Muhammad: His Character and Conduct

INTRODUCTION

HE HAS INFLUENCED my life in great measure. I have known him since I was very young, even though he lived 1400 years ago. My parents taught me to love him as though he was the light that guided our family. My primary school teachers nurtured this love further, and in my first year of secondary school my teacher gave me a book about his life as a prize for being at the top of the class in Arabic. In my first professional work I dramatized a major part of his life for radio. I later wrote a book about the events of his life, and that book has been reprinted several times. For thirty-one years from 1981 to 2012, I edited a weekly column entitled Islam in Perspective for the Saudi paper, Arab News, and each time I wrote an article about him or what he taught. I still feel that all this falls far short of what he deserves. How can I – or indeed anyone – portray what he has given to humanity, when he remains the light that brings pure happiness to the life of millions across the world?

Muhammad ibn ʿAbdullāh, born in Makkah in 570 CE to a father on whose face he never set eyes, was the man to whom God entrusted the task of delivering His final message to mankind. God undertook to preserve this message for the rest of human life. The task assigned to Muhammad was enormous. His was not merely a message to be delivered and signed for; he was to provide guidance for contemporary and future generations on its implementation. His guidance is the light that shines through every community that decides to abide by how God wants humanity to live. A guidance that will continue to apply to every individual and every community for as long as human life continues.

This was the Prophet’s miracle. He did not tell people that he would work miracles for them, or show them spectacular feats that left them stunned with amazement. Instead, he offered a system of life that provided for all the needs of body, soul and emotions. Moreover, he elevated their aspirations towards a sublime ideal. Through his actions, he showed them the way to achieve all this in a very simple, direct and honest manner. What they had to endeavour to achieve was within everyone’s reach. There were no complications or arbitrary impositions.

Hundreds of books have been written about the Prophet and the events of his life. The majority of these are by Muslims who have loved and followed him; although some are by detractors whose standpoint is to reject him and his message. Usually, the more a person learns about the life and message of the Prophet, the more they admire him.

In his first forty years, before the start of his message, Muhammad lived among his people: sharing their concerns, but steering away from anything that was wrong or unbecoming. He made a name for himself as an honest and truthful person. Later, fleeing assassins, he was chased into the desert with a great prize set on his head; yet his trust in God and in the truth of his message remained as firm as a mountain. At one point the danger was close and Surāqah, his pursuer, was ready to strike, yet he promised Surāqah that he would wear the bracelets of Khusru, the Persian Emperor. That promise was to come true after Muhammad had passed away.

Within less than ten years, the life of the Prophet underwent a great change. That rider, travelling with two men and a guide along 500 kilometres of unfamiliar roads in the Arabian desert to escape his pursuers, became the undisputed master of the whole of Arabia. He built a state that was dedicated to the truth and justice and to the liberation of man throughout the world. He wrote to Emperors, kings and rulers, calling on them to believe in God and to follow His message; yet at the same time he lived a life of poverty. He did not disdain to accept an invitation from a poor person, and would gladly share a humble dinner of bread with fat that had started to rot. One day, he came home to eat but the only food available in his home was a small portion of bread and some vinegar. His comment at this was: Vinegar is fine food to go with bread. He said this at a time when he could have had the finest riches the world could provide.

I have said that his trust in God was as firm as a mountain. Indeed, mountains might come crashing down, and yet the Prophet’s faith would remain unshaken. At moments of extreme danger, he was full of confidence that the truth he preached would triumph. At the moment of his greatest triumph he showed humility and gave due thanks to the Almighty. With yesterday’s enemies – the very ones who plotted his assassination and determined to exterminate his community – at his mercy, he was remarkably magnanimous. The sight that gave him most satisfaction at the end of his blessed life was that of his followers offering a congregational prayer in his mosque. He felt then that he had delivered God’s message and fulfilled his task.

Today, the Prophet is much maligned by writers, cartoonists, bloggers and various other detractors whose information about him is both scanty and false. He is attacked, particularly, on three issues: his many marriages, his marriage to ʿĀ’ishah (who is said to have been a child at the time) and his treatment of the Jews, particularly the Qurayẓah tribe. An in-depth study of all these issues shows that there is nothing to criticize. Nevertheless, the attack continues. Unfortunately, most Muslims today do not know the Prophet well enough to portray his life in its true colours. Rather, when these attacks are made anger is heightened throughout the Muslim world. This serves to deepen the rift between Muslims and non-Muslims: particularly between the Muslim world and the West. This is contrary to what most people throughout the world want. Better understanding is needed on both sides of the divide.

My first book about the Prophet, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, sought to record the main events of his life, with analysis and comments. In this book my aim is to show his true character. However, as I write, I feel that I am falling far short of my aim. I can only express my shortcomings in the words of John Dryden:

How can the less the greater comprehend?

Or finite reason reach infinity?¹

How can I show the two opposite extremes: life at its most ordinary and life at its highest perfection? The Prophet combined the two in a most natural way. If I am able to give my reader a glimpse of this, then my effort has been worthwhile.

My readers will realize that I am not trying to refute any allegations levelled at the Prophet. I am only attempting to present his character. In this, I have been guided by what the Qur’ān – God’s own word – says about him, by his own statements and teachings and by what his Companions have passed on to us of what he said and did. I have only relied on authentic sources. However, I have excluded a number of reports and statements that may have strengthened an argument or illustrated a point, when I felt that they included a sentence or a word that could throw some doubt on them, often despite their inclusion in one of the authentic collections of the Prophet’s aḥādīth (traditions).

I have devoted a chapter to the case of the Qurayẓah Jews and their fate, and in this discussion I take an entirely different line from the traditional approach. Readers can judge for themselves whether my argument is valid. Neither in this case, nor in any issue of controversy, do I try to defend the Prophet or justify his actions. There is nothing in his actions or teachings that needs any justification; what is needed is to understand the situation by looking at all aspects, circumstances and available options.

What remains to be said is that no portrait of the Prophet’s character will do him justice. He was superior to anything we can imagine. Perhaps the description that comes closest to the truth is that he was the teacher of perfect goodness. May God reward him well for having taught that perfect goodness to humanity.

Adil Salahi

London

August 2012

¹ John Dryden, Religio Laici, 39-40.

CHAPTER 1

THE FORMATIVE YEARS

MUHAMMAD, THE PROPHET OF ISLAM, was an ordinary human being. Muslims throughout the world acknowledge this fact. No Islamic school of thought assigns any different status to him. None attributes any Divine nature to him. The Qur’ān emphasises this fact also: stating it repeatedly, while making it clear that he was entrusted with God’s final message to mankind. His role was to deliver this message in full. The message is contained in the Qur’ān, which is God’s own word. God has guaranteed that the Qur’ān will be preserved in its original form for all time. Thus the Qur’ān that we have today is exactly the same as that which Muhammad read out to his community over 1400 years ago, as not a word of it has ever changed. As God’s Messenger, Muhammad also explained the Qur’ān. He elaborated on aspects that were stated in general terms, provided details where these were needed and corrected misconceptions where such arose. He also, in his own life, provided a practical example of how believers should conduct their lives. That which Muhammad has given us, in addition to the Qur’ān, is called the Sunnah. The Sunnah is an essential part of the Islamic faith, as it serves as an explanatory memorandum for the Qur’ān. Muslims approach the Sunnah as a complement of the Qur’ān, but it does not have the same status. It is, in fact, part of the revelation that the Prophet received, but it is expressed in his own words. Since it is a man’s word, it cannot be read in prayer.

Muhammad became a Prophet at the age of forty. Prior to that, he was not known to speak about religion, God, the status of man or even moral values and conduct. If he thought of such matters, his thoughts remained private, as he did not speak about them to anyone, not even to his wife or closest friends. No friend or foe ever said to him anything like, I remember the time you used to tell us about religion or moral values. No one has suggested that Islam was a development of earlier ideas expressed by Muhammad in any form.

Prophets are a special breed of people, as they assume the task of preaching to people while also setting a practical example. However, there is a subset of Prophets who attain a higher status: God’s Messengers, who are given messages to deliver to people. Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus were the highest and noblest of God’s Messengers. There have been other Messengers also: some are named in the Qur’ān, while others are not mentioned. All of these Prophets and Messengers preached the same Divine faith, which was based on God’s Oneness. They taught that all submission is to Him alone, and all worship must be addressed purely to Him. Ultimately, the Divine message was brought to its final and complete form, and addressed to all mankind, in all generations. This is the message of Muhammad, as embodied in the Qur’ān and the Sunnah.

In this book, we are embarking on studying Muhammad, the man. I will only touch on his message and his teachings through a study of his personality. I do not aim to present the Islamic faith or to illustrate its main principles. Instead, I will begin by looking at his background, the social environment in which he was born and grew up, and the cultural aspects of the society in which he lived as a youth and adult. I will then look at how his personality developed as he went about fulfilling the task that was assigned to him as God’s Messenger.

Muhammad was born in 570 CE in Makkah, the most important city in Arabia at the time. The Arabs lived in the land that today forms the entire Arabian Peninsula, as well as Palestine, Jordan, southern Syria and southern Iraq. Theirs was a tribal society, which considered allegiance to tribe as the paramount bond between people. Individuals identified themselves as members of a tribe, and the tribe protected and defended its individual members. A tribe could easily go to war against other tribes over a dispute that involved only one or two of its members. In such cases, right and wrong were of secondary importance, as tribal loyalty was supreme.

These tribes could be large or small. A large tribe could branch out into several clans. The separate clans considered themselves cousins, but they would still compete for honour and prestige. Clans had autonomy, and allegiance was always to one’s closest bond. Thus, an individual owed allegiance first to family, then to clan, then to tribe. Tribes enjoyed prestige based on their history, ancestry and strength. Even major tribes took pride in belonging to still larger ones. Indeed, all Arabs belonged to one of two main divisions: ʿAdnān and Qaḥṭān.

At the time when Muhammad was born, Makkah was inhabited by the Quraysh tribe, which was recognized by all Arabs as the master tribe. Before the Quraysh, Makkah belonged to the tribe of Khuzāʿah, which in turn had taken over from Jurhum. Muhammad belonged to the Hāshim clan, which had held authority in Makkah for several generations. In fact, his grandfather, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, was the chief of Makkah, with an authority that was recognized by all the Quraysh clans. The status of the Quraysh as the master tribe was enhanced by the position of the Kaʿbah in Makkah. The Kaʿbah was built by the Prophet Abraham and his son Ishmael, who was also a Prophet. It continued to be visited and venerated by people ever since it was built.

In this social environment, Muhammad was born. At the time, children who belonged to distinguished families in that society were usually looked after by Bedouin wet nurses, who came to Makkah seeking to take babies home with them. The Makkan families believed that it would be in the best interests of their children to spend their first couple of years in the desert, where the clean air and environment would ensure that they had a healthy start. The Bedouin families received financial help in return for caring for the town children. So, within a few days of his birth, Muhammad was given to the Bedouin woman Ḥalīmah, who was to breastfeed and look after him. Ḥalīmah was from the tribe of Saʿd ibn Bakr, which branches out of Hawāzin.

Two factors must have had profound effects on Muhammad during his early years. The first was the loss of his immediate relatives. His parents’ marriage lasted only a few weeks, after which his father, ʿAbdullāh, travelled to Syria with the traditional trade caravan that travelled there every year. On his way back he was taken ill. The caravan people left him in Madinah to be nursed by his maternal relatives, but he did not recover, and he died soon afterwards. Muhammad’s mother, Āminah, died a few years later, when he was only six years of age. A mother’s death is keenly felt by a child, but perhaps even more so in young Muhammad’s case, as he was with her on a journey that took them to Madinah where they visited his father’s grave. The distance from Makkah to Madinah is over 450 kilometres. When they reached al-Abwā’, a village that is a little closer to Makkah than to Madinah, Āminah was taken ill and died. The child was left to the care of his nursemaid, Umm Ayman, who took him back home. Muhammad’s grandfather, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, then looked after him, but he, in turn, died when Muhammad was only eight.

Such a sequence of loss of immediate and loved relatives is bound to have a profound effect on a young person. Muhammad remembered his mother to his last days. More than fifty years later, he visited her grave in al-Abwā’, and as he stood at her grave, he wept in grief. He told his Companions that he had sought God’s permission to visit her grave, and his request was granted.¹

In reply to a question from some of his Companions, the Prophet stated that he vividly remembered his grandfather’s death. Similarly, his nursemaid, Umm Ayman, stated that he wept much at the time.² From this, we can see that young Muhammad’s grief over his losses was keen indeed.

The death of these close relatives must have given Muhammad the recognition that life brings whatever it might, with no guarantees to anyone: no one has a rightful claim to anything other than what is given. Later, he would associate this with God’s will, to emphasize that no one could expect anything other than what God grants.

The second factor that must have influenced Muhammad in his early formative years was the love he received from those around him. He was dearly loved by Ḥalīmah, his wet nurse, and her family; not least because they soon realized that he was a blessed child. Nor did she feel that breastfeeding him along with her own son placed much of a strain on her. On completing two years of breastfeeding, Ḥalīmah duly took him back to his mother, Āminah. However, Ḥalīmah requested that the child remain with her, as the desert area where she lived was a much healthier environment than Makkah. Āminah agreed, and Muhammad stayed with Ḥalīmah until he was four.

Back in Makkah, the four-year-old child was looked after by his mother, under the watchful eye of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, his grandfather. They both felt that there was something special about the child. The grandfather gave him a special treatment, making allowances that no child would usually be afforded in the rigid tribal community of Makkah. Perhaps the circumstances of his birth (although more probably the nature of the child) gave the old sage a feeling that the boy would have a bright future. In Arabia, where there was always fierce competition for honour, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, the Makkan chief who was around a hundred years of age, might have hoped that the boy would grow up to put the honour of his Hāshimite clan at a higher level. Yet, as noted above, within four years of returning to Makkah, Muhammad lost both his mother and grandfather. Thus, at eight years of age, Muhammad had to move home again and live with his uncle, Abū Ṭālib, who was soon to assume a highly distinguished position of honour in Makkah, being the head of the Hāshimite clan. Abū Ṭālib, however, was a man of limited means and a large family, but he was a model Arab chief. The standing of his family, clan and tribe was paramount in his mind. To him, Muhammad was not a mere orphan nephew: he was soon to be a young man with fine qualities. Abū Ṭālib could see in Muhammad a bright child with great promise. His docile and loving nature augured well for his future, and Abū Ṭālib thought that Muhammad could continue the tradition of his noble ancestors who enhanced the standing of their clan in Arabia. Abū Ṭālib loved Muhammad as he loved his own children, with perhaps a little favouritism also, considering the particular situation of the child and the blessing that seemed to emanate from him.

In his uncle’s home, Muhammad was looked after by two women: Fāṭimah bint Asad (Abū Ṭālib’s wife) and Umm Ayman (his nursemaid). Both showered him with motherly love. When Fāṭimah died some fifty years later, the Prophet, who was the ruler of Arabia, personally attended to her preparation of burial. Expressing his grief for her loss, he said:

May God shower His mercy on you, mother. You were to me a mother after I had lost my mother: you went hungry so that I could have enough to eat; you gave me clothes that you were in more need of; you denied yourself the good things of life so that I could enjoy them; and you sought only God’s reward for all that.³

Umm Ayman was a slave woman from Abyssinia who belonged to his father ʿAbdullāh. According to the traditions of the time, she belonged to him after his father’s death. Yet, in Islamic tradition, she is never referred to as a slave, rather, she is always described as his nursemaid. She was a kindly woman who witnessed his childhood from the moment of his birth. She was his only companion when his mother died on the return journey from Madinah when he was only six years of age. She brought him back to his grandfather, who instructed her to look after Muhammad and to never let him out of her sight. She needed no incentive to do that, for the child was dear to her. When he grew up, Muhammad acknowledged her role and reciprocated her kindness. On his marriage to Khadījah, when he was twenty-five, Muhammad set her free. He was later to give her in marriage to Zayd ibn Ḥārithah, who was the dearest man to him. She gave Zayd a son, named Usāmah, whom the Prophet loved as his own child. When Muhammad (peace be upon him) became God’s Messenger, Umm Ayman and her family were among the early converts to Islam. She continued to enjoy his kindness to his last days. He used to say of her: Umm Ayman is the last of my family, and she was to me a mother after my mother had passed away.⁴

In his upbringing, then, Muhammad suffered the loss of his immediate relatives who cared most for him: his parents and grandfather. Yet, he was never away from a family home where he received love, kindness and motherly care. There were many women to love Muhammad and care for him, as he had six paternal aunts who were all kindly and loving.

When we look at Muhammad’s childhood and upbringing, we will not fail to notice that the guiding hand of God was always there to ensure that he did not lack what was necessary for a fine start in life. He lost his dear ones, but he did not lack tenderly love. The question is: how did his particular situation affect his character? For one thing, having to deal with the occurrence of death at such an early age would surely have led him to question the meaning of life. For another, living in an uncle’s home full of cousins would have given him the feeling of being an addition to the family, but not belonging to it. He would have a more detached outlook at whatever affected the family. As he grew up, this would make him more independent in his way of thinking and would broaden his outlook, as he would differentiate between Abū Ṭālib and his other uncles. Moreover, it gave him a more conscious vision of his place in the family and in his tribe. Thus, we see him clinging to his uncle Abū Ṭālib as he embarked on a business trip to Syria. He requested that he travel with his uncle, although it was unusual for a boy to join such a trip at that age. Abū Ṭālib would not hear of it at first, yet not much persuasion was needed and the twelve-year-old boy undertook his first long journey.

Ḥalīmah, his wet nurse, reported that she felt a blessing coming into her family from the moment she took Muhammad from his mother. That blessing manifested itself in the provisions of the family. Bedouins lived on the produce of their sheep, camels and cows. Even in hard times, when grazing was a hard task, her cattle seemed to produce plenty of milk for the family. She associated that with having that fine baby. For this reason, she wanted to keep him beyond the normal term. Abū Ṭālib felt the same. He noticed that when Muhammad joined the family dinner, everyone ate their fill and a little extra was usually left. When Muhammad was absent, the food was hardly enough. Hence, if Muhammad was late, the meal would be delayed until he had arrived. This was merely a subtle observation, as there was no tangible element to it, and Muhammad was not afforded a special status in consequence. Life in his uncle’s home merely went on as usual.

Plenty of stories exist to indicate that the people around Muhammad realized that he was destined for a significant role. One report states, for example, that on his trip to Syria he was recognized by a Christian monk who questioned him closely. The monk advised Muhammad’s uncle to take special care of him and offered a warning that Muhammad must not be recognized by Jews. However, we have no means to confirm the authenticity of such reports. The events were certainly not mentioned by the Prophet, as he ultimately assumed his role as God’s Messenger. Hence, these stories should be taken for what they are worth, and should have no part in the formation of our understanding of Muhammad’s character.

On the other hand, the women who looked after Muhammad during his early life certainly influenced his outlook. Āminah, Ḥalīmah, Umm Ayman and Fāṭimah bint Asad all gave him unmitigated love. This enabled him to understand the role of women in life. His society ill-treated women and gave them a status that was inferior to that of men. In the hierarchy of that society, a slave woman was of a very low status indeed. A wet nurse was not much higher, except for the fact that she was a free woman. In fact, all women were considered to be inferior. In his early years, Muhammad was looked after by two women of lowly status: Ḥalīmah and Umm Ayman. He realized that he owed them much love. Hence, it was not difficult for him later, as God’s Messenger, to stress women’s equal status. To his last day, he advocated women’s rights in every form. He often repeated his warnings against denying orphans and women their rights, as these represented two of the weakest elements in human society.

Muhammad lived with his uncle until he became an adult. Despite his honourable position in Makkah, Abū Ṭālib was a man of limited means. Times were tough, and apparently he was not very successful in business. In addition to this, he had a large family. Therefore, when Muhammad came back to Makkah with his uncle after their business trip to Syria, Muhammad felt that he had to do something to ease his uncle’s burden. He wanted to work, but there was little to do in Makkah at the time. Makkah had no agriculture, as the city was encircled by mountains and very little rain fell at any time. Nor was it deemed respectable for a free Arab – let alone one belonging to a distinguished family – to undertake any manual jobs, as these belonged to slaves and servants. Makkah prospered because of two factors: trade and the status of the Kaʿbah at its centre. The Kaʿbah attracted visitors throughout the year, but at the time of the annual pilgrimage, people came in their thousands. What was there for an adolescent to do, then? The only employment a teenager could have in Makkah at the time, without casting a blemish on his standing, was to be a shepherd. So, Muhammad worked as a shepherd, bringing in a small wage that helped his uncle’s family finances.

A shepherd’s occupation allows much time for contemplation and reflection. As he took his sheep to graze, Muhammad’s only duty was to watch them, ensuring that none went astray or was stolen by a passing Bedouin. Such a job fitted very well with Muhammad’s docile temperament and his position in a family home, in which he stood somewhat apart. He did not speak about those years, and did not tell us in which directions his thoughts took him. He has, however, told us something very significant: that all past Prophets spent some time in their early lives as shepherds. Is the job particularly suitable as preparation for the role of a Prophet? Camel attendants speak of their herd as a community in which every single camel has his own distinctive character. Does this apply to sheep as well? A shepherd endowed with insight and intelligence would be able to look at his flock as individuals and identify them by their special features. Contemplation and reflection would enable such a shepherd to carry that to the wider community and reflect on what distinguishes and influences human characters. Perhaps it is this opportunity to reflect on man, life, aims and destiny that makes a shepherd’s job particularly suitable as preparation for a Prophet’s future role.

The role of a Prophet is a very special one. No human experience can make a person ready to assume it. No instructor or institution can provide training for it. Since God chooses the individuals who undertake this task, He provides them with the necessary preparation. Without such help, preparation and guidance, no one can meet the requirements of the task or successfully undertake it. Muhammad’s preparation for his future task started in his early days. He once explained his exceptional mastery of the Arabic tongue, stating that he had two very good elements contributing to it: belonging to the Quraysh and spending his early years among the Saʿd ibn Bakr tribe. Thus, we can see his extended stay with that tribe as part of such preparation, as it covered the time of a child’s language acquisition. The same applies to his career, particularly his job as a shepherd.

We do not know how many years Muhammad worked as a shepherd, but it must have taken him well into adolescence and probably beyond. As a young man growing up in a society characterized by loose sexual morality, Muhammad heard many stories of his comrades’ sexual adventures, and it was natural that he would think of trying this for himself. He tells us that on two occasions he requested a fellow shepherd to look after his sheep while he tried his luck at having some pleasure. On both occasions, he would stand by a house where a wedding party was going on, only to be overtaken by deep sleep. He was awakened, both times, by the morning sun. He remarked later that it was an act of Divine protection of the future Prophet from sinking into immoral behaviour.

Several incidents took place during this period. He reported that as a young lad, he was once playing with other boys, who were picking up stones for a game. They were naked. Just as he undressed to join them, he felt a painful punch and a voice told him to put his robe on. The same thing occurred much later, when the Quraysh renovated the building of the Kaʿbah. All the people shared in the work and he was carrying stones on his shoulder. His uncle, al-ʿAbbās, suggested that he should use his lower garment as a cushion to protect his shoulder. Again a stern voice warned him against it.

A more important instance of protection against unworthy behaviour relates to religious worship. The Arabs worshipped idols that represented deities, which they claimed were God’s partners. Muhammad had an instinctive dislike of all such idols, recognizing that they were inanimate objects that could bring neither good nor harm. However, people normally go along with the practices of their communities, particularly on festive occasions. Muhammad was protected from that. His nursemaid, Umm Ayman, reports that:

The Quraysh used to pay homage to an idol called Buwābah. On a particular day each year they organized a special festival in its honour. They stayed near the idol all day long and shaved their heads. Abū Ṭālib, the Prophet’s uncle, did not fail to attend the festival. Every year he asked his orphan nephew to attend, but Muhammad declined. Abū Ṭālib was angry with him, and even his aunts spoke to Muhammad about his apparent lack of respect for the idols. They tried to persuade him not to remain the odd one out in his family. In their representation, they touched on a young man’s duty to show his loyalty to his family. They said: You seem not to wish to share any festival with your people, and not to be counted as one of their number.

Ultimately Muhammad yielded to his aunts’ pleading and went to the festival. He came back in a state of fear. He told his aunts that he feared he might be possessed by an evil spirit. They assured him that God would never let him suffer such a thing, considering his numerous good qualities. Relating his experience to them, he said: Every time I came near to an idol, I saw a tall white man telling me to hold back and not to touch the idol. Umm Ayman stresses that that was the first and the last idol festival Muhammad attended until he began to receive his Qur’ānic revelations.⁵

Yet, Muhammad shared in every good aspect of his community’s life. When he was only fifteen, he helped his uncles as they fought what was known as the Fijār war. This four-year war was started in the sacred months where Arabian tradition prohibited any fighting. Hence its name, which suggests the violation of sanctity. The combatants were the two major Arabian tribes of the Quraysh and the Qays ʿAylān. Shortly after this war was over, when Muhammad was nearly twenty, he took part in forging the noble al-Fuḍūl alliance, which committed the Quraysh clans to stand united in support of anyone subjected to any injustice in Makkah, whether they belonged to Makkah or were visitors.

Around this time, Muhammad was looking for a new job, and trade was the pillar of Makkah’s economy. Muhammad started to work as an agent for a famous businesswoman called Khadījah. She was a wealthy widow who carried business in the famous Arabian markets. Muhammad is reported to have worked for her in the Ḥubāshah market place. He had a partner who worked with him. Apparently, he worked for modest wages. However, the best opportunity a young man of his age could have was to join a trade caravan as an agent of one of the Makkan businessmen. Khadījah needed such an agent, and the experience she had with Muhammad encouraged her to send him as her agent in the traditional summer trade caravan to Syria. The venture was highly successful, as Muhammad secured handsome profits for Khadījah at both ends of the trip. It is not clear whether he went on several such business trips, but his performance was highly impressive. Khadījah had sent a servant of hers called Maysarah with him, who reported to her on Muhammad’s honesty, integrity and business acumen.

As a wealthy widow, Khadījah had no shortage of suitors, including some with favourable social standing, but she had refused them all. Now she realized that she had found her eligible bachelor. Khadījah discreetly proposed marriage with Muhammad, and this was soon accomplished. It is suggested that Muhammad was twenty-five at the time while Khadījah was forty, but this is highly questionable. She gave him two sons and four daughters within ten years, which suggests that she was in the prime of her reproductive life. This means that she could not have been much over thirty. Indeed, a report by Ibn ʿAbbās, the Prophet’s cousin, tells us that she was twenty-eight.

This was a very happy marriage, and Muhammad continued to manage Khadījah’s business and the family lacked for nothing. He was a model husband and she was a very caring and loving wife. She was not disappointed in her choice: she had found a man of great integrity, who was well respected by his people for his honesty, courage and friendly temperament.

Perhaps it is appropriate at this stage to try to discover what sort of man Muhammad was.

We have detailed descriptions of his physical appearance. The most authentic of these are those that were related by al-Bukhārī and Muslim. Al-Barā’ ibn ʿĀzib reports: God’s Messenger was a man of the best appearance and the best manners. He was neither very tall nor short.⁶ He also reports: The Prophet was of middle height, with broad shoulders. His hair did not reach the lower end of his ears. I saw him once wearing a red suit, and I never saw anything more pleasant.⁷ Al-Barā’ was asked whether the Prophet’s face was long. He said: No. It was like the full moon. Other reports mention that his eyes were of sharp blackness against bright whiteness, with long, arch-shaped and rather thin eyebrows that did not meet in the middle. His head was large, with a wide forehead, straight cheeks, a curved nose, and a wide mouth with well-proportioned lips. He was of fair complexion with a touch of redness in his cheeks. His black hair was neither too curly nor lank. By the end of his life, he had