution and 0.033M potassium hexacyanoferrate(lII) solution) to each. A blue colouration or precipitate is formed. Sensitivity O.lllg H 20 2 Concentration limit 1 in 600000.
AuCI 3
1
reduction to Au
6. Gold chloride solution reduced to finely divided metallic gold, which appears greenish-blue by transmitted light and brown by reflected light.
2Au 3 + + 3H 2 0 2
---->
2Aul + 30 2 i
+ 6H+
The spot-test technique is as follows. Mix a drop of the neutral test solution with a drop of 0.33M gold chloride solution in a micro crucible and warm. After a short time, the solution is coloured red or blue with colloidal gold. Sensitivity 0.071lg H 2 0 2 . Concentration limit 1 in 700000.
Black PbS
1
white PbS0 4
7. Lead sulphate test white lead sulphate:
hydrogen peroxide converts black lead sulphide into
PbSl
+ 4H 2 0 2 ----> PbS04 1 + 4H 2 0
Place a drop of the neutral or slightly acid test solution upon dropreaction paper impregnated with lead sulphide. A white spot is formed on the brown paper. Sensitivity 0.041lg H 20 2 Concentration limit 1 in 1 250000. The lead sulphide paper is prepared by soaking drop-reaction paper in a 0.0025M solution of lead acetate, exposing it to a little hydrogen sulphide gas and then drying in a vacuum desiccator. The paper will keep in a stoppered bottle.
Lucigenin
1
green chemiluminescence
8. Chemiluminescence test this test has to be carried out in a dark room. To 20 ml 2M sodium hydroxide add 5 ml 1% aqueous solution of lucigenin (bis-N-methylacridinium nitrate or N,N' -dimethyl-9,9' -biacridinium dinitrate). Switch off the light. Add 5 ml 3% hydrogen peroxide solution and mix. A steady greenish-yellow light is emitted; the phenomenon lasts for about 15 minutes. To one-half of the solution add 1 drop of 1% osmium tetroxide solution and mix. The light flares up, turns to bluish-violet, then quickly fades away. For the explanation of these phenomena consult the literature. 14
14See L. Erdey in E. Bishop (ed.), Indicators, Pergamon Press 1972, p. 713 if.
246
Dithionite
4.44
4.44
Dithionites, S20~Dithionites are obtained by the action of reducing agents, such as zinc, upon hydrogen sulphites 4HS0 + Zn -+ S20~- + 2S0~- + Zn 2+ + 2H 0
Sulphur dioxide may also be passed into a cooled suspension of zinc dust in water: Zn + 2S0 2 -+ Zn 2+ + S20~Zinc ions, which are produced in both processes, can be removed from the solution with sodium carbonate, when zinc carbonate is precipitated. By saturating the solution with sodium chloride, sodium dithionite, Na2S204 2H 20, is precipitated. Sodium dithionite is a powerful reducing agent. A solution of the salt, containing an excess of sodium hydroxide, is used as an absorbent for oxygen in gas analysis. To study these reactions use a freshly prepared O.5M solution of sodium dithionite, Na2S204.
H 2 S0 4
1
transitional orange colour
I. Dilute sulphuric acid orange colouration, which soon disappears, accompanied by the evolution of sulphur dioxide and the precipitation of sulphur:
2S20~-
+ 4H+ -+ 3S02i + Sl + 2H 20
2. Concentrated sulphuric acid immediate evolution of sulphur dioxide and the precipitation of white or pale yellow sulphur:
2S20~AgN0 3
+ 2H 2S04 -+ 3S02i + Sl + 2S0~- + 2H20

black precipitate of metallic silver:
-+

S20~-
1
black Ag
+ 2Ag+ + 2H 20
2Ag1 + 2S0~-
+ 4H+
If the reagent is added in excess, white silver sulphite is also precipitated (cf. Section 4.4, reaction 3).
CUS04
1
red Cu HgCI2
4. Copper sulphate solution S20~- + Cu 2+ + 2H 20
red precipitate of metallic copper:

-+
Cu1
+ 2S0~- + 4H+
grey precipitate of metallic
1
grey Hg
5. Mercury ( II) chloride solution (POISON) mercury:

S20~-
+ HgCl 2 + 2H 20
-+
Hg1
+ 2S0~- + 2CI- + 4H+
Methylene blue
1
decolourization Indigo
6. Methylene blue solution immediate decolourization in the cold. The methylene blue is reduced to the colourless leuco compound. 7. Indigo solution indigo white.
reduced to the colourless leuco compound, known as

-+
1
decolourization
S20~-
+ Cl6HlO02N2 + 2H20
indigo
C16H1202N2
indigo white
+ 2S0~- + 2H+
247
4.44
K4 Fe(CN)6
+ FeS04
1
white ppt. turns to Prussian blue
8. Potassium hexacyanoferrate( II) and iron ( II) sulphate if potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) and iron(II) sulphate are mixed, white precipitate of dipotassium iron(II) hexacyanoferrate(II) turns quite rapidly into Prussian blue (cf. Section 3.21, reaction 6), because of oxidation caused by dissolved and atmospheric oxygen. In the presence of dithionite the precipitate remains durably white. 9. Action of heat upon heating solid sodium dithionite, it suddenly evolves sulphur dioxide at about 190C (exothermic reaction). The residue is a mixture of sodium sulphite and sodium thiosulphate:
Heating
1
decomposition
2Na2S204
-->
Na2S03
+ Na2S203 + S02 i
On dissolving the residue, it can no longer reduce indigo or methylene blue solutions.
248
Chapter 5
Selected tests and separations
5.1
Introduction
Having become familiar with the reactions of cations and anions, the reader should improve his/her skills in qualitative analysis by carrying out special tests and separations. First the analysis of a dissolved sample, containing one unknown cation, should be attempted and, if time allows, repeated with further cations belonging to different groups. Once the cation is found, its presence should be confirmed by other, characteristic tests. Given enough time, a systematic separation and identification of several cations in mixtures should be tried. It would be futile to start with a mixture containing all cations mentioned so far, but perhaps a mixture of five or six ions, taken at random from different groups, should be attempted. Finally, special tests for individual anions and their mixtures should be carried out, concentrating on combinations which are often encountered in actual samples. Any analysis of a real sample must begin with a preliminary examination of the material, which could be (a) a liquid (usually a solution), (b) a solid, nonmetallic substance, (c) a metal or an alloy, or (d) an insoluble material. The description of preliminary tests will be followed by hints on dissolution or fusion, as the main testing and separation has to be carried out in solution.
5.2
Preliminary tests on liquid samples (samples in solution) I. Appearance observe the colour, odour and any special physical properties. The most frequently occurring colours are listed below: Blue solutions of copper(lI) salts, complex nickel(lI) salts Green simple nickel(II), iron(lI) and chromium(III) salts, manganates Yellow chromate, hexacyanoferrate(lI) and iron(III) ions Orange-red dichromate ions Purple permanganate ions Pink cobalt(lI) and manganese(lI) ions
2. Reaction test its reaction towards litmus paper or an appropriate, narrow-range indicator paper. (a) The solution is neutral free acids, free bases, acid salts or salts which give an acid or alkaline reaction, owing to hydrolysis, are absent.
249
5.3
(b) The solution reacts alkaline this may be due to hydroxides of the alkali and alkaline earth metals, to the presence of carbonates, borates, sulphides, cyanides, hypochlorites, silicates, peroxo-salts and peroxides of the alkali metals. (c) The solution reacts acid this may be due to the presence of free acids, acid salts, and salts of weak bases, which by hydrolysis produce an acid reaction. It is best to neutralize such a solution with sodium carbonate before testing for anions.
3. Evaporation evaporate a known volume of the sample to dryness on a water bath; carefully smell vapours evolved from time to time. If a solid residue remains, it can be tested as described in Section 5.3 (if the original solution is acid, it should be neutralized with a few drops of 2M ammonia before evaporation, otherwise some volatile acids may be lost). If the residue is a liquid, try to evaporate it at higher temperatures; any solid residue should be examined as already stated. If charring occurs, organic matter is present, which has to be removed in the systematic analysis before attempting the separation of Group IlIA cations. If no residue remains, then the liquid contains some volatile substance which may be water, or an aqueous solution of certain gases or volatile substances (like CO 2, NH 3, S02, H 2S, HCI, HBr, HI, H 20 2, (NH 4 hC0 3, etc.) all of which can be detected by special tests.
4. Tests on alkaline solutions if the solution has an alkaline reaction, the following tests should be performed: (i) Test for peroxides and peroxo salts (e.g. H 20 2, NaB0 3). (a) Heat a small portion of the solution with a few drops of O.5M cobalt(II) nitrate. In the presence of peroxides and peroxo salts a black precipitate of cobalt(III) hydroxide is formed (sulphides and hypochlorites interfere and must be absent). (b) Add a few drops of 10% titanium(IV) chloride solution: a yellow colouration occurs in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. (ii) Test for hydroxides and carbonates. Boil the solution to decompose hydrogen peroxide (if present). Add a slight excess of O.25M barium chloride solution; filter off the precipitate. If the solution reacts alkaline, hydroxyl ions are present. Test the precipitate for carbonate (Section 4.2, reaction 1).
5.3
Preliminary tests on non-metallic solid samples

1. Appearance the appearance of the substance should be carefully noted: a lens or a microscope should be used if necessary. Observe whether the material is crystalline or amorphous, whether it is magnetic and whether it possesses any characteristic odour or colour. Some of the commonly occurring coloured compounds are listed below: Red Pb 30 4 , HgO, Hg12' HgS, Sb2S3, Cr03, CU20, K3[Fe(CN)6J Orange-red dichromates Purple permanganates, chrome-alum
Colour
250
Preliminary tests on non-metallic solid samples
5.3
Pink hydrated manganese(II) and cobalt(II) salts Yellow S (if pure), CdS, AS 3S3, SnS2, PbI 2, K4[Fe(CN)6J, chromates, FeCl 3 and Fe(N0 3h Green Cr203, Hg 2I2, Cr(OH)3, iron(II), nickel(II) and chromium(III) salts, CuCI2 ' 2H 20, CuC03, K2Mn04 Blue Hydrated copper(II) salts, anhydrous cobalt(II) salts, Fe4[Fe(CN)6J (Pruss ian blue) Brown Pb0 2, Ag 3As0 4, SnS, Fe203 and Fe(OHh Black PbS, CuS, CuO, HgS, FeS, Mn02, C0 30 4, CoS, NiS, Ni 20 3, Ag2 S, C 2. Dry tests carry out the tests described in Section 2.2, observe and evaluate results. 3. Test for ammonium ions take 1 ml test solution (or 0.1 g solid material), and boil it gently with an excess of 2M sodium hydroxide solution. The evolution of ammonia can be detected by its odour and its action upon red litmus . paper. Great care must be taken when heating the mixture because of the destructive effects of hot alkalis upon the eyes and skin. It is best to use the apparatus shown in Fig. 5.1. An all-glass apparatus can be constructed from Quickfit test-tube MF 24/2 and joint CBB 19. The test paper is supported on the end of the wide glass tube. If ammonia is present, the litmus paper should show a gradual development of blue colour from the bottom upwards, and should eventually become uniform in colour; scattered blue spots indicate that droplets of the alkaline solution have come into contact with the paper. The spray may be trapped, if desired, by a loosely fitting plug of cotton wool inserted in the upper part of the test-tube. Alternatively, the ammonia gas formed in this reaction can be absorbed in 3-4ml of water or 2M HCl, using the apparatus shown in Fig. 4.1. Care must be taken that no 'sucking back' should occur during the process. In the cold solution ammonium ions can be identified through a precipitate caused by Nessler's reagent (Section 3.38, reaction 2).
Fig. 5.1
Test for N02" and N0 3
4. Test for nitrate and/or nitrite if ammonium ions were found in the previous test, boil the mixture until ammonia can no longer be detected. Add 0.1 g aluminium powder (or zinc dust, or finely powdered Devarda's alloy) to the cool solution, and warm gently. Test for ammonia as described above. A positive test indicates the presence of nitrate and/or nitrite. Nitrite alone can be detected by the test with dilute sulphuric acid (see in this section under 6). Cyanides, thiocyanates, hexacyanoferrate(II)s and hexacyanoferrate(III)s also yield ammonia, but the reaction is much slower. 5. Test for borate mix the original dry solid sample with calcium fluoride, and by adding a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid make a thickflowing paste. Hold some of this in a platinum loop just outside the base of a Bunsen flame. A green colouration, due to boron trifluoride, indicates the presence of borate.
6. Test with dilute sulphuric acid treat about 0.1 g of the substance in a small test-tube with 2 ml M sulphuric acid, and note whether any reaction
261
Test for B05-
Test with H 2 S0 4
5.4 Selected tests and separations
takes place in the cold (indicated in the list below by C). Warm gently and observe the effect. Most common effects are listed below: (a) A colourless gas is evolved with effervescence; gas is odourless and produces turbidity when passed into lime water (C). The gas is CO 2 which originates from carbonates. Some carbonate rocks (magnesite, dolomite) react only when the acid is warmed. (b) Reddish-brown nitrous fumes appear, especially when observed at the mouth of the tube, turning starch-potassium iodide paper bluishblack. The gas is N0 2 originating from nitrite. (c) Yellowish-green chlorine gas evolves from hypochlorites. The gas can be identified by starch paper, treated with 1-2 drops of 0.1 M potassium iodide. A bluish-black colour, caused by iodine, indicates the presence of chlorine in the gas. (d) Acetylene is produced from carbides; it can be identified by its characteristic odour. It burns with a luminous, smoky flame. (e) Colourless S02 is formed from sulphites. It has a suffocating odour, turning filter paper moistened with acidified potassium dichromate green. If a white precipitate is also formed, thiosulphates are present. Thiocyanates also release S02, but only when the solution is boiled for a while. (f) Colourless H 2S is produced from sulphides; the gas has the distinct odour of rotten eggs. The gas turns filter paper moistened with cadmium acetate solution yellow. If polysulphides are present, a white precipitate is also formed. THE GAS IS POISONOUS! (g) Acetic acid, with the smell of vinegar, is produced from acetates. (h) Colourless HCN gas with the odour of bitter almond originates from cyanides. THE GAS IS HIGHLY POISONOUS! (i) Colourless gas with a pungent odour can be a mixture of CO 2 and HCHO originating from cyanate. (j) Colourless O 2 gas, which rekindles a glowing splint, is produced from peroxides, peroxo salts of alkali metals.
5.4
Preliminary tests on metal samples
The sample of the metal or alloy should be in the form of drillings, turnings or filings. Its analysis is simplified by the fact that no anions need to be looked for. Many alloys contain small amounts of C, P, Sand Si. Of these, phosphorus is converted to phosphate on dissolution in dilute nitric acid, and can be identified with an appropriate test. Treat about 0.5 g of the sample with 10 ml 8M nitric acid in a porcelain dish in a fume cupboard, first at room temperature, then by heating on a water bath. When the evolution of red fumes ceases, evaporate the mixture almost to dryness. Add lOml water, heat and stir the mixture for a few minutes, and filter if necessary. There are three possible outcomes:
1. The metal or alloy dissolves completely the sample does not contain noble metals such as gold or platinum. The solution can be used for the separation and detection of cations, as described under Section 5.7.
252
Dissolution of the sample
5.5
2. The metal or alloy does not dissolve completely analyse the filtrate as described in Section 5.7. Examine the insoluble residue according to Section 5.6. 3. The metal or alloy is unattacked if the alloy is not attacked by 8M nitric acid, treat a separate 0.5 g sample with 20 ml aqua regia in a porcelain dish, covered with a watch-glass. Heat the mixture gently (in a fume cupboard) until the alloy has disintegrated completely. Raise the watch-glass and evaporate on a water bath to dryness. Add 5 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid, heat gently, dilute with 15ml water, stir and heat to boiling. Cool to room temperature and filter. The residue may consist of AgCl, PbCl 2 and Si0 2 The filtrate may contain the noble metals, together with arsenate, phosphate and sulphate. Metals can be identified after separation, or directly from the solution by atomic emission or atomic absorption spectroscopy. If the alloy resists the action of aqua regia, fuse it with sodium hydroxide pellets in a silver dish or crucible (CAUTION: USE A FUME CUPBOARD). When decomposition is complete, allow to cool, transfer the silver vessel to a beaker and extract the melt with water with gentle heating. Remove the silver vessel from the beaker. Strongly acidify the contents of the beaker with 8M nitric acid, evaporate to dryness on a water bath and proceed as above. Note that the silver vessel will be attacked during this procedure; thus do not test for silver in the melt. The composition of some common alloys are given below; the chief constituents are listed in their order of mass per cent:
Brasses Bronzes Phosphor bronzes Solders Pewter Type metals German silver CU,Zn,Sn,Pb Cu, Sn, Zn, Pb CU,Sn,Pb,P Sn, Pb, Bi Sn, Sb,Pb,Cu Pb,Sb, Sn Cu, Ni, Zn Monel metal Constantan Nichrome Manganin Wood's alloy Rose's alloy Devarda's alloy Ni, Cu Cu, Ni Ni, Fe, Cr Cu, Mn, Ni Bi, Pb, Sn, Cd Bi, Pb, Sn Cu, AI, Zn
5.5
Dissolution of the sample
The preliminary tests, described in the previous sections, have already revealed whether the substance is soluble in water or in acids. If such information is not available, the following procedure should be adopted. Use small quantities (5-10 mg) of the powdered solid and examine the solubility in the following solvents in the order given: (1) water, (2) 6M hydrochloric acid, (3) concentrated hydrochloric acid, (4) 8M nitric acid, (5) concentrated nitric acid, (6) aqua regia. Assess the solubility first when cold, then on warming. If in doubt whether some of the substance has dissolved, evaporate a little of the clear solution on a watch-glass. If the substance dissolves in water, proceed immediately to test for metal ions. If the use of 6M hydrochloric acid results in the formation of a precipitate, this may consist of metals of Group I; the precipitate may either be filtered off and examined for this group, or the original substance should be dissolved in 8M nitric acid.
253
5.6
If concentrated hydrochloric acid is employed for dissolution, it will be necessary to evaporate most of the acid, since certain metals of Group II (e.g. cadmium and lead) are not completely precipitated with hydrogen sulphide in the presence of large concentrations of acid. When nitric acid has been used for dissolution, all the acid should be removed by evaporation, followed by the addition of small amounts of hydrochloric acid, evaporating again to a small bulk and then diluting with water. The same procedure should be applied with aqua regia. Once a suitable solvent has been found, prepare a solution for analysis from 0.5-1 g of the solid; the volume of the final solution should be 20-50 m!. If the substance is insoluble in any of the solvents listed above, follow the procedures described in Section 5.6. If the sample is a metal, decide on the best solvent after the preliminary tests described in Section 5.4. The insoluble part, if any, should be treated according to Section 5.6. Unless the sample is readily soluble in water, the solution is unsuitable for the detection of anions, as during dissolution in acids some of these might decompose. In such case a soda-extract must be prepared according to Section 5.9.
5.6 Examination of the insoluble residue
It may well happen that after treating the substance with the solvents as described above, some insoluble material remains or the whole sample may prove to be insoluble. The most common insoluble substances, together with hints for their identification, are described below.
Ag halides
1. Silver halides AgCl, AgBr, AgI and related compounds (AgCN). These are white or pale yellow substances and can be dissolved in potassium cyanide (POISON) or sodium thiosulphate. In the solution both silver (cf. Section 3.6) and the halides can be identified (see appropriate sections in Chapter 4, as well as Section 5.9, paragraphs 5, 6 and 18). 2. Certain sulphates like SrS04, BaS04, PbS0 4. These white substances can be dissolved in 5% sodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate in the presence of 2M ammonia. Alternatively, they can be partially transformed into carbonates by boiling with saturated sodium carbonate. The precipitate can then be partially decomposed with 2M HCI and the metals can be identified with the usual tests (cf. Section 3.31, reaction 4). 3. Refractory metal oxides like A1 20 3, Cr203, Fe203, Sn02, the mixed antimony(III) antimony(V) oxide Sb 20 4 , Ti0 2 , Th0 2 , W0 3. These should be finely powdered and mixed with an excess of potassium pyrosulphate K 2 S2 0 7 and fused in a porcelain crucible. After cooling the melt can be dissolved in warm, 6M hydrochloric acid. For the fusion it is best to start with placing 5 g analytical grade potassium hydrogen sulphate KHS0 4 into a clean porcelain crucible. Heat gently over a Bunsen flame, when the hydrogen sulphate slowly decomposes to the pyrosulphate and water. Once foaming has abated, increase the temperature
Sulphates
Metal oxides
254
Examination of the insoluble residue
5.6
to red heat. Using forceps, lift the crucible off the flame, and, with careful movements, spread the molten pyrosulphate along the inner walls of the crucible. Allow to cool. Add 50-100 mg of the insoluble material, put a lid on the crucible and heat the mixture again to a reddish-yellowish glow for a prolonged period, as the reactions in the molten phase are rather slow. From time to time examine the molten mixture; if no dark, unreacted particles are to be seen, fusion is complete. Allow to cool, place the crucible, lying on its side, into a small beaker. Pour in 6M hydrochloric acid until the crucible is covered, and heat on a water bath for a few hours. Decant the solution which should contain the metals.
Chromates
4. Insoluble chromates (minerals) like PbCr04 (yellow) and FeCr04 (green). The lead chromate (,chromium yellow') can be decomposed by gently boiling with 5M sodium hydroxide; both chromium and lead can be detected in the supernatant liquid (cf. Sections 3.4 and 3.24). Iron chromate (as the mineral chromite) has to be powdered extremely finely and then fused in a nickel crucible with sodium peroxide. First melt about 1 g of solid Na202 in a nickel crucible by very gentle heating, allow to cool and add 10-50 mg of the mineral. Heat the mixture gently until the fusion is complete. Leach the cooled metal with hot water until the mixture dissolves. Remove the crucible and carefully acidify the solution with 6M hydrochloric acid. The metal hydroxides should dissolve completely; the solution is green because of the presence of nickel ions, originating from the walls of the crucible. Iron(III) and chromium can be tested in the solution (cf. Sections 3.22 and 3.24). Examine the crucible and discard it if the walls are worn thin. 5. Insoluble hexacyanoferrate(II)s like CU2[Fe(CN)6], Zn2[Fe(CN)6], Fe4[Fe(CN)6h (Pruss ian blue). These can be best decomposed by prolonged heating with 5M sodium hydroxide. In all cases hexacyanoferrate(II) ions appear in the solution and can be detected (cf. Section 4.11). Zinc ions can also be detected in the solution (cf. Section 3.29). Copper and iron remain as oxide precipitates. After filtration or decantation and washing, these materials will dissolve in hot 6M HCl; from the solution the metals can be identified (cf. Sections 3.10 and 3.22).
6. Calcium fluoride (fluorspar) CaF2 is a very stable compound. The easiest way to decompose this is to mix the finely powdered sample with silica (or broken glass), and heat the mixture with concentrated H 2S04 in a platinum crucible. Silicon tetrafluoride gas is formed and can be detected (cf. Section 4.17, reaction 1). The residue contains calcium sulphate. This can be extracted with 5% sodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate in the presence of 2M ammonia, and calcium ions can be tested for in the solution (cf. Section 3.33).
Hexacyanoferrate(lI)s
CaF2
Si0 2 and silicates
7. Silica (Si0 2 ) and insoluble silicates can be fused in a platinum crucible with anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na2C03). Place 5 g Na2C03 in a platinum crucible, heat until the substance melts; spread the molten material on the walls of the crucible by holding it with tongs (preferably equipped with platinum tips) and gentle agitation. After cooling, add 10-50 mg of
255
5.7
the well-powdered sample, and heat again until the molten metal mixture appears to be homogeneous when red hot. Extract the cold metal with hot water, allow the solution to cool and cautiously acidify with 6M hydrochloric acid until the vigorous foaming ceases. All the metals present can be identified in the solution: silica precipitates on the addition of the acid. By filtering and washing the precipitate, it can be mixed with some solid calcium fluoride and decomposed with concentrated H 2 S04, as described in the previous paragraph. If only silica is to be detected, the original sample can be mixed with calcium fluoride; silica can be detected after heating the mixture with concentrated H 2 S04,
Carbon
8. Carbon sometimes remains after the dissolution of metals (e.g. iron or steel) as a black insoluble substance. When heated in a small porcelain crucible, it will start to glow and will disappear almost completely. 9. Sulphur, if present in pure form, is yellow, but even small amounts of contaminations will make it appear dark. When heated in a porcelain crucible, it first melts, then volatilizes and, if present in larger quantities, burns with a pungent odour, because of the formation of sulphur dioxide. On heating sulphur with concentrated nitric acid, it dissolves with the formation of sulphate ions, which can be identified in the solution (cf. Section 4.24).
5.7 Testing for a single cation in solution
Sulphur
The scheme follows the classification of cations into groups, as described in Section 3.1. I. Group I cations to the solution add an excess of dilute HC!. If there is no change, follow step 2. A white precipitate may contain Pb 2 +, Hg~+ or Ag+. Filter, wash and add NH3 solution. If the precipitate Does not change Turns black Dissolves Pb 2+ present Hg~+ present Ag+ present
2. Group IIA cations to the acidified solution add H 2 S in excess. If there is no change, follow step 4. A precipitate may result if Pb 2+, Hg2+, BiH, Cu2+, Cd 2+, AsH, As 5+, Sb H , Sn 2+ or Sn 4+ were originally present. Filter the precipitate, wash with dilute HCl, and add an excess of (NH4hSx' If the precipitate dissolves, follow step 3. If the remaining precipitate is Yellow Cd 2+ present
Otherwise take a fresh sample and add dilute H 2S04, If the precipitate is White Pb 2+ present If there is no precipitate, take a fresh sample and add dilute NaOH. If the precipitate is Blue Yellow White
256
Cu 2+ present Hg2+ present BiH present
Testing for a single cation in solution
5.7
3. Group lIB cations to the filtrate add dilute HCI in excess, when the precipitate reappears. Examine its colour: Brown precipitate Sn2+ present
An orange precipitate indicates Sb. To identify its oxidation state, take a fresh sample, acidify with 6M HCI and add KI: No colouration Sb 3+ present Brown colouration Sb 5+ present A yellow precipitate indicates As or Sn4+. Add (NH 4 hC0 3 in excess. lEthe precipitate Remains undissolved Sn4+ present
To identify the oxidation state of As present in the solution, take a fresh sample, acidify with 6M HCI and add KI: No colouration Brown colouration As3+ present As 5+ present
4. Group III cations neutralize the solution with NH3 and add (NH 4 hS in excess. If there is no change, follow step 5. Examine the precipitate. A green precipitate indicates Cr3+. To a fresh sample, add NaOH:
Green precipitate which dissolves in an excess of the reagent
Cr 3+ present
A pink (flesh-like) precipitate indicates Mn2+. To a fresh sample, add NaOH: White precipitate, which turns darker on standing Mn2+ present A white precipitate may be caused by A1 3+ or Zn 2+. To a fresh sample add NH 3 , first in moderate amounts, then in excess: Zn 2+ present White precipitate, which dissolves in excess NH3 White precipitate, which remains unchanged A1 3+ present if excess NH 3 is added A black precipitate occurs if C0 2+, Ni2+, Fe 2+ or Fe3+ were present originally. Filter, wash and mix the precipitate with 6M HCl. The precipitate dissolves if Fe2+ or Fe 3+ were present, otherwise it remains unchanged. To a fresh sample add NaOH in excess: Fe2+ present Green precipitate, turning dark on standing Fe 3+ present Dark brown precipitate Blue precipitate, turning pink if excess NaOH is added Green precipitate, which remains unchanged on standing C0 2+ present Ni 2+ present
5. Group IV cations to the solution add (NH 4 hC0 3 in excess. If there is no precipitation, follow step 6. A white precipitate indicates the presence of Ba2+, Sr2+ or Ca2+.
257
5.8
To a fresh sample add a fourfold (in volume) of saturated CaS04 solution: Immediate white precipitate A white precipitate is slowly formed No precipitation occurs BaH present Sr2+ present Ca2+ present
These cations may be identified also by their flame colourations (see Table 2.1).
6. Group V cations
to the solution add Na2HP04 in excess: Mg2+ present

NHt present
White precipitate Heat a fresh sample gently with some dilute NaOH: Characteristic odour of ammonia
(See also Section 5.3 (3) for the best experimental arrangements.) Carry out a flame test with the original sample (see Table 2.1): Yellow colouration Pale violet colouration
5.8 Separation and identification of cations in mixtures
Na+ present K+ present
The separation scheme below was first outlined by R. Fresenius in 1841, though in the course of time modifications were introduced. Before attempting such a task, it is necessary to test for ammonium ions in the original sample (cf. Section 5.3 (3. During the course of separations most of the reagents are added in the form of ammonium compounds; thus by the time Group V is reached, a considerable amount of ammonium ions have built up in the test solution. Separations l are carried out according to the scheme outlined in Tables 5.1 to 5.10. Note that it is important to verify the presence of a given cation by further tests.
Table 5.1 Separation of cations into groups (Anions of organic acids, borates, fluorides, silicates, and phosphates being present). Add a few drops of 2M HCI to the cold solution. If a precipitate forms, continue adding 2M HCI until no further precipitation takes place. Filter.
Residue Filtrate
Separation into groups
White. Group I present. Examine by Group Separation Table 5.2.
Add I ml of 3% H 2 0 2 solution. Adjust the HCI concentration to O.3M. Heat nearly to boiling, and saturate with H 2S under 'pressure'. Filter.
Residue Filtrate
Coloured. Group II present.
Boil down in a porcelain dish to about 10 ml and thus ensure that all H 2 S has been removed (test with lead acetate ~aper). Add 3-4ml concentrated HNO] to oxidize any Fe 2+ to Fe + etc. and evaporate cautiously to dryness; moisten with 2-3 ml concentrated HNO] and heat gently: this will remove organic acids.
1 A more detailed description of these separations can be found in the 5th edition of this book: Vogel's Textbook of Macro and Semimicro Qualitative Inorganic Analysis, revised by G. Svehla. Longman, 1979, p. 395 ff.
258
Separation and identificatin of cations in mixtures
5.S
Table 5.1
Separation of cations into groups

Residue Filtrate
(contd.)
Separation Tables 5.3 to 5.5
If borate and fluoride are present, evaporate the residue repeatedly with 5-IOml concentrated HC!. If borate is present and fluoride is absent, treat the residue with 5ml methanol and 10 ml concentrated HCI and evaporate on a water bath. Add about 15ml2M HCI, warm and filter from any residue originating from any silicate present. Test 0.5 ml of the filtrate (or solution, if silicate is absent) for phosphate with 3 ml ammonium molybdate reagent and a few drops of concentrated HN0 3, and warm to about 40C: a yellow ppt. indicates phosphate is present. If phosphate is present, remove all phosphate ions as detailed in Table 5.6. Ifphosphate is absent, add 1-2g solid NH4 CI, heat to boiling, add 2M NH3 solution until mixture is alkaline and then I ml in excess, boil for I minute and filter immediately.
Residue Filtrate
Group IIIA present. Examine by Group Separation Table 5.7.
Add 2-3 ml of 2M NH 3, heat, pass H 2 S (under 'pressure') for 0.5-1 minute, filter and wash.
Residue Filtrate
Group IIIB present. Examine by Group Separation Table 5.8.
Transfer to a porcelain dish and acidify with dilute acetic acid. Evaporate to a pasty mass (FUME CUPBOARD), allow to cool, add 3-4ml concentrated HN0 3 so as to wash the solid round the walls to the centre of the dish, and heat cautiously until the mixture is dry. Then heat more strongly until all ammonium salts are volatilized. Coo!. Add 3 ml 2M HCI and IOml water: warm and stir to dissolve the salts. Filter, if necessary. Add 0.25g solid NH 4 CI (or 2.5ml of 20% NH 4 CI solution), render alkaline with concentrated NH3 solution and then add, with stirring, M (NH 4 hC0 3 solution in slight excess. Keep and stir the solution in a water bath at 50-60C for 3-5 minutes. Filter and wash with a little hot water.
Residue Filtrate
Evaporate to a pasty White. Group IV mass in a porcelain dish (FUME CUPBOARD), present. Examine by add 3 ml concentrated HN0 3 so as to wash Group solid from walls to Separation centre of dish, evaporate Table 5.9 cautiously to dryness and then heat until white fumes of ammonium salts cease to be evolved. White residue. Group V present. Examine by Table 5.10.
259
5.8
Table 5.2
Separation and identification of Group I cations (silver group) The precipitate may contain PbCI2, AgCl, and Hg 2C1 2. Wash the precipitate on the filter first with 2ml of 2M HCI, then 2-3 times with I ml portions of cold water and reject the washings with water. Transfer the precipitate to a small beaker or to a boiling tube, and boil with 5-10 ml water. Filter hot.
Residue Filtrate
Group I
May contain Hg2Cl 2 and AgCI. Wash the ppt. several times with hot water until the washings give no ppt. with 0.1 M K2Cr04 solution: this ensures the complete removal of the Pb. Pour 3-4ml warm dilute NH3 solution over the ppt. and collect the filtrate.
Residue Filtrate
If black, consists of Hg(NH 2)Cl + Hg. Hg~+ present.
May contain" [Ag( NH 3lzt Divide into 2 parts: (I) Acidify with 2M HN0 3. White ppt. of AgCl. (2) Add a few drops of O.IM KI solution. Paleyellow ppt. of AgI. Ag present.
May contain PbCI 2. Cool a portion of the solution: a white crystalline ppt. of PbCl 2 is obtained if Pb is present in any quantity. Divide the filtrate into 3 parts: (I) Add O.IM K2Cr04 solution. Yellow ppt. of PbCr04, insoluble in dilute acetic acid. (2) Add 0.1 M KI solution. Yellow ppt. of PbI 2, soluble in boiling water to a colourless solution, which deposits brilliant yellow crystals upon cooling. (3) Add M H 2S0 4, White ppt. of PbS04, soluble in ammonium acetate solution. Pb present.
"The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction I.)
Table 5.3
Separation of Group II into Group IIA and Group liB The precipitate may consist of the sulphides of the Group IIA metals (HgS, PbS, Bi2S3 , CuS, CdS) and those of Group lIB (As 2S3 , Sb 2S3 , Sb 2Ss , SnS, SnS2)' Wash the precipitated sulphides with a little M NH 4CI solution that has been saturated with H 2S (the latter to prevent conversion of CuS into CUS04 by atmospheric oxidation), transfer to a porcelain dish, add about 5 ml yellow ammonium polysulphide solution, heat to 50-60C, and maintain at this temperature for 3-4 minutes with constant stirring. Filter.
Residue Filtrate
Group II
May contain HgS, PbS, Bi 2S3, CuS, and CdS. Wash once or twice with small volumes of dilute (I + 100) ammonium sulphide solution, then with 2% NH 4N0 3 solution and reject all washings. Group IIA present. Follow Table 5.4.
May contain solutions of the thio salts (NH4hAsS 4, (NH4)2SbS4, and (NH4)zSnS3' Just acidify by adding concentrated HCl dropwise (test with litmus paper), and warm gently. A yellow or orange ppt., which may contain As 2Ss , Sb 2Ss , and SnS2, indicates Group IIB present. Follow Table 5.5.
260
5.8
Table 5.4
Separation of Group IIA cations The precipitate may contain HgS, PbS, Bi 2 S3 , CuS and CdS. Transfer to a beaker or porcelain basin, add 5-10 ml 2M HN0 3 , boil gently for 2-3 minutes, filter and wash with a little water.
Residue Filtrate
Group IIA
Black. HgS. Dissolve in a mixture of M NaOCI solution and 0.5mlof2M HCI. Add Iml2M HCI, boil off excess CI 2 and cool. Add SnCI 2 solution. White ppt. turning grey or black. Hg2+ present.
May contain nitrates of Pb, Bi, Cu, and Cd. Test a small portion for Pb by adding dilute H 2S04 and alcohol. A white ppt. of PbS04 indicates Pb present. If Pb present, add MH 2 S0 4 to the remainder of the solution, concentrate in the fume cupboard until white fumes (from the decomposition of the H 2S0 4) appear. Cool, add 10 ml of water, stir, allow to stand 2-3 minutes, filter and wash with a little water.
Residue Filtrate
White: PbS04. Pour 2 ml of 3M ammonium aceta te through the filter several times, add to the filtrate a few drops of 2M acetic acid and then O.IM K 2Cr04 solution. Yellow ppt. of PbCr04' Pb present.
May contain nitrates and sulphates of Bi, Cu and Cd. Add concentrated NH) solution until solution is distinctly alkaline. Filter.
Residue Filtrate
White: may be Bi(OHlJ. Wash. Dissolve in the minimum volume of 2M HCI and pour into cold sodium tetrahydroxostannate(II). Black ppt. Bi present. Alternatively, dissolve a little of ppt. in 2-3 drops 2M HNO). Place I drop of this solution upon filter paper moistened with cinchonine-KI reagent. Orange-red spot. Bi present.
May contain [Cu(NH))4]2+ and [Cd(NH))4f+ If deep blue in colour, Cu is present in quantity. Confirm Cu by acidifying a portion of the filtrate with 2M acetic acid and add K 4[Fe(CN)6] solution. Reddish-brown ppt. Cu present. To the remainder of the filtrate, add M KCN solution dropwise until colour is discharged, and add a further ml in excess. Pass H 2S for 20-30 seconds. Yellow ppt., sometimes discoloured, of CdS. Cd present. Filter off ppt. and dissolve a portion of it in I ml 2M HCI: boil to expel H 2S and most of the acid and apply the 'cadion-2B' test on I drop of the solution. A pink spot confirms Cd.
Table 5.5
Separation of Group lIB cations Treat the yellow ammonium poly sulphide extract of the Group II precipitate (see Table 5.3) with 2M HCI, with constant stirring, until it is slightly acid (test with litmus paper), warm and shake or stir for 1-2 minutes. A fine white or yellow precipitate is sulphur only. A yellow or orange f10cculant precipitate indicates As, Sb, and/or Sn present. Filter and wash the precipitate, which may contain As 2 SS, AS 2 S3 , Sb 2 Ss and S, with a little H 2 S water; reject the washings. Transfer the precipitate to a small conical flask, add 5-10 ml concentrated HCI and boil gently for 5 minutes (with funnel in mouth of flask). Dilute with 2-3 ml water, pass H 2 S for I minute to reprecipitate small amounts of arsenic that may have dissolved, and filter.
261
5.S Selected tests and separations
Table 5.5
Group liB
Separation of Group lIB cations

Residue
(contd.)
Filtrate
May contain As 2Ss, As2 S3, and S (yellow). Dissolve the ppt. in 3-4 ml warm 2M NH3 solution, filter (if necessary), add 3-4ml 3% H 2 0 2 solution and warm for a few minutes to oxidize arsenite to arsenate. Add a few ml of the Mg(N0 3l2 reagent. Stir and allow to stand. White, crystalline ppt. of Mg(NH4)As04 6H 20. As present. Filter off ppt., and pour I ml of AgN0 3 solution containing 6-7 drops of 2M acetic acid onto residue on filter. Brownish-red residue of Ag 3As04.
May contain Sb 3+ and Sn4+. Boil to expel H 2 S, and divide the cold solution into three parts. (I) Render just alkaline with 2M NH3 solution, disregard any slight ppt., add 1-2 g solid oxalic acid, boil, and pass H 2S for c. I minute into the hot filtrate. Orange ppt. of Sb 2S). Sb present. (2) To 2 drops of the solution on a spot plate, add a minute crystal of NaN02 and then 2 drops of Rhodamine-B reagent. Violet solution or ppt. Sb present. (3) Partially neutralize the liquid with 2M NH), add 10 cm clean iron wire to I ml of the solution. (If much Sb is present, it is better to reduce with Mg powder.) Warm gently to reduce the tin to the divalent state, and filter into a solution of HgCI 2 . White ppt. of Hg 2 CI2 or grey ppt. of Hg. Sn present.
Table 5.6
Removal of
pol-
Removal of phosphate If a phosphate has been found (cf. Table 5.1), proceed as follows. Dissolve the precipitate produced by the action of NH 4 CI and a slight excess ofNH) solution in the minimum volume of 2M HC!. [The precipitate may contain Fe(OHh, AI(OHh, Cr(OHh, Mn02' xH 2 0, traces ofCaF 2, and the phosphates of Mg and the Group IlIA, IlIB, and IV metals.] Test about 0.5 ml for Fe by the addition of K 4 [Fe(CN)6] or O.lM NH 4 SCN solution. To the main volume of the cold solution, add 2M NH) solution dropwise, with stirring, until either a faint permanent precipitate is just obtained or until the solution is just alkaline (test with litmus paper). Then add 2-3 ml 9M acetic acid and 5 ml 6M ammonium acetate solution. Disregard any precipitate which may form at this stage. If the solution is red or brownish-red, sufficient iron(III) is present in the solution to combine with all the phosphate ions. If the solution is not red in colour, add almost neutral FeCI) solution drop by drop and with stirring, until the solution acquires a deep brownish-red colour. Dilute the solution to about ISO ml with hot water, boil gently for 1-2 minutes, filter hot and wash the residue with a little boiling water.
Residue Filtrate
May contain the phosphates (and, possibly, the basic acetates) of Fe, AI, and Cr and also Fe(OHh. Group IlIA present. Rinse the ppt. into a porcelain dish by means of 10 ml cold water, add I-I.S g sodium peroxoborate, NaBO) '4H 2 0 (or add Sml2M NaOH solution, followed by Sml 3% H 2 0 2 solution); and boil gently until the evolution of O2 ceases (2-3 minutes). Filter and wash with a little hot water.
Residue Filtrate
CrO~-.
Boil down in an evaporating dish to

20-2Sm!. Add O.Sg NH 4CI and then
2M NH) solution in slight excess. Filter, if necessary.

Residue Filtrate
FeP04 + Fe(OHlJ, Reject.
May contain [AI(OHJ4r and
Examine for AI and Cr, if not previously tested for. In general, no ppt. will be obtained here.
Examine for Groups IIIB, IV and for Mg as detailed in Tables S.8 and S.9.
Examine for AI and Cr as described in Group Separation Table S.7.
262
5.8
Table 5.7
Separation of Group IlIA cations The precipitate produced by adding NH 4 Cl and NH3 solution and boiling may contain Fe(OHl3, Cr(OHl3, Al(OHl3, and a little MnO(OHh. Wash with a little hot 1% NH 4 Cl solution. Transfer the precipitate with the aid of 5-10 ml water to a small evaporating basin or a small beaker, add 1-1.5 g sodium peroxoborate, NaB0 3 ' 4H zO (or add 5 ml 2M NaOH solution, followed by 5 ml 3% HzO z solution). Boil gently until the evolution of Oz ceases (2-3 minutes). Filter.
Residue May contain Fe(OHh and MnO(OHh. Wash with a little hot water. Dissolve a small portion of the ppt. in I ml of 8M HN0 3 with the aid (if necessary) of 3-4 drops of 3% H 20 2 solution or I drop of saturated H 2S0 3 solution. Boil (to decompose H 2 0 2 ), cool thoroughly, add 0.05-0.1 g sodium bismuthate, shake, and allow the solid to settle. Violet solution of MnO;;-. Mn present. Dissolve another portion of the ppt. in 2M HCI (filter, if necessary). Either - add a few drops ofO.IM NH 4SCN solution. Deep red colouration. Fe present. Or - add K 4[Fe(CN)6] solution. Blue ppt. Fe present. The original solution or substance should be tested with K 4[Fe(CN)6] and with O.lM NH 4SCN to determine whether Fe 2+ or Fe 3+. Filtrate May contain CrO~- (yellow) and [AI(OH)4r (colourless). If colourless, Cr is absent and need not be considered further. If the solution is yellow, Cr is indicated. Divide the liquid into three portions. (I) Acidify with 2M acetic acid and add 0.25M lead acetate solution. Yellow ppt. of PbCr04' Cr present. (2) Acidify 2ml with 2M HN0 3, cool thoroughly, add I ml amyl alcohol, and 4 drops of 3% H 20 2 solution. Shake well and allow the two layers to separate. Blue upper layer (containing chromium pentoxide; it does not keep well). Cr present. (3) Acidify with 2M HCI (test with litmus paper), then add 2M NH3 solution until just alkaline. Heat to boiling. Filter. White gelatinous ppt. of AI(OHJJ, Al present. Dissolve a small portion of the ppt. in I ml hot 2M HCI. Cool, add I ml 6M ammonium acetate solution and 0.5 ml of the M 'aluminon' reagent. Stir the solution and render basic with ammonium carbonate solution. A red ppt. confirms the presence of AI.
Group IliA
Table 5.8
Separation of Group IIIB cations The precipitate may contain CoS, NiS, MnS and ZnS. Wash well with 1% NH 4 CI solution to which 1% by volume of (NH 4 hS has been added; reject the washings. Transfer the precipitate to a small beaker. Add 5 ml water and 5 ml 2M HC1, stir well, allow to stand for 2-3 minutes and filter.
Residue If black, may contain CoS and NiS. Test residue with borax bead. If blue, Co is indicated. Dissolve the ppt. in a mixture of 1.5ml M NaOCI solution and 0.5ml 2M HC!. Add I ml 2M HCI, and boil until all Cl2 is expelled. Cool and dilute to about 4 m!. Divide the solution into two equal parts. Filtrate Mat: contain Mn2+ and Zn2+ and, possibly, traces of Co + and Ni 2 +. Boil until H 2S removed (test with lead acetate paper), cool, add excess 2M NaOH solution, followed by I ml 3% H 2 0 2 solution. Boil for 3 minutes. Filter.
Group IIIB
263
5.8
Table 5.8
Group liB
Separation of Group IIIB cations

Residue
(contd.)
Residue Filtrate
(I) Add I ml amyl alcohol, 2g solid NH 4SCN and shake well. Amyl alcohol layer coloured blue. Co present. (2) Add 2ml NH4Cl M solution, 2M NH3 solution until alkaline, and then excess of dimethylglyoxime reagent. Red ppt. Ni present.
Largely MnO(OHh and perhaps traces of Ni(OHh and Co(OHlJ. Dissolve the ppt. in 5ml of 8M HN0 3, with the addition of a few drops of 3% HzOz solution, if necessary. Boil to decompose excess HzOz and cool. Add 0.05 g NaBi03, stir and allow to settle. Purple solution of MnO". Mn present.
May contain [Zn(OH)4l z-. Divide into two parts. (I) Acidify with 2M acetic acid and pass H 2 S. White ppt. of ZnS. Zn present. (2) Just acidify with M H 2S04, add 0.5ml ofO.IM cobalt acetate solution and 0.5 ml of the ammonium tetrathiocyanatomercurate(II) reagent: stir. Pale blue ppt. Zn present.
Table 5.9
Group IV
Separation of Group IV cations The precipitate may contain BaC0 3, SrC0 3 and CaC0 3. Wash with a little hot water and reject the washings. Dissolve the precipitate in 5 ml hot 2M acetic acid by pouring the acid repeatedly through the filter paper. Test I ml for barium by adding 0.1 M K2Cr04 solution dropwise to the nearly boiling solution. A yellow precipitate indicates Ba. Ba present. Heat the remainder of the solution almost to boiling and add a slight excess of 0.1 M K2Cr04 solution (i.e. until the solution assumes a yellow colour and precipitation is complete). Filter and wash the precipitate (C) with a little hot water. Render the hot filtrate and washings basic with 2M NH3 solution and add excess M (NH4hC03 solution or, better, a little solid Na2C03' A white precipitate indicates the presence of SrC03 and/or CaC03. Wash the precipitate with hot water, and dissolve it in 4 ml warm 2M acetic acid: boil to remove excess CO 2 (solution A). Ba absent. Discard the portion used in testing for barium, and employ the remainder of the solution (B), after boiling for 1 minute to expel CO 2, to test for strontium and calcium.
Residue (C) Solution A or Solution B
Yellow: BaCr04' Wash well with hot water. Dissolve the ppt. in a little concentrated HCI, evaporate almost to dryness and apply the flame test. Green (or yellowish-green) flame. Ba present. (U se spectroscope, if available.)
The volume should be about 4ml. Either - To 2ml of the cold solution, add 2 ml saturated (NH 4)zS04 solution, followed by 0.2 g sodium thiosulphate, heat in a beaker of boiling water for 5 minutes and allow to stand for 1-2 minutes. Filter. Or - To 2 ml of the solution add 2 ml triethanolamine, 2 ml saturated (NH4)zS04 solution, heat on a boiling water bath with continuous stirring for 5 minutes and allow to stand for 1-2 minutes. Dilute with an equal volume of water and filter.
Residue Filtrate
Largely SrS04' Wash with a little water. Transfer ppt. and filter paper to a small crucible, heat until ppt. has charred (or burn filter paper and ppt., held in a Pt wire, over a crucible), moisten ash with a few drops concentrated HCI and apply the flame test. Crimson flame. Sr present. (Use spectroscope, if available.)
May contain Ca complex. (If Sr is absent, use 2 ml of solution A or B.) Add a little O.!M (NH 4hC 20 4 solution, 2m! 2M CH 3COOH and warm on a water bath. White ppt. of CaC 2 0 4. Ca present. Confirm by flame test on ppt. - brick-red flame. (U se spectroscope, if available.)
264
Special tests for anions in mixtures 5.9

Table 5.10 Group V
Identification of Group V cations Treat the dry residue from Group IV with 4ml water, stir, warm for I minute and filter. If the residue dissolves completely (or almost completely) in water, dilute the resulting solution (after filtration, if necessary) to about 6 ml and divide it into three approximately equal parts: (I) use the major portion to test for Mg with the 2% 8-hydroxyquinoline solution: confirm Mg by applying the magneson test to 3~4 drops of the solution; (2) and (3) test for Na and K, respectively, as described below.
Residue Filtrate
Dissolve in a few drops of 2M HCl and add 2~3 ml water. Divide the solution into two unequal parts. (I) Larger portion: Treat I ml 2% 8-hydroxyquinoline solution in 2M acetic acid with 5 ml 2M ammonia solution and, if necessary, warm to dissolve any precipitated oxine. Add a little M NH4 Cl solution to the test solution, followed by the ammoniacal oxine reagent, and heat to boiling point for 1-2 minutes (the odour of NH J should be discernible). Pale yellow ppt. of Mg 'oxinate'. Mg present. (2) Smaller portion: To 3-4 drops, add 2 drops of the magneson reagent, followed by several drops of 2M NaOH solution until alkaline. A blue ppt. confirms Mg.
Divide into two parts (a) and (b). (a) Add a little uranyl magnesium acetate reagent, shake and allow to stand for a few minutes. Yellow crystalline ppt. Na present. Confirm by flame test: persistent yellow flame. (b) Add a little sodium hexanitritocobaltate(III) solution (or c. 4 mg of the solid) and a few drops of 2M acetic acid. Stir and, if necessary, allow to stand for 1-2 minutes. Yellow ppt. ofK J [Co(N0 2)6)' K present. Confirm by flame test and view through two thicknesses of cobalt glass: red colouration (usually transient).
5.9
Special tests for mixtures of anions
It is not possible to devise a comprehensive separation scheme for anions; however, it is possible to detect them individually in most cases, after perhaps a 1~2 stage separation. It is advantageous to remove all heavy metals from the sample by extracting the anions through boiling with sodium carbonate solution; heavy metal ions are precipitated out in the form of carbonates, while the anions remain in solution accompanied by sodium ions. The selected tests are listed in order of increasing complexity; it is advisable to do them in the order they are described.
Soda extract
Preparation of the soda extract Intimately mix the solid sample with 3~4 times (in volume) of anhydrous sodium carbonate, add just sufficient water to dissolve the sodium carbonate. In the case of dissolved samples, add 5 g anhydrous sodium carbonate to 10 ml solution. Heat the mixture under reflux for 15 minutes and filter. Wash and discard the residue. Acidify the combined filtrate and washings gently with 8M nitric acid, boil gently to expel carbon dioxide and allow to cool. Add 2M ammonia solution portionwise and with stirring, until the solution just turns alkaline. Boil gently for 1~ 2 minutes to remove excess ammonia. Cool, and filter again if necessary. The filtrate will be termed here the 'neutralized soda extract'. 1. Carbonate in the presence of sulphite sulphites, on treatment with dilute sulphuric acid, liberate sulphur dioxide which, like carbon dioxide, produces a turbidity with lime or baryta water. The dichromate test for sulphites is,
265
co~-
+ SO~-
however, not influenced by the presence of carbonates. To detect carbonates in the presence of sulphites, treat the solid mixture with M sulphuric acid and pass the evolved gases through a small wash bottle or boiling tube containing potassium dichromate solution and M sulphuric acid. The solution will be turned green and the sulphur dioxide will, at the same time, be completely removed; the residual gas is then tested with lime or baryta water in the usual manner. An alternative procedure is to add a little sodium potassium dichromate or a small volume of 3% hydrogen peroxide solution to the mixture and then to warm with M sulphuric acid; the evolved gas is then passed through lime or baryta water.
N0 3 + N0 2
2. Nitrate in the presence of nitrite the nitrite is readily identified in the presence of a nitrate by treatment with dilute mineral acid, potassium iodide, and starch paste (or potassium iodide-starch paper). The nitrate cannot, however, be detected in the presence of a nitrite since the latter gives the brown ring test with iron(II) sulphate solution and dilute sulphuric acid. The nitrite is therefore completely decomposed first by adding some sulphamic acid to the solution. The nitrate can then be tested for by the brown ring test. 3. Nitrate in the presence of bromide and iodide the brown ring test for nitrates cannot be applied in the presence of bromides and iodides since the liberation of the free halogen with concentrated sulphuric acid will obscure the brown ring due to the nitrate. The solution is therefore boiled with 2M sodium hydroxide solution until ammonium salts, if present, are completely decomposed; powdered Devarda's alloy or aluminium powder (or wire) is then added and the solution gently warmed. The evolution of ammonia, detected by its smell and its action upon red litmus paper, indicates the presence of a nitrate.
N0 3 + CI0 3
4. Nitrate in the presence of chlorate the chlorate obscures the brown ring test. The nitrate is reduced to ammonia as described under paragraph 3; the chlorate is at the same time reduced to chloride, which may be tested for with silver nitrate solution and dilute nitric acid. If a chloride is originally present, it may be removed first by the addition of silver sulphate solution or ammoniacal silver sulphate solution. The ammoniacal solution should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.) 5. Chloride in the presence of bromide and/or iodide this procedure involves the removal of the bromide and iodide (but not chloride) by oxidation with potassium or ammonium peroxodisulphate in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid. The free halogens are thus liberated, and may be removed either by simple evaporation (addition of water may be necessary to maintain the original volume) or by evaporation at about 80C in a stream of air. It must be emphasized that these reactions take place only in acid media. Add solid potassium peroxodisulphate and 2M sulphuric acid to the neutralized soda extract of the mixed halides contained in a conical flask; heat the
266
Special tests for anions in mixtures
5.9
Fig. 5.2
flask to about 80C, and aspirate a current of air through the solution with the aid of a filter pump until the solution is colourless (Fig. 5.2; T is a drawn-out capillary tube). An all-glass device can be assembled from Quickfit conical flask FE 50/2 and trap head MF 28/52. Add more potassium peroxodisulphate or water as may be found necessary. Test the residual colourless liquid for chloride with O.lM silver nitrate solution and 2M nitric acid. Do not mistake precipitated silver sulphate for silver chloride. In a modification of this method, lead dioxide is substituted for potassium peroxodisulphate. Acidify the solution with 2M acetic acid, add lead dioxide, and boil the mixture until bromine and iodine are no longer evolved. Filter, and test the filtrate, which should be colourless, with silver nitrate solution and dilute nitric acid.
6. Chloride in the presence of bromide warm the solid mixture with a little solid potassium dichromate and concentrated sulphuric acid in a small distilling flask (Fig. 5.1), and pass the vapours, which contain chromyl chloride, into sodium hydroxide solution. Test for chromate, which proves the presence of a chloride, with hydrogen peroxide and amyl alcohol or with the diphenylcarbazide reagent. 7. Chloride in the presence of iodide add excess 0.1 Msilver nitrate solution to the neutralized soda extract and filter; reject the filtrate. Wash the precipitate with 2M ammonia solution and filter again. Add 2M nitric acid to the washings; a white precipitate of silver chloride indicates the presence of chloride. 8. Bromide and iodide in the presence of each other and of chloride the presence of a chloride does not interfere with the reactions described below. To the soda extract, strongly acidified with 6M hydrochloric acid, add 1-2 drops of chlorine water (the solution obtained by carefully acidifying a M solution of sodium hypochlorite with 2M hydrochloric acid may also be used) and 2-3 ml chloroform; shake; a violet colour indicates iodide. Continue the addition of chlorine water or of acidified sodium hypochlorite solution drop by drop to oxidize the iodine to iodate and shake after each addition. The violet colour will disappear, and a reddishbrown colouration of the chloroform, due to dissolved bromine (and/or bromine monochloride, BrCI), will be obtained if a bromide is present. If iodide alone is present, the solution will be colourless after the violet colour has disappeared.
CI-
+ CI03" + CI0 4
9. Chloride, chlorate, and perchlorate in the presence of each other each anion must be tested for separately. Divide the soda extract into 3 parts. (a) Chloride acidify with 2M nitric acid and boil to expel carbon dioxide. Add 0.1 Msilver nitrate solution; a white precipitate of silver chloride indicates the presence of chloride. Silver chlorate and perchlorate are soluble in water. (b) Chlorate acidify with 2M nitric acid and add O.lM silver nitrate solution; filter off the precipitated silver chloride. Now introduce a little chloride-free sodium nitrite (which reduces the chlorate to chloride) and
267
5.9
more silver nitrate solution into the filtrate; a white, curdy precipitate of silver chloride indicates the presence of chlorate. (c) Perchlorate pass excess sulphur dioxide into the solution to reduce chlorate to chloride, boil off the excess sulphur dioxide, and precipitate the chloride with saturated silver sulphate solution, afterwards removing the excess silver with 0.5M sodium carbonate. Evaporate the resulting solution to dryness and heat to dull redness (better in the presence of a little halidefree lime) to convert the perchlorate into chloride. Extract the residue with water, and test for chloride with 0.1 M silver nitrate solution and 2M nitric acid.
10. Iodate and iodide in the presence of each other the addition of dilute acid to a mixture of iodate and iodide results in the separation of free iodine, due to the interaction between these ions:
Neither iodates nor iodides alone do this when acidified with dilute hydrochloric, sulphuric, or acetic acids in the cold. Test for iodide in the neutralized soda extract or in a solution of the sodium salts by the addition of a few drops of chlorine water (or acidified sodium hypochlorite solution) and 2-3 ml chloroform; the latter is coloured violet. Add excess saturated silver sulphate solution to another portion of the neutral solution and filter off the silver iodide; remove the excess silver sulphate with O.5M sodium carbonate solution. Pass sulphur dioxide into the filtrate to reduce iodate to iodide, boil off the excess sulphur dioxide, and add O.IM silver nitrate solution and 2M nitric acid. A yellow precipitate of silver iodide confirms the presence of iodate in the original substance.
11. Phosphate in the presence of arsenate both arsenate and phosphate give a yellow precipitate on warming with ammonium molybdate solution and nitric acid, the latter on gently warming and the former on boiling. Acidify the soda extract with 6M hydrochloric acid, bubble through sulphur dioxide to reduce the arsenate to arsenite, boil off the excess sulphur dioxide (test with potassium dichromate paper), and pass hydrogen sulphide into the solution to precipitate the arsenic as arsenic(III) sulphide; continue the passage of hydrogen sulphide until no more precipitate forms. Filter, boil off the hydrogen sulphide, and test the filtrate for phosphate by the ammonium molybdate test or with the magnesium nitrate reagent.
po2- + AsO~- + Aso2-
12. Phosphate, arsenate, and arsenite in the presence of each other treat the soda extract with M sulphuric acid until acidic, warm to expel carbon dioxide, render just alkaline with 2M ammonia solution and filter, if necessary. Add a few millilitres of magnesium nitrate reagent and allow to stand for 5-10 minutes; shake or stir from time to time. Filter off the white, crystalline precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate and/or magnesium ammonium arsenate (A), and keep the filtrate (B). Test for arsenite in the filtrate (B) by acidifying with 2M hydrochloric acid and passing hydrogen sulphide, when a
268
5.9
yellow precipitate of arsenic(III) sulphide is immediately produced if arsenite is present. Wash the precipitate (A) with 2M ammonia solution, and remove half of it to a small beaker with the aid of a clean spatula. Treat the residue on the filter with a little 0.1 M silver nitrate solution containing a few drops of 2M acetic acid: a brownish-red residue (due to Ag 3 As0 4 ) indicates arsenate present. If the residue is yellow (largely Ag 3 P0 4 ), pour 6M hydrochloric acid through the filter a number of times, and add a little O.lM potassium iodide solution and 1-2 ml chloroform to the extract and shake; if the organic layer acquires a purple colour, an arsenate is present. Dissolve the white precipitate in the beaker in 2M hydrochloric acid, reduce the arsenate (if present) with sulphur dioxide, precipitate the arsenic as arsenic(III) sulphide with hydrogen sulphide and boil off the hydrogen sulphide in the filtrate. Render the filtrate (C) slightly ammoniacal and add a little magnesium nitrate reagent: white, crystalline magnesium ammonium phosphate will be precipitated if a phosphate is present. Filter off the precipitate, wash with a little water, and pour a little 0.1 M silver nitrate solution (containing a few drops of 2M acetic acid) over it: yellow silver phosphate will be formed. Alternatively, the ammonium molybdate test may be applied to the filtrate (C) after evaporating to a small volume.
S2-
+ SO~- + S20~- +
SO~-
13. Sulphide, sulphite, thiosulphate, and sulphate in the presence of each other upon the addition of dilute acid to the mixture, the hydrogen sulphide, liberated from the sulphide, and the sulphur dioxide, liberated from the sulphite and thiosulphate, react and sulphur is precipitated; this complication necessitates the use of a special procedure for their separation (see Table 5.11).
Separation of sulphide, sulphite, thiosulphate, and sulphate excess of freshly precipitated CdC0 3 , and filter.
Residue Filtrate
Table 5.11
Shake the solution with
CdS and excess of CdC0 3. Wash and reject washings. Digest residue with 2M acetic acid to remove excess carbonate. A yellow residue indicates sulphide. Confirm by warming with 2M HCl and test the evolved H 2S with lead acetate paper.
Add Sr(N0 3h solution in slight excess, shake, allow to stand overnight and filter.
Residue Filtrate
SrS03 and SrS04. Wash, treat with

2M HCl and filter.
Residue
Filtrate
SrS04 White. Sulphate present. Confirm by fusion with Na2CO] and apply sodium nitroprusside test.
Contains sulphurous acid. Add a few drops ofa O.005M solution of iodine; the latter is decolourized. Sulphite present.
Contains SrS203. Acidify with 2M HCl and boil; S02 is evolved and S is slowly precipitated. Thiosulphate present.
269
A mixture of the sodium salts or soda extract is employed for this separation.
14. Sulphide, sulphite, and thiosulphate in the presence of each other it is assumed that the solution is slightly alkaline and contains the sodium salts of the anions, e.g. the soda extract is used. (a) Test a portion of the solution for sulphide with sodium nitroprusside solution. The formation of a purple colouration indicates the presence of a sulphide. (b) If sulphide is present, remove it by shaking with freshly precipitated cadmium carbonate and filter. Test a portion of the filtrate with sodium nitroprusside solution to see that all the sulphide has been removed, When no sulphide is present, treat the remainder of the filtrate with a drop of phenolphthalein solution and bubble through carbon dioxide until the solution is decolourized by it. Test 2-3 ml of the colourless solution with 0.5-1 ml of the 0.1 % fuchsin reagent. If the reagent is decolourized, the presence of sulphite is indicated. (c) Treat the remainder of the colourless solution with 2M hydrochloric acid and boil for a few minutes. If sulphur separates, a thiosulphate is indicated. 15. Borate in the presence of copper and barium salts when carrying out the ethyl borate test for borates (Section 4.23, reaction 2), it must be remembered that copper and barium salts may also impart a green colour to the alcohol flame. The test may be carried out in the following way when salts of either or both of these metals are present. The mixture of the borate, concentrated sulphuric acid, and ethanol is placed in a small, round-bottomed flask, fitted with a glass jet and surmounted by a wide glass tube, which acts as a 'chimney' (Fig. 5.3). An all-glass apparatus can be put together from Quickfit
Fig. 5.3
270
5.9
round bottomed flask FR 50/1 S and joint cone with stem MF 15/2. The mixture is gently warmed, and the vapours ignited at the top of the wide glass tube. A green flame confirms the presence of a borate.
F-
+ [SiF 6f- + SO~-
16. Fluoride, hexafluorosilicate, and sulphate in the presence of each other the following differences in solubilities of the lead salts are utilized in this separation: lead hexafluorosilicate is soluble in water; lead fluoride is insoluble in water but soluble in dilute acetic acid; lead sulphate is insoluble in water and in boiling dilute acetic acid, but soluble in concentrated ammonium acetate solution. (See Table 5.12.)
(COO)~-
+ F-
17. Oxalate in the presence of fluoride both calcium fluoride and calcium oxalate are precipitated by 0.5M calcium chloride solution in the presence of 2M acetic acid. The fluoride may be identified in the usual manner with concentrated sulphuric acid. The oxalate is most simply detected by dissolving a portion of the precipitate in hot M sulphuric acid and then adding a few drops of a 0.004M solution of potassium permanganate. The latter will be decolourized if an oxalate is present. 18. Chloriue and cyanide in the presence of each other both silver chloride and silver cyanide are insoluble in water, but soluble in dilute ammonia solution. The concentrated solution, or preferably the solid mixture of sodium salts, is treated with about 5 times its weight of 30% hydrogen peroxide and the mixture gently warmed; ammonia is evolved, which is recognized by its action upon mercury(I) nitrate paper. The solution is then boiled to decompose all the hydrogen peroxide, and then tested for chloride with O.IM silver nitrate solution and 2M nitric acid.
CI-
+ cw
+ H 2 0 2 --> OCN- + H 2 0 OCN- + 2H 20 --> HCO)" + NH3

CN[Fe(CN)6l 4 - + [Fe(CN)6l 3- + SCW
19. Hexacyanoferrate( II), hexacyanoferrate( III), and thiocyanate in the presence of each other details are given in Table 5.13.
Table 5.12
Detection of fluoride, hexafluorosilicate, and sulphate in the presence of each other Add excess O.25M lead acetate solution to the solution of the alkali metal salts, and filter cold.
Residue Filtrate
Wash well with cold water. Divide into two parts. (I) Smaller portion. Add excess 2M acetic acid and boil (this will dissolve any lead fluoride). White residue indicates sulphate. The residue is soluble in 6M ammonium acetate solution. (2) Larger portion. Treat cautiously with concentrated sulphuric acid and test with a moist glass rod. Milkiness of the water and etching of the tube indicate fluoride.
Add Ba(N0 3 h solution and warm gently. White crystalline precipitate indicates hexafluorosilicate.
271
5.9
Table 5.13
Separation of hexacyanoferrate(II), hexacyanoferrate(III), and thiocyanate Acidify the neutralized soda extract of the sodium salts with 2M acetic acid, add excess of a
solution of thorium nitrate and some macerated filter paper (Whatman Ashless Floc) and shake well; filter.
Residue Filtrate
Th[Fe(CN)6J. Wash with a little cold water. Treat the ppt. on the filter paper with 2M NaOH solution; acidify the alkaline extract with O.5M HCl and add a few drops of 2M FeCI) solution. A precipitate of Prussian blue indicates hexacyanoferrate(II).
Add CdS0 4 solution, shake, filter

Residue Filtrate
Orange. Cd) [Fe(CN)6h. Extract with 2M NaOH solution, acidify extract with dilute HCl, add freshly prepared O.5M FeS04 solution. Precipitate of Prussian blue indicates hexacyanoferrate(III).
Add O.5M FeCI) solution and ether. Red colouration of ether proves presence of thiocyanate.
Organic acids
20. Detection of organic salts (oxalate, tartrate, citrate, benzoate, succinate, acetate, formate and salicylate) in the presence of each other this can be done after a partial separation, as described in Table 5.14. Procedure A: separation of benzoate and succinate Boil the precipitated iron(III) salts with a little 2M ammonia solution, filter off the precipitated iron(III) hydroxide and discard the precipitate; boil off the excess ammonia from the filtrate. Divide the filtrate into two parts. Treat one portion with barium chloride solution and filter off the precipitate formed. The residue consists of barium succinate. Confirm the succinate by the fluorescein test. Acidify the second portion of the filtrate with 2M hydrochloric acid, when benzoic acid will separate out on cooling. It can be identified by its melting point. Procedure B: formates and acetates in the presence of each other Formate (a) In the absence of tartrates, citrates, and reducing agents. Add O.IM silver nitrate solution to the neutralized soda extract; a white precipitate, which is converted into a black deposit of silver on boiling, indicates formate. A little of the solid substance may be treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, when carbon monoxide (burns with blue flame) will be evolved in the cold. (b) In the presence of tartrates, citrates, and reducing agents. Acidify the mixture with M sulphuric acid and distil. A solution of formic and acetic acids will pass over. Neutralize the distillate with 2M ammonia solution, boil off excess ammonia (if necessary) and test as in (a). Acetate If other organic acids are present, obtain the solution of mixed acids as in (b); otherwise, use the neutralized soda extract. Boil under
272
5.9
Table 5.14
Separation and detection of organic acids Add O.5M CaCl 2 solution to the cold neutralized soda extract, rub sides of vessel with a glass rod, allow to stand for 10 minutes with occasional shaking; filter.
Residue Filtrate
May be Ca oxalate (formed immediately) or Ca tartrate (formed on standing). Wash. Boil with 2M acetic acid and filter.
Residue Filtrate
Add more CaCl 2 solution, boil under reflux for at least 5 minutes. A ppt. may form gradually; filter
Residue Filtrate
CaC 20 4 Dissolve in a little 2M HCI, add NH3 solution in slight excess. White ppt. insoluble in 2M acetic acid. Oxalate present. Confirm by decolourization of acidified
O.004M
May contain Ca tartrate. Test neutral solution with Fenton's reagent, violet colouration, or by silver mirror test for tartrate. Confirm by copper hydroxide test.
KMn04 at
60-70C.
Ca citrate. White. Citrate present. Divide into 2 parts. (I) Confirm by Deniges's test. (2) Dissolve in 2M HCI, convert into neutral solution with 2MNH3 solution, etc., and add Cd acetate solution. White gelatinous precipitate.
If citrate present, evaporate to dryness on water bath, add a little cold water, and filter from any residue of Ca citrate. If citrate absent, proceed with solution. Add O.5M FeCl 3 solution; filter (if necessary) .
Residue Filtrate
Iron(lII) benzoate and/or iron(lII) succinate. Separate by procedure A.
Coloured. Dilute, boil and filter.

Residue Filtrate
Basic iron(lII) formate and basic iron(lII) acetate. Separate by procedure B.
Coloured. (a) Violet salicylate. Confirm by 'oil of wintergreen' test. (b) Deep blue or greenish black - gallate or tannate.
reflux with an equal volume of potassium dichromate solution and sulphuric acid; this will decompose the formic acid. Distil off the acetic acid, neutralize and test in the distillate with O.5M iron(III) chloride solution.
M
273
Chapter 6
Reactions of some less common ions
6.1
Introduction
In the previous chapters the discussions were restricted to those cations and anions which occur most often in ordinary samples. Having studied the reactions, separation, and identification of those ions, the reader should now concentrate on the so-called 'rarer' elements. Many of these, like tungsten, molybdenum, titanium, vanadium, and beryllium, have important industrial applications. No attempt has been made to give more than a short introduction to the subject; to economize on space, most of the simple equations have been omitted. The elements have been classified, in so far as is possible, in the simple groups with which the reader is already familiar, and methods of separation have been briefly indicated. Thus thallium and tungsten are in Group I; molybdenum, gold, platinum, selenium, tellurium, and vanadium in Group II; and beryllium, titanium, uranium, thorium, and cerium in Group III. It is hoped that the subject-matter of this chapter will suffice to enable the reader to detect the presence of one or two of the less common ions.
6.2
Thallium, TI (Ar: 204.34) - thallium(l)
Thallium is a heavy metal with characteristics reminiscent oflead. It melts at 302.3C. Thallium metal can be dissolved readily in nitric acid; it is insoluble in hydrochloric acid. Thallium forms the monovalent thallium(l) and trivalent thallium(III) ions, the former being of greater analytical importance. Thallium(III) ions are less frequently encountered in solutions, as they tend to hydrolyse in aqueous media, forming thallium(III) hydroxide precipitate. Thallium(I) ions can be oxidized to thallium(III) ions in acid media with permanganate and hexacyanoferrate(III) ions as well as with lead dioxide, chlorine gas, bromine water or aqua regia (but not with concentrated nitric acid). The reduction of thallium(III) ions to thallium(I) is easily effected by tin(lI) chloride, sulphurous acid, iron(lI) ions, hydroxylamine or ascorbic acid.
TI+ reactions
Reactions of thallium ( /) ions To study these reactions a O.025M solution of thallium(l) sulphate, TI 2 S04 , or a O.05M solution of thallium(I) nitrate, TIN0 3 , should be used. All these compounds are HIGHLY POISONOUS.
274
Thallium(l)
6.2
HCI
1
white TICI
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid white preCIpItate of thallium(I) chloride, TICl, sparingly soluble in cold, but more soluble in hot water (compare lead). 2. Potassium iodide solution yellow precipitate of thallium(I) iodide, TIl, almost insoluble in water; it is also insoluble in cold sodium thiosulphate solution (difference, and method of separation, from lead). 3. Potassium chromate solution yellow precipitate of thallium(I) chromate, TI2Cr04, insoluble in cold, dilute nitric or sulphuric acid. 4. Hydrogen sulphide no precipitate in the presence of dilute mineral acid. Incomplete precipitation of black thallium(I) sulphide, TI2S, occurs in neutral or acetic acid solution. 5. Ammonium sulphide solution black precipitate of thallium(I) sulphide, TI2S, soluble in mineral acids. The precipitate is oxidized to thallium(I) sulphate, TI 2S04, upon exposure to air. Owing to the slight solubility of thallium(I) chloride, some of the thallium is also precipitated with Group II ions.
KI
!
yellow Til K2Cr0 4
1
yellow TI2Cr04 H 2S or (NH4)zS
1
black TI 2S
Na3[Co(N02)6]
1
red TI 3[Co(N0 2)6] H2 [PtCI 6]
6. Sodium hexanitritocobaltate( III) solution light-red precipitate of thallium (I) hexanitritocobaltate(III), Tl3 [Co(N0 2)61. 7. Hexachloroplatinic( IV) acid solution pale-yellow precIpitate of thallium(I) hexachloroplatinate(IV) Tl2 [PtCI 6], almost insoluble in water (solubility: 0.06g1- 1 at 15C). 8. Potassium hexacyanoferrate( III) solution brown precipitate of thallium(III) hydroxide in alkaline solution: Tl+ + 2[Fe(CN)61 3- + 30H- ---> Tl(OHhl + 2[Fe(CN)61 4-
1
yellow TI 2[PtCI 6] K3[Fe(CN)6]
1
brown TI(OHh
A similar result is obtained with sodium hypochlorite, sodium hypobromite or hydrogen peroxide in alkaline solution.
NH 4 SCN
1
white TISCN Atomic spectrometry
9. Ammonium thiocyanate solution white precipitate of thallium(I) thiocyanate, TlSCN; the precipitate is dissolved in hot water. 10. Atomic spectrometric tests in emission mode 10 ppm thallium can be identified at 535.05 nm with the air/acetylene flame. By atomic absorption, using a thallium hollow-cathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame the detection sensitivity is about I ppm at 276.79nm. A 1000ppm thallium standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 1.2350 g of analytical grade thallium(I) sulphate TI 2S04 in water and diluting to 1 litre. 11. Flame test all thallium salts exhibit a characteristic green colouration when introduced into the colourless Bunsen flame. When examined through the spectroscope only one sharp line can be seen, at 535 nm, in contrast to barium, which exhibits several lines between 510 and 550 nm (cf. Fig. 2.5 in Section 2.2).
275
Flame colour: green
6.4
Reactions of less common ions
6.3
Thallium, TI (Ar: 204.34) - thallium(lIl)
The general physical and chemical properties of thallium were discussed in Section 6.2.
T1 3+ reactions
Reactions of thallium (Ill) ions To study these reactions use a O.2M solution of thallium(III) chloride, TICI 3 . Note that all thallium salts are HIGHLY POISONOUS! 1. Sodium hydroxide or ammonia solution brown precipitate of thallium(III) hydroxide, insoluble in excess of the reagent (difference from thallium(I) salts, which give no precipitate), but readily soluble in hydrochloric acid. 2. Hydrochloric acid no precipitate [difference from thallium(I) salts]. 3. Potassium chromate solution salts]. no precipitate [difference from thallium(I)
NaOH
1
brown TI(OHlJ
KI
1
brown Til
+ 13"
4. Potassium iodide solution brownish-black precipitate, probably a mixture of thallium (I) iodide and iodine. 5. Hydrogen sulphide reduced to thallium(I) with the precIpitation of sulphur. If the acid is neutralized, thallium (I) sulphide, TI 2S, precipitates. 6. Atomic spectrometric tests these were described in Section 6.2, reaction 10. 7. Flame test see Section 6.2, reaction 11.
6.4
Tungsten, W (Ar: 183.85) - tungstate
Solid tungsten is a white-coloured metal; the powdered metal is grey. Its melting point is extremely high (3370C). The metal is insoluble in acids, including aqua regia. To dissolve metallic tungsten, it should be ignited first in a stream of oxygen, and the tungsten trioxide, W0 3 , which is formed, can then be fused with solid sodium hydroxide in an iron crucible. The solidified melt will dissolve in water when tungstate ions, WO~-, are formed. Tungstates form complex acids with phosphoric, boric, and silicic acids; tungstic acid cannot therefore be precipitated from these compounds by hydrochloric acid. The complexes may usually be decomposed by heating with concentrated sulphuric acid, tungstic acid being liberated.
WO~- reactions
Reactions of tungstate ions To study these reactions use a O.2M aqueous solution of sodium tungstate Na2 W0 4 2H 20. 1. Dilute hydrochloric acid white precipitate of hydrated tungstic acid, H2 W0 4 . H 20, in the cold; upon boiling the mixture, this is converted into yellow tungstic acid, H2 W0 4 , insoluble in dilute acids. Similar results are
Hel
1
white ppt
276
Tungsten(VI)
6.4
obtained with dilute nitric and sulphuric acids, but not with phosphoric acid. Tartrates, citrates, and oxalates inhibit the precipitation oftungstic acid. The precipitate is soluble in dilute ammonia solution (distinction from Si02 xH 20).
2. Phosphoric acid white precIpItate of phosphotungstic acid (dodecatungstatophosphoric acid) H3[P04(W12036)] or H 3[P(W 30 JO )4], soluble in excess of the reagent. 3. Hydrogen sulphide
(NH 4 12S + acid
no precipitate in acid solution.
1
brown WS 3 dissolves in excess
4. Ammonium sulphide solution no precipitate, but if the solution is afterwards acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid, a brown precipitate of tungsten trisulphide, WS 3 , is produced. The precipitate dissolves in ammonium sulphide solution forming a thiotungstate ion WS~-. 5. Zinc and hydrochloric acid if a solution of tungstate is treated with hydrochloric acid and then a little zinc added, a blue colouration or precipitate is produced. The product is called 'tungsten blue' and has a composition approximate to the formula W 20 S '
6. Tin ( II) chloride solution yellow precipitate, which becomes blue upon warming with concentrated hydrochloric acid. The spot-test technique is as follows. Mix 1-2 drops of the test solution with 3-5 drops of the tin(II) chloride reagent on a spot plate. A blue precipitate or colouration of tungsten blue W 2 0 S ' Sensitivity 5 ~g W. Concentration limit 1 in 10 000. Molybdenum gives a similar reaction. If, however, a thiocyanate is added, the red complex ion [Mo(SCN)6]3- is formed, and upon the addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid the red colour disappears and the blue colour due to tungsten remains. The spot test is conducted as follows in the presence of molybdenum. Place a drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid upon filter or dropreaction paper and a drop of the test solution in the centre of the spot. A tungstate produces a yellow stain. Add a drop of 10% potassium thiocyanate solution and a drop of saturated tin(II) chloride; a red spot, due to [Mo(SCN)6]3-, is produced, but this disappears when a drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid is added and a blue colour, due to tungsten blue, remams. Sensitivity 4 ~g W. Concentration limit 1 in 12000.
Reduction to tungsten blue
FeS04
1
brown ppt. difference from Mo
7. Iron ( II) sulphate solution brown precIpItate. This turns white upon adding dilute hydrochloric acid, and then yellow upon heating (difference from molybdates).
AgN0 3
1
yellow A9 2 W0 4
8. Silver nitrate solution pale yellow precipitate of silver tungstate, soluble in ammonia solution, decomposed by nitric acid with the formation of white hydrated tungstic acid.
277
6.6
Phenol test
9. KHSO c H 2 SO c phenol test (Defacqz reaction) a little of the solid (or the residue obtained by evaporating a little of the solution to dryness) is heated with 4-5 times its weight of potassium hydrogen sulphate slowly to fusion, and the temperature is maintained until the fluid melt is clear. The cold melt is stirred with concentrated sulphuric acid. Upon adding a few milligrams of phenol to a few drops of the sulphuric acid solution, an intense red colouration is produced (difference from molybdate). A reddish-violet colouration is obtained if hydroquinone replaces the phenol. The test is a highly sensitive one and will detect 21lg of tungstate. 10. Atomic spectrometric tests for the detection of tungsten, high-temperature flames have to be used. In emission mode 1 ppm can be identified at 400.87 nm with the nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. By atomic absorption, using a tungsten hollow-cathode lamp and a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame the detection sensitivity is about 1 ppm at the same wavelength. More sensitive results can be achieved at the 255.13 nm resonance line. A 1000 ppm tungsten standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 1.7942 g of analytical grade sodium tungstate dihydrate Na2 W0 4 2H 20 in a mixture of 100 ml water and 20 ml 2M sodium hydroxide. After complete dissolution dilute with water to 1 litre. 11. Dry test microcosmic salt bead: oxidizing flame - colourless or paleyellow; reducing flame - blue, changing to blood-red upon the addition of a little iron(II) sulphate.
Atomic spectrometry
Dry test
6.5
Separation and identification of Group I cations in the presence of thallium and tungsten
The separation and identification of Hg(I), Ag, W, Pb, and Tl(I) is described in Table 6.1.
6.6
Molybdenum, Mo (A,: 95.94) - molybdate
Molybdenum is a silverish-white, hard, heavy metal. In powder form it is grey. It melts at 2622C. The metal is resistant to alkalis and hydrochloric acid. Dilute nitric acid dissolves it slowly, concentrated nitric acid renders it passive. Molybdenum can readily be dissolved in aqua regia or in a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen fluoride. Molybdenum forms compounds with oxidation numbers +2, +3, +4, +5, and +6. Of these, molybdates are the most important (with oxidation number +6). Molybdates are the salts of molybdic acid, H 2Mo0 4. This acid tends to polymerize with the splitting off of molecules of water. Thus, the commercial ammonium molybdate is in fact a heptamolybdate in which [M0 7 0 24 l6 - ions are present. For the sake of simplicity the formula MoO~- will be used in this text whenever molybdates are discussed.
278
Molybdenum(VI)
Table 6.1 Separations in Group I
6.6
Separation and identification of Group I cations in the presence of TI and W The precipitate may contain PbCI 2 , AgCl, Hg2 Cl 2 , TICI, and tungstic acid (W03' xH 20). Wash the precipitate on the filter with 2 ml portions of 2M HCI, then 2-3 times with 1 ml portions of cold water, and reject the washings. Transfer the precipitatea to a boiling tube or to a small beaker, and boil with 10-15 ml water. Filter hot.
Residue Filtrate
May contain Hg2C1 2, AgCl, and tungstic acid. Wash the ppt. several times with hot water until the washings give no ppt. with O.IM K2Cr04 solution; this ensures the complete removal of the Pb and Tl. Pour 5 ml warm, 2M NH3 solution repeatedly through the filter.
Residue Filtrate
May contain Pb 2+ and Tl+; these may crystallize out on cooling. Evaporate to fuming with 2-3 ml concentrated H 2S04, cool, dilute to 1O-20ml, cool and filter.
Residue
Filtrate
If black, consists of Hg(NH2)Cl +Hg. Hg(I) present.
If white consists of PbS0 4. This is soluble in 6M ammonium acetate solution; K2Cr04 solution then precipitates Filtrate Residue yellow PbCr04, May contain WO~- . insoluble in 2M Pale yellow (AgI). Evaporate to a small acetic acid. Pb present. Ag present. volume, acidify with 2M HCl, add 3 ml O.25M SnCl 2 solution, boil, add 3 ml concentrated HCl, and heat again to boiling. Blue ppt. or colouration. W present. Confirm by the Defacqz reaction. May contain [Ag(NH3ht and WO~-. Nearly neutralize with 2M HCl, add just enough 2M NH3 solution to redissolve any ppt. which forms. Add O.lM KI solution and filter. b
May contain Tl+. Just neutralize with 2M NH3 solution, and add O.IM KI solution. Yellow ppt. of TlI, insoluble in cold O.5M Na2S203 solution. Tl present. Confirm by flame test; intense green flame. (Use spectroscope, if available.)
a A gelatinous precipitate may also be hydrated silica, which is partially precipitated here from silicates decomposed by acids. b The solution obtained after dissolving in ammonia should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.)
MoO~- reactions
Reactions of molybdate ions To study these reactions use a 4.5% solution of ammonium molybdate, (NH4)6Mo7024 '4H 20, which is approximately O.25M for molybdate MoO~-.
Hel
white ppt
H2 S
I. Dilute hydrochloric acid white or yellow precipitate of molybdic acid, H 2Mo0 4, from concentrated solutions, soluble in excess mineral acid.
2. Hydrogen sulphide with a small quantity of the gas and an acidified molybdate solution, a blue colouration is produced; further passage of hydrogen sulphide yields a brown precipitate of the trisulphide, MoS 3 ; this is soluble in ammonium sulphide solution to a solution containing a
279
!
blue colour then brown MoS 3
6.6
thiomolybdate, [MoS 4 l2-, from which MoS 3 is reprecipitated by the addition of acids. The precipitation in acid solution is incomplete in the cold; more extensive precipitation is obtained by the prolonged passage of the gas into the boiling solution and under pressure. Precipitation is quantitative with excess hydrogen sulphide at ODC in the presence of formic acid.
Reduction to molybdenum blue
3. Reducing agents e.g. zinc, tin(H) chloride solution, colour a molybdate solution acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid blue (due to 'molybdenum blue' M0 20 S )' then green and finally brown (see also section 3. IS, reaction 8). 4. Ammonium thiocyanate solution yellow colouration in solution acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid, becoming blood-red upon the addition of zinc or of tin(H) chloride on account of the formation of hexathiocyanatomolybdate(lII) [Mo(SCN)6l 3-; the latter is soluble in ether. The red colouration is produced in the presence of phosphoric acid (difference from iron). The spot-test technique is as follows. Place a drop of the test solution and a drop of 10% potassium thiocyanate solution upon quantitative filter paper or upon drop-reaction paper. Add a drop of saturated tin(H) chloride solution. A red spot is obtained. Sensitivity O.lllg Mo. Concentration limit I in 500000. If iron is present, a red spot will appear initially but this disappears upon the addition of tin(H) chloride solution (or of sodium thiosulphate solution). Tungstates reduce the sensitivity of the test (cf. Section 6.4, reaction 6). 5. Disodium hydrogen phosphate solution yellow, crystalline precipitate of ammonium phosphomolybdate in the presence of excess nitric acid (cf. phosphates, Section 4.28, reaction 4). 6. Potassium hexacyanoferrate( II) solution reddish-brown precipitate of molybdenum hexacyanoferrate(II), insoluble in dilute mineral acids, but readily soluble in solutions of caustic alkalis and ammonia [difference from uranyl and copper(H) hexacyanoferrate(H)s]. 7. Benzoin a-oxime reagent (or 'cupron' reagent)
{C6Hs CHOH C(=NOH)C6HS} The molybdate solution is strongly acidified with dilute sulphuric acid and 0.5 ml of the reagent added. A white precipitate is produced.
NH 4 SCN
1
yellow colour
Na2 H P0 4
1
yellow ppt
K4 [Fe(CN)6]
1
brown ppt
Cupron
1
white ppt
K xanthate purple colour
8. Ethyl potassium xanthate test {SC(SK)OC2 H s} when a molybdate solution is treated with a little solid eth)'l potassium xanthate and then acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid, a red-purple colouration is produced. With large amounts of molybdenum, the compound separates as dark, oily drops which are readily soluble in organic solvents such as benzene, chloroform, and carbon disulphide. The reaction product has been given the formula Mo0 2 [SC(SH)(OC 2 H s )]z. The test is said to be specific for molybdates, although copper, cobalt, nickel, iron, chromium, and uranium under exceptional conditions interfere. Large quantities of oxalates, tartrates, and citrates decrease the sensitivity of the test.
280
Gold(llI)
6.7
The spot-test technique, for which the reaction is particularly well' adapted, is as follows. Place a drop of the nearly neutral or faintly acid test solution on a spot plate, introduce a minute crystal of ethyl potassium xanthate, followed by 2 drops of 2M hydrochloric acid. An intense redviolet colouration is obtained. Sensitivity 0.041!g Mo. Concentration limit 1 in 250000.
Phenyl hyd razi ne
1
red colour
9. Phenylhydrazine reagent (C6H5' NHNH2 ) a red colouration or precipitate is produced when molybdates and an acid solution of phenylhydrazine react. The latter is oxidized by the molybdate to a diazonium salt, which then couples with the excess of base in the presence of the molybdate to yield a coloured compound. Mix a drop of the test solution and a drop of the reagent on a spot plate. A red colouration appears. Sensitivity 0.31!g Mo. Concentration limit 1 in 150000.
Fe2(S04h
1
reduction, difference from W Atomic spectrometry
10. Iron ( II) sulphate solution reddish-brown colour. Upon adding dilute mineral acid, the colour changes to blue; the colour becomes paler and more green upon warming but returns to blue on cooling (difference from tungstate).
11. Atomic spectrometric tests to avoid interferences from certain metals (like Ca, Fe) it is best to use the nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. In emission mode 1 ppm molybdenum can be identified at 390.30nm with either the air/ acetylene or the nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. By atomic absorption, using a molybdenum hollow-cathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame the detection sensitivity is about 0.1 ppm at 3l3.26nm. A 1000 ppm molybdenum standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 1.8403 g of analytical grade ammonium molybdate tetrahydrate (NH4)6M07024 '4H20 in water and diluting to 1 litre. 12. Dry tests (a) Microcosmic salt bead: oxidizing flame - yellow to green while hot and colourless when cold; reducing flame - brown when hot, green when cold. (b) Evaporation with concentrated sulphuric acid in a porcelain dish or crucible: a blue mass (containing 'molybdenum blue') is obtained. The blue colour is destroyed by dilution with water.
Dry tests
6.7
Gold, Au (Ar: 196.97) - gold(III)
Gold is a heavy metal with its characteristic yellow colour. In powderous form it is reddish-brown. It melts at 1064.8C. Gold is resistant to acids; only aqua regia dissolves it when tetrachloroaurate(III), [AuCI 4r, anions are formed. Gold dissolves slowly in potassium cyanide, when dicyanoaurate(I), [Au(CNhr, anions are formed. From both the monovalent and trivalent forms gold can easily be reduced to the metal. Gold(I) compounds are less stable than those of gold(III).
281
6.7
Reactions of less common ions Au 3+ reactions
Reactions of go/d(lll) (tetrach/oroaurate(lll)) ions To study these reactions use a O.33M solution of commercial gold(III) chloride, which in fact is hydrogen tetrachloroaurate(III), H[AuCI 4l 3H20.
1. Hydrogen sulphide black precipitate of gold(I) sulphide, AU2S (usually mixed with a little free gold), in the cold. It is insoluble in dilute acids, but largely soluble in yellow ammonium sulphide solution, from which it is reprecipitated by dilute hydrochloric acid. A brown precipitate of metallic gold, together with gold(I) sulphide and sulphur, is obtained upon precipitation of a hot solution; this is also largely dissolved by yellow ammonium sulphide solution.
2[AuC14r
NH3
+ 3H2S -+ AU2S! + 2S! + 6H+ + SCI-
1
yellow ppt
2. Ammonia solution yellow precipitate of 'fulminating gold'; this has been formulated as AU203 3NH3 + NH(CINH 2Auh but the exact composition is not fully established. The dry substance EXPLODES UPON HEATING or upon percussion (DANGER). 3. Oxalic acid solution gold is precipitated as a fine brown powder (or sometimes as a mirror) from cold neutral solutions (difference from platinum and other Group II metals). Under suitable conditions, the gold is obtained in the colloidal state as a red, violet, or blue solution.
(COOHlz
1
brown Au
2[AuC14r
+ 3(COO)~-
-+
2Au! + 6C02i
+ SCl-
Similar results are obtained with iron(II) sulphate solution. Reduction also occurs with hydroxylamine and hydrazine salts, and with ascorbic acid.
SnCI 2
1
purple of Cassius
4. Tin(l/) chloride solution purple precipitate, 'purple of Cassius', consisting of an adsorption compound of tin(II) hydroxide, Sn(OHh, and colloidal gold, in neutral or weakly acid solution. In extremely dilute solutions only a purple colouration is produced. If the solution is made strongly acid with hydrochloric acid, a dark-brown precipitate of pure gold is formed. 2[AuC14r + 4Sn 2+ + 2H 20 -+ 4 -+ 2Au! + Sn(OHh! + 3Sn + + 2H+ + SCl5. Hydrogen peroxide the finely divided metal is precipitated in the presence of sodium hydroxide solution (distinction from platinum). The precipitated metal appears brownish-black by reflected light and bluish-green by transmitted light.
2[AuC14r
NaOH
+ 3H 20 2 + 60H-
-+
2Au!
+ 302i + SCl- + 6H 20
1
brown Au(OH)3
6. Sodium hydroxide, amphoteric aurate(III),
hydroxide solution reddish-brown precipitate of gold(III) Au(OHh, from concentrated solutions. The precipitate has properties; it dissolves in excess alkali forming tetrahydroxo[Au(OH)4r, ion.
Rhodanine violet ppt
7. 4-Dimethylaminobenzylidene-rhodanine (or rhodanine) reagent (for formula see silver, Section 3.6, reaction II): red-violet precipitate in neutral or faintly acid solution. Silver, mercury, and palladium salts give coloured compounds with the reagent and must therefore be absent.
282
Platinum(lV)
6.8
Moisten a piece of drop-reaction paper with the reagent and dry it. Place a drop of the neutral or weakly acid test solution upon it. A violet spot or ring is obtained. Sensitivity 0.1 Ilg Au. Concentration limit 1 in 500000.
Atomic spectrometry
8. Atomic spectrometric tests in emission mode 10 ppm gold can be identified at 268.60 nm with the air/acetylene flame. By atomic absorption, using a gold hollow-cathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame the detection sensitivity is about 1 ppm at 242.80 nm. A 1000 ppm gold standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 0.1000 g of analytical grade gold metal in a mixture of 15 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid and 5 ml nitric acid. The solution should be evaporated on a water bath to 5 ml, then diluted to 100 ml with water. Keep the solution in a dark bottle. 9. Dry test all gold compounds when heated upon charcoal with sodium carbonate yield yellow, malleable, metallic particles, which are insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in aqua regia. The aqua regia solution should be evaporated to dryness, dissolved in water, and tests 1,3 or 4 applied.
Dry test
6.8
Platinum, Pt (Ar: 195.09)
Platinum is a greyish-white, ductile and malleable heavy metal with a density of 21.45 gcm- 3 and a melting point of 1773C. It is a noble metal, not attacked by dilute or concentrated acids, except aqua regia, which dissolves platinum forming hexachloroplatinate(IV) ions:
Molten alkalis and alkali peroxides attack platinum, therefore these should never be melted in platinum crucibles. In its compounds, platinum can be mono-, di-, tri-, tetra- and hexavalent, tetravalent platinum being the most important in analytical practice.
[PtCI 6
f-
reactions
Reactions of hexachloroplatinate(IV) ions To study these reactions use a 0.5M solution of hexachloroplatinic acid [hydrogen hexachloroplatinate(IV).
1. Hydrogen sulphide black (or dark brown) precipitate of the disulphide, PtS2 (possibly containing a little platinum metal), is slowly formed in the cold, but rapidly on warming. The precipitate is insoluble in concentrated acids, but dissolves in aqua regia and also in ammonium poly sulphide solution; it is reprecipitated from the latter by dilute acids.
283
6.8
KCI
1
yellow K2 [PtCI 6 ]
2. Potassium chloride solution yellow precipitate of potassium hexachloroplatinate(IV), K 2 [PtCI6 ], from concentrated solutions (difference from gold). A similar result is obtained with ammonium chloride solution. 3. Oxalic acid solution no precipitate of platinum (difference from gold). Hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide solution likewise do not precipitate metallic platinum.
Reducing agents
4. Sodium formate
black powder of metallic platinum from neutral boiling
1
black Pt
solutions.
5. Zinc, cadmium, magnesium or aluminium finely divided platinum.

[PtCI 6]2- + 2Zn
---->
all these metals precipitate
Ptl + 2Zn 2+ + 6Cl-
6. Hydrazine sulphate ready reduction in ammoniacal solution to metallic platinum, some of which is deposited as a mirror upon the sides of the tube.
AgN0 3
1
yellow A9 2 [PtCI 6 ] KI
7. Silver nitrate solution yellow precipitate of silver hexachloroplatinate(IV), Ag 2 [PtCl 6], sparingly soluble in ammonia solution but soluble in solutions of alkali cyanides and of alkali thiosulphates. 8. Potassium iodide solution intense brownish-red or red colouration, due to [Ptl 6]2- ions. With excess of the reagent K 2 [PtI 6] may be precipitated as an unstable brown solid. On warming, black Ptl 4 may be precipitated.
9. Tin ( II) chloride solution red or yellow colouration, due to tetrachloroplatinate(IV) ions, [PtCI 4]2-, soluble in ethyl acetate or in ether. To employ this reaction as a spot test in the presence of other noble metals (gold, palladium, etc.), the noble metals are first precipitated with thallium(l) ions. From the mixture, gold, palladium, etc. can be dissolved with ammonia, but thallium(I) hexachloroplatinate remains. Place a drop of saturated thallium(I) nitrate solution upon drop-reaction paper, add a drop of the test solution and then another drop of the thallium(I) nitrate solution. Wash the precipitate with ammonia solution, and add a drop of strongly acid tin(II) chloride solution. A yellow or orange spot remains. Sensitivity 0.5 ~g Pt. Concentration limit 1 in 80000.
1
red complex
SnCI 2
1
yellow colloidal Pt
Rubeanic acid red ppt
10. Dithio oxamide (rubeanic acid) reagent (0.02%)

H 2N-C-C-NH 2
s s
284
Paliadium(lI)
6.9
a purplish-red precipitate of the complex
is formed. Palladium and a large proportion of gold interfere. Place a drop of the test solution (acid with HCl) upon a spot plate and add a drop of the reagent. A purplish-red precipitate is produced. Concentration limit 1 in 10 000.
Atomic spectrometry
11. Atomic spectrometric tests these can be somewhat unreliable, as the analytical signal can be depressed by a large number of metals present in the mixture. In emission mode 10 ppm platinum can be identified at 265.95 nm with the air/acetylene flame. By atomic absorption, using a platinum hollow-cathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame the detection sensitivity is about 1 ppm at the same wavelength. A 1000 ppm platinum standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 0.2275 g of analytical grade ammonium hexachloroplatinate (NH4hPtCI6 in water and diluting to 100m!. 12. Dry test all platinum compounds when fused with sodium carbonate upon charcoal are reduced to the grey, spongy metal (distinction from gold). The residue is insoluble in concentrated mineral acids, but dissolves in aqua regia. The solution is evaporated almost to dryness, dissolved in water, and reactions 1,2, 5,9 or 10 applied.
Dry test
6.9
Palladium, Pd (Ar: 106.4)
Palladium is a light-grey metal which melts at 1555C. Its most interesting physical characteristic is that it is able to dissolve (absorb) hydrogen gas in large quantities. Unlike platinum, palladium is slowly dissolved by concentrated nitric acid, and by hot concentrated sulphuric acid, forming a brown solution of palladium(II) ions. Palladium can also be dissolved by fusing the metal first with potassium pyrosulphate and then leaching the frozen melt with water. The metal dissolves readily in aqua regia, when both Pd 2+ and Pd 4+ (more precisely, [PdCI4l2~ and [PdCl6l2~) ions are formed. If such a solution is evaporated to dryness, the latter loses chlorine so that on treating the residue with water a solution of palladium(II) ions is obtained. Palladium(II) ions are most stable; palladium(III) and (IV) compounds can easily be transformed into palladium(II).
Pd 2+ reactions
Reactions ofpalladium ( II) ions of palladium(II) chloride.
To study these reactions use a 1% solution
H2 S
1
black PdS
1. Hydrogen sulphide black precipitate of palladium(II) sulphide, PdS, from acid or neutral solutions. The precipitate is insoluble in ammonium sulphide solution.
285
6.9
NaOH
1
brown ppt
2. Sodium hydroxide solution reddish-brown, gelatinous precipitate of the hydrated oxide, PdO' nH 20 (this may be contaminated with a basic salt), soluble in excess of the precipitant. 3. Ammonia solution red precipitate of [Pd(NH 3 )4][PdCI 4], soluble in excess of the reagent to give a colourless solution of [Pd(NH 3 )4l 2+ ions. Upon acidifying the latter solution with hydrochloric acid, a yellow crystalline precipitate of [Pd(NH 3 hCI 2 l is obtained. 4. Potassium iodide solution black precipitate of palladium(II) iodide, PdI 2, in neutral solution, soluble in excess of the reagent to give a brown solution of [PdI 4l2-. In acid solution, black PdI 2 is precipitated.
red ppt. dissolves in excess KI
1
black Pd1 2. dissolves in excess Hg(CN)2
1
white Pd(CN)z. difference from Pt l-Nitroso-2-naphthol
5. Mercury ( II) cyanide solution white precipitate ofpalladium(II) cyanide, Pd(CNh (difference from platinum), sparingly soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, readily soluble in potassium cyanide solution and in ammonia solution.
6. I-Nitroso-2-naphthol solution brown, voluminous Pd(C IO H 6 0 2 Nh (difference from platinum).
precipitate
of
1
brown ppt Reducing agents
1
black Pd Dimethylglyoxime
7. Reducing agents (Cd, Zn or Fe in acid solution ,formic acid, sulphurous acid, etc.) black, spongy precipitate of metallic palladium, 'palladium black'. Tin(II) chloride yields a brown suspension containing metallic palladium. 8. Dimethylglyoxime reagent yellow, crystalline precipitate of palladium dimethylglyoxime, Pd(C 4 H 70 2 N 2 h. insoluble in M hydrochloric acid (difference from nickel and from other platinum metals) but soluble in dilute ammonia solution and in potassium cyanide solution (cf nickel, Section 3.27, reaction 8). Salicylaldoxime reagent also precipitates palladium quantitatively as Pd(C 7 H 6 0 2Nh (cf. copper, Section 3.10, reaction 9; difference from platinum). Place a drop of the slightly acid solution on a microscope slide and add a minute crystal of dimethylglyoxime. After some minutes, a yellow precipitate is formed. This is seen to consist of long, very characteristic needles when examined under a microscope (x 75). Platinum does not interfere, but gold and nickel give a similar reaction. Concentration limit I in 10 000.
1
yellow ppt
H9 2 CI 2 suspension
1
reduction to Pd
9. Mercury ( /) chloride (calomel) suspension the metal Pd 2+ + 2CI-
reduces palladium(II) ions to
+ Hg2 Cl2 1 ---> Pdl + 2HgCl 2
Shake the slightly acid test solution with solid mercury(I) chloride in the cold. The solid acquires a grey colour. Concentration limit 1 in 100000.
Atomic spectrometry
10. Atomic spectrometric tests in emission mode 10 ppm palladium can be identified at 363.47 nm with the air/acetylene flame. By atomic absorption, using a palladium hollow-cathode lamp and an air/acetylene flame the detection sensitivity is about I ppm at 247.64nm. An approximately 1000ppm
286
Selenium
6.10
palladium standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 0.17 g of reagent grade palladium(II) chloride PdCl2 in water and diluting to 100 m!.
6.10 Selenium, Se (Ar: 78.96) - selenites, SeO~-
Selenium resembles sulphur in many of its properties. It dissolves readily in concentrated nitric acid or in aqua regia to form selenious acid, H2Se03. In analytical work selenites, SeO~-, and selenates, SeO~-, are both encountered; selenites being more stable. In this section selenites are dealt with; the reactions of selenates together with dry tests for selenium will be dealt with in Section 6.11.
SeO- reactions
Reactions of selenite ions To study these reactions use a 0.1 M solution of selenious acid, H2Se03 (or Se02), or sodium selenite, Na2Se03. 1. Hydrogen sulphide yellow precipitate, consisting of a mixture of selenium and sulphur, in the cold, becoming red on heating. The precipitate is readily soluble in yellow ammonium sulphide solution.
SeO~-
H2S
1
yellow Se+ S
+ 2H 2S + 2H+ -> Sel + 2S1 + 3H 20
Reducing agents
1
red Se
2. Reducing agents (sulphur dioxide, solution of tin ( II) chloride, iron ( II) sulphate, hydroxylamine hydrochloride, hydrazine hydrochloride or hydriodic acid (KI + HCI), zinc or iron) red precipitate of selenium in hydrochloric acid solution. The precipitate frequently turns greyish-black on warming. When solutions in concentrated hydrochloric acid are boiled or evaporated, serious losses of selenium as SeCl4 occur.
CUS04
1
green CuSe03 BaCI 2
3. Copper sulphate solution bluish-green, crystalline precipitate of copper selenite, CuSe03' in neutral solution (difference from selenate). The precipitate is soluble in dilute acetic acid. 4. Barium chloride solution white precipitate of barium selenite, BaSe03, in neutral solution, soluble in dilute mineral acids. 5. Thiourea test, CS(NH2h solid or dissolved thiourea precipitates selenium as a red powder from cold dilute solutions of selenites. Tellurium and bismuth give yellow precipitates, whilst large amounts of nitrite and of copper interfere. Place a little powdered thiourea on quantitative filter paper and moisten it with a drop of the test solution. Orange-red selenium separates out. Sensitivity 21!g Se. 6. Iodides
SeO~-
1
white BaSe03 Thiourea test
KI
selenites are reduced by potassium iodide and hydrochloric acid
1
reduced to Se
+ 6r + 6H+ -> Sel + 213 + 3H 20
The iodine is removed by adding a thiosulphate, and the selenium remains as a reddish-brown powder. Tellurites react under these conditions forming the complex anion, [TeI6l2-, which also has a reddish-brown colour; it is, however, decomposed and decolourized by thiosulphate, thus permitting
287
6.11
the detection of selenium in the presence of not too large an excess of tellurium. Place a drop of concentrated hydriodic acid (or a drop each of 6M potassium iodide solution and of concentrated hydrochloric acid) upon dropreaction paper and introduce a drop of the acid test solution into the middle of the original drop. A brownish-black spot appears. Add a drop of 0.5M sodium thiosulphate solution to the spot; a reddish-brown stain of elemental selenium remains. Sensitivity 1 jlg Se (in 0.025 ml). Concentration limit 1 in 25000.
Pyrrole
7. Pyrrole reagent
CH-CH
1
blue colour. distinction from SeO~-
II
CH
II
CH
"'-/
NH
Selenious acid oxidizes pyrrole to a blue dyestuff of unknown composition ('pyrrole blue'). Iron salts accelerate the reaction when it is carried out in phosphoric acid solution. Selenic, tellurous and telluric acids do not react under the conditions given below: the test therefore provides a method of distinguishing selenites and selenates. Place a drop of 0.5M iron(III) chloride solution and 7 drops of concentrated phosphoric acid (density 1.75 gcm- 3 ) on a spot plate containing 1 drop of the test solution and stir well. Add a drop of the pyrrole reagent and stir again. A greenish-blue colouration is obtained. Sensitivity 0.5 jlg Se. Concentration limit 1 in 100000.
NH 4 SCN
1
reduction to Se
8. Ammonium thiocyanate and hydrochloric acid selenites are reduced in acid solution to elemental selenium:
2SeO~-
+ SCN- + 4H+ ---> 2Sel + CO2 r + NHt + SO~-
Mix 0.5 ml of the test solution with 2 ml of 10% potassium thiocyanate solution and 5 ml of 6M hydrochloric acid, and boil for 30 seconds. A red colouration, due to selenium, is produced.
Selenium, Se (Ar: 78.96) - selenates, SeO~-
6.11
The most important properties of selenium were described in Section 6.10.

SeO~- reactions
Reactions of selenate ions To study these reactions use a O.lM solution of potassium selenate, K2Se04, or sodium selenate, Na2Se04 . IOH 20. 1. Hydrogen sulphide no precipitation occurs. If the solution is boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid, the selenic acid is reduced to selenious acid; hydrogen sulphide then precipitates a mixture of selenium and sulphur.
SeO~-
+ 2HCl --->
SeO~-
+ Cl2r + H 20
288
Tellurium
6.12
2. Sulphur dioxide
no reducing action. no precipitate (difference from selenite).
3. Copper sulphate solution

BaCI 2
1
white BaSe04
4. Barium chloride solution white precipitate of barium selenate, BaSe04, insoluble in dilute mineral acids. The precipitate dissolves when boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid, and chlorine is evolved (distinction and separation from sulphate). BaSe041 + 2HCI ---> SeO~- + Ba 2+ + Cl 2i + H 20 5. Dry tests (a) Selenium compounds mixed with sodium carbonate and heated upon charcoal: odour of rotten horseradish. A foul odour, due to hydrogen selenide, H 2Se, is obtained upon moistening the residue with a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid. A black stain (due to Ag2Se) is produced when the moistened residue is placed in contact with silver foil. (b) Elemental selenium dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid: green solution, due to the presence of the compound SeS03' Upon dilution with water, red selenium is precipitated.
Tellurium, Te (Ar: 127.60) - tellurites, TeO~-
Dry tests
6.12
Tellurium is less widely distributed in nature than selenium; both elements belong to Group VI of the periodic table. When fused with potassium cyanide, elemental tellurium is converted into potassium telluride, K2 Te, which dissolves in water to yield a red solution. If air is passed through the solution, the tellurium is precipitated as a black powder (difference and method of separation from selenium). Selenium under similar conditions yields the stable potassium selenocyanide, KSeCN; the selenium may be precipitated by the addition of dilute hydrochloric acid to its aqueous solution. 2KCN + Te 2Te2--->
K2 Te + (CNh i
+ 2H 20 + O 2 ---> 2Tel + 40HKCN + Se ---> KSeCN SeCN- + H+ ---> Sel + HCNi
Tellurium is converted into the dioxide, Te02, by nitric acid. Like sulphur and selenium, it forms two anions, the tellurite, TeO~-, and the tellurate, TeO:-.
TeO~- reactions
Reactions of tellurite ions To study these reactions use a 0.1 M solution of potassium tellurite, K2 Te03, or sodium tellurite, Na2 Te03' 1. Hydrogen sulphide brown precipitate of the disulphide, TeS2, from acid solutions. The sulphide decomposes easily into tellurium and sulphur, and is readily soluble in ammonium sulphide solution but insoluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid.
289
6.13 Reactions of less common ions

S02
1
reduction to Te
2. Sulphur dioxide complete precipitation of tellurium from dilute (l-5M) hydrochloric acid solutions as a black powder. In the presence of much concentrated hydrochloric acid, no precipitate is formed (difference and method of separation from selenium).
3. Iron ( II) sulphate solution no precipitation of tellurium (difference from selenium). A similar result is obtained with hydriodic acid (KI + Hel).
SnCI 2
1
reduction to Te
4. Tin (II) chloride or hydrazine hydrochloride solution or zinc tellurium precipitated.
black
Hel
1
white H2 Te03
BaCI 2
5. Dilute hydrochloric acid white precIpitate of tellurous acid, H2 Te03 (difference from selenite), soluble in excess of the precipitant. 6. Barium chloride solution white precipitate of barium tellurite, BaTe03, soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid but insoluble in 30% acetic acid. 7. Potassium iodide solution black precipitate of TeI4 in faintly acid solution, dissolving in excess of the reagent to form the red hexaiodotellurate(IV) ion, [TeI 6 l2- (difference from selenite). 8. Hypophosphorous acid test both tellurites and tellurates are reduced to tellurium upon evaporation with hypophosphorous acid:
TeO~2TeO~-
1
white BaTe03
KI
1
black Tel4 H 3 P0 2
1
reduction to Te
+ H 2P0 2 -+ Tel + PO~- + H 20
+ 3H 2P0 2 -+ 2Tel + 3PO~- + 2H+ + 2H 20
Selenites are likewise reduced to selenium. If, however, the solution of the selenites in concentrated sulphuric acid is treated with sodium sulphite, selenium separates but the tellurite is unaffected; the latter can be detected in the solution after removing the excess sulphide. Salts of silver, copper, gold, and platinum must be absent for they are reduced to the metal by the reagent. Mix a drop of the test solution in mineral acid and a drop of 50% hypophosphorous acid in a porcelain micro crucible, and evaporate almost to dryness. Black grains or a grey stain of tellurium are obtained. Sensitivity O.lllg tellurous acid. Concentration limit I in 500000.
Sensitivity 0.51lg telluric acid. Concentration limit 1 in 100000.
6.13
Tellurium, Te (Ar : 127.60) - tellurates, TeO~-
The most important characteristics of tellurium were described in Section 6.12.

TeO~- reactions
Reactions of tellurate ions To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of sodium tellurate, Na2 Te04.
290
Separation of Group II
6.14
1. Hydrogen sulphide no precipitate in hydrochloric acid solution in the cold. In hot acid solution, the tellurate is first reduced to tellurite, and precipitation of the tellurium then occurs (compare Section 6.12). Other reducing agents give similar results. 2. Hydrochloric acid no precipitate in the cold. Upon boiling the solution, chlorine is evolved; tellurous acid, H2 Te03, is precipitated upon dilution (distinction from selenium).
TeO~BaCI 2
+ 4HCl --> H2 Te03! + Cl2i + 2CI- + H 20
1
white BaTe04
3. Barium chloride solution white precipitate of barium tellurate, BaTe04, from neutral solutions; the precipitate is readily soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid and in dilute acetic acid (distinction from selenate). 4. Potassium iodide solution yellow to red colour, due to hexaiodotellurate(VI) ions, [TeI 6 l2-, from dilute acid solutions (difference from tellurites). 5. Reducing agents no precipitate is produced in cold solutions with hydrogen sulphide or sulphur dioxide; with hot solutions, or with solutions that have been boiled with hydrochloric acid, precipitates of brown TeS (or Te + S) and of black Te respectively are formed. Tin(II) chloride, hydrazine or zinc in acid solution give black tellurium upon warming. 6. Dry tests (a) Fusion of any tellurium compound with sodium carbonate upon charcoal: formation of sodium telluride, Na2 Te, which produces a black stain (due to Ag 2Te) when placed in contact with moist silver foil. (b) Elemental tellurium dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid to produce a red solution due to the presence of TeS03' Upon dilution with water, grey tellurium is precipitated.
KI
1
red complex Reducing agents act only in hot solutions
Dry tests
6.14
Separation and identification of Group II cations in the presence of molybdenum, gold, platinum, palladium, selenium, and tellurium
The first step in this separation process is to separate cations into Groups IIA and lIB. Hydrogen sulphide in acid solution precipitates MO,l Au, Pt, Pd, Se, and Te in addition to the 'common' elements of Group II. Extraction of the group precipitate with ammonium polysulphide solution brings the greater part of the 'rarer' elements (excluding PdS) into Group lIB (arsenic group) but not completely, for appreciable quantities of Mo, Au, and Pt, as well as all the Pd, remain in the Group IIA (copper group) precipitate. The final three elements and also Pd are therefore also tested for in Group IIA.
1 For the almost complete precipitation of Mo in Group II, it has been recommended that the solution be first saturated in the cold with hydrogen sulphide, then transferred to a pressure bottle and heated on a water bath.
291
6.14
Table 6.2
Separation of Group II cations into Groups IIA and liB in the presence of Mo, Au, Pt, Pd, Se, and Te Transfer the Group II precipitate, which has been well washed with M NH4Ci solution that has been saturated with H 2 S, to a porcelain dish, add 5-lOml ammonium polysulphide solution, heat to 50-60C and maintain at this temperature for 3-4 minutes with constant stirring. Filter. Wash the precipitate with dilute (I + 100) ammonium polysulphide solution.
Residue Filtrate
May contain HgS, PbS, Bi 2S3 , CuS, CdS, PdS together with Au, Pt, traces of MoS 3 and SnS. Group lIA present.
May contain solutions of the thio salts of As, Sb, and Sn together with Mo, Au, Pt, Se, and Te. Just acidify by adding concentrated HCl drop by drop (test with litmus paper) and warm gently. A coloured precipitate indicates Group lIB present.
For the separation of cations into Groups IIA and lIB the procedures of Table 6.2 should be followed. For the separation and identification of Group IIA cations, follow Table 6.3. The separation and identification of Group lIB cations can be carried out by following the procedures given in Table 6.4.
Table 6.3
Separation and identification of Group IIA cations in the presence of Pt, Au, and Pd The precipitate may contain HgS, PbS, Bi 2 S3 , CuS, CdS, and PdS, together with Au and Pt and also traces of MoS 3 and SnS. Transfer to a beaker or porcelain dish, add 5-lOm12M HN0 3 , boil for 2-5 minutes and filter.
Residue Filtrate
May contain HgS, Pt, and Au. Boil with concentrated HCl and a little bromine water, and filter, if necessary, from traces ofSn02 and PbS04 which may separate here. Add M KCl solution and 2M HCl, and concentrate the solution. Filter.
Residue Filtrate
Yellow and crystalline K 2[PtCI 6 ] Pt present.
May contain [AuCI4 ] and HgCI 2. Boil to remove excess acid, render alkaline with 2M NaOH solution, and boil with excess O.5M oxalic acid. Filter.
Residue Filtrate
Brownishblack or purplishblack. Au present.
May contain HgCI 2. Add a few drops of O.25M SnCl 2 solution. White or grey ppt. Hg present.
May contain Pb, Bi, Cu, Cd, and Pd ions. Examine for Pb, Bi, Cu, and Cd by Table 5.4, in Section 5.8. After separation of Cu and Cd, acidify the solution with 2M HCl, introduce a few zinc granules and after several minutes filter off any solid and wash with water. Dissolve the ppt. in 2 ml aqua regia, evaporate just to dryness, dissolve the residue in 2M HCl and add dimethylglyoxime reagent. Yellow ppt. Pd present.
292
Vanadium(V)
6.15
Table 6.4
Separation and identification of Group lIB cations in the presence of Pt, Au, Se, Te, and Mo Transfer the precipitate to a small conical flask, add 5 ml concentrated Hel, and boil gently for 5 minutes (with funnel in mouth of flask). Dilute with 2-3 ml water and filter.
Residue Filtrate
May contain As, Au, Pt, Mo, Se, and Te as sulphides. Dissolve in concentrated HCI + little solid KCI0 3; concentrate the solution to the crystallization point (use a water bath to reduce loss of Se to a minimum). Filter.
Residue Filtrate
May contain Sb and Sn as chlorides or complex chloro-acids. Examine by Table 5.5 in Section 5.8.
Yellow K 2[PtCI 6 ] Pt present. Confinn by dissolving in a little hot water and adding O.lM KI solution. Red or brownish-red colouration.
May contain As, Au, Mo, Se, and Te as chlorides or acids. Render alkaline with 2M NH3 solution, add Mg(N0 3h reagent or magnesia mixture, allow to stand for 5 minutes with frequent stirring or shaking. Filter.
Residue Filtrate
White crystalline Mg(NH4)As0 4 6H 20. As present.
May contain Au, Mo, Se, and Te as chlorides or acids. Concentrate to remove ammonia, boil with several millilitres saturated oxalic acid solution, dilute, boil and filter. Extract ppt. with 2M HCI to remove coprecipitated tellurous acid.
Residue
Filtrate
Brownishblack or purplishblack. Au present.
Concentrate with 6M HCI on a water bath and, after removing the precipitated KCl, treat with a slight excess of solid Na2S03' Filter.
Residue Filtrate
Red. Se present.
Dilute with an equal volume of water, and add successively a little O.IM KI solution and excess of solid Na2S03 whereby the [TeI 6f- ions are reduced to Te. Filter.
Residue Filtrate
Black. Te present.
Boil with 2M HCI to remove dissolved S02 and treat successively with 10% KSCN soln and a little O.25M SnCI 2 soln. Red colouration, soluble in ether. Mo present.
6.15
Vanadium, V (A,: 50.94) - vanadate
Vanadium is a hard, grey metal. It melts at 1900C. Vanadium cannot be dissolved in hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric acids or in alkalis. It dissolves readily in aqua regia, or in a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen fluoride. In its compounds vanadium may have the oxidation numbers +2, +3, +4, +5, and +7; among these +5 is the most common and +4 also occurs frequently. Vanadates contain pentavalent vanadium; these are analogous to phosphates. Vanadic acid, like phosphoric acids, exists in the
293
6.15
form of meta, pyro and ortho compounds (HV0 3, H4 V20 7 and H3 V0 4). In aqueous solutions polyvanadates are present, the degree of polymerization depending on the pH. Thus, in neutral solution the dodecavanadate ion, V 100~8' is predominant; in strongly alkaline solutions the divanadate (pyrovanadate) ion, V20~-, is stable. In strongly acid solutions dioxovanadium(V) cations, VOt, are present. For simplicity all these will be treated as the metavanadate, VO], ion. In tetravalent form vanadium is usually present as the vanadyl cation, V02+.
V0 3 reactions
Reactions o/vanadate ions To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of ammonium metavanadate, NH4 V0 3, or sodium metavanadate, NaV0 3. The addition of some sulphuric acid keeps these solutions stable. 1. Hydrogen sulphide no precipitate is produced in acid solution, but a blue solution (due to the production of tetravalent vanadium ions) is formed and sulphur separates. Other reducing agents, such as sulphur dioxide, oxalic acid, iron(II) sulphate, hydrazine, formic acid, and ethanol, also yield blue vanadium (IV) (V02+) ions (cf. molybdates, Section 6.6). The reaction takes place slowly in the cold, but more rapidly on warming. 2. Zinc, cadmium or aluminium in acid solution these carry the reduction still further. The solutions turn at first blue (V02+ ions), then green (V3+ ions) and finally violet (V 2+ ions). 3. Ammonium sulphide solution the solution is coloured claret-red, due to the formation of thiovanadates (probably VS~-). Upon acidification of the solution, brown vanadium sulphide, V2S5 , is incompletely precipitated, and the filtrate usually has a blue colour. The precipitate is soluble in solutions of alkalis, alkali carbonates, and sulphides. 4. Hydrogen peroxide a red colouration is produced when a few drops of hydrogen peroxide solution are added drop wise to a solution of vanadate containing 15-20% free sulphuric acid; excess hydrogen peroxide should be avoided. The colour is not removed by shaking the solution with ether, nor is it affected by phosphates or fluorides (distinction from titanium). If more hydrogen peroxide is added or the solution is made alkaline or both, the colour changes to yellow. The red colour is due to the formation of the peroxovanadium(V) cation,
VO~+:
H2 S !
reduction to V( IV)
Metals
!
reduction to V(II)
(NH 4 )zS
1
brown V 2 S5
HzOz
1
red complex. non-extractable
VO] + 4H+ + H 20 2 ---> VO~+ + 3H 20 The yellow colour, on the other hand, originates from the diperoxoorthovanadate(V) ions, [V0 2(02h1 3-, which are formed from the peroxovanadium(V) ions if more hydrogen peroxide is added and the solution is made alkaline: VO~+ + H 20 2 + 60H- ~ [V0 2(02h1 3- + 4H 20 This reaction is reversible; on acidification the solution again turns red.
NH 4 CI
!
colourless N H4 V0 3
5. Ammonium chloride the addition of solid ammonium chloride to a solution of an alkali vanadate results in the separation of colourless, crystalline ammonium vanadate, NH4 V0 3 , sparingly soluble in a concentrated solution of ammonium chloride.
294
Vanadium(V)
6.15
Pb(CH 3 COO)2 white Pb(V0 3 h BaCI 2 yellow Ba(V0 3 h CUS04
6. Lead acetate solution yellow precipitate of lead vanadate, turning white or pale yellow on standing; the precipitate is insoluble in dilute acetic acid but soluble in dilute nitric acid. 7. Barium chloride solution yellow precipitate of barium vanadate (distinction from arsenate and phosphate), soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. 8. Copper sulphate solution green precipitate with metavanadates. Pyrovanadates give a yellow precipitate.
1
green CU(V0 3 )2 Hg 2 (N0 3 )2 white Hg 2(V0 3 h
9. Mercury ( I) nitrate solution from neutral solutions.
white precipitate of mercury(I) vanadate
10. Ammonium molybdate solution no preCIpItate is produced in the presence of ammonium nitrate and nitric acid, a soluble molybdovanadate being formed (compare phosphate). If the vanadate is mixed with a phosphate, much of the vanadium is coprecipitated with the ammonium phosphomolybdate.
Catalytic test
11. Potassium chlorate-p-phenetidine catalytic test vanadium catalyses the reaction between p-phenetidine (H 2 N C6 H 4 OC 2 H s) and potassium chlorate; potassium hydrogen tartrate has an activating effect upon the reaction. Treat 0.5 ml of the test solution in a semimicro test-tube with 0.05 g potassium hydrogen tartrate, 1 ml of the p-phenetidine reagent (0.1 %), 1 ml saturated potassium chlorate solution and dilute to 5 ml with distilled water. Immerse the test-tube in a water bath: a violet colour appears within a few minutes. Interference of lead can be eliminated by adding 100 mg of solid sodium sulphate. In the presence of iron(III) 50 mg solid sodium nitrite should be added to make the test selective for vanadium. A similar result is obtained by replacing KCI0 3 with a saturated solution of KBr03 but iodide, as well as lead and iron(III), interfere. Sensitivity 0.001 flg V. 12. Tannin test when a neutral or acetic acid solution of a vanadate is treated with an excess of 5% tannic acid, a deep blue (or blue-black) colouration is obtained. If ammonium acetate is present, a dark-blue (or blue-black) precipitate separates. The precipitate or colouration is destroyed by mineral acids. 13. Iron(III) chloride-dimethylglyoxime test
Tannin test
Indirect test through Fe(ll)
the reaction
VO)"
+ 4H+ + Fe 2+ ;:::! V02+ + Fe3+ + 2H 20
proceeds from left to right in acid solution and in the reverse direction in alkaline solution. The test for vanadates utilizes the deep-red colouration with dimethylglyoxime given by iron(II) salts (cf. iron(II), Section 3.21, reaction 10) and the fact that vanadates are readily reduced to the tetravalent state by heating with concentrated hydrochloric acid: 2VO)"
+ 8HCI --+ 2V0 2+ + CI21 + 6CI- + 4H 20

295
All oxidizing agents interfere and must be removed.
6.16
Evaporate 1 drop of the test solution and 2 drops concentrated hydrochloric acid in a micro crucible almost to dryness. When cold, add a drop of 0.5M iron(III) chloride solution, followed by 3 drops dimethylglyoxime reagent, and render the mixture alkaline with 2M ammonia solution. Dip a strip of quantitative filter paper or of drop-reaction paper into the solution. The precipitated iron(III) hydroxide remains behind and the red solution of iron(II) dimethylglyoxime diffuses up the capillaries of the paper. Sensitivity Il!g V. Concentration limit 1 in 50000.
Atomic spectrometry
14. Atomic spectrometric tests To avoid interferences by metals, it is best to use nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. In emission mode 1 ppm vanadium can be identified at 437.92 nm with the nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. By atomic absorption, using a vanadium hollow-cathode lamp and a nitrous oxide/ acetylene flame the detection sensitivity is about 0.1 ppm at 318.54nm. A 1000 ppm vanadium standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 2.2964 g of analytical grade ammonium meta vanadate NH4 V0 3 in water and diluting to I litre. 15. Dry test borax bead: oxidizing flame - colourless (yellow in the presence of much vanadium); reducing flame - green.
Dry test
6.16
Beryllium, Be (Ar: 9.01)
Beryllium is a greyish-white, light but very hard, brittle metal. It dissolves readily in dilute acids. In its compounds beryllium is divalent, otherwise it resembles closely aluminium in chemical properties; it also exhibits similarities to the alkaline earth metals. The salts react acid in aqueous solution and possess a sweet taste (hence the name glucinium formerly given to the element). Beryllium compounds are highly POISONOUS.
Be 2+ reactions
Reactions ofheryllium(ll) ions To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of beryllium sulphate, BeS04 4H 2 0.
1. Ammonia or ammonium sulphide solution white precipitate of beryllium hydroxide, Be(OHh, similar in appearance to aluminium hydroxide, insoluble in excess of the reagent, but readily soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, forming a colourless solution. Precipitation is prevented by tartrates and citrates.
NH3
1
white Be(OH)2
NaOH
1
white Be(OHh dissolves in excess
2. Sodium hydroxide solution white gelatinous precipitate of beryllium hydroxide, readily soluble in excess of the precipitant, forming tetrahydroxoberyllate ions [Be(OH)4l 2-; on boiling the latter solution (best when largely diluted), beryllium hydroxide is reprecipitated (distinction from aluminium). The precipitate is also soluble in 10% sodium hydrogen carbonate solution (distinction from aluminium). Be(OHhl
+ 20H- ;::::! [Be(OH)4l 2-
On the other hand, the precipitate is insoluble in aqueous Methylamine solution whereas aluminium hydroxide dissolves in a moderate excess of the reagent. Precipitation is prevented by tartrates and citrates.
296
Beryllium(lI)
6.16
(NH 4 l2C0 3
1
white ppt
3. Ammonium carbonate solution white preCIpItate of basic beryllium carbonate, soluble in excess of the reagent (difference from aluminium). On boiling the solution, the white basic carbonate is reprecipitated. 4. Oxalic acid or ammonium oxalate solution from thorium, zirconium, and cerium). 5. Sodium thiosulphate solution no precipitate (difference
no precipitate (difference from aluminium).
Extraction of acetate
6. Basic acetate-chloroform test upon dissolving beryllium hydroxide (reaction I) in glacial acetic acid and evaporating to dryness with a little water, basic beryllium acetate, BeO3Be(CH 3 COOh, is produced, which dissolves readily upon extraction with chloroform. This forms the basis of a method for separating beryllium from aluminium, since basic aluminium acetate is insoluble in chloroform. 7. Quinalizarin reagent 2 cornflower-blue colouration with faintly alkaiine solutions of beryllium salts. The reagent alone gives a characteristic violet colour with dilute alkali; but this is quite distinct from the blue of the beryllium complex; a blank test will render the difference clearly apparent. Antimony, zinc, and aluminium salts do not interfere; aluminium should, however, be kept in solution by the addition of sufficient sodium hydroxide; the influence of copper, nickel, and cobalt salts can be eliminated by the addition of potassium cyanide solution; iron salts are 'masked' by the addition of a tartrate but if aluminium salts are also present a red colour is produced. Magnesium salts give a similar blue colour, but beryllium can be detected in the presence of this element by utilizing the fact that in ammoniacal solution the magnesium colour alone is completely destroyed by bromine water. In adjacent depressions of a spot plate place a drop of the test solution and a drop of distilled water, and add a drop of the freshly prepared 0.05% quinalizarin reagent (in NaOH) to each. A blue colouration or precipitate, quite distinct from the violet colour of the reagent, is obtained. Sensitivity 0.15 J.lg Be. Concentration limit 1 in 350000. If magnesium is present, treat a drop of the solution on a spot plate with 2 drops of the reagent and 1 ml saturated bromine water. The original deepblue colour becomes paler when the bromine is added, but remains more or less permanently blue.
8. 4-(4-Nitrophenylazo) resorcinol (magneson /) reagent (0.025%)
Quinalizarin blue complex
4- (4- N itrophenylazo) resorcinol
1
orange-red lake
orange-red lake with beryllium salts in alkaline solution. Magnesium salts yield a brownish-yellow precipitate; salts and hydroxides of the rare earths,
2
See under aluminium, Section 3.23, reaction 9.

297
6.17
aluminium, and alkaline earths are without influence; the interfering effect of silver, copper, cadmium, nickel, cobalt, and zinc is eliminated by the addition of potassium cyanide solution. Place a drop of the 0.025% reagent on drop-reaction paper and into the middle of the resulting yellow area introduce the tip of a capillary containing the test solution so that the latter runs slowly onto the paper. Treat the stain with a further drop of the reagent. The stain is coloured deep orange-red. Sensitivity 0.21lg Be. Concentration limit 1 in 200000.
Acetyl acetone
1
characteristic crystals
9. Acetylacetone test acetylacetone reacts with beryllium salts to yield the complex Be(C 5H 702h. which possesses a highly characteristic appearance under the microscope. 2CH 3 COCH 2 COCH 3 + Be2+ ----+ Be(C5H702h + 2H+ Place a drop of the test solution on a microscope slide and add a drop of acetyl acetone. Crystals separate immediately: these will be found to possess rhombic and hexagonal forms when observed under the microscope (use linear magnification of x75). Concentration limit 1 in 10 000.
Atomic spectrometry
10. Atomic spectrometric tests to avoid interferences from a number of cations and anions, it is best to use the hot nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. In emission mode 1 ppm beryllium can be identified at 234.86 nm with the nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. By atomic absorption, using a beryllium hollow-cathode lamp and a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame the detection sensitivity is about 0.1 ppm at the same wavelength. A 1000 ppm beryllium standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 19.66 g of analytical grade beryllium sulphate tetra hydrate BeS04 . 4H 20 in water and diluting to 1 litre. 11. Dry test upon heating beryllium salts with a few drops of cobalt nitrate solution upon charcoal a grey mass is obtained (difference from aluminium).
Dry test
6.17
Titanium, Ti (A,: 47.90) - titanium(IV)
Titanium is a greyish, hard metal. It can be dissolved in hot, concentrated sulphuric acid and in hydrogen fluoride. Like tin, it is insoluble in concentrated nitric acid, because of the formation of titanic acid on the surface of the metal, which protects the rest of the metal from the acid. Titanium forms the violet titanium(III), Ti 3+, and the colourless titanium(IV), Ti 4+, ions. Titanium(III) ions are rather unstable and are readily oxidized to titanium(lV) in aqueous solutions. Titanium(IV) ions exist only in strongly acid solutions; they tend to hydrolyse forming the titanyl ion, Ti02+, first if the acidity of the solution is lowered; later titanium(lV) hydroxide is precipitated. In analytical work titanium(IV) ions are normally encountered.
Ti 4 + reactions
Reactions of titanium (I V) [titanyl] ions solution of titanium(lV) sulphate.
To study these reactions use a 0.2M
298
Titanium(IV)
6.17
AI kal i ne agents
1
white H4 Ti0 4
1. Solutions of sodium hydroxide, ammonia or ammonium sulphide all these reagents give a white gelatinous precipitate of orthotitanic acid, H4 Ti0 4, or titanium (IV) hydroxide, Ti(OH)4, in the cold; this is almost insoluble in excess reagent, but soluble in mineral acids. If precipitation takes place from hot solution, meta titanic acid, H2 Ti0 3 or TiO (OHh, is said to be formed, which is sparingly soluble in dilute acids. Tartrates and citrates inhibit precipitation. 2. Water a white precipitate of metatitanic acid is obtained on boiling a solution of a titanic salt with excess water. 3. Disodium hydrogen phosphate solution white precipitate of titanium hydrogen phosphate, Ti(HP0 4h, in dilute sulphuric acid solution. 4. Zinc, cadmium or tin when any of these metals is added to a solution of a titanium(lV) salt, containing excess hydrochloric acid, a violet colouration is produced, due to reduction to titanium(III) ions. No reduction occurs with sulphur dioxide or with hydrogen sulphide. 5. Cupferron reagent flocculent yelIow precipitate of the titanium salt, Ti(C6H s0 2N 2)4, in acid solution (distinction from aluminium and beryllium). If iron is present, it can be removed by precipitation with ammonia and ammonium sulphide solutions in the presence of a tartrate; the titanium may then be precipitated from the acidified solution by cupferron. 6. Hydrogen peroxide an orange-red colouration is produced in slightly acid solution. The colour is yelIow with very dilute solutions. The colouration has been variously attributed to peroxotitanic acid, HOO-Ti(OHh, or to peroxodisulphatotitanium(IV) ions, [Ti0 2(S04hl2~. Chromates, vanadates, and cerium salts give colour reactions with the reagent and should therefore be absent. Iron salts give a yelIow colour with hydrogen peroxide, but this is eliminated by the addition of concentrated phosphoric acid. Fluorides bleach the colour (stable [TiF6f~ ions are formed), and large amounts of nitrates, chlorides, bromides, and acetates as well as coloured ions reduce the sensitivity of the test. A decrease in the intensity of the yelIow colouration upon the addition of ammonium fluoride indicates the presence of titanium.
7. Chromo tropic reagent
Hydrolysis to H2 Ti0 3
Na2HP04
1
white Ti(H P0 4)2 Reducing metals
1
violet colour
CUfferron
1
yellow ppt
H2 0 2
1
yellow peroxo compound
Chromotropic acid
acid
(1 ,8-dihydroxynaphthalene-3,6-disulphonic
acid)
1
brown colour
reddish-brown colouration with titanium salts in the presence of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. Appreciable concentrations of nitric acid inhibit the reaction. Mix a drop of the test solution and a drop of the reagent on drop-reaction paper or upon a spot plate. A reddish-brown (or purplish-pink) spot or colouration results.
299
Ho,sMso,"
6.18
Sensitivity 51lg Ti0 2. Concentration limit I in 10 000. The reagent does not keep well, hence it is preferable to impregnate filter paper with the reagent solution and allow the paper to dry in the air. The impregnated papers are stable for several months. In use, a drop of the test solution and a drop of M H 2S04 are placed upon the impregnated paper; a purplish-pink colour results.
Catechol
8. Catechol (pyrocatechol)
1
yellow colour
~OH
V-OH
yellow colouration with neutral or weakly acid (sulphuric acid) solutions of titanium salts. Iron(lII), chromium, cobalt, and nickel salts interfere as do large amounts of free mineral acids; alkali hydroxides and carbonates reduce the sensitivity of the test. Place a drop of the sulphuric acid test solution on drop-reaction paper impregnated with the reagent. A yellow or yellowish-red spot is obtained. Sensitivity 3 Ilg Ti. Concentration limit I in 20000.
Atomic spectrometry
9. A.tomic spectrometric tests to avoid interferences it is best to use a hot nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. In emission mode 5 ppm titanium can be identified at 398.98 nm with the nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. By atomic absorption, using a titanium hollow-cathode lamp and a nitrous oxide/acetylene flame, the detection sensitivity is about 0.5 ppm at 365.35 nm. A 1000 ppm titanium standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 7.394 g of analytical grade potassium titanium oxalate dihydrate K2 TiO(C 20 4 h' 2H 20 in water and diluting to I litre. 10. Dry test microcosmic salt bead: oxidizing flame - colourless; reducing flame - yellow whilst hot and violet when cold (this result is obtained more rapidly if a little tin(II) chloride is added). If the bead is heated in the reducing flame with a trace of iron(II) sulphate, it acquires a blood-red colour.
Dry test
6.18
Zirconium, Zr (A,: 91.22)
Zirconium is a grey, very hard metal. It melts at 1860C. Zirconium metal can be dissolved in aqua regia and in hydrogen fluoride. Zirconium forms only one important oxide, zirconia Zr02, which is amphoteric in character. The normal zirconium salts, like ZrCI 4 , are readily hydrolysed in solution giving rise chiefly to zirconyl salts, containing the divalent radical Zr02+. The zirconates, e.g. Na2Zr03, are best produced from Zr02 by fusion methods. Zirconium also readily forms complex ions like hexafluorozirconate(IV) [Zr F 6]2-, produced by heating zirconia with potassium hydrogen fluoride.
300
Zirconium(IV)
6.18
Ignited zirconium dioxide, or the mineral, is insoluble in all acids except hydrofluoric acid. It is soluble in fused caustic alkalis and in sodium carbonate: the resulting alkali zirconate is practically insoluble in water, being converted into zirconium hydroxide by this solvent. It is therefore best dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the zirconium hydroxides precipitated by ammonia solution if necessary.
Zr4+ reactions
Reactions ofzirconium(IV) IzirconylJ ions To study these reactions use a O.lM solution of zirconyl nitrate, ZrO(N0 3h 2H 20, or zirconyl chloride, ZrOCl 2 8H 20. These solutions must contain some free acid. 1. Sodium hydroxide solution white, gelatinous precipitate of the hydroxide, Zr(OH)4 (or Zr02 xH 20), in the cold, practically insoluble in excess of the reagent (difference from aluminium and beryllium), but soluble in dilute mineral acids (avoid sulphuric acid). With a hot solution of a zirconium salt, a white precipitate of ZrO(OHh is obtained; it is sparingly soluble in dilute but soluble in concentrated mineral acids. Tartrates and citrates inhibit the precipitation of the hydroxide. 2. Ammonia or ammonium sulphide solution white, gelatinous precipitate of the hydroxide, Zr(OH)4 (or Zr02 xH 20), insoluble in excess of the reagent. 3. Disodium hydrogen phosphate solution white precipitate of zirconium hydrogrn phosphate, Zr(HP0 4h or ZrO(H 2P0 4h, even in solutions containing 10% sulphuric acid by weight and also tartrates and citrates. No other element forms an insoluble phosphate under these conditions except titanium. The latter element can be kept in solution as peroxotitanic acid by the addition of sufficient hydrogen peroxide solution (30%) before the sodium phosphate is introduced. 4. Hydrogen peroxide white precipitate of peroxozirconic acid, HOOZr(OH)3, from slightly acid solutions; this liberates chlorine when warmed with concentrated hydrochloric acid. When both hydrogen peroxide and sodium phosphate are added to a solution containing zirconium, the precipitate is zirconium hydrogen phosphate (see reaction 3).
NaOH
1
white Zr(OH)4
NH3
1
white Zr(OH)4 Na2HP04 white Zr(HP0 4 l2
(NH 4 l2 C0 3
1
white ppt Oxalate white Zr(C 2 0 4l2, soluble in excess
5. Ammonium carbonate solution white precipitate of basic zirconium carbonate, readily soluble in excess of the reagent, but reprecipitated on boiling. 6. Oxalic acid solution white precipitate of zirconium oxalate, readily soluble in excess of the reagent and also in ammonium oxalate solution (difference from thorium). 7. Ammonium oxalate solution white precipitate of zirconium oxalate, soluble in excess of the reagent (distinction from aluminium and beryllium); the solution gives no precipitate with hydrochloric acid (difference from thorium). Note: A solution of zirconium sulphate or a zirconium salt solution containing excess sulphate ions does not give a precipitate with either ammonium oxalate or oxalic acid. This is due to the fact that the zirconium is
301
6.18
present as the anion [ZrO(S04h1 2-, hence sulphuric acid should be avoided in preparing solutions of zirconium salts.
8. Saturated potassium sulphate solution white precipitate ofK2 [ZrO(S04h]' insoluble in excess of the reagent. When precipitation takes place in boiling solution, the resulting basic zirconium sulphate is insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid (difference from thorium and cerium). No precipitate is obtained with sodium sulphate solution.
Phenylarsonic acid
1
white ppt
n~
9. Phenylarsonic acid reagent {C6HS' AsO(OH)z} white precipitate of zirconium phenylarsonate in the presence of O.S-IM hydrochloric acid; it is best to boil the solution. Tin and thorium salts must be absent. 10. n-Propylarsonic acid reagent
Propylarsonic acid
1
white ppt
{CH3 CH 2 CH 2 AsO(OHh} white precipitate of zirconium n-propylarsonate in dilute sulphuric acid solution (separation from most other metals including titanium but not tin). The reagent consists of a S% aqueous solution of n-propylarsonic acid.
KI0 3
1
white Zr(I0 3 )4 Alizarin red S
11. Potassium iodate solution in faintly acid solution, a voluminous, white precipitate of basic zirconium iodate is obtained. The precipitate is soluble in warm hydrochloric acid (difference from aluminium). 12. Alizarin red S3 (2%) red precipitate in a strongly acid medium. Fluorides discharge the colour because of the formation of the stable hexafluorozirconate(IV) ion [ZrF 612-. Place '\ drop of the test solution (which has been acidified with hydrochloric aCId) on a spot plate, add a drop of the reagent and a drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid. A red precipitate results. 13. 4-Dimethylaminobenzene-azo-phenylarsonic acid reagent
(CH J lzNON=NOASO(OHI2
1
red ppt
4~ Dimethylamino~
benzene~azo~
phenylarsonic acid
1
brown ppt
Acid solutions of zirconium salts give a brown precipitate with the reagent. If the test is conducted on filter paper, the brown precipitate remains in the pores of the paper and the excess of the coloured reagent may be washed out with dilute acid. Impregnate some drop-reaction paper with the reagent and dry the paper. Place a drop of the acid test solution on the paper. Dip the paper into 2M hydrochloric acid at SO-60C. A brown spot or ring remains. Sensitivity 0.1 f.lg Zr (in M HCI). Concentration limit 1 in SOO 000.
Atomic spectrometry
14. Atomic spectrometric tests because of the low volatility of zirconium compounds, it is advisable to use the hot nitrous oxide/acetylene flame. In emission mode S ppm zirconium can be identified at 360.12 nm. By atomic absorption, using a zirconium hollow-cathode lamp the detection sensitivity
3
For formula, see under aluminium, Section 3.23, reaction 8.
302
Uranium(VI)
6.19
is about 1 ppm at the same wavelength. An approximately 1000 ppm zirconium standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 3.8 g of dry, technical grade zirconium nitrate Zr(N0 3)4 in water and diluting to 1 litre.
15. Dry test no characteristic results are obtained with the borax or microcosmic beads nor does zirconium yield a distinguishing flame test.
6.19
Uranium, U (Ar: 238.03)
Uranium is a grey, heavy metal. It is quite soft, and melts at 1133C. Uranium can be dissolved in dilute acids, when uranium(IV) ions, U4 +, and hydrogen gas are formed. Uranium(IV) ions can easily be oxidized to the hexavalent state, which is the most stable oxidation state of uranium. At this oxidation state, depending on the pH of the solution, two ions can be formed: the uranyl cation, UO~+, is stable in acid solutions, while the diuranate anion, U20~-, in alkaline media. The two ions are in equilibrium with each other:
2UO~+
+ 3H 20
f=! U20~-
+ 6H+
Alkalizing the solution (removing H+) will shift the equilibrium towards the formation ofU20~-, while acidifying it (adding H+) will shift the equilibrium in the other direction. In this text only the reactions of uranyl ions will be described. Uranium compounds are all radioactive. In certain countries, the sale, storage, use and disposal of uranium compounds are regulated by law. Uranium compounds are KIDNEY POISONS!
UO~+ reactions
Reactions o/uranyl ions To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of uranyl nitrate, U0 2(N0 3h 6H 20, or of uranyl acetate, U0 2(CH 3COOh 2H 20.
NH3 or NaOH
1
yellow ppt
I. Ammonia solution yellow precipitate of ammonium diuranate, insoluble in excess of the reagent, but soluble in ammonium carbonate or sodium carbonate, forming the tricarbonatouranylate(VI) ion:
+ 6NH3 + 3H 20 (NH 4 hU 20 7 1+ 6CO~- + 3H20
2UO~+
..... (NH 4 hU 20 7 1 + 4NHt ..... 2[U02(C03hJ 4 -
+ 2NHt + 60H-
No precipitation occurs in the presence of certain organic acids, such as oxalic, tartaric, and citric acids.
2. Sodium hydroxide solution yellow amorphous precipitate of sodium diuranate, Na2 U 20 7 , soluble in ammonium carbonate solution.
( NH 4)zS
1
brown U0 2 S H2 0 2
3. Ammonium sulphide solution brown precipitate of uranyl sulphide, U0 2S, soluble in dilute acids and in ammonium carbonate solution. 4. Hydrogen peroxide pale-yellow precipitate of uranium tetroxide U04 . 2H 20 (sometimes called uranium peroxide), soluble in ammonium carbonate solution with the formation of a deep-yellow solution. Chromium, titanium, and vanadium interfere with this otherwise sensitive test.
303
1
yellow ppt
6.20
5. Cupferron reagent
Na2HP04
no precipitate (distinction from titanium).
1
white U0 2HP0 4
6. Disodium hydrogen phosphate solution white precipitate of uranyl hydrogen phosphate U0 2HP0 4 , soluble in mineral acids but insoluble in dilute acetic acid. In the presence of ammonium sulphate or of ammonium acetate, uranyl ammonium phosphate U0 2(NH 4 )P0 4 is precipitated. 7. Ammonium (or sodium) carbonate solution white precipitate of uranyl carbonate, U0 2C0 3 , soluble in excess of the reagent forming a clear, yellow solution containing the tricarbonatouranylate(VI) ion (cf. reaction 1). 8. Potassium hexacyanoferrate( II) solution brown precIpItate of uranyl hexacyanoferrate(II), (U0 2h[Fe(CN)6J, in neutral or acetic acid solutions, soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid (difference from copper). The precipitate becomes yellow upon the addition of sodium hydroxide solution, due to its conversion into sodium diuranate (distinction from copper and from molybdenum).
(NH 4 hC0 3
1
white U0 2C0 3 . dissolves in excess
K4 [Fe(CN)6]
1
brown ppt
(U0 2 h[Fe(CN)611
+ 2Na+ + 60H-
----;
----; Na2 U 20 7 1 + [Fe(CN)61 4 Fluorescence
+ 3H 20
9. Fluorescence uranium salts, when irradiated with a u.v. lamp, exhibit a characteristic green fluorescence. The phenomenon is especially interesting if in a dark room a bottle containing solid uranyl nitrate or uranyl acetate is irradiated. In solution the intensity of fluorescence depends on the pH. In acid solutions the fluorescence is strong, but becomes gradually weaker as the pH of the solution is raised. 10. Atomic spectrometric tests it is advisable to use the hot nitrous oxide/ acetylene flame. In emission mode 5 ppm uranium can be identified at 544.8 nm. By atomic absorption, using a uranium hollow-cathode lamp the detection sensitivity is about 1 ppm at 358.49 nm. A 1000 ppm uranium standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 2.1095 g of analytical grade uranyl nitrate hexahydrate U0 2 (N0 3 h' 6H 2 0 in water and diluting to 1 litre. Owing to the toxic and radioactive nature of uranium compounds, there must be excellent ventilation facilities for F AES or F AAS. 11. Dry test borax or microcosmic salt bead: oxidizing flame - yellow; reducing flame - green.
Atomic spectrometry
Dry test
6.20
Thorium, Th (A,: 232.04)
Thorium is a greyish-white, moderately hard, heavy metal, which melts at 1750C. It can be dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid or in aqua regia. The tetravalent Th 4+ cations are stable in acid solutions.
304
Thorium(IV)
6.20
In certain countries, the sale, storage, use and disposal of thorium compounds are regulated by law.
Th 4+ reactions
Reactions of thorium (I V) ions To study these reactions use a O.lM solution of thorium nitrate Th(N0 3 )4 . 4H 2 0 which contains some free nitric acid. 1. Ammonia, ammonium sulphide or sodium hydroxide solution white precipitate of thorium hydroxide, Th(OH)4 or Th0 2 xH 20, insoluble in excess of the reagent, but readily soluble in dilute acids when freshly precipitated. Tartrates and also citrates prevent the precipitation of the hydroxide. 2. Ammonium or sodium carbonate solution white precipitate of basic carbonate, readily soluble in excess of the concentrated reagent forming the pentacarbonatothorate(lV) anion, [Th(C0 3 )5J 6 -. 3. Oxalic acid solution white, crystalline precipitate of thorium oxalate, Th(C 20 4h (distinction from aluminium and beryllium), insoluble in excess of the reagent and in 0.5M hydrochloric acid. 4. Ammonium oxalate solution white precipitate of thorium oxalate, which dissolves on boiling with a large excess of the reagent, forming the trioxalatothorate(IV) anion, [Th{ (COOhhJ 2-, but is reprecipitated upon the addition of hydrochloric acid (difference from zirconium). 5. Saturated potassium sulphate solution white precipitate of the complex salt potassium tetrasulphatothorate(lV), K 4[Th(S04)4J, insoluble in excess of the precipitant, but soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid.
Alkaline reagents
1
white Th(OH)4
Carbonates
1
white ppt, dissolves in excess Oxalate
1
white Th(C 2 0 4}2
white precipitate of hydrated thorium heptoxide (thorium peroxide), Th 20 7 '4H 20, in neutral or faintly acid solution. The compound is not a true peroxide, but an associate compound of thorium dioxide and hydrogen peroxide: 2Th02 ' 3H 20 2 . H 20.
6. Hydrogen peroxide
Na2S203
7. Sodium thiosulphate solution
1
white ppt
precipitate of thorium hydroxide and sulphur on boiling (distinction from cerium). Th 4+ + 2S20~- + 2H 20 -+ Th(OH)41 + 2S1 + 2S0 21
KI0 3
1
white Th(I0 3}4 K4[Fe(CN}6l
8. Potassium iodate solution white, bulky precipitate of thorium iodate, Th(I0 3 k Precipitation occurs even in the presence of 50% free nitric acid [difference from cerium(III)]. 9. Potassium hexacyanoferrate( II) solution white precipitate of thorium hexacyanoferrate(II), Th[Fe(CN)6J, in neutral or slightly acid solution. 10. Potassiumfluoride solution bulky, white precipitate of thorium fluoride, ThF 4, insoluble in excess of the reagent (distinction and method of separation for aluminium, beryllium, zirconium, and titanium).
11. Saturated sebacic acid solution, {COOH' (CH2 )gCOOH) white voluminous precipitate of thorium sebacate, Th(CIOH\604h (difference from cerium).
305
1
white ppt KF
1
white ThF4 Sebacic acid
1
white ppt
6.21
3-Nitrobenzoic acid
1
white ppt
12. 3-Nitrobenzoic acid reagent, (N0 2 ' C6 H 4 COOH) upon addition of excess reagent to a neutral solution of a thorium salt at about 80 C, a white precipitate of the salt Th(N0 2 ' C6 H 4 ' COO)4 is obtained (distinction from cerium).
D
6.21
Cerium, Ce (A,: 140.12) - cerium(llI)
Cerium is a white-grey, soft metal, which melts at 794 C. In its compounds cerium can be trivalent and tetravalent, forming cerium(III), Ce3+, and cerium (IV), Ce 4+, ions respectively.
Ce 3+ reactions
Reactions ofcerium(III) ions To study these reactions use a O.lM solution of cerium(III) nitrate Ce(N0 3h . 6H 20.
1. Ammonia or ammonium sulphide solution white precipitate of cerium(III) hydroxide, Ce(OHh (or Ce203' xH 20), insoluble in excess of the precipitant, but readily soluble in acids. The precipitate slowly oxidizes in the air, finally becoming converted into yellow cerium(IV) hydroxide, Ce(OH)4 (or Ce02' xH 20). Sodium hydroxide solution gives a similar result. Precipitation is prevented by tartrates and citrates. 2. Oxalic acid or ammonium oxalate solution white precipitate of cerium(III) oxalate, insoluble in excess reagent (compare thorium and zirconium), and in very dilute mineral acids. 3. Sodium thiosulphate solution and from cerium(IV) ions).
NH3 or (NH4)2S
1
white Ce(OH)3
Oxalate
no precipitate (distinction from thorium
white, crystalline precipitate, having the composition Ce2 (S04h . 3K 2S04 in neutral solution and Ce2(S04h' 2K2S04 2H 20 from slightly acid solution (difference from aluminium and beryllium).
4. Saturated potassium sulphate solution
NaBi0 3 oxidizes to Ce 4+
5. Sodium bismuthate the solid reagent, in the presence of dilute nitric acid, converts cerium(III) ions into cerium(IV) in the cold. A similar result is obtained by heating with ammonium peroxodisulphate or with lead dioxide and 8M nitric acid. In all cases, the solutions become yellow or orange in colour. 6. Ammonium carbonate solution white precipitate of cerium(III) carbonate, Ce2(C03h, nearly insoluble in excess of the precipitant (difference from beryllium, thorium, and zirconium) and insoluble in sodium carbonate solution. 7. Hydrogen peroxide
(NH 4 )2 C0 3
1
white Ce2(C03h
H2 0 2
oxidizes to Ce 4+. brown ppt
when a cerium(III) salt is treated with ammonia solution and excess hydrogen peroxide is added, a yellowish-brown or reddish-brown precipitate or colouration occurs, due to cerium peroxide gel (Ce02' H 20 2' H 20). This is not very stable. Upon boiling the mixture, yellow cerium(IV) hydroxide, Ce(OH)4, is obtained. The test cannot be
306
Cerium(IV)
6.22
applied directly in the presence of iron since the colour of iron(III) hydroxide is similar to that of cerium dioxide. The precipitation of iron(III) hydroxide may be prevented by the addition of an alkali tartrate; this, however, reduces the sensitivity of the test for cerium.
8. Ammonium fluoride solution white, gelatinous precipitate of cerium(III) fluoride, CeF 3, in neutral or slightly acid solution. The precipitate becomes powdery upon standing.
KI0 3
1
white Ce(I03l3 AgN0 3 + NH3
9. Potassium iodate solution white precipitate of cerium(III) iodate, Ce(103h, in neutral solution, soluble in nitric acid (difference from cerium(IV) iodate; cf. thorium, Section 6.20, reaction 8). 10. Diammineargentato nitrate (ammoniacal silver nitrate) reagent this reagent reacts with neutral solutions of cerium(III) salts to form cerium(IV) hydroxide and metallic silver [difference from cerium(IV)]; the former is coloured black by the finely divided silver:
1
Ag+ reduced, Ce 3+ oxidized
Iron(II), manganese(II), and cobalt(lI) ions also give the higher metallic hydroxides and silver, and must therefore be absent. Mix a drop of the neutral test solution and a drop of the reagent on a watch glass or in a porcelain micro crucible, and warm gently. A black precipitate or brown colouration appears. Sensitivity Illg Ceo Concentration limit 1 in 50000. The reagent should be freshly prepared and should be discarded quickly to avoid a serious explosion! (Cf. Section 3.6, reaction 1.)
6.22
Cerium, Ce (Ar: 140,12) - cerium(IV)
The most important physical and chemical properties of cerium have been described in Section 6.21.
Ce 4 + reactions
Reactions of cerium (1 V) ions To study these reactions use a O.IM solution of cerium(IV) sulphate, Ce(S04h '4H 20, or cerium(IV) ammonium sulphate, Ce(S04h' 2(NH4hS04 . 2H 20. These solutions should contain a few per cent of free sulphuric acid. Both solutions are orange-yellow. On standing a fine precipitate is sometimes formed; it cannot be filtered easily, and the clear solution should preferably be decanted or syphoned before use.
Alkaline reagents
1
yellow Ce(OH)4 Oxalate reduction to Ce 3+
1. Ammonia or sodium hydroxide solution yellow precipitate of cerium(IV) hydroxide, Ce(OHk If the precipitate is warmed with hydrochloric acid, chlorine is evolved and cerium(III) ions are formed. 2. Oxalic acid or ammonium oxalate solution reduction occurs, more rapidly on warming, to cerium(III) ions, and ultimately white cerium(III) oxalate is precipitated.
307
6.23
3. Saturated potassium sulphate solution cerium(III) salts).

Reducing agents reduction to Ce 3+
no precipitate (distinction from
4. Reducing agents (e.g. hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen per-
oxide, and hydriodic acid)
these convert cerium(IV) ions into cerium(III).
5. Sodium thiosulphate solution yellow colour of solution disappears and sulphur precipitates, owing to reduction. 2Ce4+
+ S20~- + H 20
--+
2Ce3+
+ Sl + SO~- + 2H+
yellow complex
6. Ammonium fluoride solution yellow colour of solution disappears but no precipitate is produced, due to the formation ofhexafluorocerate(IV) anions, [CeF 6l2- 7. Potassium iodate solution white precipitate of cerium(IV) iodate, Ce(I0 3)4, from concentrated nitric acid solution (difference from cerium(lII); thorium and zirconium give a similar reaction). 8. Anthranilic acid reagent (NH2 ' C6 H4 . COOH) cerium(lV) oxidizes anthranilic acid to a brown compound. Cerium(III) does not react and must be oxidized first with lead dioxide and concentrated nitric acid to cerium(IV); other oxidizing agents cannot be used, since they react with the anthranilic acid. Iron(I1I) ions inhibit the test and must be masked by the addition of phosphoric acid. The ions of gold and vanadium, as well as chromate ion, react similarly and therefore interfere. Reducing agents must be absent. Place a drop of the test solution (slightly acid with nitric acid) on a spot plate and add a drop of the reagent. A blackish-blue precipitate appears, which rapidly passes into a soluble product and colours the solution brown. Concentration limit I in 10 000. 9. Dry test Borax bead: oxidizing flame - dark brown whilst hot and light yellow to colourless when cold: reducing flame - colourless. 10. Separation of thorium and cerium cerium and thorium salts are precipitated in Group IlIA. They may be separated from the other metals of the group by dissolving the precipitate in 2M hydrochloric acid and adding oxalic acid solution, when the oxalates of both metals are precipitated. The thorium and cerium may be separated: (a) by dissolving the thorium oxalate in a mixture of ammonium acetate solution and acetic acid, cerium oxalate being insoluble under these conditions; (b) by treatment with a large excess of hot concentrated ammonium oxalate solution; only the thorium oxalate dissolves (a complex ion being formed), and may be reprecipitated from the resultant solution as oxalate by the addition of hydrochloric acid.
KI0 3
1
white Ce(10 3 )4 Anthranilic acid brown colour
Dry test
Separation of Th and Ce
6.23
Separation of Group III cations in the presence of titanium, zirconium, thorium, uranium, cerium, vanadium, thallium, and molybdenum
When in the course of systematic analysis the separation of Group III cations is to be carried out, the solution should be tested for phosphate.
308
Separation of Group III
6.23
Table 6.5
Separation and identification of Group IlIA cations in the presence of Ti, Zr, Ce, Th, U, and V Dissolve the precipitate in the minimum volume of 2M HC!. Pour the weakly acid solution into an equal volume of a solution which contains 2 ml 30% H 2 0 2 and is 2.5M with respect to NaOH. (The latter solution should be freshly prepared.) Boil for 5 minutes, but no longer. Filter and wash the precipitate with hot 2% NH4 N0 3 solution.
Residue Filtrate
May contain Fe(OHh; Ti0 2 . xH 20; zr0 2 . xH 20; Th0 2 'xH 20; Ce03 . xH 20 (and some MnO(OHh) Dissolve in 2M HCI, boil to expel CI 2 and divide the solution into five parts. (I) Add O.IM KSCN solution. Red colouration. Fe present. (2) If Fe present, add just sufficient H 3P04 to mask iron(III) ions, and then 3% H 20 2. Orangered colouration, discharged by the addition of solid NH4F. Ti present. White ppt. Zr present. (3) Add excess sa turated oxalic acid solution. White ppt. Th and/or Ce present. F or separation of Th and Ce, see Section 6.22, 10. (4) Evaporate to fuming with 8M H 2S04 to expel HCI. Cool, dilute, add 2M HN0 3 and a little NaBi0 3. Stir and allow to stand. Purple colouration. Mn present.
May contain CrO~-, [AI(OH)4r, VO], and U20~-. Acidify with 2M HN0 3; add 3-4ml O.25M Pb(N0 3h solution, followed by 2 g solid ammonium acetate. Stir well, filter and wash with hot water.
Residue Filtrate
May contain PbCr04 and Pb(V03h. Dissolve in the minimum volume of hot 2M HN0 3
(~5-6ml),
thoroughly cool the resulting solution, and transfer to a small separating funnel. Add an equal volume of amyl alcohol, and a little 3% H 20 2. Shake well and allow the two layers to separate. A blue colouration in the upper layer indicates Cr present, and a red to brownishred colouration in the lower layer indicates V present. Confirm V by the KCI0 3-p-phenetidine test.
May contain AIl+, UO~+ and excess of Pb 2+. Pass H 2S to remove all the Pb as PbS. Filter, wash and boil the filtrate to expel H 2S. Almost neutralize with 2M NH3 solution, cool and pour into an excess of concentrated (NH 4hC0 3 solution. Warm for 5 minutes. Allow to stand, filter and wash.
Residue Filtrate
White: AI(OHh Al present. Confirm by Thenard's blue test.
May contain U, probably as [U0 2(C0 3hJ 4- . Evaporate to a small volume, acidify with 2M HCI and add K4[Fe(CN)6J solution. Brown ppt. of (U0 2h[Fe(CN)6J becoming yellow upon the addition of 2M NaOH solution. U present.
If this test is positive, remove phosphate (see Table 5.6 in Section 5.8). Among the less common ions, titanium, zirconium, cerium, thorium, and uranium will be completely precipitated by ammonia solution, and will therefore appear together with the other Group IlIA cations. Vanadium will only partly be precipitated here; some of the vanadium present will be found in the filtrate of the sulphide precipitates of Group IIIB cations. Some of the thallium(l) partly removed with Group I will also appear in this Group; some molybdenum will appear in the filtrate of Group IIIB sulphides. The precipitation of Group IlIA cations with ammonia solution is carried out according to the procedure given in Table 5.7. The separation and
309
6.24
Table 6.6
Separation of TI from the rest of Group IIIB cations Dissolve the precipitate in 2M HN0 3. Expel H 2S by boiling, add saturated H 2S03 and expel excess S02 again by boiling. Pour the solution into an excess of saturated Na2C03 solution. Filter.
Residue Filtrate
May contain CoC0 3 , NiC0 3 , MnC0 3 and ZnC0 3 . Dissolve in 2M HCI, remove CO 2 by boiling, neutralize with NH 3 , then add (NH4hS. Treat the precipitate according to Table 5.8.
May contain TI+. Identify by reaction 6 in Section 6.2 or by flame test (Section 6.2, reaction II). TI present.
identification of Group IlIA cations in the presence of some less common ions, as described in Table 6.5, commences with the precipitate obtained with ammonia. If thallium has been found in Group I, some of it may pass into Group IIIB because of the solubility of thallium(l) chloride in water and be precipitated as TI 2 S. It may be readily detected by the green flame colouration, preferably viewed through a hand spectroscope. For the separation of thallium from the rest of Group I1IB cations, commencing with the sulphide precipitate, follow the procedure given in Table 6.6.
6.24
Lithium, Li (A,: 6.94)
Lithium is a silver-white metal; it is the lightest metal known (density 0.534gcm- 3 at 20C) and floats upon petroleum. It melts at 186C. It oxidizes on exposure to air, and reacts with water forming lithium hydroxide and liberating hydrogen, but the reaction is not so vigorous as with sodium and potassium. The metal dissolves in acids with the formation of salts. The salts may be regarded as derived from the oxide, Li 20. Some of the salts, notably the chloride, LiCl, and the chlorate, LiCI0 3 , are very deliquescent. The solubilities of the hydroxide, LiOH (113 g I-I at 100C), the carbonate, Li 2 C0 3 (13.1 g I-I at l3 0C), the phosphate, Li 3 P0 4 (0.30 g I-I at 25C), and the fluoride, LiF (2.7 gl-I at 18C), are less than the corresponding sodium and potassium salts, and in this respect lithium resembles the alkaline earth metals.
Li+ reactions
Reactions of lithium (I) ions To study these reactions use a M solution of lithium chloride, LiCl; alternatively dissolve lithium carbonate, Li 2 C0 3 , in the minimum volume of 2M hydrochloric acid. 1. Disodium hydrogen phosphate solution partial precipitation of lithium phosphate, Li 3 P0 4 , in neutral solutions; the precipitate is more readily obtained from dilute solutions on boiling. Precipitation is almost complete in the presence of sodium hydroxide solution. The precipitate is more soluble in ammonium chloride solution than in water (distinction from magnesium). Upon boiling the precipitate with barium hydroxide solution, it passes into solution as lithium hydroxide (difference from magnesium).
Na2H P0 4
1
white Li 3 P0 4
310
Lithium(l)
6.24
Carbonate
L
white Li 2 C0 3
2. Sodium or ammonium carbonate solution white precipitate of lithium carbonate, Li 2 C0 3 , from concentrated solutions and in the presence of ammonia solution. No precipitation occurs in the presence of high concentrations of ammonium chloride since the carbonate-ion concentration is reduced to such an extent that the solubility product of Li 2C0 3 is not exceeded:
NHt
+ CO~- ;::::! NH3 + HC0 3
NH4F
L
white LiF
3. Ammonium fluoride solution a white, gelatinous precipitate of lithium fluoride, LiF, is slowly formed in ammoniacal solution (distinction from sodium and potassium). 4. Tartaric acid, sodium hexanitritocobaltate( III) or hexachloroplatinic acid solution no precipitate (distinction from potassium). A precipitate of lithium hexanitritocobaltate(III) is, however, produced in very concentrated (almost saturated) solutions of lithium salts; interference with the sodium hexanitritocobaltate(III) test for K+ is therefore unlikely.
Fe(I0 4 h
L
white ppt
5. Iron ( III) periodate test iron(III) salts react with periodates to yield a precipitate of iron(III) periodate: this precipitate is soluble in excess of the periodate solution and also in excess potassium hydroxide solution. The resulting alkaline solution is a selective reagent for lithium, since it gives a white precipitate, KLiFe[I0 6 ], even from dilute solutions and in the cold. Neither sodium nor potassium gives a precipitate; ammonium salts, all metals of Groups I to IV, and magnesium should be absent. Place a drop of the neutral or alkaline test solution in a micro test-tube, and add I drop of M sodium chloride solution and 2 drops of the iron(III) periodate reagent. Carry out a blank test with a drop of distilled water simultaneously. Immerse both tubes for 15-20 seconds in water at 40-50C. A white (or yellowish-white) precipitate indicates the presence of lithium; the blank remains clear. Sensitivity O.lllg Li. Concentration limit I in 100000.
6. Ammonium carbonate solution (microscope test) lithium carbonate, when freshly formed, has a characteristic appearance under the microscope. Place a drop of the concentrated test solution on a microscope slide. Introduce a few minute specks of sodium or ammonium carbonate. Some lithium carbonate crystals are formed immediately. Examine under the microscope (magnification: x 200): the crystals are in the form of either hexagonal stars or plates (compare CaS04' 2H 2 0, Section 3.33, reaction 10). The cations of the alkaline earth metals and of magnesium must be absent. Concentration limit 1 in 10 000. 7. Dry test flame colouration. Lithium compounds impart a carmine-red colour to the non-luminous Bunsen flame. The colour is masked by the presence of considerable amounts of sodium salts, but becomes visible when observed through two thicknesses of cobalt glass. The most distinctive test utilizes the spectroscope; the spectrum consists of a beautiful red line at 671 nm.
311
Microscope test
Flame test
L
characteristic red colour
6.24
Atomic spectrometry
8. Atomic spectrometric tests in emission mode 0.5 ppm lithium can be identified at 670.78 nm with the air/acetylene flame; with the nitrous oxide/ acetylene flame the sensitivity is better. By atomic absorption, using a lithium hollow-cathode lamp or an electrodeless discharge tube and an air/acetylene flame the detection sensitivity is about 0.1 ppm at the same wavelength. A 1000 ppm lithium standard solution can be prepared by dissolving 6.1 086 g of analytical grade, dry lithium chloride (LiCl) in water and diluting to I litre. 9. Separation of lithium from other alkali metals in order to separate lithium from the other alkali metals, they are all converted into the chlorides (by evaporation with concentrated hydrochloric acid, if necessary), evaporated to dryness, and the residue extracted with absolute alcohol which dissolves the lithium chloride only. Better solvents are dry dioxan (diethylene dioxide, C4 H s0 2 ) and dry acetone. Upon evaporation of the extract, the residue of lithium chloride is (a) subjected to the flame test, and (b) precipitated as the phosphate after dissolution in water and adding sodium hydroxide solution.
Separation of Li from K. Na
312
Appendix
Reagent solutions and gases

The reagents are listed alphabetically. One asterisk * indicates that a reagent has a limited stability and should not be kept for longer than I month. Two asterisks ** indicate that the reagent should be prepared freshly and discarded after use. Reagents with no asterisk can be kept for at least one year after preparation. Acetic acid (concentrated, 'glacial'). The commercial concentrated or glacial acetic acid is a water-like solution with a characteristic smell, having a density of 1.06gcm- 3. It contains 99.5% (wjw) of CH 3COOH (1.06g CH 3COOH per ml) and is approximately 17.6 molar. When cooled to OC, the reagent freezes forming ice-like crystals, hence the name 'glacial'. It has to be handled with care. Acetic acid (9M, I + I). To 50ml water add 50ml glacial acetic acid and mix. Acetic acid (30% vjv). Dilute 30ml glacial acetic acid, CH3COOH, with water to 100mi. Acetic acid (2M). Dilute 114 ml glacial acetic acid with water to 1 litre. Acetone. The pure solvent is a clear colourless liquid with a characteristic odour. Its density is 0.79 g cm -3 and it boils at 56.2e. Acetylacetone. CH 3 COCH2 COCH 3. The commercial reagent is a colourless, sometimes yellowish liquid with a density of 0.97 g cm -3. It boils at 137C. Albumin solution. * Dissolve 0.1 g albumin in 20 ml water to obtain a colloidal solution. Alizarin (saturated solution in ethanol). To 2g alizarin, C'4Hg04, add lOml 96% ethanol and shake. Use the clear solution for the tests. Alizarin-hydrochloric acid solution. Mix 19 ml saturated alcoholic solution of alizarin and I ml of 2M hydrochloric acid. Alizarin red S (2%). Dissolve 2g alizarin red S (sodium alizarinsulphonate), C'4H704 . S03Na' H 2 0, in 100 ml water. Alizarin red S (0.1 %). Dissolve 0.1 g alizarin red S (sodium alizarinsulphonate), C'4H704 . S03Na' H 2 0, in 100 ml water. Aluminium chloride (0.33M). Dissolve 80.5 g aluminium chloride hexahydrate, AICI 3 ' 6H 2 0, in water and dilute to I litre. Aluminium sulphate (0.17M). Dissolve 107.2 g aluminium sulphate hexadecahydrate, AI 2 (S04h . 16H 2 0, in water and dilute to I litre. Alternatively, dissolve 158.1 g aluminium potassium sulphate icositetrahydrate (potash alum), K 2 S04 AI 2 (S04h . 24H 2 0, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Aluminon reagent (0.1 %). Dissolve 0.1 g Aluminon (tri-ammonium arurine-tricarboxylate, O:(COONH4)C6H3=C[C6H3(OH)COONH4lz) in 100ml water. Ammonia solution (concentrated). The commercial concentrated ammonia solution is a water-like liquid with a characteristic smell, owing to the evaporation of ammonia gas. It has a density of 0.90gcm- 3, contains 58.6% (wjw) NH3 (or 0.53g NH3 per ml), and is approximately 15.1 molar. It should be handled with care, wearing eye protection. Direct smelling of the solution should be avoided. The solution should be kept far apart from concentrated hydrochloric acid to avoid the formation of ammonium chloride fumes. Ammonia solution (7.5M, 1 + 1). To 500ml water add 500ml concentrated ammonia solution and mix.
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Ammonia solution (2M). Dilute 134ml concentrated ammonia solution with water to I litre. Ammonia solution (1.5M). Dilute 100 ml concentrated ammonia solution to 1 litre. Ammonia solution (2.5%). Dilute 5ml concentrated ammonia with water to 100mi. Ammonia solution (O.IM). Dilute 5 ml 2M ammonia with water to 100 ml. Ammonia solution (0.02M). Dilute 1 ml2M ammonia with water to 100ml. Ammonium acetate (6M). Dissolve 46.3 g ammonium acetate, CH 3 COONH 4, in water and dilute the solution to 100 ml. Ammonium carbonate (M).* Dissolve 96.1 g ammonium carbonate, (NH 4hC0 3 , in water and dilute to 1 litre. Aged reagents must be boiled up and cooled before use to remove ammonium carbaminate from the solution. Ammonium carbonate (concentrated). * Shake 20 g ammonium carbonate, (NH4hC0 3 , with 80ml water. Allow to stand overnight and filter. Prepare the reagent freshly. Ammonium chloride (saturated). To 4 g ammonium chloride add lOml water. Warm the mixture on a water bath, and use the clear supernatant liquid of the cooled mixture as a reagent. Ammonium chloride (20%). Dissolve 20 g ammonium chloride, NH 4CI, in water and dilute to 100 ml. Ammonium chloride (M). Dissolve 53.5 g ammonium chloride in water and dilute the solution to 1 litre. Ammonium chloride (1 %). Dissolve 1 g ammonium chloride, NH4CI, in water and dilute to 100ml. Ammonium chloride-ammonium sulphide wash solution. * Dissolve 1 g ammonium chloride in 80 ml water, add 1 ml of Mammonium sulphide and dilute the solution to 100mi. Ammonium fluoride (O.IM). Dissolve 3.7 g ammonium fluoride, NH4F, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Ammonium iodide (10%). Dissolve 109 ammonium iodide, NH4I, in water and dilute to 100ml. Ammonium metavanadate (0.1 M). Dissolve 11.7 g ammonium metavanadate, NH4 V0 3 , in 100 ml of M sulphuric acid and dilute with water to 1 litre. Ammonium molybdate (0.25M for molybdenum). * Dissolve 44.2 g ammonium molybdate, (NH4)6M07024 4H20, in a mixture of 60ml concentrated ammonia and 40 ml water. Add 120 g ammonium nitrate and after complete dissolution dilute the solution to 1 litre. Before use, the solution, to which the reagent is added, must be made acid by adding nitric acid. Ammonium molybdate (0.025M). * Dilute 1 ml of 0.25M ammonium molybdate with water to 10 ml. Ammonium molybdate-quinine sulphate reagent. * Dissolve 4 g finely powdered ammonium molybdate, (NH4)6M07024 4H20, in 20ml water. Add to this solution, with stirring, a solution of 0.1 g quinine sulphate, C2oH24N202' H 2S0 4 ' 2H 20, in 80 ml concentrated nitric acid. Ammonium nitrate (M). Dissolve 80 g ammonium nitrate, NH 4N0 3 , in water and dilute to 1 litre. Ammonium nitrate (2%). Dissolve 20 g ammonium nitrate, NH 4N0 3 , in water and dilute the solution to 1 litre. Ammonium nitrate wash solution. ** Dissolve 0.5 g ammonium nitrate, NH4N0 3 , in 10 ml water and saturate the solution with hydrogen sulphide gas. Ammonium oxalate (0.17M or 2.5%). Dissolve 25g ammonium oxalate monohydrate, (COONH 4h' H 20, in 900 ml water and after complete dissolution dilute to I litre. Ammonium oxalate (O.IM). Dissolve 14.2 g ammonium oxalate monohydrate, (COONH 4h . H 20, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Ammonium peroxodisulphate (M). * Dissolve 22.8 g ammonium peroxodisulphate, (NH4hS208, in water and dilute to 100mi.
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Ammonium peroxodisulphate (0.1 M). '" Dissolve 22.8 g ammonium peroxodisulphate, (NH4hS20g, in water and dilute to I litre. Ammonium polysulphide (M). To I litre ammonium sulphide solution (M) add 32g sulphur, and heat gently until the latter dissolves completely and a yellow solution is formed. The formula of the reagent is (NH4hSx, where x is approx. 2. Ammonium sulphate (saturated). Mix 45 g ammonium sulphate, (NH4hS04, and 50 ml water. Heat the mixture on a water bath for 3 hours and allow to cool. Use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Ammonium sulphate (M). Dissolve 132g ammonium sulphate, (NH4hS04, in water and dilute to I litre. Ammonium sulphide (M). '" Saturate 500 ml ammonia solution (2M) with hydrogen sulphide, until a small sample (1 ml) of the solution does not cause any precipitation in magnesium sulphate (M) solution. Then add 500 ml ammonia solution (2M). Store the solution in a well-stoppered bottle. The solution must be colourless. Yellow or orange colour indicates that considerable amounts of polysulphide are present in the solution. Ammonium sulphide wash solution'" (1 + 100). Dilute I ml M ammonium sulphide with water to 100 ml. Ammonium tartrate (6M). '" Dissolve 50 g tartaric acid, C4H6 6, in 50 ml water and add 50 ml concentrated ammonia solution. The solution contains an excess of ammonia. Ammonium tetrathiocyanatomercurate(II) (0.3M)."'''' Dissolve 9 g ammonium thiocyanate, NH 4SCN, and 8 g mercury(II) chloride, HgCI 2, in water and dilute to 100ml. Ammonium thiocyanate (O.IM). Dissolve 7.61 g ammonium thiocyanate, NH4SCN, in water and dilute to I litre. Ammonium thiocyanate (saturated solution in acetone). '" Shake I g ammonium thiocyanate, NH4SCN, with 5 ml acetone, and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Amyl acetate (iso-amyl acetate, 3-methyl-butyl acetate). A colourless liquid with a pleasant, characteristic odour. It has a density ofO.87gcm- 3 . Amyl alcohol (iso-amyl alcohol, 3-methylbutan-I-ol or 2-methyl-butan-4-01). A colourless liquid with a characteristic odour. It has a density of 0.81 g cm -3. It should be kept in a metal box or cupboard. Aniline. The commercial product is an almost colourless oily liquid, which darkens on longer standing. Its density is 1.02 g cm -3. Aniline sulphate (I %).'" Dissolve I g aniline sulphate (C6H5NH2h H 2S04 in 100mi of water. Anthranilic acid (5%).'" Dissolve 0.5g anthranilic acid NH2 C6H 4 COOH in lOml of 96% ethanol. Antimony(III) chloride (0.2M). * Dissolve 45.6 g antimony(III) chloride SbCl3 in 250 ml of 6M hydrochloric acid and dilute the solution to I litre. Alternatively, take 29.2 g antimony(III) oxide Sb 20 3 and dissolve it in 500 ml of 6M hydrochloric acid by heating the mixture on a water bath. After cooling dilute the solution to I litre. Aqua regia. ** To 3 volumes of concentrated hydrochloric acid add 1 volume of concentrated nitric acid. Mix and use immediately, the solution does not keep at all. Arsenic trioxide (arsenious acid) (O.IM for arsenic; POISON). Boil 9.89 g arsenic trioxide with 500 ml water until complete dissolution. Cool the solution and dilute with water to I litre. Ascorbic acid (0.05M). ** Dissolve 0.9 g ascorbic acid in 100 ml water. Barium chloride (0.25M). Dissolve 61.1 g barium chloride dihydrate, BaCI2 . 2H 20, in water and dilute to I litre. Barium nitrate (0.25M). Dissolve 65.3 g barium nitrate, Ba(N0 3 h, in water and dilute to I litre. Baryta water (saturated). Shake 5 g barium hydroxide octahydrate, Ba(OHh 8H 20, with 100 ml water. Allow to stand for 24 hours. Use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests.
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Benzoin a-oxime (cupron) (5% in alcohol).** Dissolve 5 g benzoin a-oxime, C6H 5 CH(OH)' C(NOH)' C6H 5 , in 96% ethanol and dilute with the solvent to 100 ml. Beryllium sulphate (0.1 M). Dissolve 17.7 g beryllium sulphate tetrahydrate, BeS04 '4H 20, in water and dilute to I litre. 1,I-Bi-2-naphtol (0.05%). * Dissolve 0.05 g I, l-bi-2-naphtol (or di-,B-naphtol, (CIOH60Hh, in 100ml concentrated sulphuric acid. 2,2' -Bipyridyl reagent. * Dissolve 0.01 g of the solid reagent in 0.5 ml ofO.IM hydrochloric acid. Alternatively, dissolve om g reagent in 0.5 ml 96% ethanol. The reagent is very expensive and it is worthwhile to use the minimum amount required. Bis-(p-nitrophenyl) carbazide (0.1 %). ** Dissolve 0.1 g bis-( p-nitrophenyl) carbazide (p,p'-dinitro-I,5-diphenyl carbazide) CO(NH' NH 'C6H 4 ' N0 2h in 100m196% ethanol. Bismuth nitrate (0.2M). To 500 ml water add cautiously 50 ml concentrated nitric acid, HN0 3 . Dissolve 97.0 g bismuth nitrate pentahydrate, Bi(N03 h' 5H 20, in this mixture, and dilute with water to I litre. Bromine water (saturated). ** Shake 4 g (or I ml) liquid bromine with 100 ml water. Ensure that a slight excess of undissolved bromine is left at the bottom of the mixture. The solution keeps for I week. When handling bromine, exercise utmost care; use rubber gloves and eye protection always. Bromothymol blue (0.04%). Dissolve 40mg bromothymol blue in 100ml 96% ethanol. Cacotheline (0.25%).* Dissolve 0.25 g cacotheline (nitrobruciquinone hydrate, C21 H 21 0 7 N 3 ) in 100ml water. Cadmium acetate (O.SM). Dissolve 13.7 g cadmium acetate dihydrate, Cd(CH 3 COOh' 2H 20, in water and dilute to 100ml. Cadmium carbonate suspension (freshly precipitated).** To 20ml ofO.5M cadmium acetate add 20ml of 0.5M sodium carbonate solution. Allow the precipitate to settle and wash 4-5 times with water by decantation. Cadmium sulphate (0.25M). Dissolve 64.13 g tricadmium sulphate octahydrate 3CdS04 . 8H 20 in water and dilute to I litre. Cadmium sulphate in ammonia (saturated) (for the tetramminecadmium perchlorate test). Equilibrate 109 tricadmium sulphate octahydrate 3CdS04 ' 8H 20 overnight with 10 ml concentrated ammonia. Use the clear supernatant liquid for the test. Calcium chloride (0.5M). Dissolve 109.5 g calcium chloride hexahydrate, CaCI 2 . 6H 20, in water and dilute to I litre. If the solid reagent is not pure enough, weigh 50 g calcium carbonate into a large porcelain dish, add slowly 100ml of 6M hydrochloric acid, waiting after the addition of a new portion until effervescence ceases, then evaporate the mixture to dryness and dissolve the residue in water. Dilute finally to I litre. Calcium nitrate (saturated). Mix 80 g calcium nitrate tetra hydrate, Ca(N0 3 h' 4H 20, and 20 ml water. Heat the mixture on a water bath until complete dissolution. Allow to cool. Calcium sulphate (saturated). Shake 0.35 g calcium sulphate monohydrate, CaS04 . H 20, with 100 ml water. Allow the mixture to stand for 24 hours and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Carbon dioxide gas. This gas can be obtained from a Kipp apparatus using calcium carbonate pieces (broken marble) and 6M hydrochloric acid. The gas should be washed with concentrated sulphuric acid. Catechol (pyrocatechol) (10%).* Dissolve 10 g catechol (o-dihydroxybenzene), C 6H 4(OHh, in water and dilute to 100 ml. Cerium(III) nitrate (0.1 M). Dissolve 43.5 g cerium(III) nitrate hexahydrate, Ce(N0 3 h .6H 20, in 100 ml 2M nitric acid and dilute with water to I litre. Cerium(IV) sulphate (O.IM). Dissolve 40.4 g cerium(IV) sulphate tetrahydrate, Ce(S04h' 4H 20, or 63.6 g cerium(IV) diammonium sulphate dihydrate, Ce(S04)2 '2(NH4hS04 '2H 20, in a cold mixture of SOOml water and 50ml concentrated sulphuric acid, and dilute the solution with water to I litre.
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Chloramine-T (O.OSM).** Dissolve 14.1 g chloramine-T, CH 3 C6H 4 S02' N NaCI 3H20, in water and dilute to I litre. Chlorine gas. This gas is available commercially in steel cylinders and should be taken from these. Alternatively, it can be produced in a Kipp apparatus (with glass joints only) from calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder) and 6M hydrochloric acid. It is advisable to mix the bleaching powder with some gypsum powder, making the mixture wet, to produce lumps of the reagent. After drying, these lumps can be placed into the Kipp apparatus. Chlorine water (about O.lM). ** Saturate 200 ml of water with chlorine gas. Chloroform. The commercial reagent is a colourless liquid with a characteristic smell. Chloroform vapour should not be inhaled; it causes drowsiness. It has a high density (1.47 gcm -3) and a high refractive index (1.44). Although it is not inflammable, it should be kept together with other organic solvents in a metal box or cupboard. Chromic acid (2S%). Pour 2S ml chromosulphuric acid cautiously, with constant stirring, into 70 ml water. After cooling, dilute the solution with water to 100 ml. Chromium(III) chloride (0.33M). Dissolve 88.8 g chromium(III) chloride hexahydrate, CrCI 3 . 6H 20, in water and dilute to I litre. Chromium(III) sulphate (0.167M). Dissolve 110.4 g chromium(III) sulphate pentadecahydrate, Cr2(S04h 'ISH 20, in water and dilute to I litre. Chromosulphuric acid (concentrated). To 100 g potassium or sodium dichromate (K2Cr207 or Na2Cr207) add I litre concentrated sulphuric acid. Stir the mixture occasionally and keep in a stoppered vessel. Because of its strong oxidizing and dehydrating properties, handle the solution with the greatest care (eye glasses, rubber gloves). Its cleansing action is slow but effective; best results are obtained if the mixture is left overnight in the vessel to be cleaned. Used portions should be poured back into the stock of the mixture. As the brownish colour changes slowly to green, discard the solution. Chromotropic acid.** To 0.1 g chromo tropic acid sodium salt (1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene-3,6-disulphonic acid; sodium salt) ClOH60gS2Na2 add S ml water, mix thoroughly, and use the pure supernatant liquid for the tests. Cinchonine-potassium iodide reagent (l %). * Dissolve I g cinchonine in a mixture of 99ml water and I ml dilute nitric acid (2M) by boiling, let the mixture cool and dissolve I g potassium iodide, KI, in the solution. The reagent is stable for 2 weeks. Cobalt(II) acetate (O.IM). Dissolve 2.S g cobalt(II) acetate tetrahydrate, (CH 3 COOhCo4H 20, in 100ml water. Cobalt(II) chloride (O.SM). Dissolve 119 g cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate, CoCl 2 ' 6H 20, in water and dilute to I litre. Cobalt(II) nitrate (O.SM). Dissolve'l46 g cobalt(II) nitrate hexahydrate, Co(N0 3 h' 6H 20, in water and dilute to I litre. Cobalt(II) thiocyanate (10%). ** Dissolve I g cobalt acetate tetrahydrate (CH 3COOhCo4H 20 in Sml water. In a separate vessel dissolve I g ammonium thiocyanate, NH 4SCN, in S ml water, and mix the two solutions. Copper(I) chloride reagent (M).* Dissolve 9.9 g copper(l) chloride, CuCI, in a mixture of 60ml water and 40ml concentrated hydrochloric acid. Heating accelerates dissolution. Add to the solution strips of bright copper, which should be left there. Copper(II) sulphate (0.25M). Dissolve 62.42 g copper sulphate pentahydrate, CUS04 . SH 20, in water and dilute to I litre. Copper(II) sulphate (0.1 %). Dissolve 0.1 g copper sulphate pentahydrate, CUS04 . SH 2 0, in 100 ml water. Copper sulphide suspension.** Dissolve 0.12g copper sulphate pentahydrate CUS04 . SH 20 in 100 ml water, add S drops of 2M ammonia solution and introduce hydrogen sulphide gas until the solution becomes cloudy. The suspension must be freshly prepared. Cupferron (2%).** Dissolve 2g cupferron, C6HS' N(NO)ONH 4, in 100ml water. The solution does not keep well. Addition of I g ammonium carbonate, (NH 4hC0 3 , enhances the stability.
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Curcumin (saturated solution in ethanol). * Shake O.S g curcumin [CH 30C6H 3(OH)CH:CHCOhCH 2 with lOml 96% ethanol. Use the clear liquid to prepare turmeric paper. Diammineargentatonitrate (O.IM).** To lOml O.IM silver nitrate add 2M ammonia solution until the precipitate first formed is just redissolved. Discard the unused reagent because on standing it forms silver azide, which may cause SERIOUS EXPLOSIONS. Diammonium hydrogen phosphate (O.SM). * Dissolve 66 g diammonium hydrogen orthophosphate, (NH4)zHP0 4, in water and dilute to I litre. Diazine green (0.01 %). Dissolve 0.01 g diazine green (Janus green, Colour Index 11OS0) in 100 ml water. Di-(4-dimethylaminodiphenyl) methane (tetrabase) (O.S%). Dissolve O.S g tetrabase [(CH 3)zNC 6H 4]zCH 2 in a mixture of 20ml glacial acetic acid and 80ml 96% ethanol. Di-(4-dimethylaminodiphenyl) methane (tetrabase) (1 %). Dissolve 0.1 g tetrabase [(CH 3)zNC6H 4hCH 2 in lOml chloroform. Diethyl ether. The commercial product is a clear, colourless, mobile liquid, which is highly inflammable. It has a density of O. 71 g cm -3. It should be kept in a metal box or cupboard. 4-Dimethylaminobenzene-azo-phenyl-arsonic acid (0.1 %). ** Dissolve 0.1 g 4'-dimethylaminoazobenzene-4-phenylarsonic acid, (CH 3)zN' C6H 4 ' N:N' C 6H4AsO(OH)z, in Sml concentrated hydrochloric acid, and dilute with 96% ethanol to 100ml. 4-Dimethylaminobenzylidene-rhodanine (0.3% in acetone).** Dissolve 30mg commerciaI4-dimethylaminobenzylidene-rhodanine reagent in lOml acetone. Dimethyl glyoxime (1%). Dissolve I g dimethyl glyoxime, CH 3 C(NOH) C(NOH) 'CH 3, in 100ml 96% ethanol. NN-Dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (1 %).* Dissolve I g NNdimethyl-p-phenylenediamine hydrochloride NH 2 C6H 4 ' N(CH3)z' 2HCI in water and dilute to 100 ml. Instead of the dihydrochloride, NN-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine sulphate NH 2 ' C 6H 4 ' N(CH3)z . H 2 S0 4 may be used. Dioxan (1,4-dioxan, diethylene dioxide), C4H g 0 2 The commercial solvent is a clear, colourless liquid with a characteristic odour. It has a density of 1.42 g cm -3. The liquid freezes at lISC and boils at 101C. Diphenylamine (O.S%).* Dissolve O.Sg diphenylamine, (C6HS)zNH, in 8Sml concentrated sulphuric acid, and dilute the solution with the greatest care with water to 100 ml. 1,5-Diphenylcarbazide (1 % in ethanol).** Dissolve 0.10 g I,S-diphenyIcarbazide, (C 6Hs' NH NH)zCO, in 10 ml of 96% ethanol. The solution decomposes rapidly if exposed to air. 1,5-Diphenylcarbazide (0.2% solution with acetic acid).** Dissolve 0.2g I,SdiphenyIcarbazide, (C 6Hs' NH NH)zCO, in 10 ml glacial acetic acid and dilute the mixture to 100 ml with 96% ethanol. Diphenylthiocarbazone (dithizone) (0.00 S% ). * Dissolve S mg di phenylthiocar bazone (dithizone), C6HS' N:N' CS NH NH C 6H s, in 100 ml chloroform. p-DipicryJamine (I %).** Boil a mixture of 0.2 g p-dipicrylamine (hexanitrodiphenylamine), [C6H2(N02hhNH, 4ml of O.SM sodium carbonate and 16ml water. Allow to cool and filter. Use the filtrate for the tests. Disodium hydrogen arsenate (0.2SM). Dissolve 76 g disodium hydrogen arsenate, Na2HAs04' 7H 20, in water and dilute the solution to I litre. Disodium hydrogen phosphate (0.033M). Dissolve 12g disodium hydrogen orthophosphate dodecahydrate, Na2HP04' 12H20, or 6 g disodium hydrogen orthophosphate dihydrate, Na2HP04' 2H 2 0, or 4.2 g anhydrous disodium hydrogen orthophosphate, Na2HP04, in water and dilute to I litre. Dithio-oxamide (rubeanic acid) (0.5'%).** Dissolve O.S g dithio-oxamide H 2N' CS' CS' NH2 in 100 ml of 96% ethanol. The solution decomposes rapidly and should be prepared freshly each time.
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Dithio-oxamide (rubeanic acid) (0.02%).** Dissolve 20 mg dithio-oxamide H 2N CS CS' NH2 in 100 ml glacial acetic acid. The solution decomposes rapidly and should be prepared freshly each time. Ethanol (anhydrous or 'absolute'). The commercial product contains more than 99.7% C 2H sOH. Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) (96%). The commercial product contains about 95-96% C2H sOH and has a density of 0.81 gcm- 3 . It is inflammable and should be kept in a metal box or cupboard. Ethanol (80%). To 80m196% ethanol add 16ml water. Ether. See Diethyl ether. Ethyl acetate. A colourless liquid with a pleasant, characteristic odour. It has a density of 0.9 gcm- 3 . Ethylamine (M). Dissolve 4.5 g ethylamine, C 2H sNH 2, in water and dilute to 100 m!. Alternatively, dilute 7 ml of 70% ethyl amine solution with water to 100m!. Ethylenediamine (diamino-ethane). The commercial product is a liquid with a density ofO.90gcm- 3 Ferron (0.2%). * Dissolve 0.2 g ferron (8-hydroxy-7-iodoquinoline-5-sulphonic acid), C 9 H 6 0 4 NSI, in 100mi water. Fluorescein reagent. To I g fluorescein, C2oH120S (Colour Index 45350), add a mixture of 50 ml 96% ethanol and 50 ml water. Shake, allow to stand for 24 hours, and filter the solution. Formaldehyde solution (40%). Commercial formaldehyde solution (formalin) contains about 40 g HCHO per 100 m!. It normally contains some methanol as stabilizer. It has a characteristic, pungent odour. If kept cold for long periods, solid paraldehyde separates from the solution. Formaldehyde (10%). * Dilute 10 ml of 40% formaldehyde solution (formalin) with 30ml water. Formaldehyde (4%)-sodium carbonate (0.05M) reagent.** To 50ml water add IOml 0.5M sodium carbonate and IOml 40% formaldehyde solution, and dilute the mixture to 100 m!. The reagent decomposes on standing. Fuchsin (0.1 %). Dissolve 0.1 gfuchsin (magenta, Colour Index 42500) in 100mi water. Fuchsin (0.015%). Dissolve 0.015 g fuchsin (magenta, Colour Index 42500) in 100 ml water. Gallocyanine (I %).** Dissolve 1 g gallocyanine, ClsH120sN2, in 100ml water. Gold(III) chloride (0.33M for gold). Dissolve 13.3 g sodium tetrachloroaurate(III) dihydrate, NaAuCI4 2H 20, in water and dilute to 100m!' Alternatively, dissolve 6.57 g gold metal in 50 ml aqua regia, evaporate the solution to dryness, and dissolve the residue in 100 ml water. Hexachloroplatinic(IV) acid (26% or 0.5M). Dissolve 2.6 g hexachloroplatinic(IV) acid, H 2[PtCI 6 ]6H 20, in IOml water. Hydrazine sulphate (saturated). * To 2 g hydrazine sulphate, N 2H 4 H 2S0 4 , add 5 ml water and saturate the solution by vigorous shaking. Hydrochloric acid (concentrated, 'fuming'). The commercial concentrated hydrochloric acid is a water-like solution with a characteristic smell, and is 'fuming' owing to the evaporation of hydrogen chloride gas. It has a density of 1.19 g cm -3, contains 36.0% (w jw) HCI (or 0.426 g HCI per ml), and is approximately 11.7 molar. The reagent should be stored far away from concentrated ammonia to prevent the formation of ammonium chloride fumes. It should be handled with care, using eye protection. Hydrochloric acid (6M, 1 + 1). To 500ml water add 500ml concentrated hydrochloric acid, and let the solution cool to room temperature. Hydrochloric acid (3M). To 500 ml water add 265 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid, and dilute with water to I litre. Hydrochloric acid (2M). Pour 170 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid into 800 ml water stirring constantly, and dilute with water to I litre. Hydrochloric acid (0.5M). Dilute 4.5 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid with water to 100m!.
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Appendix
Hydrochloric acid (O.IM). Dilute 20 ml 0.5M hydrochloric acid with water to 100 ml. Hydrogen peroxide (concentrated).* Commercial concentrated hydrogen peroxide (so called' 100 volume') solution contains 30% (w/w) of H 20 2 and has a density of 1.10 g em -3. Sometimes it contains small amounts of sulphuric acid or organic material as stabilizer. It should be handled with care. Hydrogen peroxide (10%).* To 30ml concentrated (30%) hydrogen peroxide add 60 ml water and mix. Dilute with water to 100 ml. Hydrogen peroxide (3%, approx. M).* Dilute 100ml concentrated ('100 volume') hydrogen peroxide with water to I litre. Hydrogen sulphide gas. This gas can be obtained from a Kipp apparatus, using solid iron(II) sulphide, FeS, and 6M hydrochloric acid. The gas can be washed by bubbling it through water. Hydrogen sulphide (saturated solution, about O.IM).** Saturate 250ml water with hydrogen sulphide gas, obtained from a Kipp apparatus. The solution contains approximately 4 g H 2S per litre. The solution will keep for about I week. Hydroxylamine hydrochloride (10%). * Dissolve 10 g hydroxyl ammonium chloride, NH 20H' HCI, in water and dilute to 100ml. 8-Hydroxyquinoline (5%). * Dissolve 5 g 8-hydroxyquinoline, C9H70N, in a mixture of 90 ml water and 10 ml of M sulphuric acid. The reagent is stable for several months. 8-Hydroxyquinoline (2%, in acetic acid). * Dissolve 2 g 8-hydroxyquinoline, C9 H 70N, in 100ml2M acetic acid. 8-Hydroxyquinoline (1 % in alcohol). * Dissolve 1 g 8-hydroxyquinoline, C9H 70N, in 100mi of96% ethanol. Hypophosphorous acid (50%). The commercial reagent contains 49-53% pure HP0 2 and has a density of 1.2 g cm -3. Dilute the solution with 4 volumes of water for the tests. Indigo solution (1%). Dissolve 0.1 g indigo, Cl6HlO02N2 (Colour Index 73000), in 10 ml concentrated sulphuric acid. Indole (0.015%). Dissolve 15mgindole, C6H 4 ' NH CH 'CH, in 100ml96% ethanol. Iodine (potassium tri-iodide) (0.05M). Dissolve 12.7 g iodine, 12, and 25 g potassium iodide, KI, in water, and dilute to 1 litre. Do not handle iodine with a metal or plastic spatula: use a spoon made of porcelain or glass. Iodine (potassium tri-iodide) (0.005M). Dilute 10 ml 0.05M iodine solution with water to 100ml. Iron(III) chloride (0.5M). Dissolve 135.2 g iron(III) chloride hexahydrate, FeCI 3 . 6H 20, in water, add a few millilitres concentrated hydrochloric acid if necessary, and dilute with water to 1 litre. If the solution turns dark, add more hydrochloric acid. Iron(I1I) periodate reagent. * Dissolve 2 g potassium periodate, KI0 4, in 10 ml freshly prepared 2M potassium hydroxide solution. Dilute with water to 50 ml, add 2 ml of 0.5M iron(III) chloride solution and dilute with 2M potassium hydroxide to 100 ml. Iron(I1) sulphate (saturated). ** To I g iron(II) sulphate, FeS04' 7H 2 0, add 5 ml water. Shake well in the cold. Decant the supernatant liquid, which should be used for the tests. The reagent should be prepared freshly. Iron(I1) sulphate (0.5M). * Dissolve 139 g iron(II) sulphate heptahydrate, FeS04 . 7H 20, or 196 g iron(II) ammonium sulphate hexahydrate (Mohr's salt, FeS04' (NH 4lzS0 4 '6H 20) in a cold mixture of 500ml water and 50ml M sulphuric acid, and dilute the solution with water to I litre. Iron(III) sulphate (25%). Heat 5g iron(III) sulphate, Fe2(S04h. and 15ml water. After complete dissolution and cooling, dilute with water to 20 ml. lron(III) thiocyanate (0.05M). Dissolve 1.35 g iron(III) chloride hexahydrate, FeCI 3 . 6H 20, and 2 g potassium thiocyanate, KSCN, in water and dilute the solution to 100 ml. Lanthanum nitrate (O.IM). Dissolve 4.33 g lanthanum nitrate hexahydrate, La(N0 3 h '6H 2 0, in 100ml water.
320
Lead acetate (0.25M). Dissolve 95 g lead acetate trihydrate, Pb(CH 3 COOh' 3H2 0, in a mixture of 500ml water and IOml glacial acetic acid, CH 3 COOH, and dilute the solution with water to I litre. Lead acetate (0.0025M). Dilute 1 ml of 0.25M lead acetate solution with water to 100m!. Lead nitrate (0.25M). Dissolve 82.8 g lead nitrate, Pb(N0 3 h, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Lime water (saturated). * Shake 5 g calcium hydroxide, Ca(OHh, with 100 ml water. Allow to stand for 24 hours. Use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Lithium chloride (M). Dissolve 42.4 g anhydrous lithium chloride, LiCI, or 60.4 g lithium chloride monohydrate LiCI H 2 0 in water and dilute to 1 litre. Lucigenin (1%). Dissolve 1 g lucigenin (bis-N-methylacridinium nitrate or N.N'dimethyl-9,9'-biacridinium dinitrate) in water and dilute to 100 m!. Magnesia mixture (0.5M for magnesium). Dissolve 102 g magnesium chloride hexahydrate, MgCI 2 6H 2 0, and 107 g ammonium chloride, NH 4Cl, in water, dilute to 500 ml, add 50 ml concentrated ammonia and dilute the solution to 1 litre with water. Magnesium chloride (0.5M). Dissolve 101.7 g magnesium chloride hexahydrate, MgCI2 . 6H 2 0, in water and dilute the solution to 1 litre. Magnesium nitrate reagent (ammoniacal) (0.5M for magnesium). Dissolve 128 g magnesium nitrate hexahydrate, Mg(N0 3 h' 6H 2 0, and 160 g ammonium nitrate, NH 4N0 3 , in water, add 50ml concentrated ammonia and dilute with water to 1 litre. Magnesium sulphate (M). Dissolve 246.5 g magnesium sulphate heptahydrate, MgS04 . 7H 2 0, in water and dilute the solution to 1 litre. Magnesium sulphate (0.5M). Dissolve 123.2g magnesium sulphate heptahydrate, MgS04 . 7H 2 0, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Manganese(II) chloride (saturated). Heat 7 g manganese(II) chloride tetrahydrate, MnCI 2 . 4H 2 0, with 3 ml water on a water bath until complete dissolution. Allow to cool and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Manganese(II) chloride (saturated in HCI). To 7 g manganese(II) chloride tetrahydrate, MnCI 2 4H 2 0, add 5 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid. Shake, allow to stand for 24 hours and use the clear, supernatant liquid for the tests. Manganese(II) chloride (0.25M). Dissolve 49.5 g manganese(II) chloride tetrahydrate, MnCI 2 '4H 2 0, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Manganese(II) nitrate-silver nitrate reagent. * Dissolve 2.87 g manganese(II) nitrate hexahydrate, Mn(N0 3 h' 6H 2 0, in 40 ml water. Add a solution of 3.55 g silver nitrate, AgN0 3 , in 40ml water and dilute the mixture to 100m!. Neutralize the solution with 2M sodium hydroxide until a black precipitate is starting to form. Filter and keep the solution in a dark bottle. Manganese(II) nitrate-silver nitrate-potassium fluoride reagent. * To 100 ml manganese(II) nitrate~silver nitrate reagent add a solution of 3.5 g potassium fluoride in 50 ml water. Boil, filter off the dark precipitate in cold, and use the clear solution for the tests. Manganese(II) sulphate (saturated). Shake 4 g manganese(II) sulphate tetrahydrate, MnS04 '4H 2 0, with 6ml water. Allow to stand for 24 hours. Use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Manganese(II) sulphate (0.25M). Dissolve 55.8 g manganese(II) sulphate tetrahydrate, MnS04 4H2 0, in water and dilute to I litre. Mannitol (10%).* Dissolve 109 mannitol, C6 H 14 0 6 , in water, and neutralize the solution with O.OIM sodium hydroxide against bromothymol blue indicator, until the colour of the solution just turns to green. Dilute with water to 100 m!. Mercury(I) chloride (calomel) suspension. * To 5 ml of 0.05M mercury(I) nitrate add I ml of 2M hydrochloric acid. Wash the precipitate 5 times with IOml water by decantation. Suspend the precipitate finally with 5 ml water. Mercury(II) chloride (5% in alcohol). Dissolve I g mercury(II) chloride, HgCI 2 , in 20 ml 96% ethano!'
321
Appendix
Mercury(II) chloride (saturated). Shake 7 g mercury(II) chloride, HgCI 2, with 100 ml water. Allow to stand for 24 hours and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Mercury(II) chloride (0.05M). Dissolve 13.9 g mercury(II) chloride, HgCI 2 , in water and dilute to 1 litre. Mercury(I) nitrate (0.05M). * Dissolve 28.1 g mercury(l) nitrate dihydrate, Hg 2(N0 3 h '2H 20, in a cold mixture of 500ml water and lOml concentrated nitric acid. Dilute with water to 1 litre. Add 1 drop of pure mercury metal to prevent oxidation. Mercury(II) nitrate (0.05M). Dissolve 17.1 g mercury(II) nitrate monohydrate, Hg(N0 3 h' H 20, in water and dilute the solution to 1 litre. Mercury(II) sulphate reagent (0.2M) (for Deniges's test). To 40ml water add cautiously 10 ml concentrated sulphuric acid with constant stirring. Dissolve in this mixture 2.2 g mercury(II) oxide. Methanol (methyl alcohol). The commercial product is a clear, colourless liquid with a characteristic odour. It boils at 64.7C and has a density of 0.79 g cm -3. It is POISONOUS (causing blindness and ultimately death) and should therefore never be tasted. Methylene blue (0.1%). Dissolve O.lg methylene blue (Colour Index 52015) in 100 ml water. I-Naphthylamine (0.3%) (for the Griess-Ilosvay test).* Boil 0.3g I-naphthylamine ClOH7NH2 with 70ml water for a few minutes. Filter or decant the clear liquid. To the cold solution add 30 ml glacial acetic acid. Nessler's reagent. * Dissolve 109 potassium iodide in 10 ml water (solution a). Dissolve 6 g mercury(lI) chloride in 100 ml water (solution b). Dissolve 45 g potassium hydroxide in water and dilute to 80ml (solution c). Add solution b to solution a dropwise until a slight permanent precipitate is formed, then add solution c, mix, and dilute with water to 200 m\. Allow to stand overnight and decant the clear solution, which should be used for the test. Nickel chloride (0.5M). Dissolve 119 g nickel chloride hexahydrate, NiCI 2 . 6H 20, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Nickel ethylenediamine nitrate reagent. * This reagent should be prepared when required from 2 ml 0.5M nickel chloride solution by adding ethylenediamine dropwise, until a violet colour appears. The colour is due to the formation of the complex ion [Ni(NH2 CH 2 CH 2 NH2hf+. Nickel sulphate (0.5M). Dissolve 140 g nickel sulphate reagent (approx. composition NiS0 4 . 7H 20) in water and dilute to 1 litre. Nitrazine yellow (0.1 %). Dissolve 0.1 g of nitrazine yellow (2,4-dinitrobenzeneazo)l-naphthol-4,8-disulphonic acid, disodium salt (Colour Index 14890) in 100ml water. Nitric acid (concentrated). The commercial concentrated nitric acid is a water-like solution with a density of 1.42gcm- 3 . It contains 69.5% (w/w) HN0 3 or 0.99g HN0 3 ml- 1. It is approx. 15.6 molar. Nitrous fumes make the partially decomposed reagent reddish-brown. It should be handled with utmost care, wearing gloves and eye protection. Nitric acid (83%). Mix 68.0ml concentrated (70%) nitric acid with 66.2ml fuming (95%) nitric acid. Nitric acid (8M, I + I). To 500ml water add cautiously 500ml concentrated nitric acid. Nitric acid (2M). Pour 128 ml concentrated nitric acid into 500 ml water, and dilute to I litre. Nitric acid (O.4M). Dilute 20 ml of 2M nitric acid with water to 100 m\. 2-Nitrobenzaldehyde (0.5%). * Dissolve 5 mg of 2-nitrobenzaldehyde, N02 C6H4 . CHO, in I ml of 2M sodium hydroxide. 4-Nitrobenzene-azo-l-naphthol (0.5%). * Dissolve 0.5 g 4-(4-nitrophenylazo)-1naphthol (magneson II), N0 2 C6H 4 N:N 'CIOH6 OH, in a mixture of 10ml 2M sodium hydroxide and IOml water. Dilute the solution to 100m\.
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4-Nitrobenzene-azo-chromotropic acid (0.005%). * Dissolve 5 mg 4-(4-nitrophenylazo)-chromotropic acid, sodium salt (Chromo trope 2B, Colour Index 16575) in 100mi of concentrated sulphuric acid. 4-Nitrobenzene-diazonium chloride reagent. ** Dissolve I g 4-nitroaniline, N0 2 C6H4 . NH 2, in 25 ml 2M hydrochloric acid and dilute with water to 160 m!. Cool, add 20 ml of 5 per cent sodium nitrite solution and shake until the precipitate dissolves. The reagent becomes turbid on keeping but can be employed again after filtering. 3-Nitrobenzoic acid (saturated). * Dissolve I g 3-nitrobenzoic acid, N0 2 C 6H4 . COOH, in 250 ml water by heating the mixture on a water bath. Allow to cool and filter. Nitron reagent (5%).* Dissolve 5 g nitron (C2oH16N4) in 100ml2M acetic acid. 4-(4-Nitrophenylazo) resorcinol (0.025%). * Dilute 5 ml of the 0.5% reagent with water to 100 ml. 4-(4-Nitrophenylazo) resorcinol (0.5%). * Dissolve 0.5 g 4-(4-nitrophenylazo) resorcinol (magneson) N0 2 C 6H 4 N:N 'C6H 2(OH)zCH 3 in a mixture of 10mi 2M sodium hydroxide and 10 ml water. After complete dissolution dilute with water to 100mi. 4-Nitrophthalene-diazoamino-azobenzene, Cadion 2B (0.02%).** Dissolve 0.02g Cadi on 2B, N02CIOH6N:NNHC6H4N:N,C6Hs, in 100m196% ethanol to which I ml 2M potassium hydroxide has been added. I-Nitroso-2-naphthol (I %). Dissolve I g l-nitroso-2-naphthol, C IO H 6(OH)NO, in 100mi of 9M acetic acid. Instead of acetic acid, 100mi 96% ethanol or acetone may be used. Osmium tetroxide (I %). Dissolve I g osmium tetroxide (osmic acid), OS04, in lOml M H 2S04 and dilute with water to 100mi. The solution is available commercially. Oxalic acid (saturated). Shake I g oxalic acid dihydrate, (COOH)z' 2H 20, with 10 ml water, and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Oxalic acid (0.5M). Dissolve 63 g oxalic acid dihydrate, (COOH)z' 2H 20, in water and dilute to I litre. Oxalic acid (2%). Dissolve 2g oxalic acid dihydrate, (COOH)z'2H 20, in 100mi water. Oxine. See 8-hydroxyquinoline. Palladium chloride (I %). Dissolve I g palladium chloride, PdCI2, in water and dilute to 100mi. Perchloric acid (concentrated). The concentrated perchloric acid solution is a clear, colourless liquid with a density of 1.54gcm- 3 and contains 60% (w/w) HCI0 4 (or 0.92 g HCl0 4 per ml). It is approximately 9.2 molar. Perchloric acid (2M). Dilute 216ml concentrated perchloric acid with water to I litre. 1,1O-Phenanthroline (0.1 %). Dissolve 0.1 g I, I O-phenanthroline hydrate, C 12 H gN 2 . H 20, in 100mi water. p-Phenetidine hydrochloride (2%). * Dissolve 2 g p-phenetidine, C2H s ' O' C 6H4 . NH 2, in 5 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid and dilute with water to 100mi (complete dissolution may take place only after dilution). p-Phenetidine (0.1 %). * Dissolve 0.1 gp-phenetidine, C2HsOC6H4NH2, in 100 ml2M hydrochloric acid. Phenolphthalein (0.5%). Dissolve 0.5 g phenolphthalein, C6H 4(COOH)' CH(C6H 40Hh, in 100m196% ethanol. Phenyl arsonic acid (10%).** Shake I g phenyl arsonic acid, C6HsAsO(OH)z, with lOml water. Phenylhydrazine reagent. * Dissolve I g phenylhydrazine, C6HS' NH . NH 2, in 2 ml glacial acetic acid. Phosphomolybdic acid (5%).* Dissolve 0.5g dodecamolybdophosphoric acid icositetrahydrate, H 3 P04 '12Mo0 3 ' 24H 2 0, in 10 ml water. The solution does not keep well.
323
Appendix
Phosphoric acid (concentrated). Concentrated phosphoric acid is a viscous, clear, colourless liquid with a high density (1.75 gcm- 3). It contains 88 per cent (w/w) H 3P0 4 (or 1.54g H 3P04 per ml) and is approximately 16 molar. Phosphoric acid (M). Dilute 63.7 ml concentrated phosphoric acid with water to I litre. Picrolonic acid (picrolic acid) (saturated). * Shake I g picrolonic acid, CIOHgOsN4' with 5 ml water, and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Potassium acetate (M). Dissolve 98.1 g potassium acetate, CH3COOK, in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium antimonate (0.2M). Dissolve 10.5 g potassium antimonate, K[Sb(OH)6L in water and dilute the solution to 200 ml. Alternatively, dissolve 6.47 g antimony(V) oxide, Sb 2 0 s , in 100ml 6M hydrochloric acid and dilute the solution to 200 ml. Neither solution keeps well. Potassium benzoate (0.5M). Dissolve 80.1 g potassium benzoate, C6H sCOOK, in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium bromate (saturated). To 7 g potassium bromate, KBr03, add 100ml water and shake. Allow to stand for 24 hours and use the clear, supernatant liquid for the tests. Potassium bromate (0.1 M). Dissolve 16.7 g potassium bromate, KBr03, in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium bromide (O.IM). Dissolve 11.9 g potassium bromide, KBr, in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium chlorate (saturated). To 7 g potassium chlorate, KCI0 3, add 100 ml water and shake. Allow to stand for 24 hours and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Potassium chlorate (O.IM). Dissolve 12.6 g potassium chlorate, KCI0 3, in water and dilute the solution to I litre. Potassium chloride (saturated). To 30 g potassium chloride add 70 ml water and heat on a water bath until all the solid dissolves. Pour the hot solution into a 100 ml reagent bottle and allow to cool. Some solid KCI will crystallize on cooling. Use the clear liquid for the tests. Potassium chloride (M). Dissolve 74.6 g potassium chloride, KCI, in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium chromate (saturated). To 60 g potassium chromate add 100 ml water and heat on a water bath. After complete dissolution allow to cool. Use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Potassium chromate (O.lM). Dissolve 19.4 g potassium chromate, K2Cr04, and dilute the solution to I litre. Potassium cyanate (0.2M). Dissolve 16.2 g potassium cyanate, KOCN, in water and dilute the solution to I litre. Potassium cyanide (10%).** (POISON) Dissolve I g potassium cyanide, KCN, in 10 ml water. Discard the solution immediately after use. Potassium cyanide (M).* (POISON) Dissolve 0.61 g potassium cyanide, KCN, in 10 ml water. Discard the reagent immediately after use. Potassium cyanide (O.IM).* (POISON) Dissolve 0.61 g potassium cyanide in water and dilute to 100 ml. The solution should not be stored for long because it takes up carbon dioxide from the air releasing hydrogen cyanide gas. 2CN-
+ CO2 + H 20
-+
2HCNi
+ CO~-
so the solution smells of hydrogen cyanide. Potassium dichromate (O.IM). Dissolve 29.4 g potassium dichromate, K2Cr207, in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium fluoride (O.IM). Dissolve 5.81 g anhydrous potassium fluoride, KF, in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium hexacyanocobaltate(III) reagent (4%). Dissolve 4g potassium hexacyanocobaltate(II1) (potassium cobalticyanide) K3[Co(CN)6J and I g potassium chlorate, KCI0 3, in water and dilute to 100ml.
324
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) (potassium ferrocyanide) (0.02SM). Dissolve 1O.S g potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) trihydrate, Kt[Fe(CN)6] 3H20, in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) (potassium ferricyanide) (0.033M). * Dissolve 10.98 g potassium hexacyanoferrate(III), K3 [Fe(CN)6]' in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium hydroxide (2M). To 112 g potassium hydroxide, KOH, add SO ml water. Stir the mixture several times, until all the solid dissolves. The mixture warms up considerably. Allow to cool and dilute with water to I litre. Potassium iodate (O.lM). Dissolve 21.4g potassium iodate, KI0 3, in SOOml hot water. Allow to cool and dilute to I litre. Potassium iodide (6M). ** Dissolve S g potassium iodide, KI, in S ml water. Potassium iodide (10%). Dissolve I g potassium iodide, KI, in water and dilute to lOmi. Potassium iodide (0.1 M). Dissolve 16.6 g potassium iodide, KI, in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium nitrate (O.IM). Dissolve 10.1 g potassium nitrate, KN0 3, in water and dilute the solution to I litre. Potassium nitrite (saturated). ** To 2 g potassium nitrite, KN0 2, add I ml water and shake in the cold. Use the clear supernatant liquid for the test. Potassium nitrite (O.IM). ** Dissolve 0.9 g potassium nitrite, KN0 2, in water and dilute to 100mi. Potassium periodate (saturated).* To 0.1 g potassium periodate, KI04, add 20ml water and heat on a water bath until dissolution. Allow to cool and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Potassium permanganate (0.02M). Dissolve 3.16 g potassium permanganate, KMn04, in water and dilute to I litre. Potassium permanganate (0.004M). Dilute 4ml 0.02M potassium permanganate solution with water to 20mi. Potassium peroxodisulphate (O.IM). * Dissolve 27.0 g potassium peroxodisulphate, K 2S20 S , in water and dilute to 1 litre. Potassium selenate (O.IM). Dissolve 22.1 g potassium selenate, K2Se04, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Potassium sodium tartrate (10%).* Dissolve 109 potassium sodium tartrate tetrahydrate KNaC 4H 40 6 4H20 (Rochelle salt or Seignette salt) in water and dilute to 100mi. Potassium sodium tartrate (O.IM). * Dissolve 28.2 g potassium sodium tartrate tetrahydrate KNaC4H 40 6 -4H 20 (Rochelle salt or Seignette salt) in water and dilute to 1 litre. Potassium sulphate (saturated). Shake 10 g potassium sulphate, K 2S0 4 , with 90 ml water. Allow to stand for 24 hours and use the clear, supernatant liquid for the tests. Potassium tellurite (O.IM). Dissolve 2S.4 g potassium tellurite, K2 Te03, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Potassium thiocyanate (10%). Dissolve 1 g potassium thiocyanate in lOml water. Potassium thiocyanate (O.lM). Dissolve 9.72g potassium thiocyanate, KSCN, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Propylarsonic acid (S%).** Dissolve O.Sg propylarsonic acid, CH 3CH 2CH 2 AsO(OHh, in lOml water. Pyridine. The pure solvent is a clear, colourless liquid with a characteristic odour. It has a density ofO.98gcm- 3 and boils at 113C. Pyrogallol (10%).* Dissolve O.Sg pyrogallol, C6H 3(OHh, in Sml water. The reagent decomposes slowly. Pyrrole (I %).* Dissolve 1 g pyrrole, C4 H sN, in 100mi of (aldehyde-free) 96% ethanoi. Quinaldic acid (I %).* Dissolve 1 g quinaldic acid, C IO H 70 2N, in Sml 2M sodium hydroxide and dilute with water to 100mi. 325
Appendix
Quinalizarin (0.05%, in NaOH). * Dissolve 0.05 g quinalizarin (1,2,5,8-tetrahydroxyanthraquinone) in a mixture of 50 ml water and 5 ml2M sodium hydroxide. Dilute the solution with water to 100mi. Quinalizarin (0.05% in pyridine).* Dissolve 0.01 g quinalizarin (l,2,5,8-tetrahydroxyanthraquinone) in 2ml pyridine, and dilute the solution with acetone to 20m!' Rhodamine-B (0.01 %). Dissolve 0.01 g rhodamine-B, C2sH3,N203 (Colour Index 45170), in 100mi water. A more concentrated reagent can be prepared by dissolving 0.05 g of Rhodamine-B in 100mi solution containing 15 g of potassium chloride in 2M hydrochloric acid. Rochelle salt. See potassium sodium tartrate. Salicylaldehyde oxime (salicylaldoxime) (l %). * Dissolve I g salicylaldoxime, C 6 H4 CH(NOH) OH, in 5ml cold 96% ethanol and pour the solution dropwise into 95 ml water at a temperature not exceeding 80C. Shake the mixture until clear, and filter if necessary. Sebacic acid (saturated). Mix 5 g sebacic acid (C 4H sCOOHh with 95 ml water and shake. Allow to stand for 24 hours and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Selenious acid (O.IM). Dissolve 11.1 g selenium dioxide, Se02, in water and dilute to I litre. Silver nitrate (20%). Dissolve 2 g silver nitrate, AgN0 3, in water and dilute to 10 ml. Silver nitrate (O.IM). Dissolve 16.99 g silver nitrate, AgN0 3, in water, and dilute to 1 litre. Keep the solution in a dark bottle. Silver sulphate (saturated, about 0.02M). To 1 g silver sulphate, Ag 2S0 4, add 100mi water and shake. Allow to stand for 24 hours, and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Alternatively, heat the mixture on a water bath until complete dissolution and allow to coo!. Silver sulphate (ammoniacal) (0.25M). ** Dissolve 7.8 g silver sulphate, Ag 2S0 4, in 50 ml 2M ammonia solution, and dilute with water to 100 m!. The reagent should be prepared freshly and discarded after use. Aged reagents might cause serious explosions. Sodium acetate (saturated). Dissolve 53 g sodium acetate trihydrate, CH 3COONa' 3H zO, in 70 ml hot water. Allow to cool and dilute to 100 m!. Sodium acetate (2M). Dissolve 272 g sodium acetate trihydrate, CH 3COONa' 3H20, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium arsenate (0.1 M). Dissolve 31.2 g disodium hydrogen arsenate heptahydrate, Na2HAs04 7H 20, in water to which 10 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid was added. Dilute the solution to 1 litre. Sodium arsenite (O.IM). Dissolve 13.0g sodium meta-arsenite, NaAs0 2, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium azide-iodine reagent. * Dissolve 3 g sodium azide, NaN 3, in 100 ml 0.05M iodine (sodium tri-iodide) solution. Sodium carbonate (saturated, about 1.5M). Dissolve 4 g anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na ZC0 3, in 25ml water. Sodium carbonate (0.5M). Dissolve 53 g anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2C03, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Sodium carbonate (0.05M). Dilute 10 ml 0.5M sodium carbonate with water to 100 ml. Sodium carbonate-phenolphthalein reagent. * Mix I ml 0.005M sodium carbonate with 2 ml 0.5% phenolphthalein and dilute with water to 10 m!. Sodium chloride (M). Dissolve 58.4 g sodium chloride, NaC!, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium chloride (O.IM). Dissolve 5.84 g sodium chloride, NaCI, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium citrate (0.5M). * Dissolve 147 g sodium citrate dihydrate, Na3C6Hs07' 2H 20, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium disulphide (2M).* First prepare 100mi 2M sodium sulphide. Add to this liquid 8 g finely powdered sulphur, and heat on a water bath for 2 hours. Stir the mixture from time to time. Let the yellow solution cool and filter if necessary. The composition of the product is uncertain; the formula Na2Sx is often
326
used and the substance called sodium polysulphide. With the amounts of reagents mentioned x is approximately equal to 2. Sodium dithionite (0.5M). ** Dissolve 10.5 g sodium dithionite dihydrate, Na2S204 . 2H 20, in water and dilute to 100 ml. The solution should be freshly prepared. Sodium ethylenediamine tetra-acetate (5%). Dissolve 5 g sodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate dihydrate, [CH 2 N(CH 2COOH) CH2 COONaJz 2H 20 (Na2EDTA), in water and dilute to lOOml. Sodium fluoride (O.IM). Dissolve 4.2g sodium fluoride, NaF, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium formate (M). * Dissolve 68 g sodium formate, H COONa, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium hexafluorosilicate (0.1 M). * Dissolve 18.8 g sodium hexafluorosilicate, Na2[SiF6], in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium hexanitritocobaltate(III; (0.167M). * Dissolve 6.73 g sodium hexanitritocobaltate(III) (sodium cobaltinitrite) in 100 ml water. Sodium hydrogen carbonate (10%). Dissolve 10 g sodium hydrogen carbonate in 80ml cold water, by shaking. Dilute the solution to 100ml. Sodium hydrogen carbonate (0.5M). Dissolve 42.0 g sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHC0 3, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium hydrogen sulphite (1.25%).** Dissolve 0.1 g sodium sulphite Na2S03 in 8ml 0.1 M hydrochloric acid. Sodium hydrogen tartrate (saturated). * To 10 g sodium hydrogen tartrate monohydrate, C4H 50 6Na' H 2 0, add 100 ml water and shake. Allow to stand for 24 hours and use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests. Sodium hydroxide (concentrated). To 5 g solid sodium hydroxide, NaOH, add 5 ml water and mix. Dissolution is slow first but becomes rapid as the mixture gets hotter. Use the cold liquid for the tests. Sodium hydroxide (5M). Dissolve 20 g sodium hydroxide in 30 ml water; after dissolution dilute the solution to 100 ml. Keep the solution in a plastic bottle. Sodium hydroxide (2M). To 80 g solid sodium hydroxide, NaOH, add 80ml water. Cover the mixture in the beaker with a watch-glass and mix its contents from time to time. The heat liberated during this process ensures a quick dissolution. Allow the solution to cool and dilute with water to I litre. Sodium hydroxide (O.OIM).* Dilute 0.5ml 2M sodium hydroxide with water to 100ml. The solution should be prepared freshly. Sodium hypobromite (0.25M).** To 50ml freshly prepared bromine water add 2M sodium hydroxide dropwise, until the solution becomes colourless (about 50ml is needed). Sodium hypochlorite (M). ** This reagent is available commercially as a solution, or can be prepared in the laboratory by saturating 2M sodium hydroxide solution with chlorine gas. This operation must be carried out in a fume cupboard. Sodium hypophosphite (O.IM). ** Dissolve 0.88 g sodium hypophosphite, NaH 2P0 2, in water and dilute to 100 ml. Sodium metaphosphate. ** Heat I g ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate (microcosmic salt), NH 4NaHP0 4 '4H 20, in a porcelain crucible until no more gases are liberated. Dissolve the cold residue in 50 ml water. The reagent must be prepared freshly. Sodium metavanadate (O.IM). Dissolve 12.2g sodium metavanadate, NaV0 3, in 100 ml M sulphuric acid and dilute with water to I litre. Sodium nitrite (5%).** Dissolve 5g sodium nitrite, NaN0 2, in water and dilute to 100mi. Sodium nitroprusside reagent. ** Rub 0.5 g sodium nitroprusside dihydrate, Na2[Fe(CN)5NOj' 2H 2 0, in 5 ml water. Use the freshly prepared solution. Sodium l-nitroso-2-hydroxy-naphthalene-3,6-disulphonate (I %). * Dissolve I g sodium l-nitroso-2-hydroxy-naphthalene-3,6-disulphonate [Nitroso R-salt, CIOH4(OH)(S03Na)zNOj in 100 ml of water. Sodium oxalate (0.1 M). Dissolve 13.4 g sodium oxalate in water and dilute to I litre.
327
Appendix
Sodium peroxide (O.SM). ** Dissolve 3.9 g sodium peroxide, Na202, in water and dilute to 100 ml. The solution must be prepared freshly. Sodium phosphite (O.IM). ** Dissolve 2.16 g sodium phosphite pentahydrate, Na2HP03' SH 20, in water and dilute the solution to 100ml. The reagent should be prepared freshly. Sodium pyrophosphate.** Heat I g disodium hydrogen phosphate, Na2HP04' 2H 20, in a porcelain crucible until no more water is liberated. Dissolve the cold residue in SOml water. The reagent must be prepared freshly. Sodium rhodizonate (O.S%). * Dissolve O.S g sodium rhodizonate (rhodizonic acid, sodium salt, C606Na2) in 100 ml water. The solution decomposes rapidly. Sodium salicylate (O.SM). Dissolve 80 g sodium salicylate, C6H 4(OH)COONa, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium selenate (0.1 M). Dissolve 36.9 g sodium selenate decahydrate, Na2Se04 'IOH 2 0, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium selenite (O.IM). Dissolve 17.3g sodium selenite, Na2Se03, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium silicate (M).* Dilute 200ml commercial (30%) water glass solution with water to I litre. Sodium succinate (O.SM). Dissolve 13S g sodium succinate hexahydrate, (CH 2COONah 6H 2 0, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium sulphate (0.1 M). Dissolve 32.2 g sodium sulphate decahydrate, Na2S04 IOH 20, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium sulphide (2M). To 16g solid sodium hydroxide, NaOH, add 20ml water. Cover the beaker with a watch glass and shake the mixture gently, until complete dissolution. Dilute the mixture with water to 100ml. Take SOml of this solution and saturate with hydrogen sulphide gas. Then add the rest of the sodium hydroxide solution to the latter. Sodium sulphite (O.SM). * Dissolve 6.3 g anhydrous sodium sulphite, Na2S03, or 12.6 g sodium sulphite heptahydrate, Na2S03 '7H 20, in water and dilute to 100ml. Sodium tellurate (0.1 M). Dissolve 27.4 g sodium tellurate dihydrate, Na2 Te04 . 2H 20, in water and dilute to I litre. Sodium tellurite (O.IM). Dissolve 22.2 g sodium tellurite, Na2 Te03, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Sodium tetraborate (O.IM). Dissolve 38.1 g sodium tetraborate decahydrate (borax), Na2B407' IOH 20, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Sodium tetrahydroxo stannate(II) reagent (0.125M). ** To 2 ml 0.2SM tin(II) chloride add 2M sodium hydroxide solution with vigorous shaking, until the precipitate just dissolves (about 2 ml of the latter is needed). The reagent decomposes rapidly; it has to be prepared freshly each time. Sodium tetraphenyl boron (O.IM). ** Dissolve 3.42 g sodium tetraphenyl boron, Na[B(C6HS)4J, in 100ml water. The solution does not keep well. Sodium thiosulphate (O.SM). Dissolve 124.1 g sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate, Na2S203' SH 20, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Sodium thiosulphate (O.IM). To 2 ml O.SM sodium thiosulphate add 8 ml water and mix. Sodium tungstate (0.2M). Dissolve 6S.97 g sodium tungstate dihydrate, Na2 W0 4 ' 2H 20, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Starch solution. * Suspend O.S g soluble starch in S ml water, and pour this into 20 ml water, which has just ceased to boil. Mix. Allow to cool, when the solution becomes clear. Strontium chloride (0.2SM). Dissolve 66.7 g strontium chloride hexahydrate, SrCl 2 . 6H 20, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Strontium nitrate (0.2SM). Dissolve S2.9 g strontium nitrate, Sr(N03}z, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Strontium sulphate (saturated). Shake 0.1 g strontium sulphate, SrS04, with 100 ml water and allow to stand for at least 24 hours. Use the clear supernatant liquid for the tests.
328
Sulpbanilic acid reagent (1 %). Dissolve I g sulphanilic acid (4-aminobenzenesulphonic acid, H 2N C6 H 4 S03H) in 100 ml 30% warm acetic acid and allow to cool. Sulpbur dioxide gas. This gas is available commercially in a liquefied state in aluminium canisters, from which it can be taken. Alternatively it can be produced from sodium sulphite and 8M sulphuric acid. The solid reagent should be placed into a round-bottomed flask, which can be heated. The acid is kept in a funnel with a stopcock, inserted into one opening of the flask. By adding some sulphuric acid to the solid and by gentle heating, sulphur dioxide gas comes through the second opening of the flask and can be washed in concentrated sulphuric acid. Sulpbur dioxide (sulpburous acid), saturated aqueous solution. ** Bubble sulphur dioxide gas through a thin glass tube into 200 ml water, until the solution becomes saturated. The gas can be taken from a cylinder or can be generated from solid sodium sulphite and 8M sulphuric acid. The solution should be well stoppered. Sulpburic acid (concentrated). The commercial reagent is a colourless, oil-like liquid of a high density (1.84 g cm -3). It contains 98% (wjw) H 2S0 4 (or 1.76 g H 2S04 per ml) and is approximately 18 molar. The reagent must be handled with utmost care, wearing rubber gloves and eye protection. When diluting, concentrated sulphuric acid must be poured slowly into water (and never vice versa), while stirring and, if necessary, cooling. Traces of the reagent have to be removed immediately from the skin or from clothing by washing with large amounts of water. Sulpburic acid (12M, 3 + 2). To 40ml water add cautiously 60ml concentrated sulphuric acid, stirring constantly. If the mixture becomes hot, set aside for a while to cool, and then continue mixing. Sulpburic acid (8M). To 500 ml water add slowly, stirring constantly, 445 ml concentrated sulphuric acid. (If the mixture becomes too hot, wait for 5 minutes before resuming the dilution.) Finally, when the mixture is cool again, dilute with water to 1 litre. Sulpburic acid (3M). To 50ml water add, stirring constantly, 16.6ml concentrated sulphuric acid, with greatest caution. When cool, dilute the solution to 100 ml. Sulpburic acid (M). Pour 55.4 ml concentrated sulphuric acid slowly into 800 ml cold water, stirring vigorously. Wear protective glasses and rubber gloves during this operation. Finally, dilute the cold solution with water to I litre. Sulpburous acid. See sulphur dioxide (sulphurous acid) saturated aqueous solution. Tannic acid (5%).* Dissolve 5g tannic acid, C76Hs2046, in 100ml water and filter the solution. Tartaric acid (M). * Dissolve 15 g tartaric acid, C4 H 6 0 6 , in water and dilute to 100ml. The solution does not keep for very long (max. 1-2 months). Tartaric acid (O.IM). * Dissolve 15 g tartaric acid, C 4 H 6 0 6 , in water and dilute to 1 litre. Tartaric acid-ammonium molybdate reagent. ** Dissolve 15 g tartaric acid, C4 H 6 0 6 , in 100 ml 0.25M ammonium molybdate reagent. Tballium(III) chloride (0.2M). Dissolve 45.7 g thallium(II1) oxide, T1 20 3, in 50 ml of 6M hydrochloric acid. Evaporate the solution to dryness and dissolve the residue in water. Dilute the solution to I litre. Tballium(I) nitrate (0.05M). Dissolve 13.32 g thallium(I) nitrate, TIN0 3, in water and dilute to I litre. Thallium(l) nitrate (saturated). Shake 1 g thallium(l) nitrate TIN0 3 with 10 ml water. Use the clear supernatant liquid for tests. Thallium(I) sulphate (0.025M). Dissolve 12.62g thallium(I) sulphate, TI 2S0 4 , in water and dilute to I litre. Tbiourea (5% in 5M hydrochloric acid). * To 50 ml water add 43 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid. Allow to cool. Dissolve in this mixture 5 g thiourea, CS(NH2h. and dilute the solution with water to 100 ml. Thorium nitrate (0.1 M). Dissolve 58.8 g thorium nitrate hexahydrate, Th(N0 3 k 6H 20, in a mixture of 500 ml water and 25 ml concentrated nitric acid, and dilute the solution to I litre.
329
Appendix
Tin(II) chloride (saturated). * Shake 2.5 g tin(II) chloride dihydrate, SnCI 2 . 2H 2 0, in 5 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid. Allow the solid to settle and use the clear solution for the tests. Tin(II) chloride (0.25M). * Dissolve 56.5 g tin(II) chloride dihydrate, SnCI2 . 2H 2 0, in a cold mixture of 100 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid and 80 ml water, then dilute with water to I litre. To prevent oxidation keep a small piece of granulated tin metal at the bottom of the solution. Tin(IV) chloride reagent. ** Dissolve 5 g tin (IV) chloride, SnCI4, in 5 ml water. Prepare the reagent freshly. Titanium(IV) chloride (10%). To 90ml of 6M hydrochloric acid add IOml liquid titanium tetrachloride, TiCI4, and mix. Titanium(III) sulphate (15%). ** The commercial titanium(III) sulphate solution contains about 15 per cent Ti2(S04h and also free sulphuric acid. It has a violet colour. On standing it is slowly oxidized to colourless titanium(IV) sulphate. Titanium(IV) sulphate (0.2M). Dilute 33ml 15% (w/v) commercial titanium(IV) sulphate solution with M sulphuric acid to 100ml. Alternatively, fuse titanium dioxide Ti0 2 with a 12-15 fold excess of potassium pyrosulphate in a porcelain or platinum dish, and dissolve the residue in 3M sulphuric acid. If necessary, filter the solution, or use the clear, supernatant liquid for the tests. T.tan yellow (0.1 %). Dissolve 0.1 g Titan yellow (Clayton yellow, Colour Index 19540) in 100ml water. Triethanolamine N(CH2 CH 2 OHh. The commercial liquid is a viscous liquid with a density of 1.l2gcm- 3 . Uranyl acetate (O.IM). Dissolve 42.4g uranyl acetate dihydrate, U0 2 (CH 3 COOh' 2H 20, in a mixture of 200 ml water and 30 ml concentrated acetic acid. After dissolution dilute the solution with water to 1 litre. Uranyl magnesium acetate reagent. * Dissolve 10 g uranyl acetate dihydrate, U0 2(CH 3 COOh.2H 20, in a mixture of 6ml glacial acetic acid and 100ml water (solution a). Dissolve 33 g magnesium acetate tetrahydrate, Mg(CH 3 COOh' 4H 20, in a mixture of 100ml glacial acetic acid and 100ml water (solution b). Mix the two solutions, allow to stand for 24 hours, and filter. Uranyl nitrate (O.IM). Dissolve 50.2 g uranyl nitrate hexahydrate, U0 2(N0 3 h' 6H 20, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Uranyl zinc acetate reagent. * Dissolve 10 g uranyl acetate dihydrate, U0 2(CH 3 COOh 2H 20, in a mixture of 5ml glacial acetic acid and 20ml water, and dilute the solution to 50 ml (solution a). Dissolve 30 g zinc acetate dihydrate, Zn(CH 3 COOh' 2H 20, in a mixture of 5 ml glacial acetic acid and 20 ml water, and dilute with water to 50 ml (solution b). Mix the solutions, add 0.5 g sodium chloride, NaCl, allow to stand for 24 hours and filter. Zinc acetate (1 %). Dissolve 1 g zinc acetate dihydrate, Zn(CH 3 COOh 2H 20, in water and dilute to 100 ml. Zinc hexammine hydroxide. To 25 ml 0.5M zinc nitrate add 12.5 ml of 2M potassium hydroxide. Filter, wash the precipitate with water, and dissolve the precipitate off the filter with 15 ml 7.5M ammonia. Pour the liquid on the filter several times, until complete dissolution. Zinc nitrate (0.5M). Dissolve 149 g zinc nitrate hexahydrate, Zn(N0 3 h' 6H 2 0, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Zinc nitrate (O.IM). Dilute 1 ml 0.5M zinc nitrate with water to 5 ml. Zinc sulphate (0.25M). Dissolve 72 g zinc sulphate heptahydrate, ZnS04 . 7H 2 0, in water and dilute to 1 litre. Zirconium nitrate reagent. Heat 10 g commercial zirconium nitrate, ZrO (N0 3 h' 2H 2 0, and 100ml 2M nitric acid to boiling, stirring constantly. Allow to cool and set aside for 24 hours. Decant the clear liquid and use this for the tests. Zirconyl chloride (0.1 M). Dissolve 32.2 g zirconyl chloride octahydrate, ZrOCI 2 8H 20, in 100m12M hydrochloric acid and dilute with water to 1 litre.
330
Solid reagents
Dissolve 0.1 g zirconyl chloride octahydrate, ZrOCI 2 8H20, in 20 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid and dilute with water to 100mi. Zirconyl nitrate (O.lM). Dissolve 26.2 g zirconyl nitrate dihydrate, ZrO(N0 3h 2H 20, in IOOml2M nitric acid and dilute with water to I litre.
Zirconyl chloride (0.1 %).
Solid reagents
Aluminium powder, Al Aluminium sheet, Al Ammonium acetate, CH 3COONH 4 Ammonium carbonate, (NH4hC0 3 Ammonium chloride, NH 4CI Ammonium fluoride, NH4F Ammonium nitrate, NH 4N0 3 Ammonium peroxodisulphate, (NH4hS20S Ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate (microcosmic salt), NH 4NaHP0 4 '4H zO Ammonium thiocyanate, NH4SCN Arsenic(III) oxide, As 20 3 (POISON) Benzoic acid, C 6H 5COOH Cadmium metal, Cd (granulated) Calcium carbonate, CaC0 3 Calcium chloride anhydrous, CaCI 2 Calcium fluoride, CaF2 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OHh Chromo tropic acid (sodium salt), ClOH60SS2Naz Cobalt(II) acetate, CO(CH3COOh 4HzO Copper foil, Cu Copper sheet or coin, Cu Copper turnings, Cu Devarda's alloy (50% Cu, 45% AI, 5% Zn) Dimethylglyoxime, CH 3C(NOH)C(NOH)' CH 3 NN-Dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine, NH z C 6H 4 N(CH3h Diphenylamine, (C6H5hNH Disodium hydrogen phosphate, Na2HP04' 2H 20 Ethyl potassium xanthate, C2H50(CS)SK Hydrazine sulphate, (NzH 4) . H 2S04 Hydroquinone (quinol), C6H 4(OHh Hydroxylamine hydrochloride (hydroxylammonium chloride), HO NH3 . CI Iron (filings and nails), Fe Iron wire, Fe Iron(II) ammonium sulphate, FeS04' (NH 4hS04 6H 2 0 Iron(II) sulphate, FeS04' 7H zO Lead acetate, (CH 3COOhPb'3H zO Lead acetate paper Lead dioxide, PbOz Litmus (test) paper Magnesium metal (powder), Mg Magnesium metal (turnings), Mg Manganese dioxide, Mn02 Mannitol, C6H l4 0 6 Mercury metal, Hg Mercury(I) chloride (calomel), Hg 2CI 2 Mercury(I) nitrate paper
331
Appendix
Mercury(II) oxide, HgO (red) Microcosmic salt (see ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate) Oxalic acid, (COOHh 2H zO Paraffin wax Phenol, C6H sOH Platinum sheet or foil, Pt Potassium benzoate, C 6H sCOOK Potassium bromate, KBr03 Potassium bromide, KBr Potassium chlorate, KCl0 3 Potassium chromate, KZCr04 Potassium cyanide, KCN (POISON) Potassium dichromate, KZCrZ07 Potassium dichromate paper Potassium fluoride, KF Potassium hydrogen sulphate, KHS04 Potassium hydrogen tartrate, KHC4H 40 6 Potassium iodide, KI Potassium nitrate, KN0 3 Potassium nitrite, KNO z Potassium periodate, KI04 Potassium permanganate, KMn04 Potassium peroxodisulphate, KzSzO g Potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle salt or Seignette salt), COOK CHOH . CHOH . COONa Resorcinol, 1,3-C6H4(OHh Salicylic acid, C 6H 4(OH)COOH Silica (precipitated), SiOz Silver sheet, Ag Silver sulphate, Ag 2S04 Soda lime Sodium acetate, CH 3COONa 3H 20 Sodium bismuthate, NaBi0 3 Sodium carbonate (anhydrous), Na2C03 Sodium chloride, NaCl Sodium citrate, Na3C6Hs07 2H 20 Sodium dihydroxytartrate osazone (NaO CO C:N NH C6HSh Sodium dithionite, Na2S204 2H20 Sodium fluoride, NaF Sodium formate, HCOONa Sodium hexafluorosilicate, Naz [SiF 6J Sodium hexanitritocobaltate(III), Na3 [CO(N0 2)6J Sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHC0 3 Sodium hypophosphite, NaH 2P0 2 Sodium nitrite, NaN0 2 Sodium nitroprusside, Na2 [Fe(CN)sNOJ 2H 20 Sodium oxalate (Sorensen's salt), (COONah Sodium perchlorate, NaCl0 4 . H 20 Sodium peroxide, Na202 Sodium peroxoborate, NaB0 34H20 Sodium phosphite, Na2HP03 5H 20 Sodium salicylate, C6H 4(OH)COONa Sodium succinate, (CHzCOONah 6H 20 Sodium sulphate (anhydrous), Na2S04 Sodium sulphite (anhydrous), Na2S03 Sodium tetraborate (Borax), Na2B407 lOHzO. The anhydrous (fused) sodium tetraborate, Na2B407, is even more suitable for the borax bead tests
332
Solid reagents
Sodium thiosulphate, Na2S203 5H 20 Starch (potato-starch or soluble starch) Sulphamic acid, H 2N S03H Sulphur, S (,flowers of sulphur'), sublimed Tartaric acid, C4 H 6 0 6 [HOOC-CH(OH) CH(OH) COOHj Thiourea, (NH 2hCS Tin, granulated, Sn Turmeric (test) paper Uranyl acetate, U0 2 (CH 3COOh 2H20 Uranyl nitrate, U0 2(N0 3h 6H 20 Urea, H 2NCONH 2 Zinc, granulated, Zn Zinc powder, Zn
333
Index
An alphabetical list of all the reagents and their preparation begins on page 313; these are not included in the following index. acetate ions, identification in the presence of formate, 272 reactions of, 229 acetic acid, reagent for Be(II), 297 acetyl acetone, reagent for Be(II), 298 alizarin, reagent for AI(III), 120 alizarin red S, reagent for AI(III), 121 fluoride ions, 199 Zr(IV),302 aluminium, 118 aluminium, separation from Group IlIA cations, 263, 309 aluminium metal, reagent for Hg(l), 71 aluminium(III) ions, reactions of, 119 aluminon, reagent for AI(III), 120 ammonia formation test for NH4 (1), 162 ammonia, reagent for Ag(I), 73 Al(III), 119 Au(III), 282 Ba(II), 145 Be(n),296 Bi(III),80 Cd(n),89 Ce(III), 306 Ce(IV),307 Co(II), 128 Cr(Ill), 123 Cu(n),84 Fe(II), 110 Fe(III), 113 hexafluorosilicate ions, 218 Hg(I),69 Hg(II),78 Mg(II), 153 Mn(II), 136 Ni(II), 132 Pb(II),64 Pd(II),286 Sb(III), 100 Th(IV),305 Ti(IV),299 T1(III), 276 U(VI),303 Zn(II), 139
Zr(IV),301 ammonium carbamate, 143 ammonium carbonate, reagent for Ba(II), 145 Be(Il),297 Ca(Il), 149 Ce(III), 306 Li(I),311 Mg(II), 153 silicate ions, 215 Sr(II), 147 Th(IV),305 U(VI),304 Zr(IV), 301 ammonium chloride, reagent for nitrite ions, 178 silicate ions, 215 V(V),294 ammonium fluoride, reagent for Ce(IlI), 307 Ce(IV),308 Li(I),311 ammonium ions, preliminary test for, 251 ammonium molybdate, reagent for As(V),95 hypophosphite ions, 224 orthophosphate ions, 220, 221 silicate ions, 217 thiosulphate ions, 173 V(V),295 ammonium oxalate, reagent for Ba(II), 145 Be(II),297 Ca(II), 150 Ce(III), 306 Ce(IV),307 Sr(II), 148 Th(IV),305 Zr(IV),301 ammonium paramolybdate, see ammonium molybdate ammonium peroxodisulphate, reagent for Mn(II), 137 ammonium polysulphide, reagent for cyanide ions, 180 ammonium sulphide, reagent for AI(III), 120 Be(II),296 Ce(III), 306 Co(II), 128 Cr(III), 123
334
Index Fe(II), 110 Fe(III), 114 Mn(II), 137 Ni(II), 132 Th(IV),305 Ti(IV),299 TI(I),275 U(VI), 303 V(V),294 W(VI),277 Zn(II), 140 Zr(IV),301 ammonium tetracyanomercurate(II)-copper sulphate test for Zn(II), 141 ammonium thiocyanate, reagent for Co(II), 129 Fe(III), 116 Mo(VI),280 Se(lV),288 TI(I),275 ammonium(l),160 ammonium(I) ions, reactions of, 160 anhydrous ethanol and ether, test for Ba(II), 146 Ca(II), lSI Sr(II), 148 anhydrous ethanol, test for Ca(II), lSI aniline blue test for oxalate ions, 235 aniline sulphate test for chlorate ions, 204 anions, Class A, 163 Class B, 164 classification of, 163 reactions of, 163 anthranilic acid, reagent for Ce(IV), 308 anti-bumping device, 21 antimonate, see antimony(V) antimonite, see antimony(III) antimony, 99 separation from Group lIB cations, 261, 293 special tests for, 104 antimony(III) ions, reactions of, 99 antimony(V) ions, reactions of, 102 apparatus, cleaning of, 22, 35 micro, list of, 45 semimicro, list of, 37 arsenate ions, identification in the presence of arsenite, 268 phosphate, 268 arsenate ions, reactions of, 93 arsenic, 91 separation from Group lIB cations, 261, 293 special tests for, 95 arsenic(IlI) ions, reactions of, 91 arsenic(IlI) oxide, reagent for acetate ions, 231 arsenic(V), see arsenate arsenious, see arsenic(III) arsenite, see also arsenic(IlI) arsenite ions, identification in the presence of arsenate, 268 phosphate, 268 atomic spectrometric tests for Ag,76 AI, 122 As, 93 Au, 283 Ba, 147 Be, 298 Bi,82 Ca,152 Cd, 90 Co, 131 Cr,127 Cu,88 Fe, 112 Hg,71 Li,312 Mg,155 Mn,138 Mo,281 Na,159 Ni,134 Pb,67 Pd,286 Pt,285 Sb, 102 Sn,107 Sr,149 Ti,300 TI,275 U,304 V, 296 W, 278 Zn,143 Zr,302 Barber's rack, 32 barium, 144 separation from Group IV cations, 264 barium chloride, reagent for borate ions, 210 carbonate ions, 165 chromate, 125 chromate and dichromate ions, 225 hexafluorosilicate ions, 218 iodate ions, 206 orthophosphate ions, 219 peroxodisulphate ions, 214 phosphite ions, 222 Se(IV),287 Se(VI),289 silicate ions, 215 succinate ions, 243 sulphate ions, 212 sulphite ions, 168 Te(IV),290 Te(VI),291 V(V),295 barium(II) ions, reactions of, 144 baryta water, reagent for carbonate ions, 164 beaker, 15 benzoate ions, identification in the presence of succinate, 272
335
Index
benzoate ions, (cont.) reactions of, 242 benzoin-a-oxime, reagent for eu(II),86 Mo(VI),280 beryllium, 296 beryllium acetate, extraction of, 297 beryllium(II) ions, reactions of, 296 Bettendorffs test for As(III), 92 2,2' -bipyridyl, reagent for Fe(II), III bis-(p-nitrophenyl) carbazide, reagent for ed(II),89 bis-N-methylacridinium nitrate, see lucigenin bismuth,79 separation from Group IIA cations, 261, 292 bismuth(III) ions, reactions of, 80 test by induced reaction, 81 bismuth(III) nitrate, reagent for Sn(II), 106 1,I-bi-2-naphthol, reagent for tartrate ions, 238 blowpipe tests, 5 blue ring test for thiosulphate ions, 173 boiling tube, semimicro, 23 borate ions, identification in the presence of Ba(II),270 eu(II),270 preliminary test for, 251 reactions of, 208 borax bead test, II, 14 chemistry of, 13 bromate ions, reactions of, 204 bromide ions, identification in the presence of chloride, 267 iodide, 267 reactions of, 192 bromothymol blue, reagent for borate ions, 211 brown ring test for nitrate ions, 200 brucine, 106 Buchner funnel, 20 Bunsen flame, 5, 6 cacodyl oxide test for acetate ions, 231 cacotheline, reagent for Sn(II), 106 cadi on, see 4-nitronaphthalene-diazoaminoazo-benzene cadmium, 88 cadmium acetate, reagent for citrate ions, 240 cadmium, separation from Group IIA cations, 261, 292 cadmium(II) ions, reactions of, 88 calcium, 149 separation from Group IV cations, 264 calcium chloride, reagent for carbonate ions, 165 citrate ions, 240 fluoride ions, 199 oxalate ions, 234
succinate ions, 244 tartrate ions, 237 calcium fluoride, decomposition of, 255 calcium sulphate (saturated), reagent for Ba(II), 145 Sr(II), 148 calcium(II) ions, reactions of, 149 calomel, 68, see also mercury(I) chloride capillary dropper, 24 capillary pipette, 40 carbon, burning of, 256 carbonate ions, identification in the presence of sulphite, 265 reactions of, 164 catalytic test for eu(II), 87 iodide ions, 197 sulphide ions, 176 thiocyanate ions, 185 thiosu1phate ions, 173 V(V),295 catechol, reagent for Ti(IV), 300 cations, classification of, 59 Group I, 59, 61 Group II, arsenic sub-group, 77 Group II, copper sub-group, 76 Group II, 59, 76 Group III, 59, 108 Group III, oxoanions of, 127 Group IV, 59, 143 Group V, 60, 152 identification of, in Group V, 265,312 removal of phosphate before separation of Group III, 262 separation into Groups, 258 separation of Group I, 260, 278 Group II into Groups IIA and lIB, 260, 291 Group IIA, 261, 292 Group lIB, 261, 293 Group III into Groups lIlA and IIIB, 262, 309 Group IlIA, 263, 309 Group IIIB, 263, 310 Group IV, 264 single, testing for, 256 centrifugate, transferring of, on micro scale, 41 centrifugation, 26 centrifuge, 26 centrifuge tube, micro, 40 cleaning of, 43 cerium, 306 separation from Group IlIA cations, 309 Th, 308 cerium(III) ions, reactions of, 306 cerium(IV) ions, reactions of, 307 cerium(IV) sulphate, reagent for iodide ions, 197 charcoal block, 5
336
Index
chlorate ions, identification in the presence of chloride, 267 perchlorate, 267 reactions of, 202 chloride ions identification in the presence of bromide, 266, 267 chlorate, 267 cyanide, 271 iodide, 266, 267 perchlorate, 267 reactions of, 190 chlorine water, reagent for bromide ions, 193 iodide ions, 196 chromate, 127 chromate ions, reactions of, 224 reduction of, 227 chromium, 122 chromium pentoxide test, 125 for hydrogen peroxide, 245 chromium peroxide, see chromium pentoxide chromium, separation from Group IlIA cations, 263, 309 chromium(III) ions, identification as chromate, 125 oxidation to chromate, 124 reactions of, 123 chromosulphuric acid, 22, 35 chromotrope 2B, see 4-nitrobenzene-azochromo tropic acid chromo tropic acid, reagent for chromate, 126 chromate and dichromate ions, 227 formate ions, 233 Ti(IV),299 chromyl chloride test for chloride ions, 191 chromate and dichromate ions, 227 cinchonine - potassium iodide, reagent for Bi(III), 82 citrate ions, reactions of, 239 cobalt, 127 cobalt acetate, reagent for cyanate ions, 182 cobalt glass, 8 cobalt, separation from Group I1IB cations, 263, 310 cobalt(I1) ions, reactions of, 128 cobalt(II) nitrate, reagent for hypochlorite ions, 189 orthophosphate ions, 221 thiocyanate ions, 184 collimator, 9 collimator lens, 55 colour change, 4 concentration limit, 46 conical flask, 15 copper, 83 copper metal, reagent for Hg(l), 70 nitrate ions, 199
copper, separation from Group I1A cations, 261,292 copper(II) ions, reactions of, 83 copper(II) sulphate, reagent for As(III),92 cyanate ions, 182 dithionite ions, 247 hexacyanoferrate(I1) ions, 187 hexacyanoferrate(III) ions, 188 hypophosphite ions, 224 iodide ions, 196 phosphite ions, 223 Se(IV),287 tartrate ions, 238 thiocyanate ions, 183 V(V),295 copper(II) sulphide, reagent for cyanide ions, 181 cupferron, reagent for Fe(III), 116 Ti(lV),299 cupron, see benzoin-a-oxime curcumin paper, see turmeric paper cyanate ions, reactions of, 181 cyanide ions, identification in the presence of chloride, 271 reactions of, 179 Defacqz reaction, 278 Deniges's test for citrate ions, 240 Devarda's alloy, 200 di -(4-dimethylaminodiphenyl) methane, regent for Pb(I1), 66 diacetyl dioxime, see dimethylglyoxime diammineargentato nitrate, reagent for Ce(III), 306 diazine, reagent for Sn(I1), 107 dichromate ions, reactions of, 224 reduction of, 227 digestion, on micro scale, 47 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene-3,6-disulphonic acid, sodium salt, see chromotropic acid 4-dimeth ylamin 0 benzene-azo-pheny larsonic acid, reagent for Zr(IV), 302 4-dimethylaminobenzy1idene-rhodanine, reagent for Ag(l), 75 Au(III), 282 dimethylglyoxime, reagent for Fe(I1), 112 Ni(I1), 134 Pd(I1),286 V(V),295 diphenyl carbazide, reagent for Mg(I1), 153 diphenyl-endo-anilo-dihydrotriazole, reagent for nitrate ions, 201 diphenylamine, reagent for nitrate ions, 201 oxalate ions, 235 1,5-diphenylcarbazide, reagent for chromate and dichromate, 125, 227 Hg(l),71 Hg(II), 79
337
Index
diphenylthiocarbazone, see dithizone disodium hydrogen phosphate, reagent for Ag(I),75 AI(III), 120 Fe(III), 115 Hg(I),70 Li(I),31O Mg(II), 153 Mn(II), 137 Mo(VI),280 Ti(lV),299 U(VI),304 Zn(II), 140 Zr(lV),301 dissolution of samples, 253 distillation test for thiocyanate ions, 184 distinctive test for Fe(II) and Fe(III),
118
dithio oxamide, reagent for Cu(II),87 Pt(IV),284 dithionite ions, reactions of, 247 dithizone, reagent for Pb(II),67 Zn(II), 142 dropper, 24 drop-reaction paper, 36 dry test, 4 for acetate ions, 232 for Ag, 76 for AI, 122 for ammonium salts, 162 for As, 99 for Au, 283 for Ba, 147 for Be, 298 for benzoate ions, 243 for Bi, 83 for borate ions, 210 for bromate ions, 205 for Ca, 152 for Cd, 90 for chlorate ions, 204 for citrate ions, 240 for Co, 131 for Cr, 127 for Cu, 88 for dithionite ions, 248 for Fe, 118 for formate ions, 233 for hexacyanoferrate(II) ions, 187 for hexacyanoferrate(III) ions, 188 for hexafluorosilicate ions, 218 for Hg, 71, 79 for hydrogen carbonate ions, 167 for hypophosphite ions, 224 for iodate ions, 207 for Li, 311 for Mg, 156 for Mn, 138 for Mo, 281 forNa, 160 for Ni, 135 for nitrate ions, 202
for orthophosphate ions, 221 for oxalate ions, 235 for Pb, 67 for perchlorate ions, 208 for permanganate ions, 229 for phosphite ions, 223 for Pt, 285 for salicylate ions, 241 for Sb, 104 for Se, 289 for silicate ions, 216 for Sn, 108 for Sr, 149 for succinate ions, 244 for tartrate ions, 239 for Te, 291 for Th, 308 for Ti, 300 for U, 304 for V, 296 for W, 278 for Zn, 143 for Zr, 302 electric centrifuge, 27 Emich filter stick, 51 entrance slit, 55 Erlenmeyer flask, 15 etching test for fluoride ions, 198 ethanol, reagent for acetate ions, 230 benzoate ions, 242 borate ions, 209 formate ions, 232 ethyl alcohol, see ethanol ethyl potassium xanthate test for Mo(VI), 280 evaporation, 20 on semimicro scale, 32 FAAS, 11,57 operations in, 57 FAES, II equipment for, 55 operations in, 56 Fenton's test for tartrate ions, 237 ferri-, see iron(III) ferricyanide, see hexacyanoferrate(III) ferro-, see iron(II) ferrocyanide, see hexacyanoferrate(II) ferron, reagent for Fe(III), 116 fil ter paper, folding of, 20 for spot test, 48 impregnation of, 49 filter pipette, 50 filtration, 18 aids to, 19 flame atomic absorption spectrometry, see FAAS flame atomic emission spectrometry, see FAES flame atomic spectrometry, 54 flame spectra, figure of, 12
338
Index
flame test for borate ions, 209 TI,275 flame tests, 6, 7, 8 Fleitmann's test for As, 98 Sb, 104 fluorescein, reagent for bromide ions, 194 fluorescein test for bromide ions, 194 succinate ions, 244 fluorescence, test for U, 304 fluoride ions, identification in the presence of hexafluorosilicate, 271 oxalate, 271 sulphate, 271 reactions of, 198 fluorspar, see calcium fluoride focusing lens, 55 formate ions, identification in the presence of acetate, 272 reactions of, 232 fuchsin, reagent for sulphite ions, 170 test reagent for bromide ions, 195 fuel gas, 55 fume cupboard, 17 fusion, on micro scale, 52 fusion test for Mn, 138 gallocyanine, reagent for Pb(II), 66 gas reactions, on micro scale, 52 gases, identification of, on micro scale, 44 on semi micro scale, 34 gases observed, 4 GLP, see good laboratory practice glucinium, see beryllium gold,281 separation from Group IIA cations, 292 separation from Group lIB cations, 293 gold(III) chloride, reagent for hydrogen peroxide, 246 gold(III) ions, reactions of, 282 good laboratory practice (GLP), 2 graphite furnace in F AAS, 58 Griess~ I10svay test for nitrite ions, 178 Gutzeit's test for As, 97 Sb, 104 hand centrifuge, 27 hazards, 2 heating, 4 heating, in steam, 51 heating of solutions, on micro scale, 42 on semimicro scale, 31 hepar reaction for sulphate ions, 212 hexachloroplatinate(IV) ions, reactions of, 283
hexachloroplatinic(lY) acid, reagent for K(I), 157 NH4 (1), 161 TI(I),275 hexacyanoferrate(lI) ions, identification in the presence of hexacyanoferrate(III), 271 thiocyanate, 271 reactions of, 185 hexacyanoferrate(llI) ions, identification in the presence of hexacyanoferrate(II), 271 thiocyanate, 271 reactions of, 187 hexafluorosilicate ions, identification in the presence of fluoride, 271 sulphate, 271 reactions of, 217 hexanitrodiphenylamine, see p-picrylamine hollow-cathode lamp, 57 hydrazine hydrochloride, reagent for Te(IV), 290 hydrazine sulphate, reagent for Ag(I), 75 Pt(Iy),284 hydrobromic acid, reagent for bromate ions, 205 hydrochloric acid, reagent for carbonate ions, 164 chlorate ions, 203 cyanide ions, 179 hexacyanoferrate(lI) ions, 187 Hg(I),68 hypochlorite ions, 189 Mo(VI),279 nitrite ions, 177 Pb(II), 63 permanganate ions, 229 salicylate ions, 241 silicate ions, 215 sulphide ions, 174 sulphite ions, 168 Te(IV),290 Te(VI),291 thiosulphate ions, 171 TI(I),275 W(VI),276 hydrogen carbonate ions, identification in the presence of carbonate, 167 reactions of, 166 hydrogen peroxide, reactions of, 244 reagent for Au(III), 282 Ce(III), 306 chromate and dichromate ions, 226 permanganate ions, 228 Th(IV),305 Ti(IV),299 U(VI),303 V(y),294 Zr(lV), 301
339
Index
hydrogen sulphide, precipitation with, 16 on micro scale, 44 on semi micro scale, 33 reagent for Ag(l),73 As(III),91 As(V),93 Au(III), 282 Bi(III),80 Cd(II),88 chromate and dichromate ions, 226 Cu(II),83 Fe(III), 113 Hg(I),68 Hg(II),77 iodate ions, 207 Mo(VI),279 Pb(II),63 Pd(II),285 Pt(lV),283 Sb(III),99 Sb(V), 102 Se(IV),287 Se(VI),288 Sn(II), 105 Sn(lV), 107 Te(IV),289 Te(VI),291 TI(I),275 TI(III), 276 V(V),294 Zn(II), 140 solution, testing for freshness, 114 hydrogen sulphite ions, distinction from sulphite, 171 8-hydroxyquinoline, reagent for Bi(III),82 Mg(II), 154 8-hydroxy-7-iodoquinoline-5-sulphonic acid, see ferron hypochlorite ions, reactions of, 188 hypophosphite ions, reactions of, 223 hypophosphorous acid, reagent for Te(lV), 290 I1osvay, see Griess-I1osvay indigo, formation of, test for acetate ions, 231 reagent for chlorate ions, 203 dithionite ions, 247 indirect test for V(V), 295 indole, reagent for nitrite ions, 179 induced reactions, 81 insoluble residue, examination of, 254 iodate ions, identification in the presence of iodide, 268 reactions of, 206 iodide ions, identification in the presence of bromide, 267 chloride, 267 iodate, 268 reactions of, 195
iodine, see also potassium triiodide iodine solution, see potassium triiodide iron, 109 iron metal, reagent for Cu(II),86 Sb(III), 10 I Sn(lV), 108 iron, separation from Group IlIA cations, 263, 309 iron(II), distinction from iron(III), 118 iron(lI) ions, oxidation to iron(III), 117 reactions of, 110 iron(lI) sulphate, reagent for chlorate ions, 203 cyanide ions, 180 dithionite ions, 248 hexacyanoferrate(II) ions, 186 hexacyanoferrate(III) ions, 188 nitrate ions, 200 nitrite ions, 177 tartrate ions, 237 Te(IV),290 W(VI),277 iron(III) chloride, reagent for acetate ions, 231 benzoate ions, 242 cyanide ions, 180 fluoride ions, 199 formate ions, 233 hexacyanoferrate(lI) ions, 186 hexacyanoferrate(lII) ions, 188 hydrogen peroxide, 245 orthophosphate ions, 220 salicylate ions, 241 succinate ions, 243 thiocyanate ions, 184 thiosulphate ions, 173 V(V),295 iron(III) ions, distinction from iron(II), 118 reactions of, 113 reduction to iron(II), 117 iron(III) periodate test for Li(I), 311 iron(III) sulphate, reagent for Mo(VI), 281 iron(III) thiocyanate test for cyanide ions, 180 lena funnel, 20 lanthanum nitrate, reagent for acetate ions, 231 lead,62 lead acetate, reagent for bromide ions, 193 chloride ions, 191 chromate and dichromate ions, 226 hypochlorite ions, 189 iodide ions, 196 phosphite ions, 223 sulphate ions, 213 thiosulphate ions, 172 V(V),295 lead dioxide, reagent for Mn(II), 137
340
Index
lead nitrate, reagent for hypochlorite ions, 189 thiosulphate ions, 172 lead, separation from Group I cations, 260, 278 Group IIA cations, 261, 292 lead(II) ions, reactions of, 63 less common ions, reactions of, 274 lime water, reagent for carbonate ions, 164 sulphite ions, 170 limit of identification, 46 liquid samples, preliminary tests on, 249 lithium, 310 identification in the presence of alkali metals, 312 lithium(I) ions, reactions of, 310 lower oxidizing zone, 7 lower reducing zone, 7 lucigenin, reagent for hydrogen peroxide, 246 macro apparatus, 15 macro scale, 3 operations on, 15 magenta, see fuchsin magnesia mixtura, reagent for As(V),94 orthophosphate ions, 219 magnesium, 152 identification in the presence of alkali metals, 265 magnesium metal, reagent for formate ions, 233 oxalate ions, 235 tartrate ions, 237 magnesium nitrate, reagent for orthophosphate ions, 219 magnesium sulphate, reagent for hydrogen carbonate ions, 167 magnesium(II) ions, reactions of, 153 magneson I, see 4-(4-nitrophenylazo)resorcinol magneson II, see 4-nitrobenzeneazo-lnaphthol manganate, see manganese(VI) manganese, 135 manganese dioxide - concentrated sulphuric acid, reagent for bromide ions, 193 chloride ions, 190 manganese, separation from Group IIIA cations, 263, 309 Group IIIB cations, 263, 310 manganese(II) ions, reactions of, 136 manganese(II) sulphate, reagent for bromate ions, 205 chlorate ions, 204 oxalate ions, 235 peroxodisulphate ions, 214 manganese(VII), see permanganate mannitol, reagent for borate ions, 211 Marsh test for As, 95 Sb, 104
medicine dropper, 25 mercury, 67 mercury metal, reagent for hypochlorite ions, 190 mercury(I) chloride, reagent for Pd(II), 286 mercury(I) ions, reactions of, 68 mercury(I) nitrate, reagent for cyanide ions, 180 V(V),295 mercury(I), separation from Group I cations, 260,278 mercury(II) chloride, reagent for dithionite ions, 247 formate ions, 233 hydrogen carbonate ions, 167 hypophosphite ions, 224 iodide ions, 197 phosphite ions, 222 Sn(II), 106 mercury(II) cyanide, reagent for Pd(II), 286 mercury(II) ions, reactions of, 77 mercury(II) nitrate, reagent for iodate ions, 207 sulphate ions, 213 thiocyanate ions, 183 mercury(II) oxide, reagent for formate ions, 233 mercury(II), separation from Group IIA cations, 261, 292 mercury(II) sulphate, reagent for citrate ions, 240 metal chromates, fusion of, 256 metal hexacyanoferrate(II)s, decomposition of,255 metal samples, preliminary tests on, 252 metal sulphates, dissolution of, 254 metals, reagents for Pt(IV),284 Ti(IV),299 V(V),294 metavanadate, see vanadate methanol, reagent for borate ions, 209 salicylate ions, 241 methaphosphate ions, reactions of, 221 methyl alcohol, see methanol methyl borate test for borate ions, 209 methylene blue, reagent for dithionite ions, 247 micro apparatus, 39 micro scale, 3 micro scale operations, 39 microcosmic salt bead tests, 13, 14 microgram, 46 microscope test for Li,311 Ca(II), 151 molybdate ions, reactions of, 279 molybdenum, 278
molybdenum blue, 101, 102, 280
molybdenum, separation from Group lIB cations, 293 molybdenum(VI), see molybdate monochromator, 55
341
Index
I-naphthylamine, reagent for nitrite ions, 178 n-propylarsonic acid, reagent for Zr(IV), 302 nebuliser, 55 Nessler's reagent, reagent for NH4(I), 160 nickel, 131 detection of traces in cobalt salts, 134 separation from Group IIIB cations, 263,
310
nickel ethylenediamine, reagent for thiosulphate ions, 173 nickel(II) ions, reactions of, 132 nitrate ions, identification in the presence of bromide, 266 chlorate, 266 iodide, 266 nitrite, 266 preliminary test for, 251 reactions of, 199 reduction of, 200 nitric acid, reagent for bromide ions, 194 salicylate ions, 241 thiocyanate ions, 184 nitrite ions, identification in the presence of nitrate, 266 preliminary test for, 251 reactions of, 176 4-nitrobenzeneazo-I-naphthol, reagent for Mg(II), 155 4-nitrobenzene-azo-chromotropic acid, reagent for borate ions, 210 4-nitrobenzene-diazonium chloride, reagent for NH4(1), 162 3-nitrobenzoic acid, reagent for Th(IV), 306 nitron, see diphenyl-endo-anilodihydrotriazole 4-nitronaphthalene-diazoamino-azo-benzene, reagent for Cd (II), 90 l-p-nitrophenyl-3-methyl-4-nitro-5pyrazolone, see picrolonic acid 4-(4-nitrophenylazo )-resorcinol, reagent for Be(II),297 Mg(II), 154 a-nitroso-/3-naphthol, see l-nitroso-2naphthol ni troso- R -salt, reagent for Co (II), 130 nitrosophenylhydroxylamine, ammonium salt, see cupferron l-nitroso-2-naphthol, reagent for Co(II), 130 Ni(II), 133 Pd(II),286 N,N'-dimethyl-9,9'-biacridinium dinitrate, see lucigenin NN-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine, reagent for sulphide ions, 176 notebook, page of, 60 notes, taking of, 60 oil of wintergreen test for salicylate ions, 241 organic acids, separation and identification of, 272
342
orthophosphate, ions, reactions of, 218 see also phosphate oxalate ions, identification in the presence of fluoride, 271 reactions of, 234 oxalic acid, reagent for Au(III), 282 Be(II),297 Ce(III), 306 Ce(IV),307 Pt(IV),284 Th(IV),305 Zr(IV),301 oxidant gas, 55 oxidizing flame, 5 oxine, see 8-hydroxyquinoline oxoanions of Group III metals, 127 p-dipicrylamine, reagent for K(I), 158 p-phenetidine, reagent for V(V), 295 palladium, 285 separation from Group IIA cations, 292 palladium(lI) ions, reactions of, 285 perchlorate ions, identification in the presence of chlorate, 267 chloride, 267 reactions of, 207 perchloric acid, reagent for K(I), 157 perhydroxyl ions, see hydrogen peroxide permanganate, 127 permanganate ions, reactions of, 228 reduction of, 228 peroxochromic acid, see chromium pentoxide peroxodisulphate ions, reactions of, 214 I,IO-phenantroline, reagent for Fe(II), 112 phenol, reagent for W(VI), 278 phenylarsonic acid, reagent for Zr(IV), 302 phenylhydrazine, reagent for Mo(VI), 281 phosphate bead, see microcosmic salt bead phosphate ions, identification in the presence of arsenate, 268 arsenite, 268 phosphite ions, reactions of, 221 phosphomolybdic acid, reagent for Sb(III), 101 phosphoric acid, reagent for chlorate ions, 204 W(VI),277 picrolonic acid, reagent for Ca(II), 151 plasma torch, 57 platinum, 283 separation from Group IIA cations, 292 Group lIB cations, 293 platinum wire, 8 platinum wire loop, 46 platinum(IV), see hexachloroplatinate(lV) potassium, 156
Index
potassium chlorate, reagent for V(V), 295 potassium chloride, reagent for hexafluorosilicate ions, 218 perchlorate ions, 208 Pt(IV),284 tartrate ions, 237 potassium chromate, reagent for Ag(I),74 Ba(II), 146 Hg(I),69 Pb(II),65 Sr(II), 148 TI(I),275 potassium cyanide, reagent for Ag(I),74 Cd(II),89 Co(II), 129 Cu(II),85 Fe(II), III Fe(III), 114 Hg(II),79 Ni(II),133 Pb(II),66 thiosulphate ions, 172 potassium dichromate, reagent for hydrogen peroxide, 245 iodide ions, 196 sulphite ions, 169 potassium dichromate - sulphuric acid, reagent for bromide ions, 194 chloride ions, 191 potassium ferricyanide, see potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) potassium ferrocyanide, see potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) potassium fluoride, reagent for Th(IV), 305 potassium hexacyanoferrate(II), reagent for Ca(II), 150 dithionite ions, 248 Fe(II), III Fe(III), 114 Mo(VI),280 Th(IV),305 U(VI),304 Zn(II), 141 potassium hexacyanoferrate(III), reagent for Fe(II), 111 F e(III), 115 hydrogen peroxide, 245 TI(I), 275 potassium hydrogen sulphate, reagent for W(VI),278 potassium, identification in the presence of alkali metals, 265 potassium iodate, reagent for Ce(III), 307 Ce(IV),308 Th(IV),305 Zr(IV),302 potassium iodide, reagent for Ag(I),74 As(V),95 Bi(III), 81
chlorate ions, 203 Cu(II),85 hexacyanoferrate(III) ions, 188 Hg(I),70 Hg(II),78 hydrogen peroxide, 245 iodate ions, 207 nitrite ions, 177 Pb(II),65 Pd(II),286 peroxodisulphate ions, 214 Pt(IV),284 Sb(III), 100 Sb(V), 103 Se(IV),287 Te(IV),290 Te(VI),291 TI(I),275 Tl(III), 276 potassium iodide - starch paper, reagent for hypochlorite ions, 189 potassium nitrite, reagent for chlorate ions, 203 Co(II), 129 iodide ions, 196 potassium perrnanganate, reagent for citrate ions, 240 hydrogen peroxide, 245 hypophosphite ions, 224 nitrite ions, 177 oxalate ions, 234 phosphite ions, 223 sulphate ions, 213 sulphite ions, 169 potassium peroxodisulphate, reagent for Mn(II), 137 potassium pyrosulphate, fusion with, 254 potassium sulphate (saturated), reagent for Ce(III), 306 Ce(IV),308 Th(IV),305 Zr(IV), 302 potassium tetraiodomercurate(II), see Nessler's reagent potassium thiocyanate, reagent for Cu(II), 85 potassium triiodide, reagent for sulphide ions, 176 thiocyanate ions, 185 thiosulphate ions, 172, 173 potassium xanthate, reagent for Mo(VI), 280 potassium(I) ions, reactions of, 156 pre-mix burner, 55 precipitate, dissolving of, on semimicro scale, 33 drying of, 22 removal of, 19 transferring of, on semimicro scale, 30 washing of, on micro scale, 42 washing of, on semimicro scale, 29 precipitation, 16 on micro scale, 40 pressure method, 17 prism, 9 Prussian blue, Ill, 115, 188
343
Index
Prussian blue test for cyanide ions, 180 purple of Cassius, 282 pyridine, reagent for cyanate ions, 182 pyrocatechol, see cathecol pyrogallol, reagent for Bi(III), 82 pyrophosphate ions, reactions of, 221 pyrrole, reagent for Se(IV), 288 qualitative analysis, 1 quantitative analysis, 1 quartz tube in F AAS, 58 quinaldic acid, reagent for Zn(II), 141 quinalizarin, reagent for AI (III), 121 Be (II), 297 Mg(II), 155 quinine sulphate, reagent for orthophosphate ions, 221 quinoline-I-carboxylic acid, see quinaldic acid radiation detector, 56 radioactive materials, 2 readout device, 56 reagent bottle, semimicro, 25 reagent dropper, 24 reagent paper, 48 reagents, alphabetical list of, 313 reducing agents, reagents for Ce(IV),308 Pd(II),286 Se(IV),287 Te(VI),291 reducing flame, 5 reduction to nitrite, test for nitrate ions, 201 refractory oxides, fusion of, 254 resorcinol, reagent for oxalate ions, 235 succinate ions, 244 tartrate ions, 237 rhodamine-B, reagent for Sb(III), 101 Sb(V), 103 rhodanine, see 4dimethylaminobenzylidenerhodanine rhodizonic acid, sodium salt, see sodium rhodizonate Rinmann's green test for Zn(II), 6, 142 rubeanic acid, see dithio oxamide salicylaldehyde oxime, reagent for Cu(II), 86 salicylaldoxime, see salicylaldehyde oxime sebacic acid, reagent for Th(IV), 305 selenate ions, reactions of, 288 selenite ions, reactions of, 287 selenium, 287 selenium, separation from Group lIB cations, 293 selenium(IV), see selenite selenium(VI), see selenate semimicro apparatus, 23 semimicro scale, 3 semimicro scale, operations on, 23 semimicro work, reagents for, 26 sensitivity, 46
344
silica, fusion of, 255 silicate ions, reactions of, 215 silicates, fusion of, 255 silicofluoride, see hexafluorosilicate silicon tetrafluoride test for silicate ions, 216 silver, 71 silver halides, dissolution of, 254 silver metal, reagent for sulphide ions, 175 silver nitrate, reagent for acetate ions, 230 As(III),92 As(V),94 benzoate ions, 242 borate ions, 210 bromate ions, 205 bromide ions, 193 carbonate ions, 166 chlorate ions, 203 chloride ions, 191 chromate and dichromate ions, 225 citrate ions, 239 cyanate ions, 182 cyanide ions, 179 dithionite ions, 247 formate ions, 232 hexacyanoferrate(lI) ions, 186 hexacyanoferrate(III) ions, 188 hypophosphite ions, 223 iodate ions, 206 iodide ions, 196 nitrite ions, 177 orthophosphate ions, 219 oxalate ions, 234 peroxodisulphate ions, 214 phosphite ions, 222 Pt(IV),284 salicylate ions, 241 silicate ions, 215 succinate ions, 243 sulphide ions, 175 sulphite ions, 169 tartrate ions, 236 thiocyanate ions, 183 thiosulphate ions, 172 W(VI),277 silver, separation from Group I cations, 260, 278 silver(I) ions, reactions of, 72 sintered glass funnel, 20 sli t sieve funnel, 20 soda extract, preparation of, 265 soda lime, reagent for benzoate ions, 243 salicylate ions, 241 sodium, 159 sodium acetate, reagent for AI(III), 120 F e(III), 115 sodium alizarin sulphonate, see alizarin red S sodium arsenite, reagent for iodide ions, 197 sodium azide, reagent for sulphide ions, 176 thiocyanate ions, 185 thiosulphate ions, 173
Index
sodium bismuthate, reagent for Ce(III), 306 Mn(II), 138 sodium carbonate, bead tes t, 15 fusion with, 255 reagent for Ag(I),74 carbonate ions, 166 Cr(III), 123 Hg(I),70 Li(I),3l1 Mg(II), 153 Pb(II),65 Th(IV),305 U(VI),304 sodium dihydroxytartrate osazone, reagent for Ca(II), 150 sodium formate, reagent for Pt(IV), 284 sodium hexanitritocobaltate(III), reagent for K(I), 156 NH4 (I),161 T1(I),275 sodium hexanitritocobaitate(III)-silver nitrate test for K(I), 157 sodium hydrogen tartrate, reagent for K(I), 156 NH4 (I),161 sodium hydroxide, reagent for Ag(I),73 AI(III), 119 Be(II),296 Bi(III),80 Cd(II),89 Ce(IV),307 Co(II), 128 Cr(III), 123 Cu(II), 5 Fe(II), 110 F e(III), 113 Hg(I), 69 Hg(II),78 hypo phosphite ions, 224 Mg(II), 153 Mn(II), 136 NH 4 (I), 160 Ni(II), 132 Pb(II),64 Pd(II),286 permanganate ions, 229 Sb(III), 100 Sn(II), 106 Sn(IV), 108 Th(IV),305 Ti(IV),299 TI(III), 276 U(VI),303 Zn(II), 139 Zr(IV),301 sodium, identification in the presence of alkali metals, 265 sodium lamp, 9 sodium line, 10
sodium nitroprusside, reagent for sulphide ions, 175 sulphite ions, 170 sodium peroxide, fusion with, 255 sodium phosphate, see disodium hydrogen phosphate sodium rhodizonate, reagent for Ba(II), 146 Sr(II), 148 sulphate ions, 213 sodium sulphite, reagent for Pb(II), 65 sodium tetrahydroxostannate(II), reagent for Bi(III),81 sodium tetraphenylboron, reagent for K(I), 158 sodium thiosulphate, reagent for Ce(III), 306 Ce(IV),308 Th(IV),305 sodium(I) ions, reactions of, 159 sodium-1-nitroso-2-hydroxynaphthalene-3,6disulphonate, see nitroso-R-sait solid, non-metallic samples, preliminary tests on, 250 soluble Prussian blue, 115 spectroscope, 8 direct vision, 9 pocket, 10 spectroscopic tests, 8 spectrum lines, table of, II spot analysis, 39 spot plate, 36, 47 spot test analysis, 45 starch and potassium nitrite, reagent for iodide ions, 197 stirring rod, 15 semimicro, 23 strontium, 147 separation from Group IV cations, 264 strontium chloride, reagent for sulphite ions, 168 strontium(lI) ions, reactions of, 147 sublimation, 4 succinate ions, identification in the presence of benzoate, 272 reactions of, 243 sulphamic acid, reagent for nitrite ions, 178 sulphanilic acid, reagent for nitrite ions, 178 sulphate ions, identification in the presence of fluoride, 271 hexafluorosilicate, 271 sulphide, 269 sulphite, 269 thiosulphate, 269 reactions of, 211 sulphide ions, identification in the presence of sulphate, 269 sulphite, 269, 270 thiosulphate, 269, 270 reactions of, 174
345
Index
sulphite ions, distinction from hydrogen sulphite, 171 identification in the presence of carbonate, 265 sulphate, 269 sulphide, 269, 270 thiosulphate, 269, 270 reactions of, 168 sulphite, see also sulphur dioxide sulphur, burning of, 256 sulphur dioxide, see also sulphite reagent for bromate ions, 205 iodate ions, 207 Te(IV),290 sulphuric acid, reagent for acetate ions, 230 Ba(II), 145 benzoate ions, 242 borate ions, 209 bromate ions, 204 bromide ions, 192 Ca(II), 150 chlorate ions, 202 citrate ions, 239 cyanate ions, 181 cyanide ions, 180 dithionite ions, 247 fluoride ions, 198 formate ions, 232 hexacyanoferrate(lI) ions, 185 hexacyanoferrate(III) ions, 187 hexafluorosilicate ions, 217 hypophosphite ions, 224 iodate ions, 206 iodide ions, 195 nitrate ions, 199,200 oxalate ions, 234 Pb(II),64 perchlorate ions, 208 phosphite ions, 223 salicylate ions, 240, 241 Sr(II), 147 succinate ions, 243 sulphide ions, 174 sulphite ions, 168 tartrate ions, 236 thiocyanate ions, 183 W(VI),278 tannic acid, reagent for V(V), 295 tannic acid-silver nitrate test for NH 4 (1), 161 tartaric acid, reagent for K(I), 156 tartrate ions, reactions of, 236 telescope, 9 tellurate ions, reactions of, 290 tellurite ions, reactions of, 289 tellurium, 289 separation from Group lIB cations, 293 tellurium(IV), see tellurite tellurium(VI), see tellurate test tube, 15 semimicro, 23
tetraamminecadmium sulphate, reagent for perchlorate ions, 208 tetrabase, see di-(4-dimethylaminodiphenyl) methane tetrachloroaurate(III), see gold(III) tetraethylrhodanine, see rhodamine B 1,2,5,8-tetrahydroxyanthraquinone, see quinalizarin thallium, 274 separation from Group I cations, 278 thallium(I) ions, reactions of, 274 thallium(III) ions, reactions of, 276 Thenard's blue test for AI(III), 6, 122 thiocyanate ions, identification in the presence of hexacyanoferrate(II), 271 hexacyanoferrate(III), 271 reactions of, 182 thiosulphate ions, identification in the presence of sulphate, 269 sulphide, 269, 270 sulphite, 269, 270 reactions of, 171 thiourea, reagent for nitrite ions, 178 Se(IV), 287 thorium, 304 separation from Ce,308 Group IlIA cations, 309 thorium nitrate, reagent for hexacyanoferrate(lI) ions, 187 thorium(IV) ions, reactions of, 305 tin, 104 separation from Group lIB cations, 261, 293 tin metal, reagent for Sb(V), 103 tin(II) chloride, reagent for As(III),92 Au(III), 282 Hg(l),70 Mo(VI),280 Pt(IV),284 silicate ions, 217 Te(IV),290 W(VI),277 tin(II) ions, reactions of, 105 tin (IV) ions, reactions of, 107 titan yellow, reagent for Mg(II), 155 titanium, 298 separation from Group IlIA cations, 309 Group IIIB cations, 310 titanium(III) sulphate, reagent for perchlorate ions, 208 titanium(IV) chloride, reagent for hydrogen peroxide, 245 titanium(IV) ions, reactions of, 298 titanyl, see titanium(lV) TK bottle, 25 total consumption burner, 55 transfer capillary pipette, 40 tri-ammonium aurine-tricarboxylate, see aluminon
346
Index
tungstate ions, reactions of, 276 tungsten, 276 separation from Group I cations, 278 tungsten blue, 277 tungsten(VI), see tungstate turmeric paper test for borate ions, 209 Turnbull's blue, Ill, 188 upper oxidizing zone, 7 upper reducing zone, 7 uranium, 303 separation from Group IlIA cations, 309 uranium(VI), see uranyl uranyl ions, reactions of, 303 uranyl magnesium acetate, reagent for Na(I), 159 uranyl zinc acetate, reagent for Na(I), 159 urea, reagent for nitrite ions, 178 vanadate ions, reactions of, 294 vanadium, 292 separation from Group IlIA cations, 309 vanadium(V), see vanadate Vogel reaction, 129 wash bottle, 16 semimicro, 30 washing, 18 waste disposal, 22 water bath, on semimicro scale, 31 water, reagent for Bi(III),82 peroxodisulphate ions, 214
Sb(III), 100 Sb(V),103 Ti(IV),299 wet reactions, 15 zinc, 139 separation from Group nIB cations, 263, 310 zinc metal, reagent for hypophosphite ions, 224 phosphite ions, 223 Sb(III), 100 Sb(V),103 Sn(Il), 106 sulphite ions, 169 Te(IV),290 thiocyanate ions, 184 W(VI),277 zinc nitroprusside paste, preparation of, 170 zinc nitroprusside, reagent for sulphite ions, 170 zinc sulphate, reagent for sulphite ions, 170 zinc(Il) ions, reactions of, 139 zirconium, 300 separation from Group IlIA cations, 309 zirconium nitrate, reagent for orthophosphate ions, 220 zirconium(IV) ions, reactions of, 301 zirconyl, see zirconium(IV) zirconyl chloride, reagent for fluoride ions, 199
347

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Vogel's Qualitative Inorganic Analysis

199712 4692 543.062 VOG Ivog 17

Longman Group Limited 1979, 1987, 1996

Chapter 1 Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

Chapter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14

3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20

99 102 104 104 107 108

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23

293 296 298 300 303 304 306 307 308

Preface to the seventh edition

From preface to the first edition (1937)

From preface to the fifth edition (1979)

From preface to the sixth edition (1987)

Advantages of semimicro scale

Colour change Gases

fOlr-+--- Upper reducing zone

Lower temperature zone (a)

A blue colour is also given by phosphates, arsenates, silicates, or. borates.

Flame tests with cobalt glass

Golden-yellow Violet Brick-red Crimson Yellowish-green

Nil Crimson Light-green Purple Bluish-green

Sodium Potassium Calcium Strontium Barium

Comparison prism -Light

Commonly occurring spectrum lines

Na2B407 = 2NaB0 2 + B20 3

N'I~", ~ - - r- -r'J"- - T- -I~-r-----r--------==-iJ

Colours of borax beads

It must, however, be pointed out that many silicates dissolve completely in

Microcosmic salt bead tests

" Blood red when fused with a trace of iron(II) sulphate.

Wet reactions on macro scale

Wet reactions; macro apparatus and analytical operations on a macro scale

How to use H 2 S safely and sparingly

Wet reactions on macro scale

Wet reactions on macro scale

Filtration aids and techniques

Pyrex 'slit sieve' funnel, with 65 mm disc, is available commercially.

Wet reactions on macro scale

Not wasting chemicals

Semimicro apparatus and semimicro analytical operations

2.4 Experimental techniques

(b) ...... ~---lOcm----t~~.

Hydrochloric acid, conc. Sulphuric acid, conc. Nitric acid, conc.

Hydrochloric acid, dil. Sulphuric acid, dil. Nitric acid, dil.

Position of centrifuge tube at rest

:oe-alons with the ::e'ltnfuge

Separation of solid and liquid

Precipitate - -.........- - - -.....

Use of H 2 S on a semimicro scale

Important hints for good practice

Basic apparatus for semimicro work

Micro apparatus and microanalytical operations

Int. diam. 35mm

Equipment for micro work

C::;::=1==1==;:::::J-- Wire triangle

Water bath rings