Population Characteristics

This paper examines the impact of immigrants on the income of various groups of resident workers in the United States and Europe. Our approach features the use of a production technology incorporating education, experience, and unskilled labor as inputs. This contrasts with the assumption used in earlier studies that native-born and immigrant labor are distinct inputs into production. We find that in both United States and European production, education, unskilled labor and experience are complementary inputs. Based on these results, simulations of the impact of immigration on residents are carried out. The absolute magnitude of these effects is found to be very small. * Phone: (908) 932-7405,

This paper studies the di¨erences in earnings between Mexican legal and illegal immigrants in the United States. The analysis includes a crosssectional examination of the wage di¨erences between legal and undocumented workers as well as a longitudinal analysis examining the impact of legalization on the earnings of previously-undocumented workers. It is shown that the average hourly wage rate of male Mexican legal immigrants in the United States was 41.8% higher than that of undocumented workers while female legal immigrants earned 40.8% more. Though illegal immigrants have lower education and English pro®ciency, and a shorter period of residence in the United States, than legal immigrants, it is shown that di¨erences in the observed characteristics of legal and illegal immigrants explain only 48% of the log-wage gap between male legal and illegal workers and 43% of the gap for women. An analysis of undocumented immigrants legalized after the 1986 U.S. immigration policy reform shows signi®cant wage growth in the four years following legalization. These gains are due mostly to the change in legal status itself, not to changes in the characteristics of immigrants over time.

Perhaps one of the most pervasive phenomena among teenaged females today is "teenage fertility." The purpose of this article is to describe teenage fertility as it relates to developing countries. The study attempts to pose the problem by considering a large number of developing nations for which data are available and by describing the levels and trends in teen fertility rates.

The Prevention of Maternal Mortality Program is a collaborative effort of Columbia University's Center for Population and Family Health and multidisciplinary teams of researchers from Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone. Program goals include dissemination of information to those concerned with preventing maternal deaths. This review, which presents findings from a broad body of research, is part of that activity.

n Abstract Life history theory offers evolutionary explanations for the timing of life events, with a particular focus on age-schedules of fertility and mortality and growth. Traditional models examine trade-offs between current and future reproduction and quality versus quantity of offspring. These models can be used to understand questions concerning time of gestation, age of weaning, juvenile mortality profiles, age at maturation, adult body size, fertility rates, senescence, menopause, and the length of the life span. The trajectory of energy acquisition and its allocations is also an important part of life history theory. Modifications of these models have been developed to examine the period of learning, postweaning parental investment, and patterns of development. In this article, we combine energetic and demographic approaches in order to examine the human life course from an optimality perspective. The evolved life history solves related problems across two generations. The first set of decisions concerns how to maximize own lifetime net energy production that can be used for reproduction. The second set of decisions concerns how to maximize total offspring energy production (summed over all offspring).

John Turner's benchmark model of the Latin American city depicts relationships between urban growth and the intra-urban mobility, shelter, economic status and location of its low-income migrants. This conceptual model, described below, requires additional empirical assessment, quantitative specification, and updating to encompass the deep regional recession since 1980. Evidence from a survey of low-income migrants in Quito in 1989 supports portions of the model.

n Abstract Life history theory offers evolutionary explanations for the timing of life events, with a particular focus on age-schedules of fertility and mortality and growth. Traditional models examine trade-offs between current and future reproduction and quality versus quantity of offspring. These models can be used to understand questions concerning time of gestation, age of weaning, juvenile mortality profiles, age at maturation, adult body size, fertility rates, senescence, menopause, and the length of the life span. The trajectory of energy acquisition and its allocations is also an important part of life history theory. Modifications of these models have been developed to examine the period of learning, postweaning parental investment, and patterns of development. In this article, we combine energetic and demographic approaches in order to examine the human life course from an optimality perspective. The evolved life history solves related problems across two generations. The first set of decisions concerns how to maximize own lifetime net energy production that can be used for reproduction. The second set of decisions concerns how to maximize total offspring energy production (summed over all offspring).

This study reports findings from interviews with three groups of black teenagers: child bearers (n = 136), terminators (n = 92), and contraceptors (never been pregnant, n = 151). The focus of this research is to describe the differences between these three groups of teenagers in an attempt to identify factors that may best differentiate the groups. The findings suggest that, among the teens who became pregnant, motivation to use contraceptives may be the key factor. More than 86% of these teens knew about contraceptives at the time they became pregnant and nearly three-quarters knew where to obtain contraceptives. However, only 16% of teens who became pregnant reported to be using a contraceptive at the time they became pregnant. Education about the availability and mode of contraceptive use is essential.

Res eai•ch R e poi-ts , which record research conducted a.t ILA.SA , a.re independently reviewed before publication. Views or opinions expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the Institute , its Na.tiona.l Member Orga.niza.tions, or other orga.niza.tions supporting the work.

The growing of crops on open and undeveloped spaces within urban zones in eastern and southern African cities has become an important source of food security. Urban populations have expanded without a corresponding increase in economic opportunities for employment. Economic reforms have led to the removal of subsidies on food commodities and retrenchments in the formal employment sectors. It is reported that a result of this is that vulnerable households have resorted to urban agriculture to sustain their livelihoods. Though a widespread practice, urban agriculture is not planned for or supported by urban planners and managers as a legitimate form of urban land use in Harare, Zimbabwe. As women are the main participants in urban agriculture, their activities come into direct conflict with planning provisions for urban space. This study examines the role of women in urban agriculture and views and perceptions of the use of urban space for agricultural activities in Harare. It shows that urban agriculture is useful in meeting household food needs by those who undertake it. The study offers empirical insight on the perceptions of the use of space in an urban tropical environment for agriculture, where conflicts can arise as a result of different perceptions and alternative uses.

The article analyzes the role of families in processes of rural-urban migration in India in the twentieth century. It shows that the continuous circular form of this migration should be explained as a consequence of rural family strategies. Already established kinship relations or marriage opportunities in the future act as a centripetal force, drawing the labor migrants back to their communities time and again.

Summary  The Marriage Question, hotly debated during the late Victoria era, concerned whether the younger generation was marrying at the “proper time”, neither irresponsibly too early nor selfishly too late. Data for the colony of Victoria show modest rises in male and female age at marriage from 1861 to 1901. This article uses Melbourne marriage certificates from 1866 to 1896 to compare urban and rural marriage trends and study the individual determinants of the timing of first marriage; on the whole, urban brides and grooms mere likely to be younger than rural ones. Economic conditions, as measured by occupation, played a more important role in men’s timing of marriage than in women’s. The fact that prenuptial pregnancy led couples to marry several years before their peers suggests that family commitments and other personal, unmeasured, factors affected marriage age.

This article deals with the social, economic and demographic aspects of labor migration from Sri Lanka to the Middle East. The findings are based on a survey covering 891 return migrants and 866 family members of current migrants, as well as a total of 407 nonmigrants who were interviewed as a control group. Although the elasticity ofthe demand for female domestic personnel is much smaller than that for male migrants, it was found that recruitment for female labor migrants has increased considerably in recent years. The enormous demand for foreign employment has led to a thriving recruitment sector and to numerous illegal activities also among authorized employment agents. Currently, prospective labor migrants have to incur huge debts to finance migration. "Recruitment activities seem to explain both the timing of particular migration movements and theparticular areas between which migrantflows develop. Recruitment is the key to theseeming paradoxes ofmigrationprocesses" (Priore, 1979:24). The present article is based on a research project dealing with the social, economic and demographic aspects of labor migration from Sri Lanka to the Middle East. lOne ofthe components ofthis project consisted ofa survey in which both return migrants and family members of migrants were covered. In total, 891 return migrants and 866 family members of current migrants were interviewed. The questionnaires included a number of modules on social, economic and demographic facets ofcontract migration from Sri Lanka to the Middle East. In addition to return migrants and family of current migrants, a total of 407 nonmigrants were interviewed as a control J The research is part of a Cooperation Project for Training, Teaching and Research between The Institute of Cultural and Social Studies, Leiden University in the Netherlands and the University of Colombo in Sri Lanka. Furthermore, the Netherlands Interuniversity Demographic Institute in the Hague contributed to the analysis of the data.

Arnica montana L. is a critically endangered and highly valued medicinal plant species in Europe. We show the inter-relationships between arnica and accompanying plant species, as well as soil factors, that promote the persistence of the studied forest arnica populations in terms of active protection of this species in the northeast region of Europe. Te population characteristics and plant species composition were
assessed during a feld study. Additionally, soil samples were taken and analyzed to assess variation in soil conditions in the habitats of arnica populations. Correlations between population characteristics and soil properties were highlighted. The forest habitats of arnica presented in this study difer from those described in other European mountain and submountain areas. Te sandy and very poor soils are
characterized by a very low content of macro- and microelements, and a strong acid reaction. Te positive correlation between population characteristics and Ca and K indicates an important role of these macroelements in fower head production. Acidity, K, Ca, the sum of exchangeable bases, and base saturation play crucial roles
in the persistence of arnica populations in pine forests. Te level of acidity and its consequences result from soil-forming processes and climatic conditions rather than air pollution. When planning active protection scenarios, special attention should be paid to the frequency and cover of Vaccinium myrtillus, which can act as a competitor in forest habitats. Assessment of soil conditions that favor the persistence of the studied arnica populations and species relationships is important for improving knowledge of the ecology of the species and for the active protection of
endangered plant species.

Considerable demographic data on the Barí were provided by the 1982 Venezuelan Indian census. Some of these data are presented here and used to test the hypothesis, suggested by the Barí themselves, that territorial exogamy was caused largely by a shortage of marriageable women within the territorial group. The hypothesis is disconfirmed, but new insights into the causes of territorial exogamy emerge from the analysis.

In the article the process of navigating through multi-faith communities is described as often being complicated by well-travelled routes that offer no new prospects. Usually these routes merely lead to a further erosion of existing problem areas. The consequences of large transformations in South Africa have led to the discovery that those who were able to place themselves theologically with ease are now seekers with an unknown destination who experience their existence as pilgrimage. From a narrative hermeneutical practical stance the authors developed an experimental theology within which continuous dialogue between text and contexts is presupposed. Certain markers, amongst others "Listening to each other's stories"; "Confirming each other in the conversation(s"); "A new structure for conversation(s)"; and "Questioning the own position" are indicated for the journey through multi-faith communities, leading to the finding and creating of new horizons of understanding. Sharmaine is an Indian woman orientated towards the Hindu faith. One day, her husband, who was still young, died unexpectedly while she was at work. Except for the fact that she and her children were shocked, her colleagues too were distressed by the events. From the reports I received, it was clear that she was totally overwhelmed by the events and that a visit to her house was the appropriate way of supporting her to come to terms with her husband's death. During the visit, the religious background of the family became apparent, amongst others, in the religious Hindu symbols that were visible. During the conversation, she talks about her loss and the fact that she is incapable of supporting the children in coping with their bereavement. She also talks about her struggle with God. With her permission, I pray for her and her children.

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This is a review of short-and long-term consequences of low birth weight (LBW) and of some of its determinants. The results of observational studies and of nutritional experiments aimed at clarifying the relationship between maternal nutrition and birth weight are reviewed. Areas for future research are noted.

"Procedures for decomposing differences between two populations--for example, into the part that is due to differences in age-specific rates and the part that is due to differences in age distributions--have been used to decompose time trends into the part that is due to changes occurring within cohorts and the part that is due to the gradual replacement of older by younger cohorts. It is not clear what is accomplished by such a decomposition of a trend, however. Decomposition does not tell us what types of variables may be the root causes of a trend, and there is a real danger that such a decomposition will confuse rather than clarify." The concepts are illustrated using U.S. data on racial prejudice and marijuana use. A response by Glenn Firebaugh defending decomposition methods is included (pp. 439-46).

This paper considers the ways in which discourses of abortion and discourses of national identity were constructed and reproduced through the events of the X case in the Republic of Ireland in 1992. This case involved a state injunction against a 14-year-old rape victim and her parents, to prevent them from obtaining an abortion in Britain. By examining the controversy the case gave rise to in the national press, I will argue that the terms of abortion politics in Ireland shifted from arguments based on rights to arguments centred on national identity, through the questions the X case raised about women's citizenship status, and women's position in relation to the nation and the state. Discourses of national identity and discourses of abortion shifted away from entrenched traditional positions, towards more liberal articulations.

In the past, ethnic enclaves have functioned as homogeneous residential areas providing support and comfort to newly arrived immigrants. A new form of urban village is increasingly serving commuting immigrants who live in integrated residential neighbourhoods.

Current STD control efforts are largely confined to female sex workers (FSWs) registered with the local Social Hygiene Clinics. This study was conducted to compare the prevalence of gonococcal and chlamydial infections and its behavioral correlates among registered FSWs in two major urban centers. FSWs in Manila and Cebu City consented to undergo an STD physical examination and standardized interview to measure socioeconomic markers and STD-related practices. The questionnaire was pretested in a series of four focus groups in Manila and subsequently administered in Tagalog and Cebuano by trained interviewers. Infection with N. gonorrhea was determined by culture and infection with C. trachomatis was defined by antigen detection. From July through September 1994 similar numbers of women were recruited in Manila (n = 311) and Cebu City (n = 300). However, thanks to the abilities of an interviewer who was previously a FSW, Cebu City was more successful at recruiting unregistered FSWs (...

This article discusses the extent of child rape in India, case studies of girl children in legal procedures, rape settings and perpetrators, public morality, and the nature of rape laws in India. It is concluded that there is no safe place for children. Currently, rapists are allowed to go free or are acquitted. Prevention and control of child rape must involve punishment of rapists. It is not appropriate that society ostracize the victim and her family. Victims should not remain silent. National Crime Records Bureau statistics reveal increases in rape during 1986-91. State figures are given for 1986-88. Madhya Pradesh had the highest reported incidence of rape in 1988. In 1993, Madhya Pradesh had a total of 2459 rapes. Nationally, 10,425 women were reported as raped in 1991. 51.7% were 16-30 years old. There were 1099 cases of pedophilia in 1991, which was an increase over 1990. Over 50% of the pedophilia cases were reported in Uttar Pradesh. The record of convictions shows very lo...

This study examines the effects of pay-as-you-go social security programs in aging economies when the middle-aged both educate their dependent children and subsidize the retirement of the old. Using an overlapping generations framework in which agents are three-period lived but timing of death in the third period is uncertain, we analyze the effects of social security tax schemes, under various demographic assumptions, on capital accumulation, education expenditures, social welfare, and economic growth. We find that in many cases social security crowds out education, and reduces economic growth and social welfare.

This article argues that in order to fully understand the geography of labour migration to global cities, it is necessary to consider economic forces in conjunction with mediating socio-cultural influences. Support for this argument is based on an examination of the pattern of migration to Hong Kong, a city which plays a significant role in the world economy.