Culture, Sport and Physical Activity

Sport, Culture & Society, Vol. 5

Karin A. E. Volkwein-Caplan

Culture, Sport, and Physical Activity

Sport, Culture & Society, Vol. 5

Karin A. E. Volkwein-Caplan

CULTURE, SPORT, AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Meyer & Meyer Sport

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

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Karin A. E. Volkwein-Caplan

Culture, Sport, and Physical Activity

Maidenhead: Meyer & Meyer Sport (UK) Ltd., 20

(Sport, Culture & Society; Vol. 5)

ISBN 9781841264370

All rights reserved, especially the right to copy and distribute, including the translation rights. No part of this work may be reproduced – including by photocopy, microfilm or any other means – processed, stored electronically, copied or distributed in any form whatsoever without the written permission of the publisher.

© 2004 by Meyer & Meyer Sport (UK) Ltd.

2nd Edition 2009

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E-Mail: [email protected]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sport for every person, all through life, and an intensification of international efforts in physical training, could have a decisive impact on solving the problems of today’s world.

(UNESCO Declaration)

About the Series – Sport, Culture & Society

Physical activities, fitness, and sports can be considered cultural practices reflecting multiple meanings. The Sport, Culture and Society series deals with issues intersecting sport, physical activity and cultural concerns. The focus of the book series is interdisciplinary, groundbreaking work that draws on different disciplines and theoretical approaches, such as sociology, philosophy, cultural anthropology, history, cultural studies, feminist studies, postmodernism, or critical theory. The Sport, Culture and Society series seeks to reflect both, the variety of research concerns from a multi-disciplinary perspective and discussions of current topics in sport and physical activity and their relationship to culture.

The editors:

Karin Volkwein-Caplan (USA), Keith Gilbert (Great Britain), and Otto Schantz (Germany)

For further information about the book series or the submission of proposals please contact:

Prof. Dr. Karin Volkwein-Caplan, West Chester University, Department of Kinesiology, West Chester, PA 19383, USA, e-mail: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Keith Gilbert, Professor of Sports Marketing and Management, Hartpury College, Hartpury House, Gloucester, GL19 3BE, UK, E-Mail: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Otto J. Schantz, Universität Koblenz-Landau Sportwissenschaft, Universitätsstraße 1, 56070 Koblenz, Germany, E-Mail: [email protected]

DEDICATION

As Karl Marx wrote: Die Philosophen haben die Welt nur verschieden interpretiert, es kommt aber darauf an, Sie zu verändern. (Translation: The philosophers have only interpreted the world in different ways, while the importance is to change it.)

To the people I love and who inspire me, – most of all James and Benjamin, and my parents. And to the many students at West Chester University who will not stop being inquisitive, and thus, keep me going...

FOREWORD I

Universally in the world throughout the years sport and all its associated facets are part of daily and weekly communication media in every country of the planet earth. Historically it has been principally a major part of male life. The 20th century provided for the emergence of women into this sacrosanct men’s world. Associated with the phenomenal development was the creative need for it to invade education for all women.

The cultural impact along with the differentiated anatomical and physiological variations between the sexes has expanded into medical, psychological, and social complications which increased the total complexity of athletics/sport for all females. Thus, Dr. Karin A. E. Volkwein-Caplan and her professional associates have, like Jason and the Argonauts, built a ship to invade the technical and controversial field.

Dr. Volkwein-Caplan’s professional life coupled with her extensive experience in the educational field has provided the rather unique qualifications required to successfully captain this project. To completely enhance and magnify her reputation, drive, and dedication, she has fearlessly proceeded with not only her education in a number of universities in several major countries but has been a principal investigator and participant in professional international conferences with most successful presentations and subsequent publications. Like the success of Jason and the Argonauts, I predict Karin and her educational crew though the production of texts like this will bring back the golden fleet of Chalkis!

Russell L. Sturzebecker, Ph.D.

Professor Emeritus

West Chester University

FOREWORD II

The themes addressed in this text will be of great interest to everyone who has a passion for sport, wonders why people spend so much time and energy participating in sport and physical activities, and what impact they have on our psyche and culture. These themes continue to be of great interest to me. In fact, in one of my former lives, I taught about sport for a time when I was a professor at SUNY College at Buffalo. Specifically, I taught two courses – one was titled ‘Athletics in Education’ and the second was ‘Movement and Meaning: An Introduction to the Art and Science of Human Movement’. Both explored some of the reasons why so many people have a passion for sport and other forms of physical activity. In the case of the Athletics in Education, the focus was on why sport has a place in our American educational institutions as a mechanism for addressing educational goals and objectives.

This is interesting stuff that students – undergraduate and graduate – find relevant to their lives and their studies. Class discussions were passionate and writing assignments were predominately insightful and intelligent. Students had something to talk and write about that was of great interest to them, thus, enhancing their educational experience. Dr. Volkwein-Caplan teaches an extremely popular course here at West Chester University to over 400 students per year titled ‘Sport, Culture, and Society’. Many parts of the course are similar to what I used to teach. I have been to her classes, and the class discussions are every bit as passionate as they were in my classes years ago. If this book had been available when I was teaching the courses referenced above, I would have used this text.

In this book, Dr. Volkwein-Caplan and her colleagues have taken the study of sport and its relationship to culture and society to a new level. First, Dr. Volkwein-Caplan defines ‘sport’ from an international perspective to include fitness and health issues in addition to the traditional American definition of sport. This approach is appropriate because we are a much more global society with each passing decade,and fitness and health issues are of particular concern to developed nations as we try to enhance the quality of people’s lives while encouraging healthy active life styles. In addition, the book gives special attention to the ways in which cultural values and norms influence the moral, ethical, racial, economic, and gender based issues in fitness and sport. Once again, this is the kind of material that gets students who are interested in sport and physical activity excited over learning.

Finally, the book addresses groups that are marginalized in and through sport and fitness activities which ought to motivate students into having even more passionate discussions. This book contains great material that has implications for areas of our lives that go beyond sport and physical activity.

Dr. Volkwein-Caplan has authored and co-authored three other books, has written a number other book chapters, and has published many peer reviewed articles for scholarly journals and conference proceedings. Her record of scholarly accomplishment demonstrates that she is an experienced and successful author who writes about what she loves. I suggest that you read and experience this important text.

Donald E. Barr, Ph.D.

Dean, College of Health Sciences,

West Chester University of Pennsylvania

INTRODUCTION

CULTURE, SPORT, AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Physical activities, fitness, and sports can be considered cultural practices reflecting multiple meanings. The Sport, Culture, and Society series deals with issues intersecting sport, physical activity, and cultural concerns. The focus of the book series is interdisciplinary and multi-cultural, drawing from various disciplines and theoretical approaches, such as sociology, psychology, cultural anthropology, history, philosophy, feminist/gender studies, political science, – all of which are applied to this text Culture, Sport, and Physical Activity. Thus, the perspectives represented in this book reflect a variety of research concerns from a multi-disciplinary perspective as well as discussions of current topics in sport and physical activity and their relationship to culture. Culture, Sport, and Physical Activity is the culmination of research and teachings undertaken during the tenure of my academic life, including various faculty members and graduate students from institutions I have worked at in the United States and Germany, thus, reflecting various cultural understandings/interpretations of sport and physical activity. It is my hope that volume 5, Culture, Sport, and Physical Activity, will aid in improving the understanding between different cultures, various theoretical backgrounds, and the plentiful interpretations of the field of Kinesiology, encompassing ALL forms of physical activity undertaken by human beings.

This book starts out with laying the theoretical foundations for the sociology and psychology of physical activity and sport (Chapters 1 and 2) and culture and values in the 21st century (Chapter 3). Then the health aspects (Chapter 4) and youth involvement in sport and physical activity (Chapter 5) are discussed. Major concerns of interpretations of race/ethnicity, gender, and body image issues as applied to human movement are analyzed in Chapters 6, 7, and 8. Lastly, the influences of politics on sport and vice versa as well as the relationship between sport and religion conclude this text (Chapter 9).

In order to better facilitate discussions on culture, sport, and physical activity it is necessary to first lay out the definitions and key concepts used throughout this book. While Chapter 3 focuses on culture and values and their effects on human movement, this introduction will establish working definitions for sport, health and fitness, – as they will be used throughout this text.

Definition of Terms

Fitness and Health. The scientific literature in kinesiology (performance and human movement related sciences) distinguishes between two forms of physical fitness, one related to health, including rehabilitation, and the other related to performance. Fitness is often described as an integral part of health and self-realization:

Physical fitness is considered a multifaceted continuum which measures the quality of health ranging from death and disease that severely limit activity to the optimal functional abilities of various physical aspects of life. (AAHPER Research Council, 1996)

The concept of fitness not only refers to exercise and its effects, but also to the general state of a person’s psycho-physical well-being (Glassner, 1990, 216). Although some fitness enthusiasts distinguish between fitness and health, in everyday usage the two words have become generally synonymous. Both terms incorporate exercise, diet, life-style, and more.

The International Consensus Conference on Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Health (Bouchard et al, 1990) defined health as a ‘human condition with physical, social, and psychological dimensions, each characterized on a continuum with positive and negative poles. Positive health is associated with a capacity to enjoy life and withstand challenges; it is not merely the absence of disease. Negative health is associated with morbidity and, in the extreme, with premature mortality.’ (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996).

Fitness and health also reflect the underlying concept that both are essential to the development of individuals, for the body as well as the mind. Mens sana in corpore sano – a sound mind in a sound body. Fitness is stabilized health achieved through training. Indeed, both are associated with the quality of life, with life satisfaction and fulfillment, as well as the ecological and social parameters of each individual. That is, fitness and health are major determinants of how well people master their lives and adapt to new situations and requirements.

A number of researchers have evaluated the benefits associated with regular participation in fitness activities. Uhlenbruck (1992, 1996), for example, in his immunological research on cancer and sport found that the effects of a well balanced engagement in movement, sport, or fitness activities have led to a sense of subjective psychological well-being. He also found an increase in cognitive ability and creativity. Other researchers have noted that as a consequence of greater physical endurance people are more able to master the daily routines of the job and the home. When engagement in sporting and fitness activities results in enjoyment, the subjective quality of life is also positively influenced (see Chapter 4 in this text).

Cultural Variations of the Term Sport. The word sport is derived from the Latin deportare , which means to divert. In most European languages, the term sport has an all-inclusive meaning, incorporating a variety of human movements, including sport, recreation and leisure activities, as well as exercise and physical fitness. The German language, for example, distinguishes between different forms of sporting engagement depending on the major focus of the activity; for example, a physical activity with the orientation towards fitness is called Fitness-Sport, an orientation towards health is called Gesundheits-Sport (health sport); an orientation towards achievement and competition is called Leistungs-Sport (athletics or top-level sport); an orientation towards rehabilitation is called Reha-Sport, and so on (Volkwein, 1999). Recently, terms such as Geronto-Fitness (fitness activities for older adults) and Prestige-Sport (e.g., golf and yachting) have been added to the sporting vocabulary, – which is expanding as the diversity of sporting activities increases. Hence, the term sport is used in the broadest sense of human movement and exercise.

Modern sport has been defined by the Council of Europe as a free, spontaneous physical activity, which is conducted as leisure pursuit for enjoyment, recreation, and relaxation. Proper sport is executed with physical effort and encompasses several categories, which include competitive games and athletics, outdoor pursuits, aesthetic movement (e.g., dance) and conditioning activity.

In North America, on the other hand, the term sport is generally used in reference to competitive sporting endeavors. Other forms of physical activity have their specific terminology depending on the focus of the activity, – much like the German differentiation. However, these other forms of human movement are labeled as fitness or health exercise, leisure and recreational activities, dance, play, games, and more. The term sport is not attached here, as it is in the German language; thus, the concept of sport in the North American context is essentially much more narrow and only used when the main objective is competition.

Although definitions of sports vary, those who offer definitions tend to emphasize that sports are institutionalized competitive activities that involve rigorous physical exertion or the use of relatively complex physical skills by participants motivated by internal and external rewards. (Coakley, 2004, 21)

Readers of this book should be aware of the cultural differences in the usage of the word sport, nationally and internationally. The international understanding captures all aspects of human movement and physical activity, and it embraces the health aspect of regular engagement in exercise as well; hence, this interpretation of sport is more suitable for the issues discussed in this text.

Conclusion

Social and cultural changes as well as the effects of the globalization process impact on curricular development of sport and physical education programs, health and wellness education, as well as our body culture in general. Thus, it is important to understand the impact of these changes on peoples’ lives and their needs, especially in regard to physical activity. The old rather traditional ‘sport for all’ concept with its focus on competition and achievement may not satisfy these changed needs of individuals in modern societies any longer. Rather, the new fitness and exercise development with its emphasis on health, relaxation, and general life fulfillment may be more appropriate to the contribution of the overall psycho-physical well-being of modern individuals. And, as the process of globalization continues, it is likely that this understanding of fitness and exercise will spread to non-western cultures as well. Eventually, it might become the global ‘sport for all’ concept in the future.

References

AAHPER Research Council (1996). Health Related Physical Fitness Test Manual.

Coakley, J. (2004). Sport in Society. 8th Edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Glassner, B. (1990). Fit for Postmodern Selfhood. In: H. Becker, M. Call (Eds.) Symbolic Interaction and Cultural Studies. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Pp. 215-243.

Uhlenbruck, G. (1992). Sport und Fitness – ein Leib-Seele-Problem. Naturund Ganzheitsmedizin, 5, 50-52.

Uhlenbruck, G. (1996). Bewegungstraining verbessert Lebensqualität. TW Gynäkologie, 9, 345-351.

US Department of Health and Human Services (1996). Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Pittsburgh, PA: Superintendent of Documents.

Volkwein, K. (Ed.) (1998). Fitness as Cultural Phenomenon. Münster, New York: Waxmann Verlag.

What is the sociology of sport and physical activity and why study it? Sport has become a major institution in the North American society as well as other highly industrialized nations; however, our understanding of it remains limited. There are many statements people make about sport that are either overstated, understated, or misinterpreted. Can sport truly contribute to the improvement of modern society? It is certainly true that sport is a tremendous force for the status quo and it distracts millions of people from more serious thoughts or painful existences. Does sport hold society together and does it empower women as much as it has men?

The question a sociologist might ask is: Why is social life organized in particular ways? Most people agree that the field of sport sociology is the subdiscipline of sociology that studies sports as part of social and cultural life (Coakley, 2004, 6). More recently, sport sociologists have also investigated the phenomenon of physical activity, fitness and health, and not only the competitive, organized sports. In doing this research, people theorize about social life and the meaning of sport and physical activity in it. Theorizing includes a combination of description, reflection, and analysis of social phenomena. This is based on the assumption that humans could make the world better; that is, more efficient, just and harmonious, as well as more controllable through the use of knowledge and science and technological advancements. Thus, sociologists first try to disect what society is all about and what its various components are. It is assumed that institutions are the general foundation and building blocks of a society. However, each sociologist brings with him/her different viewpoints of the world, which then leads to several different interpretations and theories.

Societies are complex phenomena; they have their own histories, dynamics and cultures, and they can be viewed from many different perspectives. It is recognized today that no single perspective can tell us all we need to know about social life. Thus, we have a pluralism of theories today: For example, feminist scholars have made very convincing arguments that theories based on men’s experience of the world do not tell us all about social life, because 50% of the population is left out of the equation. Global social changes have shown us that we are operating from a Euro-centric viewpoint that is irrelevant to other parts of the world. New communication technologies, computer-based and media-generated, have altered our sense of what is real and what is not. Thus, new dimensions of social life have been created. For example, you can meet someone over the internet and think you know them, but you really do not. This is a different kind of reality that has been created that is not real anymore. Furthermore, scientists have come to understand that science itself is part of culture; thus, the system is reflected in the theories and not free from it. That is, only certain views are present and represented, which reflect the world experienced by the powerful and the educated; many other voices are not expressed or not heard. Worst yet, this is not acknowledged, and therefore does not exist.

In this chapter, the theoretical framework of sport sociology will be discussed as well as the various theories about sport, physical activity and society. The pros and cons of these theories help us to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each one. It will become obvious that there is not one best theory that can explain the complexity of social life; rather a multiplicity of approaches helps to form a better understanding of the social phenomena of sport and physical activity in the modern world.

Theoretical Frameworks

Sport sociologists uncover and discover things are not as they seem (Bryant & McElroy, 1997, 4). They try to debunk existing myth and misconceptions about sports and physical activity. One very widely held belief is that sport is free from racism and discrimination, which we will see is not true (see Chapters 6 and 7 in this book). Other myths are that everyone has access to sport and physical activities and that women’s sport is inferior to men’s. Social scientists challenge these popular misconceptions; they hold that each event in sport and physical activity affects various social groups differently, which then produces a multitude of causes and effects.

Sport is used in many ways socially, politically, and economically. These purposes are recurring themes throughout this book. For example:

When doing research in sociology we also need to be aware that there are different levels of thinking, dominant culture vs sub-culture. The dominant thought processes reflect the viewpoints of the majority in a given culture, while the sub-culture thinking is the thinking of a smaller group that is different. Because dominant thinking has evolved over a longer period of time, it is usually difficult to change. It requires a lot more effort to challenge the focus of sport as being male-dominated, competitive and profit driven. Not all groups in society identify with the dominant culture; for example, the all-male sports clubs that are still prevalent in parts of the country are not necessarily receiving support by women, minorities and members of disadvantaged groups (such as low income, low education). The thinking of these various groups or subcultures reflects values that are opposite to those of the dominant culture. Differences between the dominant culture and subcultures make their point of interaction a place of social struggle (Bryant & McElroy, 1997, 7). Several of these social group’s struggles will be examined throughout this book.

Sport sociology research takes place on the macro as well as the micro level. Macro-level studies examine social life and social structures on a larger scale. They use categories, such as social class or social institutions (family, education, politics, etc.) and social systems (war, unemployment, or divorce) to explain social existence. Micro-level studies, on the other hand, analyze the immediate social environment, such as an individual’s experience or the interpretations of an event. They attach personal meaning to engagements in sport and physical activity. Both sides are correct.

Sociologists are interested in making a change in social life; sport sociologists are particularly interested in social action pertaining to sport and physical activity. Questions they would ask are: regarding the social environment (Why don’t women play football?), regarding social relationships (It is not what you know but who you know), regarding social dynamism (Does sport provide grounds for upward social mobility?), and in the cultural context (Are the dominant American values reflected in sports?).

Theories about Sport, Physical Activity, and Society

Each author groups theories differently. Theories are useful tools to describe, explain and predict behavior and events. There are a great number of theories and theoretical paradigms, which are a set of fundamental assumptions about society that guides sociological thinking. However, there is great disagreement on what the important questions are in the field as well as which theory is the best approach to use when studying sports and physical activity. The array of currently existing theories include (according to Coakley 2004):

Although there are tremendous differences between the various theoretical approaches, there are also points where they overlap. These six theories will be explained and analyzed separately, but they are fluid and often have similar frameworks. However, each theory gives us a unique perspective for imagining and studying the complexity of the relationships between sport/physical activity, culture, and society.

(1) Functionalist Theory

Social science researchers who are functionalists assume that the driving force behind all social life is to continue to operate and function efficiently; that is to support the status quo of a given society. They believe that social change is dysfunctional unless it occurs in a gradual, evolutionary manner. It is believed that the social system functions efficiently when the following needs are met:

The research questions functionalists seek to answer are affirmative in nature. Examples include: What is the relationship between sports participation and the development of good moral character? Can sport and physical activity foster social integration of various groups? What is the relationship between sport participation and achievement motivation? Can sport participation build character?

Weaknesses: Functionalist theory has several limitations. First, theorists exaggerate about the positive effects sport and physical activity have on people who are involved, while the dysfunctional parts of sport and the social system are eliminated or not acknowledged. For example, the statement that sports builds character is used in the promotion of sporting activities. A failure of character building (e.g., an athlete taking performance-enhancing drugs) is solely attributed to the athlete’s personal failure, rather than a combination of internal and external pressures.

Another weakness of the functionalists is the assumption that the needs of all individuals in society are the same; differences are not accounted for. The assumption that everyone has equal access to sports and physical activity is simply a myth. It ignores the socio-cultural research showing differences when it comes to gender, race/ethnicity, socio-economic backgrounds, age, religious beliefs, the environment, and