The Book of Psalms

THE BOOK OF

THE PSALMS

THE IGNATIUS CATHOLIC STUDY BIBLE

REVISED STANDARD VERSION

SECOND CATHOLIC EDITION

THE BOOK OF

THE PSALMS

Introduction, Commentary, and Notes

by

Scott Hahn and Curtis Mitch

and

with Study Questions by

Dennis Walters

IGNATIUS PRESS   SAN FRANCISCO

Original Revised Standard Version, Catholic Edition:

Nihil Obstat: Thomas Hanlon, S.T.L., L.S.S., Ph.L.

Imprimatur: + Peter W. Bartholome, D.D.

Bishop of St. Cloud, Minnesota

May 11, 1966

Introduction, commentaries and notes:

Nihil Obstat: Ruth Ohm Sutherland, Ph.D., Censor Deputatus

Imprimatur: + The Most Reverend Salvatore Cordileone

Archbishop of San Francisco

July 23, 2021

The nihil obstat and imprimatur are official declarations that a book or pamphlet is free of doctrinal or moral error. No implication is contained therein that those who have granted the nihil obstat and imprimatur agree with the contents, opinions, or statements expressed.

Second Catholic Edition approved by the

National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA

Cover art: King David playing the harp

Illumination from the Twelfth Century Psalter

at Westminster Abbey

Lebrecht Music 8 Arts/Alamy Stock Photo

Cover design by Riz Boncan Marsella

Published by Ignatius Press in 2022

The Scripture contained herein is adapted from the Revised Standard version of the Bible—Second Catholic Edition, (Ignatius Edition). Copyright ©2006 by the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. All rights reserved.

Introductions, commentaries, notes, headings, and study questions

© 2022 by Ignatius Press, San Francisco

All rights reserved

ISBN 978-1-62164-186-5 (PB)

ISBN 978-1-64229-147-6 (eBook)

Printed in the United States of America ♾

CONTENTS

Introduction to the Ignatius Study Bible, by Scott Hahn, Ph.D.

Introduction to the Psalms

Outline of the Book of the Psalms

The Book of the Psalms

Word Study: Blessed

Word Study: The Afflicted

Topical Essay: Thanksgiving Psalms

Word Study: Chose

Topical Essay: Imprecatory Psalms

Word Study: Compassion

Study Questions for Psalms

Books of the Bible

Commentaries and Bible Cross-References

Notes

INTRODUCTION TO

THE IGNATIUS STUDY BIBLE

by Scott Hahn, Ph.D.

You are approaching the word of God. This is the title Christians most commonly give to the Bible, and the expression is rich in meaning. It is also the title given to the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, God the Son. For Jesus Christ became flesh for our salvation, and the name by which he is called is The Word of God (Rev 19:13; cf. Jn 1:14).

The word of God is Scripture. The Word of God is Jesus. This close association between God’s written word and his eternal Word is intentional and has been the custom of the Church since the first generation. All Sacred Scripture is but one book, and this one book is Christ, ‘because all divine Scripture speaks of Christ, and all divine Scripture is fulfilled in Christ’ ¹ (CCC 134). This does not mean that the Scriptures are divine in the same way that Jesus is divine. They are, rather, divinely inspired and, as such, are unique in world literature, just as the Incarnation of the eternal Word is unique in human history.

Yet we can say that the inspired word resembles the incarnate Word in several important ways. Jesus Christ is the Word of God incarnate. In his humanity, he is like us in all things, except for sin. As a work of man, the Bible is like any other book, except without error. Both Christ and Scripture, says the Second Vatican Council, are given for the sake of our salvation (Dei Verbum 11), and both give us God’s definitive revelation of himself. We cannot, therefore, conceive of one without the other: the Bible without Jesus, or Jesus without the Bible. Each is the interpretive key to the other. And because Christ is the subject of all the Scriptures, St. Jerome insists, Ignorance of the Scriptures is ignorance of Christ² (CCC 133).

When we approach the Bible, then, we approach Jesus, the Word of God; and in order to encounter Jesus, we must approach him in a prayerful study of the inspired word of God, the Sacred Scriptures.

Inspiration and Inerrancy The Catholic Church makes mighty claims for the Bible, and our acceptance of those claims is essential if we are to read the Scriptures and apply them to our lives as the Church intends. So it is not enough merely to nod at words like inspired, unique, or inerrant. We have to understand what the Church means by these terms, and we have to make that understanding our own. After all, what we believe about the Bible will inevitably influence the way we read the Bible. The way we read the Bible, in turn, will determine what we get out of its sacred pages.

These principles hold true no matter what we read: a news report, a search warrant, an advertisement, a paycheck, a doctor’s prescription, an eviction notice. How (or whether) we read these things depends largely upon our preconceived notions about the reliability and authority of their sources—and the potential they have for affecting our lives. In some cases, to misunderstand a document’s authority can lead to dire consequences. In others, it can keep us from enjoying rewards that are rightfully ours. In the case of the Bible, both the rewards and the consequences involved take on an ultimate value.

What does the Church mean, then, when she affirms the words of St. Paul: All Scripture is inspired by God (2 Tim 3:16)? Since the term inspired in this passage could be translated God-breathed, it follows that God breathed forth his word in the Scriptures as you and I breathe forth air when we speak. This means that God is the primary author of the Bible. He certainly employed human authors in this task as well, but he did not merely assist them while they wrote or subsequently approve what they had written. God the Holy Spirit is the principal author of Scripture, while the human writers are instrumental authors. These human authors freely wrote everything, and only those things, that God wanted: the word of God in the very words of God. This miracle of dual authorship extends to the whole of Scripture, and to every one of its parts, so that whatever the human authors affirm, God likewise affirms through their words.

The principle of biblical inerrancy follows logically from this principle of divine authorship. After all, God cannot lie, and he cannot make mistakes. Since the Bible is divinely inspired, it must be without error in everything that its divine and human authors affirm to be true. This means that biblical inerrancy is a mystery even broader in scope than infallibility, which guarantees for us that the Church will always teach the truth concerning faith and morals. Of course the mantle of inerrancy likewise covers faith and morals, but it extends even farther to ensure that all the facts and events of salvation history are accurately presented for us in the Scriptures. Inerrancy is our guarantee that the words and deeds of God found in the Bible are unified and true, declaring with one voice the wonders of his saving love.

The guarantee of inerrancy does not mean, however, that the Bible is an all-purpose encyclopedia of information covering every field of study. The Bible is not, for example, a textbook in the empirical sciences, and it should not be treated as one. When biblical authors relate facts of the natural order, we can be sure they are speaking in a purely descriptive and phenomenological way, according to the way things appeared to their senses.

Biblical Authority Implicit in these doctrines is God’s desire to make himself known to the world and to enter a loving relationship with every man, woman, and child he has created. God gave us the Scriptures not just to inform or motivate us; more than anything he wants to save us. This higher purpose underlies every page of the Bible, indeed every word of it.

In order to reveal himself, God used what theologians call accommodation. Sometimes the Lord stoops down to communicate by condescension—that is, he speaks as humans speak, as if he had the same passions and weakness that we do (for example, God says he was sorry that he made man in Genesis 6:6). Other times he communicates by elevation—that is, by endowing human words with divine power (for example, through the Prophets). The numerous examples of divine accommodation in the Bible are an expression of God’s wise and fatherly ways. For a sensitive father can speak with his children either by condescension, as in baby talk, or by elevation, by bringing a child’s understanding up to a more mature level.

God’s word is thus saving, fatherly, and personal. Because it speaks directly to us, we must never be indifferent to its content; after all, the word of God is at once the object, cause, and support of our faith. It is, in fact, a test of our faith, since we see in the Scriptures only what faith disposes us to see. If we believe what the Church believes, we will see in Scripture the saving, inerrant, and divinely authored revelation of the Father. If we believe otherwise, we see another book altogether.

This test applies not only to rank-and-file believers but also to the Church’s theologians and hierarchy, and even the Magisterium. Vatican II has stressed in recent times that Scripture must be the very soul of sacred theology (Dei Verbum 24). As Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI echoed this powerful teaching with his own, insisting that "the normative theologians are the authors of Holy Scripture (emphasis added). He reminded us that Scripture and the Church’s dogmatic teaching are tied tightly together, to the point of being inseparable: Dogma is by definition nothing other than an interpretation of Scripture." The defined dogmas of our faith, then, encapsulate the Church’s infallible interpretation of Scripture, and theology is a further reflection upon that work.

The Senses of Scripture Because the Bible has both divine and human authors, we are required to master a different sort of reading than we are used to. First, we must read Scripture according to its literal sense, as we read any other human literature. At this initial stage, we strive to discover the meaning of the words and expressions used by the biblical writers as they were understood in their original setting and by their original recipients. This means, among other things, that we do not interpret everything we read literalistically, as though Scripture never speaks in a figurative or symbolic way (it often does!). Rather, we read it according to the rules that govern its different literary forms of writing, depending on whether we are reading a narrative, a poem, a letter, a parable, or an apocalyptic vision. The Church calls us to read the divine books in this way to ensure that we understand what the human authors were laboring to explain to God’s people.

The literal sense, however, is not the only sense of Scripture, since we interpret its sacred pages according to the spiritual senses as well. In this way, we search out what the Holy Spirit is trying to tell us, beyond even what the human authors have consciously asserted. Whereas the literal sense of Scripture describes a historical reality—a fact, precept, or event—the spiritual senses disclose deeper mysteries revealed through the historical realities. What the soul is to the body, the spiritual senses are to the literal. You can distinguish them; but if you try to separate them, death immediately follows. St. Paul was the first to insist upon this and warn of its consequences: God ... has qualified us to be ministers of a new covenant, not in a written code but in the Spirit; for the written code kills, but the Spirit gives life (2 Cor 3:5–6).

Catholic tradition recognizes three spiritual senses that stand upon the foundation of the literal sense of Scripture (see CCC 115). (1) The first is the allegorical sense, which unveils the spiritual and prophetic meaning of biblical history. Allegorical interpretations thus reveal how persons, events, and institutions of Scripture can point beyond themselves toward greater mysteries yet to come (OT) or display the fruits of mysteries already revealed (NT). Christians have often read the Old Testament in this way to discover how the mystery of Christ in the New Covenant was once hidden in the Old and how the full significance of the Old Covenant was finally made manifest in the New. Allegorical significance is likewise latent in the New Testament, especially in the life and deeds of Jesus recorded in the Gospels. Because Christ is the Head of the Church and the source of her spiritual life, what was accomplished in Christ the Head during his earthly life prefigures what he continually produces in his members through grace. The allegorical sense builds up the virtue of faith. (2) The second is the tropological or moral sense, which reveals how the actions of God’s people in the Old Testament and the life of Jesus in the New Testament prompt us to form virtuous habits in our own lives. It therefore draws from Scripture warnings against sin and vice as well as inspirations to pursue holiness and purity. The moral sense is intended to build up the virtue of charity. (3) The third is the anagogical sense, which points upward to heavenly glory. It shows us how countless events in the Bible prefigure our final union with God in eternity and how things that are seen on earth are figures of things unseen in heaven. Because the anagogical sense leads us to contemplate our destiny, it is meant to build up the virtue of hope. Together with the literal sense, then, these spiritual senses draw out the fullness of what God wants to give us through his Word and as such comprise what ancient tradition has called the full sense of Sacred Scripture.

All of this means that the deeds and events of the Bible are charged with meaning beyond what is immediately apparent to the reader. In essence, that meaning is Jesus Christ and the salvation he died to give us. This is especially true of the books of the New Testament, which proclaim Jesus explicitly; but it is also true of the Old Testament, which speaks of Jesus in more hidden and symbolic ways. The human authors of the Old Testament told us as much as they were able, but they could not clearly discern the shape of all future events standing at such a distance. It is the Bible’s divine Author, the Holy Spirit, who could and did foretell the saving work of Christ, from the first page of the Book of Genesis onward.

The New Testament did not, therefore, abolish the Old. Rather, the New fulfilled the Old, and in doing so, it lifted the veil that kept hidden the face of the Lord’s bride. Once the veil is removed, we suddenly see the world of the Old Covenant charged with grandeur. Water, fire, clouds, gardens, trees, hills, doves, lambs—all of these things are memorable details in the history and poetry of Israel. But now, seen in the light of Jesus Christ, they are much more. For the Christian with eyes to see, water symbolizes the saving power of Baptism; fire, the Holy Spirit; the spotless lamb, Christ crucified; Jerusalem, the city of heavenly glory.

The spiritual reading of Scripture is nothing new. Indeed, the very first Christians read the Bible this way. St. Paul describes Adam as a type that prefigured Jesus Christ (Rom 5:14). A type is a real person, place, thing, or event in the Old Testament that foreshadows something greater in the New. From this term we get the word typology, referring to the study of how the Old Testament prefigures Christ (CCC 128–30). Elsewhere St. Paul draws deeper meanings out of the story of Abraham’s sons, declaring, This is an allegory (Gal 4:24). He is not suggesting that these events of the distant past never really happened; he is saying that the events both happened and signified something more glorious yet to come.

The New Testament later describes the Tabernacle of ancient Israel as a copy and shadow of the heavenly sanctuary (Heb 8:5) and the Mosaic Law as a shadow of the good things to come (Heb 10:1). St. Peter, in turn, notes that Noah and his family were saved through water in a way that corresponds to sacramental Baptism, which now saves you (1 Pet 3:20–21). It is interesting to note that the expression translated as corresponds in this verse is a Greek term that denotes the fulfillment or counterpart of an ancient type.

We need not look to the apostles, however, to justify a spiritual reading of the Bible. After all, Jesus himself read the Old Testament this way. He referred to Jonah (Mt 12:39), Solomon (Mt 12:42), the Temple ( Jn 2:19), and the brazen serpent (Jn 3:14) as signs that pointed forward to him. We see in Luke’s Gospel, as Christ comforted the disciples on the road to Emmaus, that beginning with Moses and all the prophets, he interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning himself (Lk 24:27). It was precisely this extensive spiritual interpretation of the Old Testament that made such an impact on these once-discouraged travelers, causing their hearts to burn within them (Lk 24:32).

Criteria for Biblical Interpretation We, too, must learn to discern the full sense of Scripture as it includes both the literal and spiritual senses together. Still, this does not mean we should read into the Bible meanings that are not really there. Spiritual exegesis is not an unrestrained flight of the imagination. Rather, it is a sacred science that proceeds according to certain principles and stands accountable to sacred tradition, the Magisterium, and the wider community of biblical interpreters (both living and deceased).

In searching out the full sense of a text, we should always avoid the extreme tendency to over-spiritualize in a way that minimizes or denies the Bible’s literal truth. St. Thomas Aquinas was well aware of this danger and asserted that all other senses of Sacred Scripture are based on the literal (STh I, 1, 10, ad 1, quoted in CCC 116). On the other hand, we should never confine the meaning of a text to the literal, intended sense of its human author, as if the divine Author did not intend the passage to be read in the light of Christ’s coming.

Fortunately the Church has given us guidelines in our study of Scripture. The unique character and divine authorship of the Bible call us to read it in the Spirit (Dei Verbum 12). Vatican II outlines this teaching in a practical way by directing us to read the Scriptures according to three specific criteria:

1. We must [b]e especially attentive ‘to the content and unity of the whole Scripture’ (CCC 112).

2. We must [r]ead the Scripture within ‘the living Tradition of the whole Church’ (CCC 113).

3. We must [b]e attentive to the analogy of faith (CCC 114; cf. Rom 12:6).

These criteria protect us from many of the dangers that ensnare readers of the Bible, from the newest inquirer to the most prestigious scholar. Reading Scripture out of context is one such pitfall, and probably the one most difficult to avoid. A memorable cartoon from the 1950s shows a young man poring over the pages of the Bible. He says to his sister: Don’t bother me now; I’m trying to find a Scripture verse to back up one of my preconceived notions. No doubt a biblical text pried from its context can be twisted to say something very different from what its author actually intended.

The Church’s criteria guide us here by defining what constitutes the authentic context of a given biblical passage. The first criterion directs us to the literary context of every verse, including not only the words and paragraphs that surround it, but also the entire corpus of the biblical author’s writings and, indeed, the span of the entire Bible. The complete literary context of any Scripture verse includes every text from Genesis to Revelation—because the Bible is a unified book, not just a library of different books. When the Church canonized the Book of Revelation, for example, she recognized it to be incomprehensible apart from the wider context of the entire Bible.

The second criterion places the Bible firmly within the context of a community that treasures a living tradition. That community is the People of God down through the ages. Christians lived out their faith for well over a millennium before the printing press was invented. For centuries, few believers owned copies of the Gospels, and few people could read anyway. Yet they absorbed the gospel—through the sermons of their bishops and clergy, through prayer and meditation, through Christian art, through liturgical celebrations, and through oral tradition. These were expressions of the one living tradition, a culture of living faith that stretches from ancient Israel to the contemporary Church. For the early Christians, the gospel could not be understood apart from that tradition. So it is with us. Reverence for the Church’s tradition is what protects us from any sort of chronological or cultural provincialism, such as scholarly fads that arise and carry away a generation of interpreters before being dismissed by the next generation.

The third criterion places scriptural texts within the framework of faith. If we believe that the Scriptures are divinely inspired, we must also believe them to be internally coherent and consistent with all the doctrines that Christians believe. Remember, the Church’s dogmas (such as the Real Presence, the papacy, the Immaculate Conception) are not something added to Scripture; rather, they are the Church’s infallible interpretation of Scripture.

Using This Study Guide This volume is designed to lead the reader through Scripture according to the Church’s guidelines—faithful to the canon, to the tradition, and to the creeds. The Church’s interpretive principles have thus shaped the component parts of this book, and they are designed to make the reader’s study as effective and rewarding as possible.

Introductions: We have introduced the biblical book with an essay covering issues such as authorship, date of composition, purpose, and leading themes. This background information will assist readers to approach and understand the text on its own terms.

Annotations: The basic notes at the bottom of every page help the user to read the Scriptures with understanding. They by no means exhaust the meaning of the sacred text but provide background material to help the reader make sense of what he reads. Often these notes make explicit what the sacred writers assumed or held to be implicit. They also provide a great deal of historical, cultural, geographical, and theological information pertinent to the inspired narratives—information that can help the reader bridge the distance between the biblical world and his own.

Cross-References: Between the biblical text at the top of each page and the annotations at the bottom, numerous references are listed to point readers to other scriptural passages related to the one being studied. This follow-up is an essential part of any serious study. It is also an excellent way to discover how the content of Scripture hangs together in a providential unity. Along with biblical cross-references, the annotations refer to select paragraphs from the Catechism of the Catholic Church. These are not doctrinal proof texts but are designed to help the reader interpret the Bible in accordance with the mind of the Church. The Catechism references listed either handle the biblical text directly or treat a broader doctrinal theme that sheds significant light on that text.

Topical Essays, Word Studies, Charts: These features bring readers to a deeper understanding of select details. The topical essays take up major themes and explain them more thoroughly and theologically than the annotations, often relating them to the doctrines of the Church. Occasionally the annotations are supplemented by word studies that put readers in touch with the ancient languages of Scripture. These should help readers to understand better and appreciate the inspired terminology that runs throughout the sacred books. Also included are various charts that summarize biblical information at a glance.

Icon Annotations: Three distinctive icons are interspersed throughout the annotations, each one corresponding to one of the Church’s three criteria for biblical interpretation. Bullets indicate the passage or passages to which these icons apply.

icon_book Notes marked by the book icon relate to the content and unity of Scripture, showing how particular passages of the Old Testament illuminate the mysteries of the New. Much of the information in these notes explains the original context of the citations and indicates how and why this has a direct bearing on Christ or the Church. Through these notes, the reader can develop a sensitivity to the beauty and unity of God’s saving plan as it stretches across both Testaments.

icon_dove Notes marked by the dove icon examine particular passages in light of the Church’s living tradition. Because the Holy Spirit both guides the Magisterium and inspires the spiritual senses of Scripture, these annotations supply information along both of these lines. On the one hand, they refer to the Church’s doctrinal teaching as presented by various popes, creeds, and ecumenical councils; on the other, they draw from (and paraphrase) the spiritual interpretations of various Fathers, Doctors, and saints.

icon_keys Notes marked by the keys icon pertain to the analogy of faith. Here we spell out how the mysteries of our faith unlock and explain one another. This type of comparison between Christian beliefs displays the coherence and unity of defined dogmas, which are the Church’s infallible interpretations of Scripture.

Putting It All in Perspective Perhaps the most important context of all we have saved for last: the interior life of the individual reader. What we get out of the Bible will largely depend on how we approach the Bible. Unless we are living a sustained and disciplined life of prayer, we will never have the reverence, the profound humility, or the grace we need to see the Scriptures for what they really are.

You are approaching the word of God. But for thousands of years, since before he knit you in your mother’s womb, the Word of God has been approaching you.

One Final Note. The volume you hold in your hands is only a small part of a much larger work still in production. Study helps similar to those printed in this booklet are being prepared for all the books of the Bible and will appear gradually as they are finished. Our ultimate goal is to publish a single, one-volume Study Bible that will include the entire text of Scripture, along with all the annotations, charts, cross-references, maps, and other features found in the following pages. Individual booklets will be published in the meantime, with the hope that God’s people can begin to benefit from this labor before its full completion.

We have included a long list of Study Questions in the back to make this format as useful as possible, not only for individual study, but for group settings and discussions as well. The questions are designed to help readers both understand the Bible and apply it to their lives. We pray that God will make use of our efforts and yours to help renew the face of the earth! «

Introduction to the Psalms

Author The Book of the Psalms is a collection of hymns and lyrical poetry composed by several ancient songwriters. Judging from the traditional psalm headings, the largest contribution was made by King David, whose name is attached to seventy-three of the 150 psalms. The tradition that links David with the Psalter fits well with the biblical profile of the king. Besides being a great warrior and leader, he is remembered in Scripture as a talented musician (1 Sam 16:14–23), as an inventor of musical instruments (Amos 6:5), as an accomplished poet (2 Sam 1:19–27), and as the figure responsible for organizing the liturgical music of the Jerusalem Temple (1 Chron 25:1–6; 2 Chron 7:6; 29:25; Ezra 3:10; Neh 12:24; Sir 47:9–10). More than anyone else, David was revered as the sweet psalmist of Israel (2 Sam 23:1). Jesus and the authors of the NT concur with this ancient tradition that David authored numerous psalms in the Bible (Mk 12:36; Acts 4:25–26; Rom 4:6–8; 11:9–10; Heb 4:7).

Besides David, other contributors are also named in the psalm titles. One psalm is attributed to Moses (Ps 90). Two are connected with David’s son and successor, King Solomon (Pss 72, 127). Twelve psalms are credited to Asaph (Pss 50, 73–83), three to Jeduthun (Pss 39, 62, 77), one to Heman the Ezrahite (Ps 88), and one to Ethan the Ezrahite (Ps 89)—all Levites appointed by David to be leaders of musical worship (1 Chron 15:17, 19; 16:5, 7, 37; 2 Chron 5:12; 35:15). Eleven psalms are listed as compositions of the Sons of Korah (Pss 42, 44–49, 84–85, 87–88), a family or guild of Levites appointed by David to serve as the gatekeepers of Solomon’s Temple (1 Chron 12:6; 26:1, 19), some of whom were singers as well (2 Chron 20:19). Finally, more than thirty of the biblical psalms are unattributed to any individual or group.

Most contemporary scholars hold that the psalm titles (called superscriptions) were not part of the original Psalter but were added by later editors. This is a possibility but not a certainty. There is no textual evidence that the Hebrew Book of the Psalms ever lacked these titles in the course of its transmission. Furthermore, many of the psalm titles preserve archaic Hebrew terms that were no longer understood by the translators of the Greek Septuagint in the third or second century

b.c.

So even if these headings were not part of the original text of the psalms, they stand as monuments of ancient historical tradition. A case can be made that many of the superscriptions preserve reliable information about the circumstances that gave birth to individual psalms. Still, much is uncertain about the literary origins of the Book of the Psalms, and so scholarly reconstructions of how the collection was written, compiled, and edited necessarily involve a measure of speculation.

Date The Psalter was composed and compiled over the span of several centuries. The oldest psalm is ostensibly Ps 90, attributed to Moses, who lived in the second millennium

b.c.

, while the latest psalm may be Ps 126, which was probably written sometime in the fifth century

b.c.

The rest appear to fall between these two endpoints. If we take our cue from the traditional psalm titles, we would conclude that much of the Psalter was written in the tenth century

b.c.

in the days of the United Monarchy—the days of David, Solomon, Asaph, Jeduthun, Heman, Ethan, and the Sons of Korah, although some of these figures may have been founders of a school of sacred musicians that continued long afterward. For psalms that lack any specific reference to an author or date, scholars have to rely on internal clues to approximate their time of composition.

Critical scholarship in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries dated most of the psalms in the postexilic period, often as late as Maccabean times. More recent scholarship has corrected this tendency by acknowledging that the Book of the Psalms is an ensemble of preexilic (900–600s

b.c.

), exilic (500s

b.c.

), and postexilic (400s

b.c.

) compositions. It is widely agreed that the Psalter reached its final, canonical form in the Second Temple period after the return of the Jews from Babylonian Exile and the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem (ca. 515

b.c.

). A date for the finished book may be estimated around 400

b.c.

Title The Hebrew title of the Psalter is Tehillîm, meaning Praises. The description is fitting for a book that resonates with songs of divine worship and reaches a crescendo of praise in the last several psalms. The Davidic psalms were also considered prayers (72:20). The Greek Septuagint entitles the work Psalmoi, which means songs sung to the accompaniment of stringed instruments (although the title in Codex Alexandrinus is Psaltērion, which is the name of a stringed instrument). The Greek tradition is followed by the Latin Vulgate with the heading Liber Psalmorum, Book of Songs, as well as by most modern translations of the Bible. Together these titles identify the Psalter as a hymnbook and prayerbook for the People of God.

Structure The canonical Book of the Psalms is divided into five smaller books. Each of these is marked off by a concluding doxology in praise of God (41:13; 72:18–20; 89:52; 106:48), with the final psalm in the collection serving as a doxology for the Psalter as a whole (150:1–6). It is common, therefore, to speak of Book I (Pss 1–41), Book II (Pss 42–72), Book III (Pss 73–89), Book IV (Pss 90–106), and Book V (Pss 107–50). Rabbinic tradition concludes from this fivefold structure that the Psalms constitute a Davidic Torah, that is, a Davidic counterpart to the five books of the Mosaic Law (Midrash on the Psalms 1, 2).

Ancient versions of the Psalter follow this arrangement of the book, but notable differences appear in the enumeration of individual psalms. Most modern translations follow the Hebrew text in its division and arrangement of the 150 psalms. However, both the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate divide the psalms differently. In these translations, Pss 9 and 10 are joined together into one psalm, as are Pss 114 and 115, while Pss 116 and 147 are both divided and made into two separate psalms. The RSV2CE acknowledges this alternative tradition by putting the psalm numbers of the Greek and Latin versions in brackets.

Finally, the Greek Septuagint includes an additional composition, Ps 151. It appears either in an appendix to the Psalter (Codex Alexandrinus and most LXX manuscripts) or as part of the Psalter itself (Codex Sinaiticus). A Hebrew version of this psalm was discovered in the mid-twentieth century among the Dead Sea Scrolls (11QPsa). Psalm 151 is considered canonical by Eastern Orthodox Christians but is not regarded as inspired Scripture by Catholics and Protestants, although it is revered by the Armenian Catholic Church.

Literary Types Modern scholarship has identified various types of psalms that share common elements. The following categories are widely recognized. (1) Praise Psalms. These are hymns that summon all people and nations, and sometimes all the earth’s creatures, to worship the Lord for his mighty works of creation and salvation (e.g., Pss 8, 33, 65, 95, 100, 103, 145–50). A subclass of this type, called Songs of Zion, is a collection of hymns that praise the Lord for blessing the city and Temple of Jerusalem (e.g., Pss 46, 48, 76, 84, 87, 122). (2) Lament Psalms. This is the most common type of psalm in the book. In an individual lament, the Psalmist cries out to God to be saved from hardships such as illness, enemies, and injustice (e.g., Pss 3, 5–7, 17, 22). In a communal lament, the Psalmist intercedes for the community of Israel as it suffers famine, drought, or military defeat (e.g., Pss 44, 60, 74, 79–80, 126, 137). Lament psalms often begin with pleas for divine help and end with praises to God for his anticipated intervention. (3) Thanksgiving Psalms. These are psalms of prayerful gratitude to the Lord. Also divided into individual (e.g., Pss 30, 40, 92, 116, 118) and communal (e.g., Pss 66, 67, 107, 124, 129) types, these psalms express thanks and praise to God for particular acts of deliverance accomplished in the past. These songs were recited in the Temple in connection with thank offerings (Lev 7:11–15), at which time the Psalmist gave witness before fellow worshipers to the Lord’s help and goodness in his life. (4) Royal Psalms. Two types of royal psalms are featured in the book. One type celebrates the Lord’s reign as King over Israel, the nations, and all creation (e.g., Pss 47, 93–99). Another type celebrates the Lord’s covenant of kingship with David (Pss 89, 132) and can take the form of prayers for Israel’s king (Pss 20, 72) or prayers that solemnize special occasions such as the king’s coronation (Pss 2, 110) or wedding day (Ps 45). (5) Additional Psalm Types. Besides the major psalm types mentioned, there are less prominent ones as well. Examples include (a) Wisdom Psalms, which exhibit stylistic and thematic links with the Bible’s wisdom literature and often express delight in the Law of God as a path of life (e.g., Pss 1, 19, 37, 49, 73, 111–112, 119); (b) Penitential Psalms, which include confessions of sin along with petitions for God’s forgiveness (Pss 6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143); (c) Acrostic Psalms, which begin each line or stanza with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet (Pss 9, 10, 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119, 145); (d) Hallelujah Psalms, which are hymns that begin and end with the Hebrew acclamation halelû-yāh, meaning "Praise the L

ord

!" (Pss 146–150); (e) Psalms of Remembrance, which review the history of God’s relationship with Israel in times past (Pss 78, 105–6); (f) Psalms of Trust, whose keynote is the Psalmist’s confidence in the Lord (e.g., Pss 11, 16, 23, 62, 131); and (g) Songs of Ascents, a collection of hymns that may have been sung by pilgrims making their way to Jerusalem for Israel’s yearly religious festivals (Pss 120–34).

Themes and Characteristics The Book of the Psalms is one of the most loved books of the Old Testament. For centuries, it has served both Jewish and Christian communities as a songbook for public worship, as a prayerbook for personal devotion, and as a guidebook for wise living. With the exception of the Gospels, no portion of Scripture has had a greater impact on the life and liturgy of the Church than the Book of the Psalms. It is the only book of the Bible that is read or sung at every Eucharistic liturgy, and it is the one book of the Old Testament that dominates the Church’s daily prayer, the Liturgy of the Hours.

The popularity of the Psalter is due to many things, but mainly to its ability to draw people into dialogue with the Lord. It shows us what a prayerful relationship with God actually looks like in the varied circumstances of life. From the heights of joy to the depths of pain and despair to everything in between, the Psalms supply us with suitable words for bringing our lives before God and for seeking his glory and blessings. They encourage us to approach him with a real transparency that does not hide the intense emotions, the ugly realities, and the bitter struggles of life behind a façade of religious piety. The Psalms teach us to pour out our hearts to the One who created all, loves all, sees all, and has the power to help all.

The Book of the Psalms is not simply a body of devotional literature, however. It is a collection of liturgical poetry that played a significant role in the community worship of the Jerusalem Temple. Most if not all of its compositions were chanted or sung with musical accompaniment rather than read in private. This makes sense when we consider that David, the most conspicuous personality in the Psalms, was the founder of Israel’s tradition of sacred music (see essay: David’s New Liturgy at 1 Chron 15). Before him, worship in the sanctuary consisted of sacrifices offered in relative silence; after him, the sanctuary echoed with the joyful noise of voices and melodies that enhanced the atmosphere of sacrifice by helping to raise the mind and spirit to God. The 150 canonical psalms formed the heart of this long-standing Temple liturgy.

If the Book of the Psalms is unrivaled as a resource for prayer and praise, individual and communal, it is also a tapestry of bibical theology. Virtually all of the great themes of the Old Testament find expression somewhere in the book. Synthesizing its main ideas and teachings is quite challenging, however, because each of the 150 psalms is its own composition, and the vast wealth of spiritual and theological reflection that one finds in the Psalms is spread across the collection in an unsystematic way. That said, a handful of themes claim significant attention in the Psalter and may be said to stand in the foreground. Among these are the following.

(1) The God of All Creation. The entire Book of the Psalms revolves around the one true God. He is the object of the soul’s deepest thirst (42:2; 63:1) and the subject of the Psalmists’ highest praise (148:1–14). The Lord is enthroned above the heavens (29:10), on the wings of the cherubim (80:1), and on the praises of his people (22:3). He is exalted above all other so-called gods that the nations worship (86:8; 95:3; 135:5). His power and glory are on grand display throughout the universe (19:1–6) and throughout the history of Israel (Pss 78; 105; 106). His people look to him as a Shepherd, Protector, Savior, and King (Pss 11; 23; 95–99; 121). The Lord hears the prayers of his servants (4:3; 55:17; 69:33); he is their refuge in times of danger and distress (5:11; 18:2; 31:1–2); and he is their strength on the day of battle (18:39; 44:4–7). None who hope in God and rely upon him are put to shame, since he delights in those who fear him (147:10–11) and fulfills their desires (145:19). Among his acclaimed attributes and perfections, the Lord is all-powerful, all-knowing, all-sovereign, all-good, all-just, and all-present throughout his creation (68:14; 115:3; 135:6; 139:1–24; 145:9). Even more prominently, the Psalms praise the Lord for his abundant mercy and fidelity (25:10; 40:10; 61:7; 89:14; 119:156, etc.)—those singular attributes that he revealed to Moses on Sinai (Ex 34:6–7). God’s merciful love is something that endures for all time (100:5; 136:1–26). It is experienced firsthand when people confess their sins and receive forgiveness from the Almighty (32:1–5; 51:1–19; 130:7–8). Since he is the Lord of all the earth, all nations are invited to worship him and to lift up his holy name in praise (47:1; 67:4; 72:11; 100:1–2; 117:1). In this way, the Psalter seeks to intone a chorus of praise that rises to God from all creatures great and small (150:1–6).

(2) The Greatness of the King. The theme of kingship plays a prominent role in the Psalms. Above all, the Lord God is the King of glory (24:10), the great King over all the earth (47:2; 103:19). He is robed in majesty (93:1) and worthy of heartfelt praise (47:6; 98:6). The Lord’s kingship is not a conviction first introduced in the Psalms but was an ancient belief in Israel that predated the rise of the monarchy under Saul and David (Ex 15:18; 1 Sam 8:7). Quite apart from the rise and fall of earthly kingdoms, the divine King never ceases to reign over the world, with justice and righteousness being the foundations of his rule (10:16; 66:7; 96:10; 97:2; 99:4). One psalm marvels that man is given a share in this royal dignity by exercising dominion over the world, even though he appears small and insignificant in comparison with the vastness of God’s universe (8:3–8). Related to these royal ideas, several psalms celebrate the Davidic king that God enthroned in Jerusalem (2:6). Prayers are offered for David’s royal successors that their reign might be blessed with prosperity, that they might be strengthened against enemies, and that their rule might extend far beyond the borders of Israel (20:1–9; 72:1–17). The greatness of the Davidic king lies in the fact that he is adopted at his coronation as a son of God (2:7), that he is exalted above all other kings (89:27), and that he rules on a throne at the right hand of God (110:1). This made the Davidic king of Israel a representative and instrument of God’s divine rule over the people. Beyond that, Davidic kingship was the concrete realization of the covenant that the Lord made with David when he swore an unbreakable oath to make David’s throne and kingdom last forever (89:3–4, 19–37; 132:11–12). This covenant even gave rise to a new way of reading the kingship psalms. In the postexilic period, after the Davidic monarchy had ceased to exist and no descendant of David ruled from his throne, these psalms were prayed in the expectation of a future king, a Davidic Messiah. Because the Lord pledged to establish David’s kingship forever, Israel believed that he would hold true to his word by sending a messianic king from David’s line to fulfill the prayers and expectations of the Psalms.

(3) The Glories of Zion. According to the Psalter, there is no place on earth like Jerusalem, the city that sits like a crown on the head of Mt. Zion. It is a place of holiness, not because of some intrinsic sacredness, but because the Lord chose Zion as his dwelling place, the site of his Temple (48:1; 76:2; 78:68; 87:1; 132:13–14). It was the city of the great King (48:2). Zion enjoyed God’s special protection because there he ruled over Israel and the world (46:5–7; 48:3). Prayers were heard in the sanctuary on Zion (28:2), and blessings flowed through Zion like a river of gladness (46:4) out to his people (128:5; 134:3). Moreover, throughout the monarchical period, the mountain of Jerusalem was the seat of Israel’s royal government, the place where David’s heirs ruled in accord with God’s covenant of kingship with David (2:6). These truths gave Zion a special place in the hearts of the people, who converged on the holy city every year to celebrate Israel’s religious feasts as a nation. Three times a year, Israelites made a pilgrimage to Zion to gaze on the beauty of the Lord’s house, to enter its courts with praise, and to pray for peace to prevail there (84:1–10; 100:4; 122:1–9). For many, Jerusalem was held above one’s highest joy (137:6). Ultimately, the historical city of Zion was a sign of something heavenly—the Lord’s unseen throne and Temple in the heavens (11:4; 103:19; 123:1).

(4) The Gift of the Law. The Psalms celebrate all of God’s gifts to his people, but none is praised more than the Law of the Lord. Far from being an onerous burden that weighs heavy on the conscience, observance of the Torah is viewed as a spiritual delight (1:2; 119:14, 16, 35, 77). For the Psalmists, the Law is perfect and reviving for the soul, able to impart wisdom through precepts that are righteous and true (19:7–9; 119:7, 98, 160).