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    Romans to Philemon: Volume Three
    Romans to Philemon: Volume Three
    Romans to Philemon: Volume Three
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    Romans to Philemon: Volume Three

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    An image rich, passage-by-passage commentary that integrates relevant historical and cultural insights, providing a deeper dimension of perspective to the words of the New Testament.

    Discoveries await you that will snap the world of the New Testament into new focus. Things that seem mystifying, puzzling, or obscure will take on tremendous meaning when you view them in their ancient context. With the Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary, you'll:

    • Discover the close interplay between God's kingdom and the practical affairs of the church.
    • Learn more about the real life setting of the Old Testament writings to help you identify with the people and circumstances described in Scripture.
    • Gain a deeper awareness of the Bible's relevance for your life.

    In this volume, detailed exegetical notes are combined with background information of the cultural settings that will help you interpret the writings attributed to the apostle Paul: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon.

    THE ZONDERVAN ILLUSTRATED BIBLE BACKGROUNDS COMMENTARY SERIES

    Invites you to enter the world of the New Testament with a company of seasoned guides, experts who will help you understand and teach the biblical text more accurately. Features:

    • Commentary based on relevant papyri, inscriptions, archaeological discoveries, and studies of Judaism, Roman culture, Hellenism, and other features of the world of the New Testament.
    • Hundreds of full-color photographs, color illustrations, and line drawings.
    • Copious maps, charts, and timelines.
    • Sidebar articles and insights.
    • "Reflections" on the Bible's relevance for 21st-century living.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherZondervan
    Release dateMar 15, 2011
    ISBN9780310873709
    Romans to Philemon: Volume Three

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      Romans to Philemon - Zondervan

      Romans Galatians

      Douglas J. Moo

      Ralph P. Martin

      Julie L. Wu

      1 & 2 Corinthians

      David W. J. Gill

      Moyer V. Hubbard

      Ephesians Philippians Colossians Philemon

      Clinton E. Arnold

      Frank S. Thielman

      S. M. Baugh

      1 & 2 Thessalonians 1 & 2 Timothy Titus

      Jeffrey A. D. Weima

      S. M. Baugh

      Julie L. Wu

      CONTENTS

      Cover

      Romans Galatians

      1 & 2 Corinthians

      Ephesians Philippians Colossians Philemon

      1 & 2 Thessalonians 1 & 2 Timothy Titus

      About the Publisher

      Share Your Thoughts

      Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary

      Romans

      Galatians

      Douglas J. Moo

      Ralph P. Martin

      Julie L. Wu

      Clinton E. Arnold       general editor

      CONTENTS

      INTRODUCTION

      LIST OF SIDEBARS

      INDEX OF PHOTOS AND MAPS

      ABBREVIATIONS

      ROMANS

          by Douglas J. Moo

      GALATIANS

          by Ralph P. Martin and Julie L. Wu

      ABOUT THE AUTHORS

      CREDITS FOR PHOTOS AND MAPS

      Copyright

      INTRODUCTION

      All readers of the Bible have a tendency to view what it says it through their own culture and life circumstances. This can happen almost subconsiously as we read the pages of the text.

      When most people in the church read about the thief on the cross, for instance, they immediately think of a burglar that held up a store or broke into a home. They may be rather shocked to find out that the guy was actually a Jewish revolutionary figure who was part of a growing movement in Palestine eager to throw off Roman rule.

      It also comes as something of a surprise to contemporary Christians that cursing in the New Testament era had little or nothing to do with cussing somebody out. It had far more to do with the invocation of spirits to cause someone harm.

      No doubt there is a need in the church for learning more about the world of the New Testament to avoid erroneous interpretations of the text of Scripture. But relevant historical and cultural insights also provide an added dimension of perspective to the words of the Bible. This kind of information often functions in the same way as watching a movie in color rather than in black and white. Finding out, for instance, how Paul compared Christ’s victory on the cross to a joyous celebration parade in honor of a Roman general after winning an extraordinary battle brings does indeed magnify the profundity and implications of Jesus’ work on the cross. Discovering that the factions at Corinth (I follow Paul… I follow Apollos…) had plenty of precedent in the local cults (I follow Aphrodite; I follow Apollo…) helps us understand the why of a particular problem. Learning about the water supply from the springs of Hierapolis that flowed into Laodicea as lukewarm water enables us to appreciate the relevance of the metaphor Jesus used when he addressed the spiritual laxity of this church.

      My sense is that most Christians are eager to learn more about the real life setting of the New Testament. In the preaching and teaching of the Bible in the church, congregants are always grateful when they learn something of the background and historical context of the text. It not only helps them understand the text more accurately, but often enables them to identify with the people and circumstances of the Bible. I have been asked on countless occasions by Christians, Where can I get access to good historical background information about this passage? Earnest Christians are hungry for information that makes their Bibles come alive.

      The stimulus for this commentary came from the church and the aim is to serve the church. The contributors to this series have sought to provide illuminating and interesting historical/cultural background information. The intent was to draw upon relevant papyri, inscriptions, archaeological discoveries, and the numerous studies of Judaism, Roman culture, Hellenism, and other features of the world of the New Testament and to make the results accessible to people in the church. We recognize that some readers of the commentary will want to go further, and so the sources of the information have been carefully documented in endnotes.

      The written information has been supplemented with hundreds of photographs, maps, charts, artwork, and other graphics that help the reader better understand the world of the New Testament. Each of the writers was given an opportunity to dream up a wish list of illustrations that he thought would help to illustrate the passages in the New Testament book for which he was writing commentary. Although we were not able to obtain everything they were looking for, we came close.

      The team of commentators are writing for the benefit of the broad array of Christians who simply want to better understand their Bibles from the vantage point of the historical context. This is an installment in a new genre of Bible background commentaries that was kicked off by Craig Keener’s fine volume. Consequently, this is not an exegetical commentary that provides linguistic insight and background into Greek constructions and verb tenses. Neither is this work an expository commentary that provides a verse-by-verse exposition of the text; for in-depth philological or theological insight, readers will need to have other more specialized or comprehensive commentaries available. Nor is this an historical-critical commentary, although the contributors are all scholars and have already made substantial academic contributions on the New Testament books they are writing on for this set. The team intentionally does not engage all of the issues that are discussed in the scholarly guild.

      Rather, our goal is to offer a reading and interpretation of the text informed by what we regard as the most relevant historical information. For many in the church, this commentary will serve as an important entry point into the interpretation and appreciation of the text. For other more serious students of the Word, these volumes will provide an important supplement to many of the fine exegetical, expository, and critical available.

      The contributors represent a group of scholars who embrace the Bible as the Word of God and believe that the message of its pages has life-changing relevance for faith and practice today. Accordingly, we offer Reflections on the relevance of the Scripture to life for every chapter of the New Testament.

      I pray that this commentary brings you both delight and insight in digging deeper into the Word of God.

      Clinton E. Arnold General Editor

      LIST OF SIDEBARS

      Romans

      Romans: Important Facts

      The Disturbance of Chrestus and the Roman Church

      Homosexuality

      Paul and Rhetoric

      Circumcision as a Boundary Marker

      Corporate Solidarity and Adam’s Sin

      Paul and Jewish Apocalyptic

      The Use of I in Light of Paul’s Corporate Solidarity with Israel

      Abba as Daddy?

      The Debate on Sovereignty and Free Will in First-Century Judaism

      The Social-Political Setting of Paul’s Appeal to Obey the Government

      Paul and Government

      The Weak and the Strong in Rome

      Galatians

      Galatians: Important Facts

      Antioch

      Redemption

      Elements

      INDEX OF PHOTOS AND MAPS

      altar, horned, from Megiddo, 67

      angels (from model of tabernacle), 106

      Antioch, Pisidia, 100–1, 102, 114

      Antioch, Syria, 113

      apartment building (see insula)

      Arch of Titus (Rome), 6

      armor, Roman, 80

      Astarte, 13

      Augustus, Caesar, 47

      Baal, 13

      Caesar (see emperors)

      catacomb, 5

      Cilician Gates, 109

      circumcision, Egyptian tomb relief depicting, 27

      city plans

      Antioch, Syria, 113

      Rome, 9

      Claudius, 7 coins

      half-shekels, 18

      shekels, 18

      Colosseum (Rome), 52

      columns, Corinthian, 109

      Corinth, Apollo temple, 112

      Dead Sea Scrolls

      replica, 40

      Temple Scroll, 70

      emperors

      Augustus, Caesar, 47

      Claudius, 7

      Nero, 65

      Erastus inscription, 94

      forum at Rome, 6

      Galatia (see Antioch, Pisidia; Lystra)

      gods and goddesses

      Astarte, 13

      Baal, 13

      Cybele, 126

      Hermes, 122

      Gomorrah, 60

      Hermes, 122

      Holy of Holies, 24

      idol (see gods and goddesses)

      inscriptions of Erastus, 94

      insula, 91

      Jerusalem, Zion, 71

      Lystra, 104

      manuscript (see papyrus)

      mercy seat, 24

      miqveh, 34, 120

      Mount Sinai,123

      Mount Zion, 71

      Nero, 65

      Octavian (see Augustus, Caesar)

      olive tree, 69

      Olympic stadium, 58

      Ostia, 4, 91

      ostracon, 38

      papyrus

      p⁴⁶, 10, 130

      slave purchase document, 23

      Pisidian Antioch (see Antioch, Pisidia)

      potsherd (see ostracon)

      potter, 59

      receipt for slave purchase, 38

      road, Roman, 6

      Rome, 2–3, 52, 72

      Arch of Titus, 6

      city plan, 9

      colosseum, 52

      forum, 6

      temple of Saturn, 17

      Tiber River, 2–3

      Via Appia, 6

      sacrifice, 24, 45

      shekels, 18

      Sinai, Mount (see Mount Sinai)

      Sodom, 60

      soldiers, Roman, 80

      stadium, Olympic, 58

      St. Peter’s Square (Rome), 72

      statue

      of Augustus, Caesar, 47

      of Claudius, 7

      of Cybele, 126

      of Hermes, 122

      of Nero, 65

      of Zeno, 8

      synagogue at Ostia, 4

      tabernacle

      model of Holy of Holies, 24

      model of sacrificial scene, 24, 45

      model of the mercy seat, 24

      Tarsus, 109, 110

      temple

      of Apollo (Corinth), 112

      of Augustus (Antioch, Pisidia), 114

      of Saturn (Rome), 17

      Temple Scroll (from Qumran), 70

      tent (see tabernacle)

      Tiber River, 2–3

      Torah, 40

      Via Appia, 6

      whip, 85

      Zeno, 8

      ABBREVIATIONS

      1. Books of the Bible and Apocrypha

      2. Old and New Testament Pseudepigrapha and Rabbinic Literature

      Individual tractates of rabbinic literature follow the abbreviations of the SBL Handbook of Style, pp. 79–80. Qumran documents follow standard Dead Sea Scroll conventions.

      3. Classical Historians

      For an extended list of classical historians and church fathers, see SBL Handbook of Style, pp. 84–87. For many works of classical antiquity, the abbreviations have been subjected to the author’s discretion; the names of these works should be obvious upon consulting entries of the classical writers in classical dictionaries or encyclopedias.

      Eusebius

      Josephus

      Philo

      Apostolic Fathers

      4. Modern Abbreviations

      5. General Abbreviations

      Zondervan

      Illustrated

      Bible Backgrounds

      Commentary

      ROMANS

      by Douglas J. Moo

      All kinds of issues would need to- be tackled in a full-scale introduction to Paul’s letter to the Romans: not least the questions about the letter’s purpose and theme. But the introductory remarks that follow will concentrate on the background issues that are the focus of this commentary. Other issues will be ignored or touched on only briefly.

      Events Leading up to Paul’s Writing of Romans

      Understanding Paul’s own situation as he writes Romans helps us appreciate the purpose and theme of the letter. In 15:14–22, he looks back at a period of ministry just concluded. From Jerusalem all the way around to Illyricum, Paul tells us, I have fully proclaimed the gospel of Christ (15:19). This verse indicates that Paul’s ministry has reached a significant geographical turning point. As Luke tells us in Acts, Paul first preached Christ in Damascus (and perhaps Arabia) after his conversion (Acts 9:19–22; cf. Gal. 1:17). Only after three years did he go to Jerusalem to preach, and then only briefly (Gal. 1:18; cf. Acts 9:28–29). Why, then, mention Jerusalem as the starting point for his ministry? For two reasons. First, the city represents the center of Judaism, and Paul is concerned to show how the gospel spread from the Jews to the Gentiles. Second, the city stands at one geographic extremity in his missionary travels. At the other extremity is Illyricum, the Roman province occupying what is today Albania and parts of Yugoslavia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. Only here does Paul refer to missionary work in this province, although such a ministry can be fit easily into the movements of Paul on his third missionary journey (see comments on Rom. 15:19). An arc drawn from Jersualem to Illyricum, therefore, passes over, or nearby, the important churches that Paul has planted in south Galatia (Pisidian Antioch, Lystra, Iconium, Derbe), Asia (Ephesus), Macedonia (Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea), and Achaia (Corinth).

      Romans IMPORTANT FACTS:

      AUTHOR: Paul the apostle.

      DATE: A.D. 57.

      OCCASION: Paul writes toward the end of the third missionary journey to a church that is divided between Jewish and Gentile Christians.

      PURPOSE: To help the Roman Christians understand the gospel, especially in its implications for the relationship of Jew and Gentile in the church.

      ITALY

      But what does Paul mean when he claims that he has fully proclaimed the gospel in these areas? The Greek has simply the equivalent of our verb fulfill (peplērōkenai). To fulfill the gospel, therefore, probably means to preach it sufficiently such that viable churches are established. These churches can then carry on the task of evangelism in their own territories while Paul moves on to plant new churches in virgin gospel territory (cf. 15:20–21).

      SYNAGOGUE REMAINS

      The ruins of the synagogue at Ostia, the port city of Rome.

      In pursuit of this calling, Paul is moving on to Spain (15:24). On the way, he hopes to stop off in Rome, evidently to enlist the Roman Christians’ support for his new gospel outreach (see comments on 15:24). But before he can begin his trip to the western Mediterranean, he must first return to Jerusalem (15:25). Throughout the third missionary journey, Paul has collected money from the Gentile churches he planted to bring back to the impoverished Jerusalem believers. Now he is ready to embark on this trip, and he earnestly asks the Roman Christians to pray for it (15:30–33). The collection represents for Paul a key step in what he hopes will be the reconciliation of Jewish and Gentile Christians in the early church.

      The Life-Situation of Paul and Why He Wrote

      Four pieces of information from 15:23–33 are especially helpful in understanding the situation of Paul as he writes Romans. First, he is almost certainly writing the letter during his winter stay in Corinth at the end of the third missionary journey (Acts 20:2–3; cf. 2 Cor. 13:1). Not only does this place and time best fit the movements Paul describes in chapter 15; it also explains why he commends to the Romans’ attention a prominent woman from the church in Cenchrea, the seaport of Corinth (16:1–2).

      Second, Paul is conscious of having reached a significant turning point in his missionary career. He has fulfilled the gospel task in the eastern Mediterranean and is now ready for new, fresh fields, white for the harvest. Such a turning point is a natural time for Paul to reflect on the gospel he has preached and the controversies he has come through.

      ROMAN CATACOMB

      The Priscilla Catacomb dates to the second or third century A.D. and contains hundreds of burial niches.

      THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD

      Judea to Spain.

      Third, Paul is deeply concerned about the results of his impending trip to Jerusalem with all its implications for what is to him, and to many others, a central theological issue in the early church: the integration of Gentiles into the people of God. We should not be surprised, then, that this issue plays such a large role in Romans.

      Finally, Paul is seeking the support of the Roman Christians for his new ministry in Spain. Perhaps one of the reasons Paul writes this letter to the church in Rome is to introduce himself and explain his theology so that the church will feel comfortable in supporting him.

      ROME

      The Forum.

      The Via Appia.

      The Arch of Titus, built by Domitian to celebrate his brother’s military victory over Jerusalem and Judea.

      Rome and Its Church

      Some scholars surmise that Paul’s own circumstances suffice to explain why he writes Romans. At a key transition point in his ministry, the apostle sets forth the gospel he preaches to the Roman Christians so that they can pray intelligently for his visit to Jerusalem and so that they will be willing to support his new evangelistic effort in Spain. But left out in all this is the Roman church itself. And what we know about that church provides further critical information about the nature and purpose of Romans.

      We have no direct evidence about the origins of Christianity in Rome. The tradition that Peter (or Peter and Paul together) founded the church is almost certainly erroneous.¹ Not only is it difficult to place Peter in Rome at such an early date, but it is difficult to imagine Paul writing to a church founded by Peter in the way he does, considering his expressed principle not to build on someone else’s foundation (15:20). No other tradition from the ancient church associates any other apostle with the founding of the church.

      Thus, the assessment of the fourth-century Ambrosiaster is probably accurate: the Romans embraced the faith of Christ, albeit according to the Jewish rite, without seeing any sign of mighty works or any of the apostles.² Luke tells us that visitors from Rome were present on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:10). Some of them were probably converted as a result of Peter’s powerful speech. They would have returned to their home city and begun preaching Jesus as the Messiah. We know that enough Jews had emigrated to Rome by the first century B.C. to make up a significant portion of the population.³ The Jewish community was not apparently unified, with many synagogues independent of one another.⁴ This circumstance may help explain why the Christians in Rome are also divided.

      The Disturbance of Chrestus and the Roman Church

      One circumstance in the life of the Jews in Rome probably played a significant role in explaining why Paul writes Romans the way he does. The ancient historian Suetonius tells us that Emperor Claudius expelled all the Jews from Rome because they were constantly rioting at the instigation of Chrestus (Life of Claudius 25.2).

      Most scholars are convinced that Chrestus is a corruption of the term Christ and that Suetonius is thereby hinting at disputes within the Jewish community over Jesus’ claim to be the Christ. Modern historians are less certain over the date of this expulsion. But a fifth-century Christian writer, Orosius, puts the event in A.D. 49; and this date fits nicely with Acts 18:2, which tells us that Priscilla and Aquila ended up in Corinth during Paul’s second missionary journey, because Claudius had ordered all the Jews to leave Rome.A-1

      One can imagine the catastrophic effect this would have had on the fledging Christian community in Rome. Originating from the synagogue, the bulk of Christians would probably have been Jewish. Suddenly they are forced to leave (Claudius would not have distinguished Jews and Jewish Christians). Left behind are Gentiles who had been converted over the years. Many, if not most, were probably from the class of God-fearers, Gentiles who had an interest in Judaism and heard the message of Jesus in the synagogue. These Gentiles are the only Christians left in Rome, so the church naturally becomes less and less Jewish in orientation.

      But by A.D. 54, the date of Claudius’s death, Jews are beginning to return. As Jewish-Christians (like Priscilla and Aquila; cf. Rom. 16:3–5) filter back into the church, they find that they are now in a minority. The social tensions created by this history go a long way in explaining the tensions between Jews and Gentiles that the letter to the Romans abundantly attests (cf. 11:13, 25; 14:1–15:13).A-2

      CLAUDIUS

      Roman emperor A.D. 41–54.

      The Letter and Ancient Genre Considerations

      Romans is, of course, a letter—but what kind of letter? Ancient authors used letters for many different purposes. Scholars have been eager to identify the particular persuasive, or rhetorical, model that Romans belongs in. It has been labeled an epideictic letter,⁵ an ambassadorial letter,⁶ a protreptic letter,⁷ and a letter essay,⁸ to name just a few of the more prominent suggestions. A good case can be made for several of these identifications. But, in the last analysis, Romans does not fit neatly into any specific genre. As James Dunn concludes, the distinctiveness of the letter far outweighs the significance of its conformity with current literary or rhetorical custom.⁹

      ZENO

      Father of Stoicism.

      Other scholars have noted the similarities between sections of Romans and the diatribe. The diatribe was a style of argument popular with Cynic-Stoic philosophers (the best example being Epictetus’s Discourses [1st–2d c. A.D.]). The diatribe features dialogues with fictional characters, rhetorical questions, and the use of the emphatic negation mē genoito (may it never be!) to advance a line of argument. These are just the features Paul uses in passages such as 2:1–3:9; 3:27–31; 6:1–7:25; 9:14–23. Earlier scholars thought the diatribe had a polemical purpose and therefore tended to read Romans as a debate with an opponent (perhaps Jewish).¹⁰ But scholars have recently come to realize that the diatribe was used more often as a means of clarifying truth for converts and disciples.¹¹ The dialogical arguments of Romans therefore have the purpose of helping the Christians in Rome better understand the gospel and its implications.

      Address and Greeting (1:1–7)

      People in Paul’s day usually began their letters by identifying themselves and their addressee(s) and then adding a greeting. Acts 23:26 is a good example: Claudius Lysias, To His Excellency, Governor Felix: Greetings. Paul follows this conventional structure but elaborates each element. He spends six verses identifying himself, probably because he needs to establish his credentials in a church that he did not found and has not visited. Paul claims to be an apostle, dedicated to the gospel, the good news about Jesus, God’s Son. This Jesus, a descendant of David in his earthly life, has now been invested with new power through his resurrection. It is this Jesus whom Paul serves by calling on Gentiles everywhere to trust God and to obey him. And since the Roman Christians are mainly Gentile, Paul has a perfect right to proclaim God’s good news to them.

      Servant of Christ Jesus (1:1). Great leaders in the Old Testament were also called servants of the Lord (see, e.g., Josh. 14:7: I was forty years old when Moses the servant of the LORD sent me from Kadesh Barnea to explore the land). The phrase therefore hints at Paul’s own status and authority. Christ comes from the Greek word for anointed and is equivalent to the Hebrew-derived Messiah. Placing Christ first focuses attention on the word as a title.

      ROME

      The gospel of God (1:1). Gospel, or good news, has backgrounds in both the Old Testament and the Roman world. The prophets used the word to depict God’s saving intervention on behalf of his people: You who bring good tidings to Zion, go up on a high mountain. You who bring good tidings to Jerusalem, lift up your voice with a shout, lift it up, do not be afraid; say to the towns of Judah,‘Here is your God!’ (Isa. 40:9). But the word was also applied by the Romans to the emperor, whose birth, life, and great deeds were good news for the world. A decree issued in 9 B.C. marking the birthday of Emperor Augustus, for instance, claims that his birth was the beginning for the world of glad tidings.¹² The salvation and happiness that many Romans looked to the emperor to provide are available only, claims Paul, in Jesus Christ, the essence of the good news of God.

      A descendant of David (1:3). In the Old Testament, God promises that a descendant of David will have an eternal reign. Perhaps the most famous of such prophecies is found in 2 Samuel 7:12–14a, as the prophet Nathan addresses David: When your days are over and you rest with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring to succeed you, who will come from your own body, and I will establish his kingdom. He is the one who will build a house for my Name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever. I will be his father, and he will be my son. Paul is identifying Jesus as the one in whom the ultimate significance of this prophecy is fulfilled.

      NEW TESTAMENT MANUSCRIPT

      This papyrus fragment, known as p⁴⁶, dates to A.D. 200 and is the oldest surviving copy of the book of Romans.

      Declared with power to be the Son of God (1:4). The NIV suggests that the resurrection marked the time when God, as it were, announced to the world that Jesus was Son of God. But the verb Paul uses suggests rather that Jesus was appointed to a new role at the time of the resurrection. Since Jesus has always been Son of God (see 1:3), this new role must be Son of God in power. Paul may again be alluding to Old Testament messianic passages—in this case, to ones that use language about the installment of a king to predict the coming of Messiah. Note, for instance, Psalm 2:7: I will proclaim the decree of the LORD: He said to me, ‘You are my Son; today I have become your Father.’

      And you also are among those who are called to belong to Jesus Christ (1:6). Or, better: you also, called to belong to Jesus Christ, are among those [e.g., the Gentiles of 1:5]. Paul wants to claim the Roman Christians as Gentiles who belong within his sphere of ministry.

      Thanksgiving and Occasion (1:8–15)

      Paul continues to adapt the typical Greco-Roman letter form, which often had an expression of thanks at the beginning.¹³ Paul is grateful to the Lord for the evidence of the Spirit’s work in the Roman church and is hopeful that he will finally be able to pay them a visit and share his gospel with them.

      That is, that you and I may be mutually encouraged by each other’s faith (1:12). After expressing his desire to impart… some spiritual gift to the Romans, Paul immediately corrects himself by emphasizing the mutual spiritual benefit that he hopes will follow from his visit. We need not doubt Paul’s sincerity; but Paul is also using an ancient rhetorical convention, the captatio benevolentiae, to capture the good will of his audience. He does not want to come across as dictatorial or arrogant.

      I planned many times to come to you (but have been prevented from doing so until now) (1:13). We cannot be certain what it was that kept Paul from visiting Rome earlier. But it was probably the need to minister to the churches that he had founded in the eastern Mediterranean. Paul is writing the letter from Corinth, a church that demanded a lot of his pastoral time and attention (see 1 and 2 Corinthians).

      Greeks and non-Greeks (1:14). Non-Greeks translates the word barbaros, from which we get barbarian. Greeks applied the word to people who could not speak Greek and who therefore used uncouth languages that sounded like nonsense (bar-bar).

      The Theme of the Letter (1:16–17)

      These verses are the transition between the letter’s introduction and its body. In them Paul announces the theme of the letter: the gospel. Paul proudly proclaims the gospel because he knows it unleashes God’s power to rescue human beings—both Jews and Gentiles—from sin and death. The gospel has this power because God reveals his righteousness in it, which can only be experienced through faith.

      First for the Jew, then for the Gentile (1:16). Running like a golden thread through Romans is the insistence that the gospel has overcome the distinction between Jew and Gentile. We find it difficult to appreciate just how deep the divide between Jew and Gentile was for first-century Jews. Jews believed that God had chosen them, from among all the nations of the earth, to be his very own people.

      Two developments during the two centuries before Christ made it more important than ever for Jews to insist on their distinctiveness. First, the Seleucid ruler Antiochus Epiphanes tried to eradicate the Jewish religion. Pious Jews rose up in revolt and prevented the Seleucids from carrying out their intention (see the apocryphal books 1 and 2 Maccabees). But the experience strengthened Jewish resolve to maintain their distinctive culture. The second development leading to this same emphasis was the diaspora. By Jesus’ time, many more Jews were living outside of Palestine than in it. Jews living as a minority in a hostile culture naturally focused on those lifestyle issues that maintained their separateness from the surrounding culture.

      A righteousness from God (1:17). The NIV translation is interpretive; a more literal rendering would be simply righteousness of God. The NIV assumes that Paul is speaking about righteousness as the right status that God gives to the sinner who believes. But the Old Testament background suggests a different way of understanding the phrase. Occurring over fifty times in the Old Testament, the phrase his [e.g., God’s] righteousness sometimes refers to God’s activity of making things right in the last days. Isaiah 46:13 is an excellent example: I am bringing my righteousness near, it is not far away; and my salvation will not be delayed. I will grant salvation to Zion, my splendor to Israel. As a parallel to salvation, God’s righteousness is his activity of establishing right in a world that has gone terribly wrong. But it is important to note that this rightness is not moral but legal. Paul is not referring to God’s activity of turning sinners into people who live right but to his act of proclaiming that sinners are right before him—innocent in the divine court of justice.¹⁴

      The righteous will live by faith (1:17). We can also translate this, the one who is righteous by faith will live (see RSV; TEV). The words come from Habakkuk 2:4, which enjoin God’s people, the righteous, to look at the strange and perplexing work of God in Habakkuk’s day with the eyes of faith. Paul finds in the language a key Old Testament insistence that faith is essential to establish true righteousness and life (see also Gal. 3:11; Heb. 10:38).

      Gentiles Justly Stand Under God’s Wrath (1:18–32)

      Paul has introduced the theme of the letter: In the preaching of the gospel, God acts to put people in right relationship with himself. Any person, Gentile as well as Jew, who exercises trust in God can therefore be saved. But Paul postpones further explanation of this good news until 3:21 and following. First must come the bad news. Paul knows that we will not appreciate the solution until we understand the problem. So, in 1:18–3:20 he explains that all human beings are locked up under sin’s power and justly stand under the sentence of God’s wrath. Both Gentiles (1:18–32) and Jews (2:1–29) have been given knowledge about God’s will for human beings. But they have all turned away from that knowledge and are therefore without excuse (1:20; cf. 2:1) before the righteous judgment of God.

      In 1:18–32, Paul focuses on the way that human beings have turned from God’s revelation in nature and fallen into idolatry (1:22–23, 25), illegitimate sexual behavior (1:24, 26–27), and all kinds of other sins (1:28–31). The passage is structured around the threefold repetition of human exchange/divine giving over (1:23–24, 25–26a, 26b–28). God has sentenced people to the consequences of the sin they have chosen for themselves.

      The wrath of God (1:18). The wrath of the gods is a common theme in Greco-Roman literature. When other gods offend them, or human beings fail to give a god his or her due (e.g., by failing to offer sacrifices), the god reacts with wrath. In keeping with the human qualities of the traditional Greek pantheon, this wrath could be selfish in its motivation and capricious in its effects. For this reason, some of the Greek philosophers urged people to avoid wrath, since it manifested a lack of self-control. Some modern theologians echo this critique, claiming that the biblical teaching about God’s wrath must be understood as a kind of mechanistic process within history.

      But the God of the Bible is a personal God, and his wrath, while just and measured, is no impersonal force. The Old Testament frequently refers to God’s wrath in precisely this way, as he inflicts punishment on human sin (e.g., Ex. 32:10–12; Num. 11:1; Jer. 21:3–7). But it also predicts a climactic outpouring of God’s wrath in the last day (e.g., Isa. 63:3–6; Zeph. 1:15). Since Paul speaks similarly in this very context (Rom. 2:5), he may also think of the revealing of God’s wrath in this verse as taking place on the Day of Judgment. But the present tense of the verb being revealed suggests rather that he is alluding to the many ways in which God manifests his wrath against sin in history.

      Exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images made to look like mortal man and birds and animals and reptiles (1:23). Once people turned from knowledge of the true God (1:20–21), they became fools (1:22) and worshiped gods of their own making. Idolatry is the basic sin, and it was almost universal in the ancient world. Israel fell into the worship of false gods again and again, and God eventually sent the people into exile for their misplaced worship. But the Exile and various crises of the intertestamental period cured Israel of idolatry. In fact, Jewish writings from this period frequently mock the Gentiles for their foolish worship of gods fashioned by their own hands. One of the most important of these texts is found in the apocryphal book Wisdom of Solomon. Note, for instance 13:1–2:

      For all people who were ignorant of God were foolish by nature; and they were unable from the good things that are seen to know the one who exists, nor did they recognize the artisan while paying heed to his works; but they supposed that either fire or wind or swift air, or the circle of the stars, or turbulent water, or the luminaries of heaven were the gods that rule the world.

      Paul also alludes to two Old Testament texts. The threefold description of the animal world is reminiscent of the creation account: And God said, ‘Let the land produce living creatures according to their kinds: livestock, creatures that move along the ground, and wild animals, each according to its kind.’ And it was so (Gen. 1:24). The language of exchanging the glory seems to reflect the psalmist’s commentary on Israel’s sin in fashioning and worshiping the golden calf (Ex. 32): They exchanged their Glory for an image of a bull, which eats grass (Ps. 106:20). By his choice of words, therefore, Paul brands idolatry as a tragic departure from the intention of God in creation, a departure that Israel herself has not escaped.

      REFLECTIONS

      FEW OF US HAVE A STONE STATUE in our house that we worship. But we are far from escaping the sin of idolatry. At root, idolatry is giving something the priority that God alone deserves to have. We can idolize another human being by making a spouse more important to us than God. We can idolize money by making its accumulation more important than God. And we can idolize pleasure by spending more time and energy on sex, or golf, or mountain-biking than we do on God and his service.

      CANAANITE IDOLS

      Baal.

      Astarte.

      Because of this, God gave them over to shameful lusts (1:26). The move from idolatry to sexual sin again echoes typical Jewish diatribes against the Gentiles. Jews were relatively free from this sin, but it was rampant in the ancient Greco-Roman world.

      They not only continue to do these very things but also approve of those who practice them (1:32). The suggestion that approval of the sin of others can be worse than one’s own sin echoes Jewish teaching: The two-faced are doubly punished because they both practice evil and approve of others who practice it; they imitate the spirits of error and join in the struggle against mankind (T. Asher 6:2).

      Jews Justly Stand Under God’s Wrath (2:1–16)

      After condemning Gentiles for turning from the knowledge of God that they were given in the created world, Paul now castigates Jews for failing to live up to the knowledge of God that they were given in the law. As a seasoned preacher of the gospel, Paul knows how Jews will react to his condemnation of the Gentiles in 1:18–32: They will be quite willing to join him in his denunciation. Thus, Paul denies that they have any right to assume they are superior to the Gentiles, for Jews do the same things as the Gentiles (2:1). They may not worship idols or engage in homosexuality; but they put their own law in the place of God and are just as guilty as Gentiles of greed, envy, strife, and so on (see 1:29–31). As a result, Jews also have no excuse (2:1), storing up wrath for the day of wrath (2:5).

      Paul justifies his critique of the Jews by arguing in the two following paragraphs that Jew and Gentile stand on the same footing before the judgment seat of God. God impartially judges every person—Jew and Gentile alike—on the basis of their works (2:6–11). The law, though a precious possession of the Jew, will make no difference in the outcome (2:12–16), for it is doing the law, not possessing it, that matters. Moreover, Gentiles, though not given the Mosaic law, also have some knowledge of God’s law.

      Homosexuality

      The Jewish viewpoint on sexual sin is well summarized in Sybilline Oracles 3.594–600: Surpassing, indeed, all humans, they [Jewish men] are mindful of holy wedlock and do not engage in evil intercourse with male children, as do Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Romans, spacious Greece and many other nations, Persians, Galatians, and all Asia, transgressing the holy law of the immortal God. The Jews’ condemnation of homosexuality is rooted, of course, in the Old Testament, which plainly and repeatedly denounces the practice (see, e.g., Gen. 19:1–28; Lev. 18:22; 20:13; Deut. 23:17–18). Many Greeks, however, not only tolerated homosexuality, but considered consensual sex between men to be a higher form of love than heterosexual relations. Contrary to revisionist interpretations, Paul follows the Old Testament and Jewish teaching in condemning homosexual practice as sinful.

      Paul and Rhetoric

      When we use the word rhetorical, we usually mean elaborate speech. But in the ancient world rhetoric was the art of persuasion and a prime subject of study.A-3 The Greeks and Romans were fond of public speaking and developed sophisticated techniques to help a speaker to dazzle or persuade his audience. Paul occasionally uses some of the styles popular in the rhetorical schools (such as diatribe). But, as 1 Corinthians 2:1–5 reveals, he renounces many of the rhetorical tricks of his day, wanting his converts to be convinced by logic and the power of the Spirit rather than by superficial arguments. Preachers today would do well to follow Paul in turning their backs on any means of persuasion that do not rely on God’s power and the working of the Spirit.

      You, therefore, have no excuse (2:1). The you in Greek is singular. In 2:17 Paul identifies this person whom he is addressing as a Jew. Why does Paul point to a single Jew for his discussion? He is adopting an ancient literary style called the diatribe. Ancient Greeks used this style as a teaching device, letting their audience listen in to a discussion between two different viewpoints. Here Paul teaches the Roman church about his view of Judaism by describing for them the kind of argument he would make to the typical Jew about sin and salvation.

      Do you show contempt for the riches of his kindness… not realizing that God’s kindness leads you toward repentance? (2:4). With this question, Paul gets to the heart of the issue. Because of their covenant relationship with God, Jews frequently fell into the habit of thinking that they were immune from the judgment of God. The Old Testament prophets often critiqued this presumptuous attitude. But it remained as a basic attitude among the Jews in Paul’s day.

      Particularly informative of Paul’s rhetorical move in this part of Romans is the sequence of thought in Wisdom of Solomon 11–15. As we noted in our comments on Romans 1:23, this book of the Apocrypha contains a long description of Gentile folly and sin (Wisd. Sol. 11–14). Paul echoes many of its points in Romans 1:18–32. Then, in Wisdom of Solomon 15, the author reflects on the situation of himself and other Jewish people: But you, our God, are kind and true, patient, and ruling all things in mercy. For even if we sin we are yours, knowing your power; but we will not sin, because we know that you acknowledge us as yours. For to know you is complete righteousness, and to know your power is the root of immortality. The writer does just what Paul condemns: assumes that God’s kindness guarantees escape from judgment for Jews.

      God will give to each person according to what he has done.… For God does not show favoritism (2:6–11). This paragraph is one of the clearest examples within the Bible of a popular way of arranging material in the ancient world that we call chiasm. The word comes from the name of a Greek letter of the alphabet, chi, that looks like our x. The literary form in question takes this name because it arranges material in an A-B-B’-A’ pattern, as if each element were at the apex of the two lines of the x. Romans 2:6–11 is a bit more complicated, following an A-B-C-C’-B’-A’ arrangement:

      A God will give to each person according to what he has done. (v. 6)

        B To those who by persistence in doing good seek glory, honor and immortality, he will give eternal life. (v. 7)

      C But for those who are self-seeking and who reject the truth and follow evil, there will be wrath and anger. (v. 8)

      C’There will be trouble and distress for every human being who does evil: first for the Jew, then for the Gentile; (v. 9)

        B’ but glory, honor and peace for everyone who does good: first for the Jew, then for the Gentile. (v. 10)

      A’ For God does not show favoritism. (v. 11)

      The main point of a chiasm sometimes comes at its center, but in this case it comes at the extremes (point A/A’): God does not show favoritism in dispensing salvation and judgment to people.

      All who sin apart from the law will also perish apart from the law, and all who sin under the law will be judged by the law (2:12). This is the first occurrence in Romans of the word law (nomos). The word occurs almost eighty times in the letter, and Paul’s teaching on law runs right through all the topics he discusses. Yet the modern English reader can easily get the wrong impression about what Paul is talking about. We think of secular law or, if we are familiar with some theological traditions, of the commands of God for his people that are found throughout the Bible. But Paul’s teaching is rooted in a more historical reading of the Bible. For him as a Jew, nomos is preeminently the law of Moses: the body of commands that God gave to his people Israel through his servant Moses.

      Modern scholars often use the transliterated Hebrew word torah to denote this body of laws. In this verse, therefore, those under the law are Jews, placed under the jurisdiction of the Mosaic law by God himself. Those who sin apart from the law are then Gentiles. Not being Jews, they have not been made subject to the law of Moses. But Paul’s point in this verse is that knowledge of that law makes no difference in the judgment: All people stand condemned. For, as Paul explains in 2:13, people can escape God’s judgment only by doing the law—and the universal power of sin (see 3:9, 20) prevents people from ever fulfilling that law.

      When Gentiles, who do not have the law, do by nature things required by the law, they are a law for themselves (2:14). Some commentators think that Paul is referring to Gentile Christians, who were not by nature or birth recipients of the law of Moses, but who now have that law written on the heart, in accordance with the new covenant prophecy of Jeremiah 31:31–34.¹⁵ But Paul’s language appears rather to allude to a widespread Greco-Roman tradition about the unwritten law. Stoic philosophers especially developed the notion of a universal moral standard rooted in nature. Hellenistic Jews, like the Alexandrian philosopher Philo, applied this notion to the Mosaic law: All right reason is infallible law engraved not by this mortal or that, and thus perishable, nor on lifeless parchment or slabs, and therefore soulless as they, but immortal nature on the immortal mind, never to perish (Every Good Man Is Free 46; see also Special Laws 1.36–54; Abraham 276).

      Following this tradition, Paul claims that non-Christian Gentiles, even though they may never have heard of the law of Moses, have in their very natures, created by God, knowledge of the rights and wrongs that the law of Moses ultimately points to. They will therefore do things that the law of Moses itself demands, such as refraining from murder and adultery, honoring their parents, and so on. These universal moral absolutes reveal that all people have access to knowledge of God’s moral will. Thus, he is just in condemning both Jew and Gentile (Rom. 2:15–16).

      Judgment Despite the Law and Circumcision (2:17–29)

      Now you, if you call yourself a Jew; if you rely on the law and brag about your relationship to God (2:17). With this verse Paul begins a long sentence in which he piles up description after description of the Jews’ privileges and claims (2:17–20), only to show that these blessings mean little because Jews have not lived up to their privileges (2:21–24). As his address of a single Jew makes clear, Paul is again using the style of the diatribe (see 2:1–4). Ancient writers who used this style often criticized opponents for failing to practice what they preached.¹⁶ So Paul also claims that Jews, who take pride in their name because it means that they have been given the law with all its blessings, fail to do the law. As Paul has argued in 2:12–13, possession of the law without actually doing it does not count before God.

      A guide for the blind, a light for those who are in the dark, an instructor of the foolish (2:19–20). These three descriptions of Israel’s role as witness of God’s power and grace to the world reflect both Old Testament and Jewish texts. According to Isaiah 42:6–7, God had destined Israel, his servant, to be a light for the Gentiles, to open eyes that are blind, to free captives from prison and to release from the dungeon those who sit in darkness (see also 49:6). Sibylline Oracles 3.194–95 echoes this language: The people of the great God will again be strong who will be guides in life for all mortals. Note also 1 Enoch 105:1: In those days, he says, ‘The Lord will be patient and cause the children of the earth to hear. Reveal it to them with your wisdom, for you are their guides.’ This evangelistic mission to the world is one, however, that Israel has failed to accomplish. The Jews’ preoccupation with the law and their failure to recognize Jesus as Messiah turned them, as Jesus himself claimed, into blind guides (Matt. 15:14). The servant’s mission as light to the Gentiles has now been taken over by the church (see, e.g., Acts 26:18).

      You who abhor idols, do you rob temples? (2:22). This is one of three specific examples of Jewish disobedience of the law that Paul cites to prove that Jews do not do the law that they possess. The other two—stealing and committing adultery—are straightforward. But what does Paul mean by accusing the Jews of robbing temples? (1) If the word Paul uses here (hierosyleō) is given its literal meaning, than the reference is probably to Jews who robbed pagan temples of their idolatrous statues in order to melt them down and profit from their precious metals. The Old Testament specifically prohibits the practice (e.g., Deut. 7:26).

      A ROMAN TEMPLE

      The remains of the temple of Saturn in Rome.

      (2) Paul may be using the word metaphorically, referring to Jews who did not pay the required temple tax. This tax, levied on all Jews wherever they lived, was

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