Chapter 3: Characteristics of Children and Their Families

Elaine Carlson, Amy Shimshak, and Harriotte Heinzen

We know from previous research that children with disabilities differ in some ways from

typically developing children. They are more likely to be male and to be from low-income households

(Hebbeler et al. 2001; Marder & Cox 1991; Wagner & Blackorby 2002). Racial minorities are

disproportionately represented within some disability groups (National Research Council 2002).

Preschoolers with disabilities also differ from school-age children with disabilities, at least in the type of

disabilities identified and the behaviors they exhibit (Wagner & Blackorby 2002).

Further research suggests that individual and household characteristics may be related to child

development and achievement. For example, Yeung, Linver, and Brooks-Gunn (2002) found that higher

levels of maternal education and cognitive ability were correlated with better physical environments and

more stimulating experiences for children. These benefits were associated with children’s educational

achievement.

This chapter describes the preliminary results from PEELS on the characteristics of children with

disabilities ages 3–5 and their families. It includes information primarily on demographics but also

describes their disabilities and birth history.

Gender

PEELS found that preschoolers with disabilities were disproportionately male, 70 percent versus

30 percent female. The gender pattern of preschoolers with disabilities was not specific to particular

racial/ethnic groups or disability categories. The disproportion documented in PEELS is consistent with

studies of infants and toddlers in early intervention programs and older children in special education

programs (Hebbeler et al. 2001; Marder and Cox 1991; Wagner and Blackorby 2002).

29
Race/Ethnicity

Although disproportionate representation of specific racial/ethnic groups in special education is

documented in the research literature (National Research Council 2002), the patterns for preschoolers

with disabilities are different from the patterns for younger children and older children with disabilities.

PEELS data indicated that 67 percent of children with disabilities ages 3–5 were White, 22 percent were

Hispanic, and 11 percent were Black. This compares with general population figures for children ages 3-5

of 58 percent White, 20 percent Hispanic, and 15 percent Black (U.S. Census Bureau 2004a), suggesting

no overrepresentation of Black or Hispanic children overall among young children with disabilities (see

figure 1).

The racial/ethnic composition of preschoolers with disabilities was slightly different from that

recently reported for elementary and middle school students with disabilities. For example, Marder and

Wagner (2002) reported that 63 percent of elementary and middle school students with disabilities were

White, 14 percent were Hispanic, and 19 percent were Black. Differences across sources may reflect

recent increases in the Hispanic population overall as well as in special education programs.

In contrast with data from PEELS, findings from the National Early Intervention Longitudinal

Study (NEILS) indicated that among infants and toddlers (birth to age 3) with disabilities, Black children

were overrepresented (21% of infants and toddlers with disabilities versus 14% in the general population),

and White children were underrepresented (53% versus 61%) (Hebbeler, Spiker, Mallik, Scarborough,

and Simeonsson 2003).

Household Income

The federal poverty level is about $20,000 or less for a family of four. In the general population,

about 20 percent of families with young children live in households with annual incomes under $20,000

(U.S. Census Bureau 2004b). More than one-quarter (27%) of preschoolers with disabilities lived in

households with incomes of less than $20,000. As shown in table 3, 50 percent of Black preschoolers and

30
Figure 1. Percentage of children with disabilities ages 3–5 and general population of children
ages 3–5, by race/ethnicity

41 percent of Hispanic preschoolers lived in households earning $20,000 or less per year. The percentage

for White preschoolers was 19 percent. The overall relationship between race and income was significant.

31
Table 3. Percentage of children with disabilities ages 3–5 in various household income groups,
by race/ethnicity: School year 2003–04

Total Black Hispanic White

$20,000 or less 27.2 49.8 40.8 19.0
$20,001 to $30,000 16.3 20.8 19.9 14.4
$30,001 to $40,000 11.8 10.8 10.8 12.4
$40,001 to $50,000 10.7 7.3 7.6 12.3
More than $50,000 34.0 11.3 21.0 42.1
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), “Parent Interview”, previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

Parents’ Level of Education

In PEELS, preschoolers with disabilities had parents with educational attainments similar to those

parents of children under 18 in the general population. 7 Among fathers of preschoolers with disabilities,

19 percent had less than a high school diploma, 39 percent had a high school diploma or GED, 21 percent

had some college, and 21 percent had a 4-year college degree of higher. Among mothers of preschoolers

with disabilities, 19 percent had less than a high school diploma, 31 percent had a high school diploma or

GED, 29 percent had some college, and 22 percent had a 4-year college degree or higher (see figure 2).

Household Composition

In the general population, 69 percent of children ages 3–5 live with two parents, and 27 percent

live with one biological parent (U.S. Census Bureau 2004a). These percentages are very similar to results

from PEELS, which indicate that two-thirds of children with disabilities ages 3–5 (67%) lived with both

biological parents, and another 5 percent lived with one biological parent and his/her spouse or partner.

Twenty-one percent lived with one biological parent only. Household composition varied significantly by

race/ethnicity (see table 4). While 73 percent of White children with disabilities lived with both biological

parents, that figure was 30 percent for Black children.

7
No similar data were available for parents of children ages 3-5 in the general population.

32
Figure 2. Percentage of children ages 3–5 in the general population and special education whose
parents had various levels of educational attainment

Household composition also varied by income level. Of those children with disabilities in the

highest income group, 85 percent lived with both biological parents, compared with 38 percent of those in

the lowest income group (see figure 3).

33
Table 4. Percentage of children with disabilities ages 3–5 who lived with different types of
parents/guardians, by race/ethnicity: School year 2003–04

Total Black Hispanic White

Biological parents 66.5 30.1 65.3 72.5
Biological mother or father only 20.6 54.4 23.5 14.9
Biological mother or father and other mother or father 5.4 4.6 5.1 5.9
Adoptive parent(s) 3.7 4.6 5.1 5.9
Other (e.g., with grandparents) 3.8 6.3 2.7 3.6
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), “Parent Interview”, previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

Disability

In PEELS, early childhood teachers were asked to report children’s primary disability using the

14 federal disability categories specified in P.L. 108-446, but separating the category for mental

retardation into mild and moderate/severe. Developmental delay was also a response choice—an optional

federal disability category for children from birth to age 9 (or a subset of that age group) used by 44 states

in 2003 (Danaher, Kraus, Armijo, & Hipps 2003). In PEELS, nearly half of preschoolers with

disabilities (46%) were identified as having a speech or language impairment as their primary disability,

and 28 percent were identified as having a developmental delay as primary. Fewer than 10 percent of

children with disabilities were identified as having each of other disabilities. Autism was the third most

common disability; seven percent of preschoolers with disabilities were identified as having autism. In

comparison, children and youth with disabilities ages 6–21 are most commonly identified as having a

learning disability (49%), a speech or language impairment (19%), or mental retardation (10%) as their

primary identified disability (US DOE 2005).

As shown in table 5, the percentage of preschool-age children identified as having a speech or

language impairment as their primary disability varied by race/ethnicity. About half of White

preschoolers with disabilities (51%) were identified as having a speech or language impairment, whereas

42 percent of Hispanic children and only 27 percent of Black children were identified as having a speech

or language impairment as their primary disability.

34
Figure 3. Percentage of children with disabilities ages 3–5 who lived with different types of
parents/guardians, by household income

The percentage of children identified as having a developmental delay as their primary disability

varied by age cohort (see table 6). Of the children in the youngest cohort (Cohort A), 37 percent were

identified as having a developmental delay, compared with 29 percent in Cohort B and 21 percent in

Cohort C. For young children, in particular, disability identification may change as professionals gain a

better understanding of the difficulties a child is having and the specific nature of the developmental

delay. In future waves of PEELS, we will be able to track changes in disability identification.

35
Table 5. Percentage of preschoolers and kindergarteners ages 3–5 with various primary
disabilities, by race/ethnicity: School year 2003–04

Total Black Hispanic White

Autism 6.8 9.1 8.5 5.9
Deaf/blindness ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Deafness ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Developmental delay 27.8 42.2 22.1 26.8
Emotional disturbance/behavior disorder 1.2 ‡ ‡ 1.2
Hearing impairment 0.6 ‡ ‡ ‡
Learning disability 2.4 6.1 3.3 1.9
Mild mental retardation 1.5 ‡ ‡ 1.4
Moderate/severe mental retardation 2.9 ‡ 5.3 1.7
Multiple disabilities 1.6 ‡ ‡ 1.3
Orthopedic impairment 2.2 ‡ ‡ 1.8
Other health impairment 2.9 ‡ ‡ 3.3
Speech or language impairment* 46.4 27.4 42.2 50.8
Traumatic brain injury ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Visual impairment/blindness ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Other 2.6 ‡ ‡ 2.3
‡ Reporting standards not met.
* p < .05.
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), "Early Childhood Teacher Questionnaire" and "Kindergarten Teacher Questionnaire," previously
unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

Many children who receive special education services are identified as having multiple

disabilities. Among preschoolers with disabilities, 75 percent were identified as having a speech or

language impairment either as their primary or secondary disability. Thirty-seven percent were identified

as having a developmental delay, either as their primary or secondary disability. Even when taking into

account secondary and tertiary disabilities, fewer than 10 percent of children were identified as having

other disabilities (e.g., mental retardation, learning disabilities, or emotional disturbance); 8 percent were

identified as having autism as their primary or secondary disability.

Early Childhood Development

Concerns about development. For some children, disabilities are apparent at birth or even

during pregnancy. For others, delays emerge or are identified later, when children face new

36
Table 6. Percentage of preschoolers and kindergarteners ages 3–5 with various primary
disabilities, by age cohort: School year 2003–04

Cohort A Cohort B Cohort C

Total (age 3) (age 4) (age 5)
Autism 6.8 7.8 7.6 5.4
Deaf/blindness ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Deafness ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Developmental delay 27.8 36.5 29.3 21.4
Emotional disturbance/behavior disorder 1.3 ‡ 1.0 1.4
Hearing impairment 0.6 ‡ ‡ ‡
Learning disability 2.4 ‡ 1.0 4.8
Mild mental retardation 1.5 1.5 ‡ 1.7
Moderate/severe mental retardation 2.9 1.4 2.7 3.8
Multiple disabilities 1.6 ‡ ‡ ‡
Orthopedic impairment 2.2 ‡ 3.2 ‡
Other health impairment 2.9 2.5 2.9 3.0
Speech or language impairment* 46.4 42.3 44.9 50.2
Traumatic brain injury ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Visual impairment/blindness ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
Other 2.6 2.1 3.4 2.1
‡ Reporting standards not met.
* p < .05.
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), "Early Childhood Teacher Questionnaire" and "Kindergarten Teacher Questionnaire," previously
unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

developmental milestones (see figure 4). For 11 percent of preschoolers with disabilities, concerns about

health or development arose during pregnancy or within the first month after birth. For another 10

percent, concerns arose in the first year. The largest percentage of preschoolers with disabilities, 31

percent, had concerns raised about their health or development between the ages of 24 and 35 months.

Prematurity. Both prematurity and birth weight have long been considered risk factors for many

disabilities and developmental delays—the earlier the child is born and the lower the birth weight, the

greater the risk of disabilities and developmental delay (Hack et al. 2002; Wood et al. 2000). PEELS

found that 24 percent of preschoolers with disabilities were born three or more weeks prematurely (see

table 7), twice the rate of children born preterm in the general population (12%) (National Center for

Health Statistics 2002). However, it is considerably lower than the percentage of premature infants and

toddlers entering early intervention programs (31%) (Spiker et al. 2004).

37
Figure 4. Percentage of children with disabilities ages 3–5 who were in different age groups when
someone first expressed concern about their health or development

Children ages 3–5 identified as having an orthopedic impairment, a learning disability, an other

health impairment, or a low-incidence disability 8 were significantly more likely to have been born three

or more weeks early.

While Black and Hispanic children with disabilities were no more likely than White children with

disabilities to be born premature, those who were premature were born significantly earlier than White

children who were premature (see table 8). White premature children with disabilities were born a mean

8
Due to very small sample sizes, children with a visual impairment, hearing impairment, deaf-blindness, or traumatic brain
injury were combined into a low-incidence disability category.

38
Table 7. Percentage of children with disabilities ages 3–5 born three or more weeks
prematurely, by disability category (PL: 108-446): School year 2003–04

Total AU DD ED LD MR OI OHI SLI LI

Yes 23.8 23.7 28.6 ‡ 32.4 27.0 41.1 30.4 18.2 45.5
No 76.2 76.3 71.4 ‡ 67.6 73.0 58.9 69.6 81.8 54.5
‡ Reporting standards not met.
NOTE: AU = Autism; DD = Developmental delay; ED = Emotional disturbance; LD = Learning disability;
MR = Mental retardation; OI = Orthopedic impairment; OHI = Other health impairment; SLI = Speech or language impairment;
LI = Low incidence.
These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), “Parent Interview,” previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

Table 8. Mean number of weeks premature for children with disabilities ages 3-5 born three or
more weeks prematurely, by race/ethnicity: School year 2003–04

Total Black Hispanic White

6.5 8.9 7.3 5.6
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), “Parent Interview,” previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

of 5.6 (S.E. = 0.3) weeks early compared with Black children, at a mean of 8.9 (S.E. = 1.0) weeks early,

and Hispanic children, at a mean of 7.3 (S.E. = 0.5) weeks early. Median weeks premature were

considerably lower than the means for all racial/ethnic groups (Mdn = 7.3, 5.6, and 3.9, respectively, for

Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics), reflecting the affects of those outliers born extremely premature.

Of the children born three or more weeks early, children identified as having a low-incidence

disability (M = 8.8 weeks, S.E. = 1.5) and those identified as having an orthopedic impairment (M = 8.7

weeks, S.E. = 1.5) were born significantly earlier than children identified as having a speech or language

impairment (M = 5.1 weeks, S.E. = 0.3) (see table 9).

Birth weight. The mean birth weight for preschoolers with disabilities was 110.7 ounces (6.9

pounds) (S.E. = 1.4). The median 9 birth weight was 114.5 ounces (7.2 pounds) (S.E. = 1.1), which

compares to a median of 118.0 ounces (7.4 pounds) for children in the general population (U.S. Census

9
Medians are reported here, because means for the general population were not available.

39
Table 9. Mean number of weeks premature for children with disabilities ages 3-5 born three or
more weeks prematurely, by disability category: School year 2003–04

Total AU DD ED LD MR OI OHI SLI LI

6.5 5.7 7.2 ‡ 6.9 7.5 8.7 6.9 5.1 8.8
‡ Reporting standards not met.
NOTE: AU = Autism; DD = Developmental delay; ED = Emotional disturbance; LD = Learning disability;
MR = Mental retardation; OI = Orthopedic impairment; OHI = Other health impairment; SLI = Speech or language impairment;
LI = Low incidence.
These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), “Parent Interview,” previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

Bureau 2002). Children under 2,500 grams or 5.5 pounds are typically considered low birth weight. Black

children with disabilities had significantly lower birth weights (M = 93.9 ounces, S.E. = 4.3; Mdn = 102.9

ounces, S.E. = 4.0) than Hispanic (M = 109.6 ounces, S.E. = 2.0, Mdn = 114.3 ounces, S.E. = 1.7) and

White children with disabilities (M = 113.9 ounces, S.E. = 1.0; Mdn = 116.6 ounces, S.E. = 0.8) (see

figure 5).

Figure 5. Median birth weight and interquartile ranges (in ounces) for children with disabilities
ages 3–5, by race/ethnicity: School year 2003–04

40
Summary

The preliminary data presented in this report indicate that in many ways, children with disabilities

ages 3–5 were just like other young children in the United States. They had roughly the same racial/ethnic

mix, similar levels of parental education, and similar household compositions. In other ways, these

children were different—both from their same-age peers and from other children with disabilities. They

were more likely than their same-age peers to have been born three or more weeks early, and their lower

than average birth weight was consistent with this tendency toward prematurity. Preschool children with

disabilities were disproportionately male.

Children with disabilities ages 3–5 were different from older children with disabilities in the

primary disability for which they were identified. About half of students ages 6–21 with disabilities are

identified as having a learning disability, and sizable proportions (at least 10%) are identified as having a

speech or language impairment or mental retardation (US DOE 2005). In contrast, nearly 75 percent of

children with disabilities ages 3–5 were identified as having either a speech or language impairment or a

developmental delay.

41
 Chapter 4: Characteristics of Educational Services and Providers
Joy Markowitz, Jeff Strohl, and Sheri Klein

In summarizing the results of several studies of nondisabled preschoolers with disabilities, Ramey

and Ramey (2002) found that “the magnitude of the effects produced by various preschool interventions

is systematically related to characteristics of the preschool programs themselves.” Research also suggests

that the association between the quality of interventions and child-level outcomes are independent of

other factors, such as socioeconomic status, maternal education, and family structure (Phillips,

McCartney, & Scarr 1987; Schlieker, White, & Jacobs 1991; Whitebook, Howes, & Phillips 1989). This

chapter describes the educational programs serving preschoolers with disabilities, including the types of

services they received and the qualifications of service providers. The data in this chapter were taken

from PEELS Wave 1 parent interview and teacher questionnaires. Because the data are preliminary, they

may be modified.

Age When Services Began

PEELS data indicated that 38 percent of children with disabilities ages 3–5 received early

intervention services under Part C of IDEA. However, on average, preschoolers with disabilities were

nearly age 3 when they started receiving special education or therapy services from a professional

(M = 31.5 months). The distribution for some of the disability groups was highly skewed, so we have

included medians as well as means in this section. Children identified as having an orthopedic impairment

(M = 12.9, S.E. = 2.1, Mdn = 8.3, S.E. = 6.0), mental retardation (M = 18.5, S.E. = 2.6, Mdn = 9.3,

S.E. = 2.0), or an other health impairment (M = 18.4, S.E. = 3.1, Mdn = 12.4, S.E. = 7.5) typically started

receiving services at younger ages than children identified as having other disabilities (AU, M = 29.6,

S.E. = 2.1, Mdn = 29.1, S.E. = 5.0; DD, M = 28.1, S.E. = 0.9, Mdn = 27.2, S.E. = 4.2; ED, M = 36.7,

S.E. = 1.8, Mdn = 31.6, S.E. = 1.7; LD, M = 36.1, S.E. = 2.6, Mdn = 34.7, S.E. = 1.8; SLI, M = 36.0,

43
S.E. = 0.5, Mdn = 35.5, S.E. = 0.1; LI, M = 23.0, S.E. = 2.2, Mdn = 22.2, S.E. = 4.6) (see figure 6). For

example, children identified as having an orthopedic impairment began receiving special services at a

mean age of 12.9 months (S.E. = 2.1; Mdn = 8.3, S.E. = 6.0), compared with children identified as having

a speech or language impairment, who began at a mean age of 36.0 months (S.E. = 0.5; Mdn = 35.5;

S.E. = 0.1). Delays in speech and language skills often become more apparent after the age of 2, when

typically developing children begin to use words and simple sentences.

Types of Services Received

Parents of children ages 3–5 with disabilities who received special education services were asked

which services their children received during the two months prior to their parent interview. Overall, 93

percent of children received speech or language therapy; 42 percent received special education services in

school; 34 percent received occupational therapy; 21 percent received physical therapy; and 19 percent

received tutoring for learning problems (see table 10). Almost 5 percent of children received other

services through the public school system, such as respite care, behavior therapy, and vision services.

There was significant variation in services by race/ethnicity among children who received special

education in school. Black children (59%) were more likely to receive special education in school than

Hispanic or White children (47% and 3%, respectively), and Hispanic children were more likely than

White children to receive such services (47% v. 36%). Black children were also significantly more likely

than Hispanic or White children to receive tutoring for learning problems (35%, 22%, and 16%,

respectively), and Hispanic children were more likely than White children to receive tutoring.

Some services also varied significantly by household income (see table 11). Children in

households with incomes of $20,000 or less were more likely to receive special education in school (50%)

and tutoring for learning problems (29%) compared with children in households with incomes of more

than $50,000 (37% and 12%, respectively).

44
Figure 6. Mean age (in months) of children with disabilities ages 3–5 when they first started
regularly receiving special education or therapy from a professional, by disability
category: School year 2003–04

Table 10. For children with disabilities ages 3–5 who received special education or related
services through the public schools, the percentage who received various types of
services, by race/ethnicity: School year 2003–04

Total Black Hispanic White

Speech or language therapy 92.8 92.4 91.4 93.2
Occupational therapy 33.5 28.3 38.9 32.4
Physical therapy 20.9 25.1 25.6 19.1
Special education in school* 41.7 59.1 47.3 36.3
Tutoring for learning problems* 19.3 34.7 21.7 16.4
Other 4.6 ‡ 3.9 4.7
‡ Reporting standards not met.
* p < .05.
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Column percentages do not sum to 100 because respondents were asked to select one or more responses as appropriate.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), “Parent Interview,” previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

45
Table 11. For children with disabilities ages 3–5 who received special education or related
services through the public schools, the percentage who received various types of
services, by household income: School year 2003–04

$20,000 or $20,001 to $30,001 to $40,001 to More than

Total less $30,000 $40,000 $50,000 $50,000
Speech or language 92.8 93.0 91.2 91.6 93.9 93.4
therapy
Occupational therapy 33.5 31.8 29.4 33.3 33.4 37.0
Physical therapy 20.9 25.6 20.4 18.2 18.5 19.2
Special education in 41.7 49.5 42.5 43.7 33.4 37.1
school*
Tutoring for learning 19.3 28.5 23.5 17.7 14.0 12.3
problems*
Other 4.6 2.5 4.5 4.9 4.1 6.4
* p < .05.
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Column percentages do not sum to 100 because respondents were asked to select one or more responses as appropriate.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), “Parent Interview,” previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

There was also significant service variation by disability (see table 12). Children identified as

having autism (77%) were more likely than children with other disabilities to receive occupational

therapy. Children identified as having autism (77%) or mental retardation (73%) were more likely than

children with other disabilities to receive special education in school. Finally, children identified as

having a learning disability (37%), an other health impairment (35%), or a developmental delay (31%)

were more likely than other children with disabilities to receive tutoring for learning problems.

Addressing IEP Goals in Regular Education Classes

Children receive special education and related services in a variety of settings. To better

understand how children with disabilities ages 3–5 were educated with their nondisabled peers, their

teachers were asked about the ways in which the children’s IEP goals and objectives were addressed

within the regular education class. For 19 percent of children, this did not occur at all, either because they

were not enrolled in a regular education class (5%) or their IEP goals were addressed elsewhere (14%)

(see table 13). For those whose IEP goals were addressed in the regular class, the most common approach

46
Table 12. For children with disabilities ages 3–5 who received special education or related
services through the public schools, the percentage who received various types of
services, by disability category: School year 2003–04

Total AU DD ED LD MR OI OHI SLI LI

Speech or language
therapy 92.8 93.9 89.2 71.1 89.7 94.4 ‡ 80.7 98.4 83.4
Occupational
therapy* 33.5 77.0 48.5 47.3 29.3 54.2 ‡ 62.1 12.1 55.7
Physical therapy 20.9 24.9 32.9 ‡ 19.2 51.1 ‡ 53.7 6.0 39.6
Special education in
school* 41.7 77.0 61.0 55.6 64.1 72.7 ‡ 61.0 20.8 60.5
Tutoring for learning
problems* 19.3 21.7 30.7 ‡ 36.6 23.0 ‡ 35.0 10.6 30.1
‡ Reporting standards not met.
* p < .05.
NOTE: AU = Autism; DD = Developmental delay; ED = Emotional disturbance; LD = Learning disability;
MR = Mental retardation; OI = Orthopedic impairment; OHI = Other health impairment; SLI = Speech or language impairment;
LI = Low incidence.
These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Column percentages do not sum to 100 because respondents were asked to select one or more responses as appropriate.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), “Parent Interview,” previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

Table 13. Percentage of preschoolers and kindergarteners with disabilities ages 3–5 whose IEP
goals and objectives were addressed in regular classes using various service delivery
models: School year 2003–04

Total
Not applicable – the child is not in a regular education classroom. 5.0
Not applicable – this child’s IEP goals are not addressed in the regular education 14.4
classroom; they are addressed elsewhere.
The special education teacher or aide works individually with the child on special 10.5
tasks.
The regular education teacher or aide works individually with the child on special 9.8
tasks.
Related services personnel work individually with the child on special tasks. 12.4
Related services personnel work with the child in group activities. 39.3
The goals and objectives are embedded in common classroom activities. 8.5
NOTE: IEP = individualized education program.
These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Column percentages do not sum to 100 because respondents were asked to select one or more responses, as appropriate.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), "Early Childhood Teacher Questionnaire" and "Kindergarten Teacher Questionnaire," previously
unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

47
was for related services personnel to work with children in group activities (39%). For an additional 12

percent of children, related services personnel worked individually with them on special tasks within the

regular classroom, and 11 percent of children worked individually with a special education teacher or aide

on special tasks. For the remainder of the children, 10 percent worked individually with regular education

teachers or aides, and 9 percent had their IEP goals embedded in common classroom activities.

Support for Social Interaction Among Children

To support social interactions among children, 89 percent of children’s teachers reported

providing structured play and task situations that required interactions between children with and without

disabilities, 77 percent reported prompting and reinforcing children with disabilities for initiating and

maintaining interactions with children without disabilities, and 76 percent reported prompting and

reinforcing children without disabilities for initiating and maintaining interactions with children with

disabilities. Much less common, teachers reported assigning children without disabilities to be “helpers”

or “buddies” (39%), and assigning children without disabilities to a specific disability awareness program

during group times (18%).

Parents of children with disabilities ages 3–5 were asked about time their children spent with

typically developing peers. The response options were too much time, right amount of time, or not enough

time with typically developing children. Overall, 86 percent of parents thought their children spent the

right amount of time with typically developing children, but 13 percent said not enough time. Only about

1 percent of parents said their children spent too much time with typically developing peers.

Qualifications and Experience of Children’s Service Providers

Information on teacher characteristics is critical for recruitment, professional development, and

retention, as research suggests that certain teacher characteristics are associated with improved student

achievement (Rivkin, Hanushek, and Kain 2000). This section presents information on the qualifications

48
 10
of teachers or service providers serving preschoolers with disabilities. It is important to note that these

questions were asked only for children not yet in kindergarten, so they pertain only to early childhood

personnel. Also, the questionnaires were not necessarily completed by a special educator. Rather, if

children attended preschool programs, the preschool teachers were asked to complete the questionnaires,

regardless of their role in providing special education services to the children.

Educational Degree. More than half of preschoolers with disabilities (55%) had a teacher whose

highest degree was at the graduate level (master’s or doctorate), and for 38 percent, the highest was a

bachelor’s degree (see table 14). Only 3 percent of children’s teachers did not have at least an associate’s

degree. These data compare favorably with findings from an earlier study in which 49 percent of general

education teachers had a graduate degree (Westat 2002). The earlier study found that 52 percent of

preschool special education teachers and 58 percent of all special education teachers had graduate

degrees, similar to the PEELS finding (Westat 2002). PEELS findings did not vary by race/ethnicity of

the child or age cohort.

Area of Credentials. Early childhood teachers were asked about a variety of disciplines in which

they might hold a professional license, credential, or certificate (see table 15). Teachers could enter up to

four areas. Thirty-six percent had a license in special education, 31 percent in early childhood special

education, 31 percent in elementary/secondary education, and 28 percent in early childhood education.

Less than 20 percent held licenses, credentials, or certificates in other areas. Although these findings did

not vary by age cohort, there were some significant differences by race/ethnicity of child, household

income, and disability of child. The percentage of White children (20%) that had teachers with speech or

language pathology licenses was higher than for Black children (8%) (see table D-1 in Appendix D).

Teachers of children from households with incomes of less than $20,000 were least likely to have

credentials in speech or language pathology (11%), and teachers of children from households of more

than $50,000 of income were the most likely (24%) (see table D-3 in Appendix D).

10
In some cases, children received, for example, only speech services. In those cases, the speech pathologist was asked to
provide information on the child and him or herself.

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Table 14. Percentage of preschoolers with disabilities whose teachers completed various
educational degrees: School year 2003–04

Total
High school diploma or GED 2.9
Associate degree 4.9
Bachelor’s degree 37.6
Graduate degree 54.6
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research,
Pre-Elementary Education Longitudinal Study (PEELS), "Early Childhood Teacher
Questionnaire," previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

Table 15. Percentage of preschoolers identified with disabilities whose teachers held credentials
in various disciplines: School year 2003–04

Total
Special education 35.8
Early childhood special education 31.3
Elementary/secondary education 30.7
Early childhood education 28.1
Speech or language pathology 17.1
Child development 7.3
Other 16.1
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Column percentages do not sum to 100 because respondents were asked to select one or more
responses as appropriate.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research,
Pre-Elementary Education Longitudinal Study (PEELS), "Early Childhood Teacher
Questionnaire," previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

Children identified as having an emotional disturbance or mental retardation (51% and 50%,

respectively) were more likely than children identified as having a low-incidence disability or a speech or

language impairment to have teachers with credentials in early childhood special education (29% and

21%, respectively). Children identified as having a developmental delay, an emotional disturbance,

mental retardation, or autism (54%, 52%, 51%, and 51%, respectively) were most likely to have a teacher

with a special education credential. Children identified as having a speech or language impairment or a

low-incidence disability (25% and 23%, respectively) were least likely to have a teacher with a credential

in special education (see table D-5 in Appendix D).

Teacher Reports of Adequacy of Education, Training, and Experience. Early childhood

teachers were asked to rate the adequacy of their professional education, training, and experience using a

50
scale ranging from 0, not at all prepared, to 6, extremely well prepared. Teachers rated their adequacy in

(a) working with children ages 3–5 with disabilities and (b) working with families of children ages 3–5

with disabilities. The mean rating for working with children was 5.0 (S.E. = 0.1), and for working with

families it was 4.5 (S.E. = 0.1) These ratings did not vary by race/ethnicity or disability of the child,

household income, or age cohort.

Number of Years of Experience in Specific Areas. Many studies document an association

between teachers’ years of experience and children’s academic achievement; although it is not clear if this

relationship is causal (Rice 2003). Early childhood teachers were asked the number of years they had

been working with (1) children ages 3–5, (2) children with disabilities, and (3) children ages 3–5 with

disabilities. The mean number of years was 10.3 (S.E. = 0.3), 11.6 (S.E. = 0.5) and 9.0 (S.E. = 0.4),

respectively. These means were similar when examined by race/ethnicity and disability of child,

household income, and age cohort.

Summary

The preliminary data in this report provide information on characteristics of educational services

and providers. Many children with disabilities ages 3–5 did not begin receiving early intervention or

special education services until they were nearly 3. The children who began receiving services later were

most likely to be those identified as having a speech or language impairment and least likely to be those

identified as having an orthopedic impairment, mental retardation, or an other health impairment. Speech

or language therapy was by far the most common service, with 93 percent of children with disabilities

ages 3–5 receiving it.

The teachers of preschoolers with disabilities reported using various practices to support social

interaction between children with and without disabilities. For example, more than three-fourths of

teachers reported prompting and reinforcing children with disabilities for initiating and maintaining

interactions with children without disabilities, prompting and reinforcing children without disabilities for

initiating and maintaining interactions with children with disabilities, and providing structured play and

51
task situations that required interaction between children with and without disabilities. Overall, 86 percent

of parents thought their preschoolers with disabilities spent the right amount of time with typically

developing children.

Slightly more than half of preschoolers with disabilities had teachers with graduate degrees,

similar to the credentials of general educators. These same teachers rated themselves as well prepared to

work with children ages 3–5 with disabilities and their families. However, because PEELS relies on self-

report, we cannot speak to teachers’ actual level of preparedness. As additional PEELS data are collected,

the extent to which service provider characteristics are associated with differential growth in children’s

knowledge, skills, and behavior will be explored.

52
 Chapter 5: Transitions from Early Intervention to Preschool
and Preschool to Elementary School

Elaine Carlson and Amy Shimshak

For young children with disabilities and their families, transitions occur often. Moving from early

intervention programs for infants and toddlers with disabilities to preschool programs, and from preschool

programs to elementary school programs, requires adjustments on the part of parents, children, and

service providers. For some children, these transition points may bring changes in eligibility, program

interruption, or modifications to services. This chapter presents findings, based on preliminary data,

related to transitions from early intervention (IDEA Part C services) to preschool, and from preschool to

elementary school. Included is information about the time between Part C and preschool services,

strategies to support transition, service provider communication, and policies and practices on transition.

Gap Between Part C and Preschool Services

As mentioned earlier, 38 percent of children with disabilities ages 3–5 received early intervention

services under IDEA Part C. Of those children, nearly one-third (30%) had a gap between the end of Part

C services and the beginning of preschool services. This gap in services was a mean of 4.6 months

(S.E. = 0.5). The length of the gap in services did not vary significantly by race/ethnicity, income, or age

cohort. One-third of all parents (32%) selected the response options some or a lot when asked to report on

the level of effort it took them to find out where to get preschool special education services through the

school system.

Strategies to Support Transition

Teachers of children with disabilities ages 3–5 reported that they employ a wide variety of

strategies to help children transition into new schools, programs, or classrooms (see table 16). More than

75 percent of children who moved from one program to another in the preceding year, including moves

53
Table 16. Percentage of preschoolers and kindergarteners with disabilities ages 3–5 whose
teachers or programs used various strategies to help students transition into new
schools, programs, or classrooms, by age cohort: School year 2003–04

Cohort A Cohort B Cohort C

Total (age 3) (age 4) (age 5)
Received children’s previous records* 70.0 65.5 58.2 79.3
Sending programs provided information about children* 69.7 66.3 60.4 76.8
Provided parents with written information 80.7 84.3 83.0 76.4
Called the children’s parents* 77.1 86.6 88.5 61.7
Parents/guardians encouraged to meet new staff.* 90.8 97.2 94.3 84.1
Children’s families visited the classroom or school. 81.7 84.0 85.6 78.0
Visited children’s home* 32.3 48.9 39.4 17.1
Visited children’s previous settings 32.2 27.3 29.0 37.2
Met with staff of sending programs 45.9 48.3 41.8 46.5
Participated in children’s IEP development* 78.4 90.3 81.9 68.1
Developed child-specific preparatory strategies* 67.0 78.4 67.6 58.6
Other 2.8 4.1 3.2 ‡
‡ Reporting standards not met.
* p < .05.
NOTE: IEP = individualized education program.
These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Column percentages do not sum to 100 because respondents were asked to select one or more responses as appropriate.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), "Early Childhood Teacher Questionnaire" and "Kindergarten Teacher Questionnaire," previously
unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

from Part C to Part B, preschool to kindergarten, or one preschool program to another, had teachers who

encouraged parents or guardians to meet with staff before the children entered the new school, program,

or classroom; had children and families visit the new school, program, or classroom; provided parents

with written information; had new staff members participate in children’s individualized education

program (IEP) development; or called the children’s parents. Other strategies used by at least two-thirds

of the children’s teachers included receiving children’s previous records, receiving other information

about the children from the sending programs, and developing child-specific strategies for transition. Less

common strategies included someone from the new program visiting the old settings, meeting with staff

from the sending programs, and visiting the children’s homes.

Although strategies used by teachers were consistent across racial/ethnic groups and household

income groups, there was variation across age cohorts for several strategies. For example, more teachers

54
of children in Cohort A than in Cohort B received previous records, and more teachers of children in

Cohort A than in Cohort B encouraged parents or guardians to meet new staff.

Adequacy of Transition Support

Teachers of children with disabilities ages 3–5 were asked about the adequacy of the support

provided to children and families transitioning into new classes or programs (see table 17). The majority

of children’s teachers (57%) reported that children and their families had extremely adequate transition

support. Another 26 percent reported that transition support was somewhat adequate. Only 7 percent felt

support was not very adequate. For 9 percent of children and families, teachers reported that transition

planning and support were not needed.

Ease of Children’s Transitions Into Kindergarten

Teachers of kindergarteners with disabilities were asked to describe the transition to kindergarten

of children in their classes using four response options, from very easy to very difficult. Table 18 shows

more than half the kindergarteners (54%) had very easy transitions, and nearly one-third (31%) had

somewhat easy transitions. Fifteen percent had somewhat (9%) or very (6%) difficult transitions.

Table 17. Percentage of preschoolers and kindergarteners with disabilities ages 3–5 whose
teachers characterized transition support for children and their families in various
ways: School year 2003–04

Total
Extremely adequate 57.2
Somewhat adequate 26.2
Not very adequate 7.3
Transition planning and support were not needed for this child or family 9.2
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-Elementary Education
Longitudinal Study (PEELS), "Early Childhood Teacher Questionnaire" and "Kindergarten Teacher Questionnaire," previously
unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

55
Table 18. Percentage of kindergarteners with disabilities whose teachers characterized the
children’s transition into kindergarten classes in various ways: School year 2003–04

Total
Very easy 54.2
Somewhat easy 31.3
Somewhat difficult 8.7
Very difficult 5.8
NOTE: These data are preliminary. Final Wave 1 data will be available in spring 2006.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research, Pre-
Elementary Education Longitudinal Study (PEELS), "Kindergarten Teacher Questionnaire,"
previously unpublished tabulation (June 2005).

Communication With Child’s Previous Service Provider(s)

The teachers of kindergarteners with disabilities were asked to what extent they had

communicated with the person(s) who provided early childhood special education services to the children

in the previous year. More than two-thirds had communicated with providers—51 percent somewhat and

15 percent extensively. Slightly more than one-third (34%) had not communicated at all with previous

providers.

State and Local Administrators’ Perspective on Transition

State preschool special education coordinators 11 and local education agency (LEA) administrators

were asked to select three areas related to the provision of preschool special education that their state or

LEA had been working hardest to improve during the last two years. The area most often selected by

preschool coordinators was transition from early intervention (51%). Many LEA administrators also

selected that option (38%), but slightly more administrators (39%) chose transition to kindergarten

(transition to kindergarten was not an option for preschool coordinators). The area selected most often by

preschool coordinators as one in which their states were doing a good job (i.e., closest to best practice)

was transition from early intervention (45%).

11
State preschool special education coordinators are often called 619 coordinators, referencing Section 619 of the IDEA that
addresses preschool special education.

56
Summary

Using the preliminary data available, transitions for preschoolers with disabilities were examined.

For some young children with disabilities, transition points brought program interruption. Nearly one-

third had a gap between the end of Part C services and the beginning of preschool services, averaging five

months. In the future, preschool children may have different experiences than those documented by

PEELS because the 2004 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) provide

new flexibility to states in serving children with disabilities ages 3–5. For children who are served under

IDEA Part C and have an IFSP, states and localities may continue to serve them in Part C up to the age at

which they are eligible for kindergarten entry. Continuity of service for children in the birth-to-five age

group was recommended by the President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education. Moreover,

the commission recommended that IDEA ensure a seamless system for infants, toddlers, children, and

youth with disabilities, birth to 21 (U.S. Department of Education 2002).

When transitions required changing classrooms, programs, or schools teachers reported that they

used a range of strategies to help children and their families. At the state and local levels, transitions were

a primary focus. It is important to note, however, that the data currently available came largely from

teachers. In future years, additional data will be available from PEELS that reflect the transition

experiences of preschoolers with disabilities, for example, changes in the types and intensity of services

children receive as they move from preschool to elementary school, and changes over time in parent’s

satisfaction with schooling.

57