Dub Poets In Their Own Words

Dub Poets In Their Own Words

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No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of the publisher except that brief selections may be quoted or copied without permission, provided that full credit is given.

Some interviews originally appeared in various academic journals. And are reproduced courtesy of The Journal of Commonwealth Literature, Jamaica Journal, Macomere and The Journal of West Indian Literature:

From Page-Poet to Recording Artist: Mutabaruka interviewed by Eric Doumerc, The Journal of Commonwealth Literature, Vol. 44, N° 3, 2009.

An Interview with Mbala: A Dub Poet's Innerverse, Jamaica Journal, Vol.33, N° 1 and 2, 2010.

In Conversation with Cherry Natural: From the Page to the Stage . Macomere, Vols 1 and 2, 2011- 2012.

An Interview with Malachi Smith. The Journal of West Indian Literature, Vol.22 N0. 1, November 2013

Front cover illustration by kind permission of Mbala

Back cover photograph of Montego Bay by Don. Ramey Logan

CC BY-SA 3.0

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CONTENTS

Dub Poetry: an overview

Interviews:

Oku Onuora

Mutabaruka

Cherry Natural

Malachi D. Smith

Klyde Broox

Yasus Afari

Moqapi Selassie

Kokumo Noxid

Dreadlockalien

Mbala

Conclusion

Bibliography

Discography

DUB POETRY: AN OVERVIEW

The words dub poetry refer to a particular type of performance poetry, a brand of oral poetry performed to the accompaniment of reggae music. It seems that the phrase dub poetry was used for the first time in 1975 by the poet Linton Kwesi Johnson in an article about Jamaican deejays which was published in Race and Class: The dub-lyricist is the dj turned poet. He intones his lyrics rather than sings them. Dub-lyricism is a new form of (oral) music-poetry wherein the lyricist overdubs rhythmic phrases on to the rhythm background of a popular song. Dub-lyricists include poets like Big Youth, I Roy, U Roy, Dillinger, Shorty the President, Prince Jazzbo and others (Johnson 1976).

Around the same time, in Jamaica a young poet named Orlando Wong (who later took on the nom de plume Oku Onuora) was developing a type of oral poetry which had been influenced by the African-American poets Langston Hughes, Gil Scott-Heron and The Last Poets, and by reggae lyricism (Morris 1997).

From 1979 on, the phrase dub poetry was increasingly used to refer to an artistic and cultural movement which had been developing at the Jamaica School of Drama for a few years and which was associated with poets like Oku Onuora himself, Noel Walcott and Michael Smith, among others.

Oku Onuora defined the term in an interview conducted with the poet and critic Mervyn Morris in 1979 and stated that a dub poem was a poem that has a built-in reggae rhythm - hence when the poem is read without any reggae rhythm (so to speak) backing, one can distinctly hear the reggae rhythm coming out of the poem (Brown 51-54). So a dub poem is a poem that relies on a reggae rhythm that can be heard even when there is no musical accompaniment. Oku Onuora later extended that definition to cover all kinds of musical backing, so that dub poetry would include any type of music-influenced poetry (Morris 1997).

Michael A. Bucknor, quoting an article by Jeremy Morley, opines that the 1968 Rodney Riots (named after the Guyanese academic Walter Rodney) seem to be a plausible point of departure for dub poetry as these riots were as much about cultural independence and the refusal of British norms as about economic and social issues (Bucknor 2011).Walter Rodney was a former UWI student from Guyana who had completed a PhD thesis on the history of the Upper Guina in the 17th and 18th centuries.

After spending a year in Tanzania, Rodney had returned to the Caribbean and had become a lecturer in history on the Mona campus. Rodney became very popular with students and began to deliver a series of lectures on African history. He also gave talks on Black Power and addressed not only university students but also the poor and the unemployed in Kingston. In addition he held talks with the Rastafarians and these gatherings later spawned a book entitled The Groundings with my Brothers (1969).

The Jamaican government saw Rodney as a menace to society and in October 1968, they asked the Vice-Chancellor of the University of the West Indies to dismiss him. The Vice-Chancellor refused to do so, and the government later seized the opportunity to prevent Rodney from coming back to Jamaica after attending a conference in Canada. When Rodney’s plane landed on 15 October 1968, he was served with an expulsion order.

The news of Rodney’s expulsion soon reached Mona and, on the following day, the students staged a demonstration and decided to march on the offices of the Minister of Home Affairs. The students were soon stopped by the police who used batons and tear gas to break up the demonstration. The students went back to Mona, but their demonstration had been joined by a large crowd of Rastafarians, unemployed youths and workers, who started looting property in Kingston’s commercial district.

The riots were quickly suppressed and order was restored a few days later, but these riots stand as an important moment in the history of the post-independence Caribbean because they showed that issues of cultural legitimacy were bound up with the dire social and economic conditions the islands were still trapped in.

In the 1970s dub poetry developed in Jamaica thanks to poets like Oku Onuora , Mutabaruka and the late Michael Smith, and in England due to the work of Linton Kwesi Johnson. The latter was to be particularly successful in his attempt to make this type of poetry popular with a European, multicultural audience thanks to his recordings, though he also used the printed word.

By the late 1970s and early 1980s, dub poetry was well-established as a form of protest poetry and as an offshoot of roots reggae which was mainly concerned with social and political themes like life in Jamaican slums, poverty, racial tension and economic exploitation.

Oku Onuora’s Pressure Drop ((Brown and Mc Watt 281) and other canonical dub poems like Oku Onuora’s Reflection in Red, Michael Smith’s Mi Cyaan Believe It or Mutabaruka’s White Sound all focused on similar themes and were characterised by a certain declamatory delivery which seemed appropriate for political poetry. This particular delivery was favoured in the early 1980s by Mutabaruka whose White Sound is concerned with the trauma of slavery.

In England, the Jamaican-born poet Linton Kwesi Johnson pioneered the genre and documented the plight of the Black British community in the 1970s in poems like Five Nights of Bleeding, Dread Beat and Blood, Street 66, Sonnys’ Lettah and Inglan is a Bitch. Johnson published three collections of poetry between 1974 and 1980 (Voices of the Living and the Dead, Dread Beat an' Blood, and Inglan is a Bitch) and became famous for his accomplished reading of his own poetry in which reggae rhythms could distinctly be heard. As his Jamaican counterparts had done, Johnson used records and tapes to popularise dub poetry, and his recordings made him a household name in reggae circles. The four recordings issued between 1978 and 1984 (Dread Beat an' Blood, Forces of Victory, Bass Culture, and Making History) are all fine examples of Black British dub poetry and are primarily concerned with the situation of the Black British community in the 1970s. Poverty, racial discrimination, police brutality, sound systems, and reggae culture seem to have been Johnson’s main preoccupations at the time and the poet even said that when he first started writing poetry he meant to use poetry as a vehicle for social and political protest (Johnson 2010).

In 1986 the first dub poetry anthology (Dub Poetry: 19 Poets from England and Jamaica. Neuestad, Michael Schwinn, 1986) appeared and was edited by the German critic Christian Habekost. This anthology included dub poets from England (Martin Glynn, Desmond Johnson, Linton Kwesi Johnson, Levi Tafari among others) and from Jamaica (Jean Binta Breeze, Mutabaruka, Okuonuora and Michael Smith) and Habekost’s introduction replaced the poetry in its social and cultural context, paying particular attention to the reggae tradition of toasting, or talking over a recorded track, developed by the deejays U-Roy, I-Roy and Big Youth in the early 1970s.

Habekost organised several dub poetry tours in the 1980s and by then Linton Kwesi Johnson was touring Europe regularly, invariably presented as a reggae artist. In the 1980s most dub poets, except for Michael Smith who was murdered in Jamaica in 1983, continued to record albums and to tour internationally.

Apart from Jamaica and England, dub poetry also developed in Canada. As pointed out by Chrisitan Habekost, the development of dub poetry in Canada is closely connected with Lillian Allen (Habekost 33). Together with Clifton Joseph, Lillian Allen nurtured the art form in Canada. Originally from Jamaica, she migrated to Canada in 1974 and settled in Toronto. In 1982 she published her first book, Riddim An' Hardtimes, and in 1986 her first album, Revolutionary Tea Party, won a Juno award. Two years later, her second album, Conditions Critical, did the same. Allen also founded a dub poetry collective called De Dub Poets and they released an EP in 1983. Touring ceaselessly during the 1980s, she inspired other dub poets like Devon Haughton, Clifton Joseph, adhri zhina mandiela, Afua Cooper, and Klyde Broox.

Lillian Allen is also well-known for her quarrel with the League of Canadian Poets. Indeed in 1984 Allen and her dub poetry collective applied for membership of that prestigious league but their application was turned down because, according to the members, these dub poets were just performers and their poetry failed to satisfy the standards of the league. Although the dub poets' application was eventually accepted a couple of years later , the initial rejection did not bode well for the reception of dub poetry in academia.

By the mid-1980s, dub poetry seemed to be in crisis or at an impasse, as a number of dub poets like Jean Binta Breeze and Linton Kwesi Johnson began to voice their concern about the limited use of the label dub poetry and even claimed that dub poetry had become a mere gimmick or fashion.

In an interview granted to the journalist Dotun Adebayo and published in the Black British newspaper The Voice in 1989, the dub poet Jean Binta Breeze declared that she had to get out of the confines of dub poetry...It was so restricting having to write poetry to a one-drop reggae rhythm. That can’t be good for any poet  I’m not screeching and shouting my poetry any more  I’ve discovered that poetry is not synonymous with preaching (Adebayo 1989, quoted in Habekost 1993)

Linton Kwesi Johnson had expressed similar views in an interview with the Jamaican critic and poet Mervyn Morris: ...eventually I found that I was getting drawn closer to the music, and trying to write within the strict parameters of the reggae form which is very limiting. You’re not conscious of it at the time, but you get drawn closer and closer and closer to the music until in the end what you’re doing is basically writing reggae songs or composing reggae music (Markham 260). This growing awareness that he was slowly turning into a reggae act led Linton Kwesi Johnson