Personality Theory and Assessment

Personality Theories and Assessment Dr Vasant Kothari B Tech, M Tech (Textile), MBA (Marketing) M Phil (Management), MA (Psychology)* PhD (Management) SPRING SEASON PUBLICATIONS Navi Mumbai, INDIA This book will be available for purchase from 1st week of AUG 18 from below mentioned websites www.springseason.in @ Rs 300 & www.amazon.in* @Rs 375 *Cash on Delivery option is available Personality: Theories and Assessment © Dr. Vasant Kothari 2018 All Rights Reserved First Published – 2018 ISBN: 978-81-935047-4-1 Spring Season Publications Kharghar Sec 10, Navi Mumbai, MS, INDIA, 410210 www.springseason.in All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electrical, mechanical, Photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior Written permission of the author. Printed by: Printwell International Pvt. Ltd. Aurangabad, MS, INDIA Content 1 Personality and Personality Development 1 2 Trait Approaches to Personality 16 3 Assessment of Personality 28 4 Key Issues in Personality 37 5 Psychodynamic Theory 55 6 Social Cognitive Theory 79 7 Learning Theory of Personality 89 8 Humanistic and Self Theory 104 9 A Dispositional Theory of Personality 118 10 Raymond Cattell’s Trait Theory of Personality 129 11 Eysenck’s Trait-Type Theory of Personality 135 12 The Big Five Theory 150 13 Introduction to Assessment and Testing 159 14 Approaches to Personality Assessment 173 15 Behavioral Assessment 187 16 Other Measures of Personality 199 Chapter 05 Psychodynamic Theory 5.1 Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Jun 11 (500 words/10 Marks) Dec 13 (500 words/10 Marks) Jun 18 (450 words/10 Marks) Many psychologists have proposed theories that try to explain the origins of personality. One highly influential set of theories stems from the work of Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, who first proposed the theory of psychoanalysis. Collectively, these theories are known as psychodynamic theories. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Freud developed a technique, he termed psychoanalysis and used it to treat mental disorders. Freud did not develop his theory on the basis of scientific experiments, such as correlation and controlled studies. He used the case study method and formed his theory of psychoanalysis by observing his patients. According to psychoanalytic theory, everything we do is motivated by inner unconscious forces. Personalities arise because of attempts to resolve conflicts between unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses and societal demands to restrain these impulses. 55 Personality: Theories and Assessment The main basic principle of his study suggested that adult personality is the result of an interaction between innate drives (such as the desire for pleasure) and early experience. Freud proposed that individual personality differences can be traced back to the way the early conflicts between desire and experience were handled. These conflicts remain with the adult and exert pressure through unconsciously motivated behaviour. Even though most of his ideas have been abandoned by modern psychology, his psychoanalytic theory formed the basis for many current psychodynamic theories and they all emphasize unconscious motives and desires, as well as the importance of childhood experiences in shaping personality. Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory is described in the following three main headings: • • • Structure of personality Dynamics of personality Development of personality 5.1.1 Structure of Personality In order to describe the structure of personality the following two models have been developed by Freud: 56 Psychodynamic Theory • • Topographical model Dynamic or Structural model 5.1.1.1 Topographical Model (State of Consciousness) Freud developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he described the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind. Freud believed that there were three levels of consciousness. • • • The conscious contains all the information that a person is paying attention to at any given time The preconscious contains all the information outside of a person’s attention but readily available if needed The unconscious contains thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories of which people have no awareness but that influences every aspect of their day-to-day lives Freud used this mental “map” of the mind to describe the degree to which mental events such as thoughts and fantasies vary in accessibility to awareness. He believed that information in the unconscious emerges in slips of the tongue, jokes, dreams, illness symptoms, and the associations people make between ideas. (149 Words) 5.1.1.2 Dynamic or Structural Model Dec 11 (500 words/10 Marks) In terms of the above three states of consciousness, Freud attempted to explain a great deal of mental functioning, but later he found it useful to describe a kind of mental map involving three regions or types of mental activity. 57 Personality: Theories and Assessment These three elements of personality—known as the id, the ego, and the superego—work together to create complex human behaviors. Id – The Demanding Child • The primary region is Id • The part of the personality present at birth • Deals with immediate gratification of o primitive needs o sexual desires o aggressive impulses • Is ruled by the pleasure principle • Is located in the Unconscious Mind • The energy for id’s instincts comes from the libido Ego – The Manager • The second region is the ego • Created by the Id to manage frustration caused by interaction with the outside world • Its purpose is to deal with reality to meet the demands of the Id, if possible • Acts as mediator between the id and the super ego • It tries to maximize pleasure and minimize pain • Is ruled by the reality principle • Is located in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind Super Ego – The Judge • The third region is called the superego 58 Psychodynamic Theory • • • • • • • • Created by the Ego to assist in interacting with the outside world Begins to emerge at around age five Contains the taboos implemented by parents and of society Deals with the ideals Provides guidelines for making decisions Represents the societal demands and ideals Is ruled by the morality principle Is located in the Conscious Mind In a nutshell, the id creates the demands, the ego adds the needs of reality and the superego adds morality to the action which is taken. The outcome of the combination of all the three determinants shapes an adult personality. If the Id becomes the dominant structure If the Superego becomes the dominant structure The person will be narcissistic The person will become rigid, inflexible and guilt-ridden ID Express sexual and aggressive instincts Entirely unconscious Present at birth Represent biological aspect EGO Mediates between desires of the id and demands of the super ego Partly conscious and partly unconscious Emerges after birth with early formative experiences Represent psychological aspect 59 SUPER EGO Represents conscience and the rules of society; follow internalized moral standards Partly conscious and mostly unconscious Last system to develop; becomes internalized after the phallic stage Represent societal and parental aspect Personality: Theories and Assessment ID Pleasure Instant gratification Every want/need of the individual Natural Behavior Need of the body Seek pleasure and avoid pain EGO Reality Settling dispute What is right/wrong based on the standards of those most involved in your life Society Perception of what we did Your spirit Adapt to reality while controlling the id and superego SUPER EGO Morality Judgement zone Always suggest good things Judgment and act the right thing Spirit guide Represent right and wrong I want red rose and I want it now I can afford to buy red roses from flower shop Stealing is bad. The sign says don’t pluck flowers “I’m so mad I could kill you” (felt unconsciously) “Let’s talk about it” (Might make a conscious this) or “What, me angry? Never” (Resort to an unconscious mechanism, Denial) “You shall not kill” (Moral) (527 Words) 5.1.2 Dynamics of Personality Related to these energies Freud developed some concepts which explain the dynamic aspects of personality like instinct, anxiety and mental mechanisms. 60 Psychodynamic Theory According to Freud, two biological instincts make up the Id: Eros Thanatos Eros is the Greek word for love Thanatos is the Greek word for death Life instinct Death instinct The purpose of Eros is to establish & The purpose of the Thanatos instinct preserve unity through relationships is to undo connections and unity It is related with hunger, thirst, A destructive force directing towards security and the important sex death. It motivates all kinds of hatred, necessary for producing new aggression, violence, war and suicide. generation Eros is associated with positive Thanatos is associated with negative emotions of love, and hence proemotions such as fear, hate and anger, social behavior, cooperation, which lead to anti-social acts from collaboration and other behaviors bullying to murder that support harmonious societies The two instincts can either operate against each other through repulsion or combine with each other through attraction (168 Words) 5.1.2.1 Defense Mechanisms Dec 15 (300 words/6 Marks) Dec 16 (100 words/3 Marks) Jun 17 (100 words/3 Marks) Freud believed id, ego and superego are in constant conflict, as the primary goal is different for each piece. Sometimes, when the conflict is too much for a person to handle, his or her ego may engage in one or many defense mechanisms to protect the individual. Defense mechanisms are a part of our everyday life. Psychoanalysts emphasize that the use of a defense mechanism is a normal part of personality function and 61 Personality: Theories and Assessment not itself a sign of psychological disorder. This process is usually unconscious and helps ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e. anxiety) or help the individual to feel better and look at the positive side. These defense mechanisms include: Denial Smokers may refuse to admit to Not acknowledging that there is a themselves that smoking is bad for problem their health Repression Keeping unacceptable thoughts or traumatic events buried in the A woman doesn’t recall being raped unconscious Regression A child who knows how to walk Acting in a way that is not typical for starts to crawl around because their your age (Returning to previous level baby brother is getting so much of development) attention for crawling Reaction Formation Two co-workers fight all the time Behaving in a way that is exactly the because they are attracted to each opposite of one’s true feeling other Projection A man who has committed adultery is Placing one’s own unacceptable convinced his wife cheating on him, thoughts onto others despite lack of evidence Rationalization Making up acceptable excuses for Justifying cheating on an exam by unacceptable behavior saying that everyone else cheats Intellectualization The person who finds his/her partner has cancer, deals with it by becoming Block the emotional side and address an absolute expert on cancer and only the facts focuses on the disease intellectually rather than dealing with the emotions Displacement Transferring negative emotion to a A person who is angry with a boss less threatening target comes home and yells at the spouse Sublimation Transforming unacceptable thought A person may turn to becoming a or needs into acceptable actions boxing player to deal with aggression Freud saw these defenses as unhealthy and believed that they affect personality development. (357 Words) 62 Psychodynamic Theory 5.1.3 Development of Personality Jun 14 (500 words/10 Marks) Jun 15 (300 words/6 Marks) Dec 17 (450 words/10 Marks) Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. As a person grows physically, certain areas of their body become important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or both. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior. Stage Name Age 1 Oral 0 – 1 Year 2 Anal 1 – 3 Years 3 Phallic 3 – 6 Years 4 5 Latency Genital 6 – 12 Years 12+ Years Focus Pleasure centers on the mouth – sucking, biting, chewing Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings Dormant sexual feelings Maturation of sexual interests Oral (0-1 years of age) - During the oral stage, the infant’s primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Anal (1-3 years of age) - During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. Phallic (3-6 years of age) - Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females. According to Freud, 63 Personality: Theories and Assessment preschoolers begin to struggle with sexual desires toward the opposite sex parent (boys to mothers and girls to fathers). For boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy’s desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a threat. The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Latency (6-12 years of age) - During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id’s energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family. Genital (12+ years of age) - During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest for the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout life. Freud hypothesized that an individual must successfully complete each stage to become a psychologically healthy adult with a fully formed ego and superego; otherwise, individuals may become stuck or “fixated” in a particular stage, causing emotional and behavioral problems in adulthood. Regression can also occur if adults experience stressful situations. He believed that both fixation and regression play important roles in determining adult personality. (500 Words) 5.1.4 Evaluation of Freud’s Theory There are some merits as well as limitations of Freud’s theory. Merits • It is a complete theory of personality and explains behavior • It emphasizes the role of the unconscious and early childhood experiences • It emphasizes dynamic nature of behavior • It emphasizes defense mechanisms of ego and stimulates further theoretical/ research work in personality • It results in a serious interest in psychological treatment of mental disorders Limitations • Critics point out that many of Freud’s ideas were not new and that many aspects of his theory are not testable 64 Psychodynamic Theory • • • • • • • • Some critics argue that psychodynamic theories are not falsifiable and therefore unscientific Critics also contend that Freud’s theory is lacking in empirical evidence and relies too heavily on therapeutic achievements. Others criticize his use of biased data in developing his theory Other critics argue that psychodynamic theories are made by generalizing from a small number of patients to the whole human population. Relying only on case studies can lead to faulty conclusions There is little evidence of many of Freud’s theories, such as the repression of childhood sexual abuse and trauma Freud’s theory overemphasized the unconscious mind, sex, aggression and childhood experiences There is lack of scientific proof in the theory Freud paid little to no attention to the impact of environment, sociology, or culture It has generally not been supported across cultures, and may actually apply only to Western cultures (230 Words) 5.2 Karen Horney: Social Foundation of Personality Karen Horney’s psychoanalytic social theory assumes that social and cultural conditions, especially during childhood, have a powerful effect on later personality. 65 Jun 11 (250 words/5 Marks) Jun 15 (500 words/10 Marks) Personality: Theories and Assessment In her personality theory, Horney reformulated Freudian thought and presented a holistic, humanistic perspective that emphasized cultural and social influences, human growth, and the achievement of self-actualization. Horney’s theory can be explained under the following three main headings: • Basic Anxiety • Neurotic Needs • Theory of the Self 5.2.1 Basic Anxiety Basic anxiety is an important theoretical concept in Horney’s theory of personality. All children need safety and security, but these can be gained only by love from parents. Unfortunately, parents often neglect, dominate, reject, or overindulge their children, conditions that lead to the child’s feelings of basic hostility toward parents. If children repress basic hostility, they will develop feelings of insecurity, helplessness, vulnerability and a pervasive sense of apprehension called basic anxiety. Horney also listed the adverse factors of the environment that cause basic anxiety. All these adverse factors are termed by Horney as basic evil. These factors are: direct or indirect domination, erratic behaviour, lack of respect for child’s individual needs, lack of real guidance, disparaging attitudes, too much admiration or absence of it, lack of reliable warmth, having to take sides in parental disagreements, too much or too little responsibility, overprotection, isolation from other children, injustice, discrimination, unkept promise, hostile atmosphere. 66 Psychodynamic Theory The basic evil experienced by the child naturally provokes resentment, or basic hostility. It produces a dilemma or conflict for the child, because expressing the hostility would risk punishment and would lead to withdrawal of his or her receipt of parental love. Children deal with their hostility by repressing it. Regardless of cause, the repression exacerbates the conflicts, leading to a vicious cycle: the anxiety produces an excessive need for affection. When these needs are not met, the child feels rejected and the anxiety and hostility intensify. (241 Words) 5.2.2 Neurotic Needs Dec 14 (500 words/10 Marks) Jun 17 (250 words/6 Marks) Horney identified 10 categories of neurotic needs that mark neurotics in their attempt to reduce basic anxiety. Later, Horney grouped these 10 neurotic needs into three basic neurotic trends, which apply to both normal and neurotic individuals in their attempt to solve basic conflict. These are all-natural human needs -- the major difference is that neurotic people take them to extreme. These 10 neurotic needs can be classed into three broad categories: 67 Personality: Theories and Assessment • Moving towards people (Compliance/Self-effacing Solution) These neurotic needs cause individuals to seek affirmation and acceptance from others and are often described as needy or clingy as they seek out approval and love. i. People pleasers need affection and approval at any cost. ii. Overly dependent people need a partner to take over their life. They pathologically fear being deserted by their partner. iii. Those with the need to restrict their lives appear to lack ambition. Life is experienced in “safe” and inconspicuous ways. Most children facing parental indifference use this strategy. They often have a fear of helplessness and abandonment, or what Horney referred to as basic anxiety. • Moving against people (Aggression/Expansive Solution) These neurotic needs create hostility and antisocial behavior. These individuals are often described as cold, indifferent, and aloof. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. A neurotic need for power is the craving of power and strength for its own sake. Individuals with a neurotic need to exploit others believe that they can only achieve success by taking advantage of others. Neurotic need for social recognition or prestige is expressed when people build their self-esteem on the recognition and compliments they receive from others. A neurotic need for personal admiration means that people desire admiration and have an inflated self-image dependent upon this approval. The neurotic need for personal achievement derives from a person’s sense of insecurity; they seek superiority in order to prove their worth. Neurotic children or adults within this category often exhibit anger or basic hostility to those around them. That is, there is a need for power, a need for control and exploitation and a maintenance of a pretense of supremacy. Although their motivation is the same as that of the compliant type, to alleviate basic anxiety, aggressive personalities never display fear of rejection. They act tough and domineering and have no regard for others. 68 Psychodynamic Theory • Moving away from people (Withdrawal/Resigning Solution) These neurotic needs result in hostility and a need to control other people. These individuals are often described as difficult, domineering, and unkind. ix. x. Those who need independence seek freedom from commitment. This need usually follows a disappointing relationship. With a need for perfection comes the fear of failure and criticism. These people try to hide their flaws to protect their image of infallibility. As neither aggression nor compliance solve parental indifference, Horney recognized that children might move away from other people to maintain an emotional distance. They must not love, hate, or cooperate with others or become involved in any way. To achieve this total detachment, they strive to become self-sufficient. Personality Basic Conflict or Source of Neurotic Need Neurotic Needs Characteristics Normal Analog Neurotic Trends Compliant Aggressive Protection Feeling of against hostility happiness of others 4. Power 5. Exploitation 1. Affection and 6. Social approval Recognition 2. Powerful 7. Personal partner Admiration 3. Restrict life 8. Personal Achievement Striving to feel worthy and can Come across as believe the only bossy, way to gain this demanding, is through the selfish, and even acceptance of cruel others Ability to survive Friendly, loving in a competitive society 69 Detached Feelings of isolation 9. Self sufficiency 10. Perfection Personality style filled with asocial behavior and an almost indifference to others Autonomous and serene Personality: Theories and Assessment It is important to note that, well-adjusted individuals utilize all three of these strategies, shifting focus depending on internal and external factors relating to people, but neurotics are compelled to rigidly rely on only one. The neurotic needs come to existence because of a person’s intensive and compulsive pursuit of their satisfaction as the only way to resolve basic anxiety. Satisfying these needs will not help feel safe and secure but will aid only in desire to escape the discomfort caused by anxiety. We pursue gratification of these needs solely to cope with anxiety, we tend to focus on only one need and compulsively seek its satisfaction in all situations. (724 Word) 5.2.3 Theory of the Self Horney had one more way of looking at neurosis -- in terms of self-images. For Horney, the self is the core of one’s being, their potential. If a person is healthy, they would have an accurate conception of who they are, and they would then be free to realize that potential (selfrealization). The neurotic has a different view of things. The neurotics self is “split” into a despised self and an ideal self. As a result, neurotic individuals feel that they somehow do not live up to the ideal self. Real Self The real self is who and what we actually are Ideal Self The ideal self is the type of person we feel that we should be The ideal self is used as a model to The real self has the potential for assist the real self in developing its growth, happiness, will power, potential and achieving selfrealization of gifts, etc. actualization The real self and the ideal self actually are the two sides of the same coin Neurotic person’s self is split between an idealized self and a real self Based on realistic appraisal of Based on unattainable ideal of abilities, potential and working absolute perfection Flexible, dynamic, adapts as the Static, inflexible and unyielding individual develops and changes 70 Psychodynamic Theory Real Self Functions as a goal and encourages growth Ideal Self Hinders growth by demanding rigid adherence They feel that there is a flaw somewhere in comparison to what they “should” be. The goals set out by the neurotic ideal self are not realistic, or even possible. The despised self, on the other hand, has the feeling that it is despised by those around them, and assumes that this incarnation is its “true” self. Thus, the neurotic is like a clock’s pendulum, oscillating between a fallacious “perfection” and a manifestation of self-hate. Horney referred to this phenomenon as the “tyranny of the shoulds” and the neurotic’s hopeless “search for glory”. The compliant person The aggressive person The withdrawing person believes, I should be Sweet, self-sacrificing, saintly Powerful, recognized, winner Independent, aloof, perfect She concluded that these ingrained traits of the psyche forever prevent an individual’s potential from being actualized, unless the cycle of neurosis is somehow broken, through treatment or otherwise. (367 Words) 5.2.4 Evaluation Karen Horney made significant contributions to humanism, self-psychology, psychoanalysis, and feminine psychology. Her refutation of Freud’s theories about women generated more interest in the psychology of women. Horney does not account for the whole of human psychology, since like every theorist she describes only part of the picture. Horney acknowledged and agreed with Freud on many issues, she was also critical of him on several key beliefs. Freud’s notion of Oedipal Complex and Penis Envy was subject to criticism by Horney, claiming that clinging to one parent and jealousy of the other was simply the result of anxiety, caused by a disturbance in the parent-child relationship. Despite these variances with the prevalent Freudian view, Horney strove to reformulate Freudian thought, presenting a holistic and humanitarian view of the individual psyche which placed much emphasis on cultural and social differences worldwide. 71 Personality: Theories and Assessment The major negative comment that has been made about Horney’s theory is that her theory is limited to the neurotic. Her theory rates very low in generating research and low on its ability to be falsified, to organize data, and to serve as a useful guide to action. Her theory is rated about average on internal consistency and parsimony. (200 Word) 5.3 Sullivan’s Theory of Personality Jun 12 (500 words/10 Marks) Harry Stack Sullivan was the first American theorist to construct a comprehensive personality theory in which he believed that development of the personality occurred within the context of the social group. Without other people, Sullivan contended, humans would have no personality. “A personality can never be isolated from the complex of interpersonal relations in which the person lives and has his being”. Sullivan insisted that knowledge of human personality can be gained only through the scientific study of interpersonal relations. His interpersonal theory emphasizes the importance of various developmental stages—infancy, childhood, the juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, late adolescence, and adulthood. Healthy human development rests on a person’s ability to establish intimacy with another person, but unfortunately, anxiety can interfere with satisfying interpersonal relations at any age. Sullivan believed that people achieve healthy 72 Psychodynamic Theory development when they are able to experience both intimacy and lust toward the same other person. (150 Words) Sullivan’s theory can be explained under these main headings: 5.3.1 Dynamics of Personality Sullivan conceptualized personality as an energy system, with energy existing either as • • Tension - potentiality for action o Tension is a potentiality for action that may or may not be experienced in awareness Energy transformations - the actions themselves o Energy transformations transform tensions into either covert or overt behaviors and are aimed at satisfying needs and reducing anxiety Sullivan recognized two types of tensions: • • Needs o o Anxiety o o Needs usually result in productive actions Needs are helpful or conjunctive when satisfied Anxiety leads to nonproductive or disintegrative behaviors Anxiety is disjunctive, interfering with the satisfaction of needs and disrupting interpersonal relations Sullivan called anxiety the chief disruptive force in interpersonal relations. A complete absence of anxiety and other tensions is called euphoria. (125 Words) 5.3.2 Levels of Cognition Levels of cognition refer to ways of perceiving, imagining, and conceiving. Sullivan recognized three levels of cognition, or ways of perceiving things: • Prototaxic Level o Experiences on the prototaxic level are impossible to communicate 73 Personality: Theories and Assessment It includes sensations, thoughts, feelings, but no inferences or conclusions are drawn from these experiences o Newborn infants experience images mostly on a prototaxic level Parataxic Level o Parataxic experiences are prelogical o Consists of connecting causal relationship between events that occur at about the same time but which are not logically related o Whenever a black cat comes my way I face disaster, we see causal connections between experiences that have nothing to do with one another Syntaxic Level o Experiences that are consensually validated and that can be symbolically communicated o Logical order among experiences and enables people to communicate with one another o Highest level of cognitive thinking o • • Prototaxic Level Infancy + Early Childhood - Disconnected momentary experiences as totalities - No temporal relationship No meaning for experience person Parataxic Level Early Childhood - Momentary experiences recorded in sequence - Apparent connection present Symbolic/Coincidental connections Logic absent Syntaxic Level Development of Language + Consensual Validation - Logical order between experiences - Temporal sequencing Logical connections External validity Internal consistency Although all the three types of experiences exist during the entire life span of a human but the syntaxic experiences dominate the life of a normal individual. (237 Words) 74 Psychodynamic Theory 5.3.3 Dynamism Energy transformations become organized as typical behavior patterns that characterize a person throughout a lifetime. Sullivan called these behavior patterns dynamisms, a term that means about the same as traits or habit patterns. Most dynamisms serve the purpose of satisfying the basic needs of the organisms. Two types of dynamism are distinguished by him • • • dynamisms related to specific zones of the body o leads to the satisfaction of particular bodily needs like hunger, thirst dynamism related to tensions o Disjunctive dynamism – Malevolence ▪ negative interpersonal behavior o Conjunctive dynamism – Intimacy ▪ positive interpersonal behavior o Isolating dynamism – Lust ▪ unrelated to interpersonal Self-System Malevolence is the disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred, characterized by the feeling of living among one’s enemies. It originates around age two or three, when children’s actions that earlier had brought about maternal tenderness, are rebuffed, ignored, or met with anxiety and pain. Those children who become malevolent have much difficulty giving and receiving tenderness or being intimate with other people. Intimacy grows out of the earlier need for tenderness but is more specific and involves a close interpersonal relationship between two people who are more or less of equal status. Intimacy is an integrating dynamism that tends to draw out loving reactions from the other person, thereby decreasing anxiety and loneliness. On the other hand, Lust is an isolating tendency, requiring no other person for its satisfaction. Auto-erotic behavior Hinders an intimate relationship. Increases anxiety and decreases self- worth. 75 Personality: Theories and Assessment Self-system A self-system is all of the security operations an individual use to defend against anxiety and ensure self-esteem. The self-system is a conjunctive dynamism but because its primary purpose is to protect the self from anxiety, it tends to stifle the personality change. Two types of security operations are: • • Dissociation - includes impulses, desires, and needs that a person refuses to allow into awareness (dreams) Selective Inattention - refusal to see things that one does not wish to see (conscious) (326 Words) 5.3.4 Personifications Jun 11 (250 words/5 Marks) Dec 17 (100 words/2 Marks) Beginning in infancy and continuing throughout the various developmental stages, people acquire certain images of themselves and others. These images, called personifications, may be relatively accurate, or because they are colored by people’s needs and anxieties, they may be grossly distorted. These personifications are mental images that allow us to understand ourselves and the world in a better manner. There are three basic ways we see ourselves that Sullivan called the bad-me, the good-me and the not-me. • • • The bad-me represents those aspects of the self that are considered negative and are therefore hidden from others and possibly even the self. It grows from experiences of punishment and disapproval The good-me is everything we like about ourselves. It results from experiences with reward and approval The not-me represents all those things that are so anxiety provoking, that we cannot even consider them a part of us. The not-me is kept out of awareness by pushing it deep into the unconscious. (156 Word) 5.3.5 Developmental Epochs Dec 17 (150 words/4 Marks) Sullivan postulated seven epochs or stages of development, each crucial to the 76 Psychodynamic Theory formation of human personality. Personality changes can take place at any time but are more likely to occur during transitions between stages. The majority of Sullivan’s focus revolved around the periods of adolescence, and he suggested that many adulthood problems arise from the turmoil of adolescence. The developmental epochs are: • • • • • • • Infancy (birth to 1 year) - Relief from anxiety through oral gratification of needs Childhood (1 to 5 years old) - Learning to experience a delay in personal gratification without undue anxiety Juvenile (6 to 8 years old) - Learning to form satisfactory peer relationships Preadolescence (9 to 12 years old) - Learning to form satisfactory relationships with persons of same sex; initiating feeling of affection for another person. Early Adolescence (13 to 17 years old) - Learning to form satisfactory relationships with persons of the opposite sex; developing a sense of identity Late Adolescence (18 to 22 or 23 years old) - Establishing self-identity; experiencing satisfying relationships; working to develop a lasting, intimate opposite-sex relationship. Adulthood (23 years old and on) - develops a consistent pattern of viewing the world, adult relationships and socialization become easier to attain and solid background of interpersonal conflicts usually results in anxiety. The struggles of adulthood include financial security, career, and family. (222 Words) 5.4 Evaluation Despite Sullivan’s insights into the importance of interpersonal relations, his theory of personality and his approach to psychotherapy have lost popularity in recent years. In summary, his theory rates • Very low in o Falsifiability 77 Personality: Theories and Assessment • • • • o Biological influences Low in o Ability to generate research o Parsimony o Uniqueness Average in o Capacity to organize knowledge o Practical guide o Guide action o Self-consistency o Free choice, optimism, and causality High on o Unconscious determinants Very high on o Social influences 78 (79 Word) Upcoming Titles by Dr Vasant Kothari • • 2nd Year Clinical Psychology o Psychopathology o Psychodiagnostics o Psychotherapeutic Methods nd 2 Year Counselling Psychology o Counselling Psychology o Assessment In Counselling And Guidance o Interventions In Counselling Spring Season Publications Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, MS, INDIA, 410210 Visit our website www.springseason.in