Clinical Pragmatics

Pragmatic disorders display no preference for the individuals they afflict. People of different ethnicities, socioeconomic classes, and ages can develop pragmatic disorders. Men and women appear to be equally predisposed to pragmatic disorders. 1 Pragmatic disorders are not confined to people living in certain geographical regions, and are no more commonly found in urban over rural dwellers (or vice versa). No lifestyle, culture or type of education places an individual at an increased risk of developing a pragmatic disorder. In view of this lack of discrimination, pragmatic disorders are best examined within a life span perspective. This perspective adopts a chronological approach in which pragmatic disorders are examined in their order of occurrence throughout the life span. The chapter begins by examining pragmatic disorders which have their onset in the developmental period. These disorders are found in children and adults with autism spectrum disorders and a range of genetic syndromes, amongst other conditions. Beyond the developmental period, older children and adolescents can sustain injuries and develop illnesses that compromise their pragmatic language skills. This age group is challenging for clinicians in that while many pragmatic skills have been acquired, these children do not have adult-like pragmatic competence. In adulthood, events such as cerebrovascular accidents (strokes) and head injuries can disrupt previously intact pragmatic skills. In later life, neurodegenerative diseases such as the dementias can cause significant, progressive loss of

Resumen: En esta revisión bibliográfica completa, se analizan instrumentos de evaluación pragmática comunicativa utilizados durante la práctica clínica con población hispanohablante, con el objeto de caracterizarlos, establecer y comparar las conductas comunicativas y lingüísticas evaluadas y discutir su utilidad en la pragmática clínica. Se identifican doce instrumentos. Predomina una concepción amplia de la pragmática que la entiende como perspectiva más que como nivel del lenguaje y que se apoya no solo en estudios pragmáticos en sentido estricto, sino también en el análisis del discurso, el análisis conversacional y los estudios sobre comunicación no verbal. La mayor parte de los instrumentos analizados corresponde a pautas de cotejo centradas en la evaluación de la pragmática interactiva. La información sobre variables psicométricas es escasa. Se concluye que parece necesario desarrollar instrumentos formales con propiedades psicométricas establecidas que permitan determinar con precisión las habilidades pragmáticas alteradas, contribuyendo al diagnóstico y tratamiento de los pacientes. Palabras claves: evaluación pragmática -trastornos pragmáticos -pragmática clínica -trastornos de la comunicación -competencia pragmática

The study of the cognitive substrates of pragmatic disorders is a relatively recent development in clinical pragmatics. This development has been ushered in by calls from researchers and clinicians on two fronts. First, it has been urged that the field of pragmatics should undergo a cognitive turn, such that a cognitive examination of pragmatic concepts is afforded equal significance to societal, philosophical and linguistic approaches to the discipline. Second, clinicians have increasingly acknowledged that it is not possible to assess and treat clients with pragmatic disorders in isolation from cognitive concerns. The chapter begins with an examination of the various cognitive processes that play a role in a standard communicative exchange. From this examination the two main components of any cognitive treatment of pragmatic disorders – executive functions and theory of mind – are established. The findings of clinical studies of clients with pragmatic disorders are discussed. These studies suggest an association between cognitive processes such as theory of mind on the one hand and a range of pragmatic impairments on the other hand. Conversational data from clients with pragmatic disorders are used to illustrate these cognitive-based pragmatic impairments. Finally, three theoretical frameworks with the potential to explain the cognitive basis of pragmatic disorders are examined.

In this complete bibliographic review, communicative pragmatic assessment tools used during clinical practice with Spanish speaking population were analyzed. It was carried out in order to characterize them, establish and compare the communicative and linguistic behaviors assessed and discuss their usefulness in clinical pragmatics. Twelve assessment tools are identified. A broad conception of pragmatics prevails that understands it as a perspective rather than as a language level and that is supported not only by pragmatic studies in the strict sense, but also by discourse analysis, conversational analysis and studies on non-verbal communication. Most of the tools analyzed correspond to checklists focused on the assessment of interactive pragmatics. Information on psychometric variables is scarce. It is concluded that it seems necessary to develop formal tools with established psychometric properties that allow to accurately determine pragmatic ability impairments, contributing to the diagnosis and treatment of patients.

The interpretation of any utterance involves a complex interplay of cognitive processes. These processes resolve into two types. Firstly, a hearer must use a range of general cognitive skills such as attention and memory in order to attend to a linguistic stimulus (an utterance) and retain this stimulus in memory while other cognitive operations can be performed upon it. These general cognitive skills are not unique to utterance interpretation and, indeed, are also used in the cognitive processing of non-linguistic stimuli (e.g. visual perception). Theorists have standardly characterized them as executive function skills. Secondly, a hearer must also deploy cognitive skills which, although they are not unique to utterance interpretation, assume a form that is nevertheless specific to this linguistic process. Within this category is included a set of metarepresentational skills of the type identified by theorists and researchers as a theory of mind. Both types of cognitive process are integral to utterance interpretation. It is to be expected, therefore, that deficits of these processes will have adverse consequences for a range of pragmatic phenomena in language. In this chapter, we examine the cognitive skills involved in utterance interpretation and the different ways in which utterance interpretation may be disrupted by impairments of those skills. This examination will include a range of clinical populations in which cognitive deficits are believed to play a central role in disorders of the pragmatics of language. The chapter will also consider theories of these cognitive processes, and assess if these theories can

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Keywords: Discourse cohesion and coherence; implicature; non-literal language; pragmatic assessment and treatment; speech act demonstrate the efficacy of the interventions they offer clients. Speech-language pathology services have not been immune to this wider trend in health care. I will argue in this section that a pragmatic concept, that of functional communication, is typically the basis of the outcome measures that are used to assess the efficacy of interventions. The notion of functional communication embodies a range of communicative behaviours which are pragmatic through and through. As Wright and Newhoff (2005: 241) state, 'functional communication is a product of the effective use of several pragmatic behaviors'. Functional communication includes skills such as the ability to understand directions, to make one's Appears in: Cummings, L. (2014) Pragmatic Disorders, Dordrecht: Springer. needs known, to greet and take leave of others, to relate events, and to respond appropriately to requests. It is the type of communication which permeates our daily interactions with others and without which we are likely to experience considerable personal distress, social exclusion and occupational disadvantage. The centrality of functional communication to measures of the efficacy of therapy will be demonstrated at three levels. Firstly, I examine studies in speech-language pathology that have used functional communication measures to assess the efficacy of interventions, and not just those interventions that have a pragmatic emphasis. Secondly, functional communication measures are also the basis upon which speech-language pathology as a profession is able to demonstrate the benefit of its interventions to clients and, in so doing, secure funding of its services through national health care budgets. In this regard, functional communication measures, as adopted by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), will be examined. Thirdly, functional communication is also emphasized in international health frameworks which are used to assess disability in individuals who develop illness and sustain injury. One such framework employed by the World Health Organization (WHO) will be discussed. At all three levels, the distinctly pragmatic concept of functional communication can be seen to shape how we conceive of treatment gains and the disability which individuals continue to experience when treatment comes to an end. Efficacy studies in speech-language pathology are now commonplace. Some of these studies have examined the outcome of interventions which have a pragmatic emphasis. Typically, these interventions are undertaken in clients who have pragmatic and social communication difficulties. For example, Adams et al. (2012) assessed the effectiveness of a social

El propósito de este artículo es ofrecer una caracterización y sistematización del lenguaje de los pacientes con Trastorno de espectro autista (TEA) y la relación que existe entre los diferentes rasgos que los caracterizan. De manera especial, hemos distinguido entre los rasgos de los sujetos con TEA con déficit cognitivo y los rasgos lingüísticos de los sujetos que no tienen déficit cognitivo. Hemos distinguido, asimismo, las relaciones que tienen todas estas características lingüísticas con el componente pragmático del lenguaje. Esto es, queremos mostrar que muchas deficiencias de carácter fonético/fonológico o morfosintáctico están relacionadas con el componente pragmático. En nuestra opinión, el hecho de que el déficit pragmático tenga repercusiones en el fonético/fonológico y el morfosintáctico prueba que la pragmática está presente en el lenguaje como una totalidad  y que, por consiguiente, la pragmática no debería ser concebida como un componente/módulo del lenguaje sino como una perspectiva (López GarcíaMolins, 1989 or Pons Bordería, 2005).

The role of context in meaning explication in any interaction cannot be overemphasized because through it, the true pragmatic meanings of form and intentional use of language are generated. Thus, existing studies have focused their attention on the importance of context in revealing various intentional uses of language, but they have neglected intentions that are not overtly stated, especially in literary discourse. This work therefore, examines how language is used to interactively construct fraud in various discursive contexts and the various strategies employed to negotiate goals in Wole Soyinka's The Trials of Brother Jero and Jero's Metamorphosis. The study adopts a combination of Levinson's notion of Activity types and Sarangi's concept of Discourse types, it also benefits from Arundale's Face Consitituting Theory. The data, sourced from selected conversations in the texts, were subjected to pragmatic analysis. Two types of contexts characterize Wole Soyinka's The Trials of Brother Jero and Jero's Metamorphosis, namely, conflict and leadership. Three types of conflicts-goal-motivated, space/ambition-motivated and debt-motivated conflicts also characterize context of conflict. Deflection through distraction and mendacity, impersonation, double crossing; Invocation of physical and spiritual reality through blackmailing, racial sentiment, persuasion and prediction as well discursive manipulation are the goals negotiation strategies used in the identified contexts. The paper concludes that the understanding of different discursive contexts of fraud and their various strategies reveal how language is used to interactively construct fraud.

Speech-language pathologists routinely use picture description tasks to assess expository discourse in clients with disorders such as aphasia and dementia. One picture description task-the Cookie Theft picture from the Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination-has come to dominate clinical settings more than any other task. In this article, I examine why this particular picture description task has proven to be so successful in assessing expository discourse in clients with language and cognitive disorders. Using data from the University of Pittsburgh Alzheimer and Related Dementias Study, recurrent cognitive-linguistic impairments in the Cookie Theft picture descriptions of clients with Alzheimer's dementia are explored. These impairments are mostly pragmatic in nature. It is argued that the sensitivity of the Cookie Theft picture description task to these impairments makes it an ideal assessment tool for any investigation which aims to identify pragmatic markers of neurodegenerative diseases such as the dementias.

Communication between people performs several vital functions. There is, of course, a fundamental need on the part of each of us to receive information from, and convey information to, other people. We must also communicate with each other in order to satisfy our needs for food and shelter and to gain assistance with a host of different tasks. While important, functions such as the exchange of information are not the only evolutionary purpose for which humans have developed a capacity for communication. As a social animal, humans must establish mutually sustaining, interpersonal relationships. Social communication is the principal mechanism by means of which this is achieved. Indeed, it is to social communication that all other functions of communication are ultimately subordinated. Even the simplest exchange of information, for example, requesting the time from a passer-by, can only be conducted between participants for whom there is a pre-existing social relationship (in the case of a request for the time, a social relationship is first established by means of a greeting (e.g. 'Good morning') or other opening remark). This chapter examines in detail the nature of social communication. It will be shown that a range of language and cognitive skills underlie this important form of communication. Chief among these skills is pragmatic competence in the use and understanding of linguistic utterances. However, social communication is broader than pragmatics alone and includes a number of other key competences, each of which will be examined. To the extent that

http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-7091-1382-0
Applied conversation analytic research seeks to understand the ways in which conversational practices are modified in order to fulfill institutional aims. Psychotherapy is one such institution, and in recent years, a research literature has developed in which conversation analysis has been applied to psychotherapy interaction. This chapter provides an overview of the five main features of talk-in-interaction of interest in conversation analysis: turn-taking, sequence organization, repair, word selection, and action formation. An extract from psychotherapy interaction is explored in relation to each of these five features of talk. The analytic lens of conversation analysis and its conceptualization of key phenomena are different in many respects to that of traditional psychotherapy research. Moreover, when directed towards psychotherapy, selection of material has been, in the main, in accordance with conversation analytically informed, as opposed to therapy-informed, observations. The result is that conversation analytic research may seem psychologically shallow to the psychotherapy community: too removed from basic assumptions about human subjectivity and mute on questions of experiential change which are likely of interest to therapists. However, this therapy-neutral orientation may be a significant strength in allowing conversation analysis to complement and enhance process research through revealing what psychotherapy may not notice about itself.

For approximately forty years, investigators have attempted to characterize impairments of pragmatics in children and adults. During this time, certain trends have been evident in how investigators have pursued this work. One of the most noteworthy trends has been the relentless drive to demonstrate skills and behaviours which are disrupted in children and adults with pragmatic disorders. The result has been an abundance of empirical findings, many of which have considerable interest for clinical researchers and practitioners. For example, it is a fact worth knowing if children and adults with an autism spectrum disorder cannot recover the sarcastic intent of certain utterances, or if the schizophrenic adult fails to observe the relation maxim in his contribution of turns to a conversation. However, at the same time as there has been a proliferation of empirical findings, many of these findings can appear poorly interconnected and of limited significance. They can also often lack proper explanatory value. It is important to interrogate why this is the case. As I will argue in this chapter, the answer lies in the lack of theoretical models in clinical pragmatic research. In the absence of these models, clinical pragmatic studies have produced copious findings. However, only some of these findings have the type of theoretical significance that can advance our understanding of pragmatic disorders.

Keywords: delinquency; educational attainment; mental health; psychosocial impact; social exclusion 3.1 Introduction Pragmatic disorders can have serious, adverse consequences for the children and adults who experience them. Pragmatic impairment in children can lead to educational underachievement, failure to establish social relationships with others, and a range of psychological difficulties. As these children progress into adolescence and adulthood, their problems are frequently compounded by additional difficulties including a lack of vocational opportunity, difficulty forming personal relationships, participation in criminal activity and the development of substance use disorders. Notwithstanding the significant impact of pragmatic disorders on the lives of affected individuals, these various outcomes are seldom the focus of clinicians and researchers who work with this client group. Yet, there are clear reasons why they must be given greater prominence. Firstly, healthcare providers are increasingly being required to demonstrate the effectiveness of the clinical interventions they offer clients. Speech pathology services are no exception in this regard. Clinicians must be able to demonstrate measurable gains in the quality of life of their clients as a result of pragmatic language interventions, and indicators such as improved social and psychological adjustment are often the clearest means of achieving this. Secondly, the considerable cost to individuals, society and the economy of criminal behaviour has prompted discussion of how earlier identification and treatment of those at risk of this behaviour may best be achieved. The increased prevalence of language

This article reviews the scholarly contributions of Michael R. Perkins in the discipline of clinical linguistics and provides some indication of the reasons that he has been so successful. Three primary attributes were described through an analysis of his publications. Clin Linguist Phon Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by 74.80.35.237 on 09/27/13 For personal use only. Contributions of Michael Perkins to clinical linguistics 9 Clin Linguist Phon Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by 74.80.35.237 on 09/27/13 For personal use only.

Keywords: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; emotional and behavioural disorders; frontotemporal dementia; non-Alzheimer's dementias; prison population 6.1 Introduction Not all pragmatic disorders have received the level of clinical study of the populations examined in chapter 2. While the pragmatic impairments of clients with right-hemisphere damage or traumatic brain injury are well characterized, relatively little is known about the pragmatic language skills of children with emotional and behavioural disorders or adults with non-Alzheimer's dementias. These children and adults belong to 'complex' populations by virtue of the fact that their pragmatic disturbance occurs in the presence of significant psychiatric and cognitive disorders. Similarly, certain groups of clients with pragmatic impairments are beyond the reach of, or are overlooked by, language services. These groups include adolescents in juvenile detention facilities and adults in prison. These clients belong to an 'underserved' population to the extent that their language needs are inadequately assessed and treated. Although these different clients have not been the focus of extensive academic research or clinical services to date, what is clear is that an array of factors means complex and underserved populations are likely to become an increasingly important part of the caseload of speech and language therapists in years to come. With this consideration in mind, an examination of the pragmatic impairments of these clients now seems timely. 6.2 Emotional and behavioural disorders

Introduction: Gestures provide a nonverbal channel for communication that is integral and entwined with every aspect of human interaction.
The present study aims to highlight the contribution of gestures, discourse markers (DMs), and vocal gestures as communicative facilitators
for maintaining the discourse in a person with aphasia (PWA). Methods: Discourse samples of two participants with Broca’s aphasia and one
control participant were audio‑video recorded and transcribed. The communicative facilitators used by these participants were identified, scored,
and analyzed from the discourse samples. Results: Results revealed high scores on the use of communicative facilitators among PWAs, using
gestures and DMs in ways more than just to convey meaning. Both participants with aphasia differed on their use of verbal communication.
They also differed on the quantity of communicative facilitators used to maintain the cohesiveness in discourse. The differences in use of
verbal measures could be inferred based on the aphasia quotient obtained on the administration of Western Aphasia Battery‑Kannada. These
highly individualistic differences in the use of communicative facilitators in the absence of verbal expression are a product of various factors
that influence and enhance the communication skills of the PWA; factors that may either be internal or external, with skills that are established
before or after the stroke. Conclusion: The results of the present study suggest that PWAs have a significantly good communicative competence
than what would be projected on any assessment scale that measures verbal components, and participants were noted to convey comprehensive
information during discourse, compensating their poor verbal expression with communicative facilitators.
Keywords: Aphasia, communicative competence, communicative facilitators, discourse markers, gestures

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In forty years, pragmatics has moved from a position of relative obscurity in the study of language disorder to become an area of central interest to clinicians and researchers in speech-language pathology. Several factors have contributed to the growing prominence of pragmatics in a clinical context. They include the recognition of pragmatics as a branch of linguistics on an equal footing to disciplines like syntax and semantics, the realisation that many clients have intact structural language skills but still communicate inadequately, and the development of better techniques for the assessment and treatment of individuals with pragmatic language impairments. The emergence of clinical pragmatics has resulted in many achievements, not least for the management of children and adults with pragmatic disorders. But we would do well not to assume that these achievements will simply continue in the years to come. For the substantial present-day gains of clinical pragmatics to be extended into the future, new directions for research need to be explored. In this chapter, I reflect on the form that these directions might take, and consider the clinical populations and issues that might concern speech-language pathologists in the years ahead. In thinking about new priorities in clinical pragmatics, the chapter considers how disciplines such as neuropsychology and psychiatry will have an increased role to play in our understanding of pragmatic disorders. The chapter will also address a growing diagnostic role for pragmatic language impairments in the management of clients with psychiatric disorders and conditions such as dementia. If these new directions prove to be correct, the first forty years of clinical pragmatics will have prepared the ground for many more years of fruitful intellectual and clinical inquiry in pragmatics.

For nearly forty years, researchers and clinicians have acknowledged that communication may be disrupted by impairments of the pragmatics of language. These impairments have been more or less successfully characterized across a wide range of clinical studies (see Cummings (2007a, 2007b, 2009) for a critical review). For some of these studies, a pragmatic disorder arises when a speaker produces utterances which fail to facilitate a conversational exchange. The failure may take the form of a lack of relevance to an exchange or the contribution of information which is incomplete, misleading or uninformative. For other studies, a pragmatic disorder occurs when a hearer is unable to glean a speaker’s communicative intention in producing an utterance. A hearer may be unable to establish if a speaker is producing an utterance with a view to making a request, issuing a warning, or declining an invitation. For still other studies, a pragmatic disorder is what leads speakers to select inappropriate topics for conversation, misrepresent the order of events in a story or fail to relinquish turns to an interlocutor in conversation. Each of these so-called pragmatic disorders represents a significant respect in which an individual’s competence as a communicator can be called into question. The chapters in this part of the volume examine clinical conditions in which communicative or pragmatic competence either does not develop along normal lines or is disrupted for the first time in adulthood. The result is a range of pragmatic impairments which have more or less serious implications for an individual’s effectiveness as a communicator.

In providing an overview of pragmatic disorders, the aim of this chapter is threefold. First, it is to characterize these disorders in as transparent a manner as possible so that an accurate clinical identification of them may be made. This involves an examination of the points in the communication cycle where pragmatic breakdown may occur and where pragmatic disorders may arise. Second, it is to introduce some of the clinical disorders in which there are marked pragmatic language impairments. The introduction and illustration of those impairments must occur alongside an acknowledgement that aspects of pragmatic competence can be intact, even in individuals with marked pragmatic deficits. Third, it is to examine theoretical frameworks such as relevance theory (Sperber and Wilson 1995) and how these apply to a key cognitive component of pragmatic competence, namely, the ability to attribute mental states to the minds of others (i.e. theory of mind). One mental state in particular – communicative intentions – is integral to communication between speakers and hearers. The result will be a wide-ranging account of some of the pragmatic disorders which will be examined in detail in later chapters.

Pragmatic competence, as one of the main components of communicative competence, ought to be given sufficient attention by the foreign language instructors and students. Recently, a surge of interest in interlanguage pragmatics (ILP) has been witnessed. The studies on explicit and implicit instruction on Iranian EFL students' production of two pragmatic aspects of apology and request have been few. Thus, the aim of this study was exploring the potentially facilitative impacts of explicit and implicit instruction on Iranian EFL students' production of two pragmatic aspects frequently used in daily conversations, namely the speech acts of apology and request. For this purpose, forty homogenized upper-intermediate Iranian EFL learners were randomly divided into one experimental and one control group. They took part in an English-medium conversation course which lasted for eight sessions in which ILP academic situations were presented to the students of the experimental group in the explicit way, while the control group received the same instruction and materials through the implicit method. Following the treatment, the participants received the same validated academic Multiple-Choice Discourse Completion Test (MDCT) of ILP. The results indicated that teaching pragmalinguistic features explicitly could improve the interlanguage pragmatic knowledge of the participants in the experimental group.

Pragmatic and sociopragmatic processing consist of complex cognitive processes which are required for the comprehension of figurative language in social interactions between individuals. Populations with brain damage, however, show many pragmatic deficits which do not enable them to understand irony, metaphors or idioms. This paper investigates how these deficits appear in adult individuals with various types of brain damage, i.e., acquired brain injury (ABI), traumatic brain injury (TBI) and left-(LHD) and right-hemisphere damage (RHD). Research on metaphoric language explores how different pragmatic components of language are processed by the pragmatically incompetent populations. When pragmatic deficits are assessed from a sociocognitive perspective, it becomes evident that it is more demanding to process and comprehend language stimuli that incorporate irony, metaphors and idioms. Speech acts constitute a strong example of these types of stimuli which involve both the comprehension of figurative language and the social context. Thus, sociopragmatic processing showcases how patients with brain damage react to social interactions, where they are required to respond to a context. The current paper concludes that the reason why sociopragmatic competence is more demanding than pragmatic competence is because patients need to recruit more complex cognitive skills, namely executive functions such as working memory.

The present study tries to test the effectiveness of cultural familiarity and cultural schemata in enhancing comprehension of culturally loaded texts especially short stories. In doing so, 129 Iranian EFL learners between 9 to 11 years of age were chosen. After ensuring that they are homogeneous, the participants were divided into three groups. In the first group, participants read the nativized version of the short story. In the second one, they read the original version and background knowledge was provided for them and in the third one, they read the nativized version while background knowledge has been provided for them. Then the students were asked to answer multiple choice questions that tested their comprehension. Results revealed that the treatment of group three was the most facilitative one. It is concluded that applying a method which is a mixture of both cultural familiarity and cultural schemata facilitates learners' comprehension skill best.

The Schizophrenic Discourse. Verbigeration, Fraintendements, Communication Failures Recently, several studies of neurolinguistics, neuropragmatics and/or clinical prag-matics on schizophrenic discourse have tried to focus attention on the so-called «domain of language». In fact, some researchers of these scientific fields believe that pragmatic schizophrenic deficits cannot be fully explained by referring only to cogni-tive disorders such as those in Executive Functions (EF), Theory of Mind (ToM), and/ or Formal Thought Disorders (FTD). The difficulties in figurative language, in the expressions in which it is necessary to understand and produce the ironic or sarcastic sense of the sentences, the poor skills in understanding sincere or deceptive communicative intentions and, more generally, the difficulties in inferential skills would demonstrate a specific deficit of the pragmatic abilities of schizophrenic subjects. Using also statistical models for reading the results, a series of cognitive pragmatic research where semi-structured interviews, reading and understanding exercises of short passages, questions on sentences presented experimentally from which the meaning must be inferred (literal, figurative, concrete, abstract), or interpreting illustrations and stories have been used, seems to demonstrate that in schizophrenic discourse important deficits in the domain of pragmatic abilities would emerge. However, to explain the lack of coherence, cohesion and/or relevance of schizophrenic speech, or the failures of the patient's discursive performance, it is also necessary to recover the cognitive role of the Formal Thought Disorders and above all of the delusions and hallucinations. In this regard, it is still useful to consider the psychopathological perspective, and in particular the study the patients' many autographed productions (letters, complaint, memorandum, narrative and poetic compositions, etc.). The examination of these writings and/or the transcriptions of the psychiatric interviews could allow us to better evaluate the adequacy to the communicative context of these subjects, and allow us to integrate their delu-sional and hallucinatory linguistic uses. In short, from these studies the role of the particular schizophrenic communicative context could emerge-or of the subjective , imaginary and unusual context (precisely, delusional and hallucinatory)-which seems necessary to integrate the pragmatic dimension of deficits of schizophrenic language.

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Typically developing adults are able to keep track of story characters' emotional states online while reading. Filik et al. showed that initially, participants expected the victim to be more hurt by ironic comments than literal, but later considered them less hurtful; ironic comments were regarded as more amusing. We examined these processes in autistic adults, since previous research has demonstrated socio-emotional difficulties among autistic people, which may lead to problems processing irony and its related emotional processes despite an intact ability to integrate language in context. We recorded eye movements from autistic and nonautistic adults while they read narratives in which a character (the victim) was either criticized in an ironic or a literal manner by another character (the protagonist). A target sentence then either described the victim as feeling hurt/amused by the comment, or the protagonist as having intended to hurt/amused the victim by making the comment. Results from the nonautistic adults broadly replicated the key findings from Filik et al., supporting the two-stage account. Importantly, the autistic adults did not show comparable two-stage processing of ironic language; they did not differentiate between the emotional responses for victims or protagonists following ironic versus literal criticism. These findings suggest that autistic people experience a specific difficulty taking into account other peoples' communicative intentions (i.e., infer their mental state) to appropriately anticipate emotional responses to an ironic comment. We discuss how these difficulties might link to atypical socio-emotional processing in autism, and the ability to maintain successful real-life social interactions. Autism Res 2020, 13: 563-578. Lay Summary: In line with research showing that autistic people have difficulties considering others' mental states, we found autistic adults were impaired at distinguishing the emotions and intentions experienced by story characters who received sarcastic comments (e.g., "That was fantastic parking" in a context where someone's parking was particularly bad). These findings highlight the difficulties that autistic people experience taking into account other peoples' intentions during communication to appropriately anticipate their emotional responses.

Pragmatic impairment (also known as social (pragmatic) communication disorder) can be defined as any breakdown in the use of language across a range of communicative contexts. Deficits in the pragmatics of language pose a significant barrier to effective communication and can compromise social, academic and occupational functioning. To mitigate these adverse consequences, individuals with pragmatic impairment must be assessed and treated by speech-language pathologists. This entry will examine the different aetiologies that can cause pragmatic disorders and significant distinctions in the classification of these disorders. It will also consider the contribution of cognitive deficits to these disorders and will address how clinicians assess and treat pragmatic disorders.

Las interacciones comunicativas se estructuran a partir de un Principio de cooperación al que se adhieren todos los participantes de las mismas. Sin embargo, las alteraciones lingüísticas que sufren las personas con demencia tipo alzhéimer (DTA) suelen dar lugar a tantas transgresiones de las máximas conversacionales que comunicarse con ellos resulta muy difícil. En este trabajo analizamos en 15 conversaciones con hablantes con DTA el aumento de las transgresiones de las máximas a lo largo de la enfermedad y las alteraciones lingüísticas responsables del no seguimiento de cada una de las máximas.

The usage of the demonstrative pronoun šìtas, šità in some Eastern Aukštaitian subdialects Anotacija. Šiame straipsnyje analizuojami egzoforiškai vartojamo rodomojo įvardžio šìtas, šità vartosenos atvejai rytų aukštaičių pašnektėse, bandoma nustatyti, kada ir kodėl jis vartojamas kontekstuose, kuriuose labiau tikėtinas vadinamasis 'tolimojo' rodymo įvardis tas. Tyrimui pasirinktos kelios pašnektės: Obelių, Juodupės, Jauneikių, Stočkų. Surinkus, įvertinus ir išanalizavus medžiagą, paaiškėjo, kad fizinis atstumas (šiuo atveju-artumas) nuo kalbėtojo nėra vienintelis veiksnys, lemiantis rodomojo įvardžio šìtas, šità pasirinkimą. Tiesioginės komunikacijos akte tolimų objektų / sub-jektų užkodavimą vadinamuoju artimojo rodymo įvardžiu labai dažnai lemia lengvas referento atpažįstamumas adresato atžvilgiu, t. y. kalbėtojo manymas, kad kontekste yra pakankamai užuominų, padėsiančių adresatui identifikuoti objektą / subjektą. Raktažodžiai: lietuvių kalba; uteniškiai; referencija; rodomasis įvardis; šìtas; šità; vietos deiksė. Abstract. The present paper aims to discover the reasons why 'proximal' demonstrative pronouns are used where 'distal' ones are expected. For the analysis, some Eastern Lithuanian subdialects (Obeliai, Juodupė, Jauneikiai, Stočkai) were chosen. In my research I have shown that physical proximity or distance from interlocutors is not the only determinant of using and selecting (nominal) exophoric demonstratives in some Eastern Lithuanian dialects; rather, these deictics are used according to the degree of access that the interactants, the addressee in particular, have to the referent.

Abstrak Penelitian ini bertujuan mendeskripsikan struktur argumen berdasarkan tipe kompleksitas dan penarikan simpulan dalam wacana karya tulis ilmiah mahasiswa. Pendekatan penelitian yang digunakan ialah deskriptif kualitatif dengan metode analisis isi komunikasi. Sumber data penelitian adalah skripsi mahasiswa Jurusan Tarbiyah STAIN Manado. Hasil penelitian sebagai berikut. Pertama, struktur argumen berdasarkan kompleksitasnya terdiri dari struktur argumen sederhana dan struktur argumen kompleks. Struktur argumen kompleks terdiri dari struktur argumen alasan berdampingan dan struktur argumen alasan bertingkat. Kedua, struktur argumen berdasarkan penarikan simpulan dibedakan menjadi struktur argumen induktif dan struktur argumen deduktif. Abstract This study aims to describe argument structures based on types of complexity and conclusion drawing in students' academic writing discourse. It employed the qualitative descriptive approach using the communication content analysis method. The data sources were undergraduate theses written by students of the Department of Tarbiyah, STAIN Manado. The results of the study are as follows. First, the argument structures based on types of complexity comprise a simple argument structure and a complex argument structure. The complex argument structure consists of an adjacent argument structure and a multi-layer argument structure. Second, the argument structures based on conclusion drawing consist of an inductive argument structure and a deductive argument structure.