Marine Conservation and Fisheries

Macrourids are among the most abundant and diverse demersal fishes in all deep oceans, including the Southwestern Brazilian continental slope. Although not targeted by Brazilian fisheries, they suffer impact similar than the target species, being among the most discarded fishes by deep bottom trawling.
Trophic Ecology: Data from research surveys and commercial fishing were used to analyze the trophic ecology of four species inhabiting the upper slope of southern Brazil: Coelorinchus marinii, Malacocephalus occidentalis, M. laevis and Lucigadus ori. For the two abundant ones, ontogenetic changes, seasonal variations, intra- and interspecific dietary overlap, parasite fauna and aspects of functional morphology are also described. C.marinii had an extremely diverse diet, preying infauna, epifauna, plankton, necton and carcasses.
M.occidentalis fed on larger and nektonic prey, but also included crabs and carcasses in the diet. Both species showed ontogenetic shifts and seasonal variations in diet composition, both leading to changes in intra- and interspecific diet overlap patterns. Species showed quite distinct feeding anatomy and proportions of body with mouth size, reflecting on feeding strategies. There was little interspecific food overlap. In most cases when the diet was more similar there was a spatial segregation. The coexistence of these species appears to be facilitated by the development of different functional morphologies and feeding strategies. A considerable portion of the diet of these species is due to the consumption of carcasses of pelagic and mesopelagic organisms, and even insects, bypassing the benthic trophic web. Conservative (minimum) estimates of the mean weight
of carcasses in diet ranged from 3 to 20%, increasing with the size of the predators and towards deeper waters. C.marinii showed a lower consumption of carcasses and a high proportion of mesopelagic fishes and cephalopods, however, the analysis of the feeding morphology and prey size leads to believe that most of these two groups of prey were consumed as carcasses. This source of food bypass the detritus food chains and connect the concentrations of macrourids to fluctuations in the abundance of epi and mesopelagic organisms and to oceanographic processes that increase their concentration and mortality (e.g. mesoscale anticyclonic eddies).

Distribution, Biomass and Oceanography: Data from two seasonal bottom trawl surveys were used to provide information on distribution, abundances, densities, sizecomposition and biomass estimates for seven species: Coelorinchus marinii, Malacocephalus occidentalis, M. laevis, Lucigadus ori, Hymenocephalus billsam, Ventrifossa macropogon and V. mucocephalus. The total biomass was estimated in 5.5 and 8.3 kt respectively in winter-spring and summer-autumn. C.marinii and M.occidentalis comprised 98% of the biomass. For these two abundant species, surface maps were made with spawning areas, feeding index, sex and immature/mature ratios, and were related to
oceanographic processes, providing insights on strategies and important processes regulating distribution and abundance patterns. Both species showed a marked seasonal variation in the extent and location of spawning areas. Most C.marinii females were mature (90%), suggesting an early maturation during pelagic phase and acquiring demersal habit just prior the onset of maturation, while M.occidentalis showed few matures females and settle to bottom well before maturity. Temperature rather than depth seems to be the main factor regulating the batimetric distribution of both species. We describe three processes responsible for distribution and abundance patterns found in these species. Different patterns of spatial segregation were found in both species, related with depth, sex and maturity. It is suggested that areas with high biomass Macrouridae (scavengers) are induced by zones of occurrence semi-permanent mesoscale processes (e.g. eddies). These processes increase productivity and enable large biomass of short-lived organisms found in the upper layers, and also increase the concentration, mortality and availability of carcasses, favoring scavenger predators. These processes may be responsible for inconsistencies in biomass of megafauna and macrofauna found in some studies, where biomass of megafauna was of the same order of magnitude or larger than macrofauna, contradicting the Eltonian principle. It is suggested that future studies attempt to relate mesoscale processes with the biomass of potential short-lived prey in surface waters and higher biomass of scavengers. This work highlights the importance of the study of ocean dynamics, combining biological and oceanographic observations, trying to understand the role of mesoscale physical processes on the distribution and abundance patterns of species.

Abstract
Scaring the Fish is structured as follows.  Section I introduces the issue, reviews the National Standards of the Magnuson-Stevens Act that any fisheries management plan must meet, and raises “Seven Questions” which are the substance of Section IV to follow.
Section II addresses some general aspects summarizing the problem, in a critical overview of the work as a whole.  First, the role, structure and composition of regional fisheries manage¬ment councils are reviewed, and then the dominance of fishing industry interests over them is addres-sed.  Second, the economics and politics of ITQs are discussed, in three important aspects:  priva-tization as a solution to externality problems; the limits of privatization; and the paradigmatic question of framing problems and politics in economics.  Third, a review of additional standards by which an ITQ program must be assessed examines four issues:  sustainability and The Precau-tionary Principle; ecosystem-based fisheries management; the ranking of ecological, social and economic concerns; and horizon effects, stewardship and the alleged efficiency of ITQs.
Section III is devoted to framing questions and issues, with regard to three approaches sup-porting quite different theories and points of view.  The first is the neoclassical vision of ITQs, which is addressed with regard to its general conception, ITQ implications, social welfare effects, some critical views, and its underlying assumptions.  Second, the institutional framework – as another school of economics – is reviewed with respect to:  its historical roots; stress on power relations; interdependence issues; efficiency arguments; externality questions; equity aspects; scarcity (real and contrived); ethics; views on transferability; regulatory failure; corporate abuse of political power; environmental losses; cost-shifting; culture; democratic process; complexity; and its view of ITQs.  Third, a systems approach is outlined, with regard to:  essential character-istics; systems logic; paradigm shifts; organizational management; open vs. closed system mo¬dels; homeostasis and feedback; organizational learning and culture; competition and cooperation; social values; and its general lessons.
Section IV asks seven questions about Sharing the Fish.  Does the study allay conserva¬tion concerns about ITQs?  Does it meet the requirements of a precautionary approach?  Does it prove that ITQs will not become private property?  Does it establish the stewardship effects of ITQs?  Does it show that traditional fishing communities benefit from ITQs?  Does it offer a full and objective analysis of ITQ experience?  And does it meet the ten National Standards in the M-S Act?  In answering each of these questions, many issues are raised and addressed, on both theoretical levels and with regard to well-documented evidence on the existing ITQ systems.  Sharing the Fish would answer all of these seven questions in the affir¬mative; Scaring the Fish has concluded that – for each question – the answer is:  “No.”  The sec¬tion closes with a review of the ten National Standards in the M-S Act, to show why Sharing the Fish, in its claim that all these standards are met by its ITQ plan, is wrong.  Their ITQ fisheries management plan does not, will not, and cannot satisfy any one of these standards.
The report ends with some general conclusions:  a plea for rational thought, systems analysis, multiple outlooks, openmindedness, ecological sensitivity, ethics and cooperation.  All of these issues are relevant to ITQs and fisheries management, but are also addressed to what we will need, during the next fifty years, to resolve the environmental, social and cultural legacies of neoclassical economics, positivism and other outmoded theories and their enduring effects and continuing threat to everything we hold dear.

Macrourids are among the most abundant and diverse demersal fishes in all deep oceans, including the Southwestern Brazilian continental slope. Although not targeted by Brazilian fisheries, they suffer impact similar than the target species, being among the most discarded fishes by deep bottom trawling. Trophic Ecology: Data from research surveys and commercial fishing were used to analyze the trophic ecology of four species inhabiting the upper slope of southern Brazil: Coelorinchus marinii, Malacocephalus occidentalis, M. laevis and Lucigadus ori. For the two abundant ones, ontogenetic changes, seasonal variations, intra- and interspecific dietary overlap, parasite fauna and aspects of functional morphology are also described. C.marinii had an extremely diverse diet, preying infauna, epifauna, plankton, necton and carcasses. M.occidentalis fed on larger and nektonic prey, but also included crabs and carcasses in the diet. Both species showed ontogenetic shifts and seasonal variatio...