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    Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry – II
    Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry – II
    Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry – II
    Ebook424 pages3 hours

    Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry – II

    By Dr. Sharada L. Deore

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    About this ebook

    The Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry-II book is comprehensive guidance in lucid writing for following theory as well as experimental topics:Theory topics         ·  Biosynthesis of plant metabolites         ·  Popular plants containing therapeutically important Secondary metabolites         ·  Isolation, Identification and Analysis of Phytoconstituents         ·  Industrial production, estimation and utilization of the phytoconstituents         ·  Traditional and  Modern Methods of extraction         ·  Applications of Chromatography, Electrophoresis, spectroscopyExperiments         ·  Morphological, histological, powder microscopical and chemical characteristics of crude drugs         ·  Isolation of phytochemicals         ·  Extraction of volatile oils         ·  Separation of sugars by Paper chromatography

    Contents:

    Part – I: Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry-II (Theory) 1.                Metabolic Pathways in Higher Plants and their Determination2.            General Introduction3.            Isolation, Identification and Analysis of Phytoconstituents4.            Industrial Production, Estimation and Utilization5.            Basics of Phytochemistry
     
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherPHARMAMED PRESS
    Release dateAug 27, 2022
    ISBN9789391910792
    Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry – II

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      Book preview

      Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry – II - Dr. Sharada L. Deore

      Part – I

      (Theory)

      Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry-II

      Unit 1

      Metabolic Pathways in Higher Plants

      and their Determination

      PCI Syllabus

      Metabolic pathways in higher plants and their determination

      •Brief study of basic metabolic pathways and formation of different secondary metabolites through these pathways- Shikimic acid pathway, Acetate pathways and Amino acid pathway.

      •Study of utilization of radioactive isotopes in the investigation of Biogenetic studies

      Chapter Content

      1.1. Brief Study of basic Metabolic Pathways

      1.1.1 Photosynthesis

      1.1.2 Glycolysis

      1.1.3 Citric Acid Cycle

      1.1.4 Pentose Phosphate Pathway

      1.2. Acetate Pathway

      1.2.1 Introduction

      1.2.2 Saturated Fatty Acid Biosynthesis

      1.2.3 Unsaturated Fatty Acid (UFA) Biosynthesis

      1.3. Shikimic Acid Pathways

      1.4. Amino Acid Biosynthesis Pathway

      1.5. Elucidation of Biosynthetic Pathway

      1.1   Brief Study of Basic Metabolic Pathways

      Biogenesis or in-vivo synthesis of both primary and secondary metabolites starts with photosynthesis to produce sugar molecules which are metabolised to glycerates, pyruvates and finally acetyl CoA. This acetyl CoA is used in TCA cycle to generate a number of amino acids and excess is to synthesize fatty acids. Few of the acetyl CoA molecules are condensed to form mevalonic acid, precursor of synthesis of steroids and terpenoides. Amino acids give rise to alkaloids. The intermediates of glycolysis i.e. glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and erythrose 4-phopshate from pentose phosphate pathway yields shikimic acid which is main precursor for biosynthesis of number of important aromatic chemicals like phenylpropanoides, lignin, lignans, flavonoides and terpenoid quinones.

      1.1.1   Photosynthesis

      Photosynthesis means putting together with light. Photosynthesis in green plants and specialized bacteria is the process of utilizing light energy to synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water. Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll, which is the reason that most plants have a green colour. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls. Carbon dioxide and oxygen enter and leave through tiny pores called stomata. It consists of the light dependent part (light reaction) and the light independent part (dark reaction, carbon fixation).

      The general equation for photosynthesis is therefore:

      2n CO2 + 2n H2O + Sunlight → 2(CH2O)n + n O2 + 2n A

      Carbon dioxide + Electron donor + Light energy → Carbohydrate + Oxygen + Oxidized electron donor

      In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH via ATP synthase.

      In the second stage, the light-independent reactions together known as Calvin cycle(Fig. 1.1) reduce carbon dioxide via enzyme RuBisCO (Ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase). The product of the Calvin cycle is 3-carbon compound glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and water. Two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate combine to form one molecule of glucose and later different larger carbohydrates. The overall equation for the light-dependent reactions is:

      2 H2O + 2 NADP+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + Light → 2 NADPH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + O2

      The overall equation for the light-independent reactions is :

      3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ → C3H6O3-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 NADP+ + 3H2O

      In light independent part the carbon fixation refers to any process through which gaseous carbon dioxide is converted into a solid compound like sugar molecules. There are three types of Carbon fixation: C3, C4 and CAM. The difference between C3 and C4 photosynthesis depends on differences in the chemical compounds to which the incoming CO2 is linked during the dark reactions (CAM photosynthesis differs from both C3 and C4 photosynthesis in that prior to fixation, CO2 is an acid form known as carbonic acid).

      Differences between different Photosynthetic Pathways

      Fig.1.1 Calvin cycle

      1.1.2   Glycolysis

      Glycolysis (Fig.1.2) is the process of enzymatic reactions that convert glucose into three-carbon compounds, (pyruvate and glycerates) small amounts of ATP (energy) and NADH (reducing power). The glycolytic pathway operates in both situations, in the presence (aerobic) and absence (anaerobic) of oxygen. Under anaerobic conditions, the metabolism of each glucose molecule yields only two ATPs. In contrast, the complete aerobic metabolism of glucose to carbon dioxide by glycolysis and Krebs cycle yields up to thirty-eight ATPs. It is a central pathway that produces important precursor metabolites: six-carbon compounds of glucose-6P and fructose-6P and three-carbon compounds of glycerone-P, glyceraldehyde-3P, glycerate-3P, phosphoenolpyruvate and pyruvate. Acetyl-CoA, another important precursor metabolite, is produced by oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate in the presence of pyruvate dehydrogenase to form acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). Under conditions where energy is needed, acetyl CoA is metabolized by Krebs cycle to generate carbon dioxide and a large amount of ATP. When the cell does not need energy, acetyl CoA can be used to synthesize fats or amino acids.

      As the glucose is oxidized by the glycolytic enzymes, the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is converted from its oxidized to reduced form (NADH). When oxygen is available (aerobic conditions), NADH can reoxidize to NAD+. However, if either oxygen levels are insufficient (anaerobic conditions) or mitochondrial activity is absent, NADH must be reoxidized by the cell using some other mechanism. In animal cells, the reoxidation of NADH is accomplished by reducing pyruvate, the end-product of glycolysis, to form lactic acid. This process is known as anaerobic glycolysis. During vigorous exercise, skeletal muscles relie heavily on it. In yeast, anaerobic conditions result in the production of carbon dioxide and ethanol from pyruvate rather than lactic acid. This process, known as alcoholic fermentation, is the basis of wine production and the reason why bread dough rises.

      Although some cells are highly dependent on glycolysis for the generation of ATP, the amount of ATP generated per glucose molecule is actually quite small. Therefore, in the majority of cells the most important function of glycolysis is to metabolize glucose to generate three-carbon compounds that can be utilized by other pathways. The final product of aerobic glycolysis is pyruvate.

      1.1.3   Citric Acid Cycle

      Citric acid cycle also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle or the Krebs cycle (Fig.1.3) is the common mode of oxidative degradation of carbohydrates, fatty acids and amino acids. The cycle starts with acetyl-CoA, the activated form of acetate, derived from glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation of carbohydrates and from beta oxidation of fatty acids. The two-carbon acetyl group in acetyl-CoA is transferred to the four-carbon compound of oxaloacetate to form the six-carbon compound of citrate. In a series of reactions two carbons in citrate are oxidized to CO2 and the reaction pathway supplies NADH for use in the oxidative phosphorylation and other metabolic processes. The pathway also supplies important precursor metabolites including 2-oxoglutarate. At the end of the cycle the remaining four-carbon part is transformed back to oxaloacetate. Because two acetyl-CoA molecules are produced from each glucose molecule, two cycles are required per glucose molecule. Therefore, at the end of two cycles, the products are: 6 molecules of NADH, two molecules of FADH2, two molecules of ATP, and four molecules of CO2.

      Fig.1.2 Glycolysis

      Fig.1.3 TCA Cycle

      1.1.4   Pentose Phosphate Pathway

      The pentose phosphate pathway (Fig.1.4), also called the phosphogluconate pathway or hexose monophosphate shunt, is a process that generates NADPH and 5-carbon sugars, pentoses. This pathway is an alternative to glycolysis. There are two distinct phases in the pathway. The first is the oxidative phase, in which NADPH is generated, and the second is the non-oxidative synthesis of pentoses. The role of this pathway can be summarized as:

      •Production of NADPH,

      •Production of ribose-5-phosphate used in the synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids.

      •Production of erythrose-4-phosphate used in the shikimic acid pathway, synthesis of aromatic amino acids.

      Fig.1.4 Pentose Phosphate Pathway

      1.2   Acetate Pathway

      1.2.1   Introduction

      Acetate pathway is the pathway where acetate unit is the precursor for the biosynthesis of fatty acids and anthracene glycosides. In few compounds mevalonic acid or shikimic acid pathway intermediates are associated with acetate which further produces modified isoprenoidor flavonoid like compounds respectively.

      Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with long hydrocarbon chains. The hydrocarbon chain length may vary from 10-30 carbons (most usual is 12-18). Fatty acids, also called as aliphatic acids, are important sources of energy stored in the form of triglycerides and act as intermediates in the biosynthesis of polyketides and hormones. Commercially, fatty acid and their derivatives are useful in the manufacturing of food, cosmetics and toiletries products such as soaps, papers, plastic, varnishes, paints and insecticides.

      Fatty acids can be saturated and unsaturated depending on double bonds. Saturated fatty acids arealong-chain carboxylic acids that usually contain 12 and 24 carbon atoms with no double bonds. Unsaturated fatty acids which may be mono- or poly-unsaturated, are similar to saturated fatty acids, except that one or more alkenyl functional groups exist along the chain. Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) have only one double bond. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have more than one double bond. Fatty acids are frequently represented by a notation such as C18:2 that indicate that the fatty acid consists of an 18-carbon chain and 2 double bonds.

      Table 1.1 Fatty Acid ContainingPlants

      Table 1.2 Saturated Fatty Acids Examples

      Table 1.3 Unsaturated Fatty Acids Examples

      1.2.2   Saturated Fatty Acid Biosynthesis

      Saturated fatty acids are synthesized by a series of decarboxylative Claisen condensation reactions from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA in the presence of enzyme fatty acid synthase. Enzyme synthase contains ACP as part of its structure. Following each step of elongation the β-keto group is reduced to the fully saturated carbon chain by the sequential action of enzymes -ketoreductase, dehydratase and enol reductase. Fatty acid synthesis (Fig.1.5) starts with acetyl CoA which is the two carbon containing precursor. This is used to add two carbons to growing fatty acid chain stepwise. This explains why fatty acids always have an even number of carbons. This process occurs in the cytosol.

      During biosynthesis, the growing fatty acid chain gets attached covalently to the phosphopantethiene prosthetic group of ACP (acyl carrier protein) which allows intermediates to remain covalently linked to the synthases and access this intermediates to the right enzyme-active sites. Acyl Carrier Protein (ACP), converts malonyl CoA to malonyl ACP. ACP synthase is an enzyme that holds the growing fatty acid chain. Acyl enzyme thioester releases C2 unit to malonyl ACP to form fatty acyl ACP through sequence of reduction, dehydration reactions. This fatty acyl ACP on attack of water generates fatty acids. Triglycerides (esters of glycerol containing same or different 3 fatty acids) are biosynthesized from glycerol 3-P (product of Calvin cycle) and first fatty acyl CoA esterification process which is elaborated in Fig.1.5.

      Fatty acid synthesis is simply a linear combination of acetate units facilitated by enzyme fatty acid synthase. ACP allows growing fatty acid chain to react with thio group of enzyme fatty acid synthase and thus head to tail condensation followed by reduction gives rise to a long chain of saturated fatty acid. Mostly even numbers of carbon containing fatty acids are common in nature. But when starting compound is other than acetate (example- propionic acid), odd number of C-containing fatty acids can also be synthesized by plants. C16 and C18 (Palmitic and stearic acids respectively) are the most common saturated fatty acids.

      In fatty acid biosynthesis, acetate is the starter group and malonate is a chain extender. But in a few compounds there may be change in starter or chain extender group. Cinnamoyl CoA obtained from shikimic acid pathway acts as a starter group in the synthesis of flavonoid and stilbenes. Anthranilolyl CoA obtained from anthranilic acid is used in the synthesis of quinoline and acridine alkaloids. Hexanoate is the starter group in the formation of aflatoxins and cannabinoides. Incorporation of propionate as a chain extender other than mevalonate from propionyl CoA or methyl malonyl CoA leads to the formation of macrolide antibiotics.

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