Greek Temples and Rituals

Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy Clive L. N. Ruggles Editor Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy With 969 Figures and 88 Tables Editor Clive L. N. Ruggles School of Archaeology and Ancient History University of Leicester University Road Leicester, UK ISBN 978-1-4614-6140-1 978-1-4614-6141-8 (eBook) ISBN Bundle 978-1-4614-6142-5 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2014942048 # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface All human cultures have a sky. Through the ages, the celestial vault visible at night has formed a breathtaking spectacle, as it continues to do in places beyond the reach of modern lighting. For countless millennia, how people interpret what they perceive in the sky has played a vital role in human communities’ understanding of the cosmos that they inhabit. For human societies ranging from small groups of hunter-gatherers and herders through to states and empires, the sky formed a prominent and immutable part of the observed world. The repeated cycles of the sun, moon, and stars helped to regulate human activity as people strove to make sense of their world and to keep their actions in harmony with the cosmos as they perceived it. In some cases, this was simply in order to maintain seasonal subsistence cycles; in others it helped to support dominant ideologies and complex social hierarchies. This quest for knowledge and understanding – “science” in its broadest sense – links the earliest skywatchers to modern astronomers and cosmologists. Sky perceptions very different in nature from those offered by modern “Western” science persist in many indigenous cultures around the world. Archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy, also referred to jointly as “cultural astronomy”, are concerned with humankind’s perceptions and understanding of astronomical phenomena, throughout human history and among all cultures. Monumental and other human constructions, artifacts, cultural landscapes, historical accounts, and modern indigenous practices all bear witness to the extraordinary diversity of ways in which human communities have comprehended what they perceived in the skies and used or manipulated this knowledge for social ends. The twin disciplines have been recognized since the 1970s as a distinct academic field of endeavor of significant value in informing broader cultural questions. Research in archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy has been burgeoning since the 1980s, when academics from across the divide between the social sciences and the physical and formal sciences began to work together in earnest to develop common goals and approaches. The result is a rich cross-disciplinary field with input from a wide range of academic disciplines including anthropology, archaeology, history (also the history of art, history of science, and history of religions), architecture, astronomy, and statistics. Nonetheless archaeoastronomy, v vi Preface in particular, has long courted controversy and acted as a magnet for sensationalism and uncritical speculation. A contributing factor is doubtless that each of its main constituent disciplines, archaeology and astronomy, has huge popular appeal. Such uncritical or sensationalistic accounts, often widely available, tend to obscure and undermine serious scholarship in the field. This three-volume handbook sets out to provide a definitive picture of the state of the art of research in archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy and to be a reliable and comprehensive source of reference regarding theory, method, interpretation, and best practice. It aims to be equally accessible to interested scholars regardless of the discipline in which they are qualified, as well as for tertiary-level students and serious general readers. Its authors are drawn from a full range of relevant disciplines and geographical areas. Part I of the handbook comprises thematic essays addressing general themes such as cosmologies, perceptions of space and time, calendars, and navigation. The chapters here also highlight various aspects of the social context of astronomy such as its role in sustaining social and political power; its use in the service of world religions, particularly Christianity and Islam; and its relationship to astrology. There is discussion of various disciplinary approaches to the study of prehistoric, historical, and indigenous astronomical knowledge, a historical perspective on the development of archaeoastronomy itself, and coverage of issues relating to heritage and tourism. Part II, “Methods and Practice”, covers topics ranging from social theory to field methodology, survey procedures, data analysis, and visualization. The opening chapters are concerned with the cultural interpretation of archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence. Several of the remainder deal with the identification and analysis of structural orientations and putative alignments upon various astronomical bodies; one with light-and-shadow interactions. A number of chapters here also provide broad definitions and explanations of key concepts that may be useful to readers unfamiliar with background matter in the relevant disciplines. The case studies that form the remainder, and major part, of the handbook have been selected to best illustrate broader themes and issues while ranging as widely as possible both geographically and through time and also in terms of the nature of the society in question and of their astronomical perceptions and practices. The subject matter does not extend to the development of modern scientific astronomy from the European Renaissance onward, but does include topics such as Babylonian, Greek, and Islamic astronomy, focusing in the Greek case (for example) more broadly upon calendars, religious practices, and perceptions of the cosmos, rather than exclusively upon the development of mathematical astronomy. I would like to thank all the authors for taking time out from their many other commitments to complete their excellent contributions to this handbook. My particular thanks are due to the section editors without whose thoroughness, reliability, and punctuality, not to say tenacity, it simply would not have been possible to produce a work of such impressive scope. Finally, I am immensely Preface vii grateful to the Springer staff, and particularly to our production editors Sylvia Blago and Simone Giesler, for their endless patience and good humor, as well as their unyielding support, at all stages in helping us to bring this project to a very satisfactory completion. January 2014 Clive L. N. Ruggles About the Editor Clive L. N. Ruggles Emeritus Professor of Archaeoastronomy, School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK Professor Clive L.N. Ruggles obtained an M.A. in Mathematics from Cambridge University in 1974 and a D. Phil in Astrophysics from Oxford University in 1978. Having already published several papers in archaeo- and ethnoastronomy, he moved shortly after this to University College, Cardiff (now Cardiff University), where he became a research fellow in the Department of Archaeology, moving on in 1982 to the Mathematics Department at the University of Leicester to pursue research in statistical applications in archaeology and archaeoastronomy. From 1984, he held various posts at the university, first as a lecturer and subsequently senior lecturer (1989) in Computing Studies, and later directing a cross-campus computer-based-learning project while also affiliated to two different departments (Mathematics and Computer Science, and Archaeology). He moved full time into the newly created School of Archaeological Studies (now the School of Archaeology and Ancient History) in 1997, gaining promotion to a personal chair in 1999 and becoming emeritus professor in 2007. Professor Ruggles has authored over 120 research and review papers in archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy as well as various other subjects, and has authored, ix x About the Editor edited, or coedited 17 books including Records in Stone (Cambridge University Press, 1988), Astronomies and Cultures (University Press of Colorado, 1993), Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland (Yale University Press, 1999), Ancient Astronomy: An Encyclopedia of Cosmologies and Myth (ABC-CLIO, 2005), Cultural Astronomy in New World Cosmologies (University Press of Colorado, 2007), and Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy: Building Bridges Between Cultures (Cambridge University Press, 2011). His early work focused on the Neolithic and Bronze Age standing stone monuments of Britain and Ireland, a topic of great controversy at the time between archaeologists and astronomers. Since then his interests have ranged from prehistoric perceptions of the skies in various contexts around the world to modern indigenous calendars in sub-Saharan Africa. He has undertaken fieldwork in several European countries, as well as in Egypt, the Americas, and Polynesia, concentrating most recently on major projects in Peru and the Hawaiian Islands. Throughout his career he has been concerned with developing sounder theoretical foundations and more robust methodologies and practice. In 2010, he was awarded the “Carlos Jaschek” prize by the European Society for Astronomy in Culture (SEAC) for outstanding contributions in the fields of cultural astronomy and archaeoastronomy. From 2009 to 2012, Professor Ruggles served as president of the Inter-Union Commission on the History of Astronomy (ICHA), a joint Commission of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) and the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS). He has also served as president of the Prehistoric Society (2006–2010), the International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture (ISAAC) (1999–2004), and the European Society for Astronomy in Culture (SEAC) (1993–99). He was editor from 1987 to 2001 of Archaeoastronomy, the supplement to Journal for the History of Astronomy, and coeditor from 1998 to 2010 of Archaeoastronomy: the Journal of Astronomy in Culture. He has organized two of the ten “Oxford” International Symposia on Archaeoastronomy, the principal conferences in the field, that have taken place between 1981 and 2014: Oxford III in St Andrews, Scotland, in 1990 and Oxford IX in Lima, Peru, in 2011. He is a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Since 2008, Professor Ruggles has worked on behalf of UNESCO and the International Astronomical Union to advance their joint initiative to promote, preserve, and protect the world’s most important astronomical heritage sites. From 2008 to 2012, he chaired the IAU’s Working Group on Astronomy and World Heritage, and he continues as a special advisor to the IAU, liaising with UNESCO. He has also worked with UNESCO’s advisory body for cultural sites, ICOMOS, to produce a joint ICOMOS–IAU Thematic Study on the Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy (2010), and with their advisory body for natural sites, IUCN, as a member of the Dark Skies Advisory Group (DSAG). He is director of UNESCO’s Astronomy and World Heritage Web Portal Project. Section Editors Themes and Issues Juan Antonio Belmonte Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Methods and Practice Stephen C. McCluskey Department of History, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Pre-Columbian and Indigenous North America Stephen C. McCluskey Department of History, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Pre-Columbian and Indigenous Mesoamerica Stanisław Iwaniszewski División de Posgrado, Escuela Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia, Tlalpan, México, D.F., Mexico Pre-Columbian and Indigenous South America Alejandro Martı́n López Sección de Etnologı́a, Instituto de Ciencias Antropológicas, Facultad de Filosofı́a y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina Indigenous and Islamic Astronomy in Africa Alejandro Martı́n López Sección de Etnologı́a, Instituto de Ciencias Antropológicas, Facultad de Filosofı́a y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina Prehistoric Europe (Western Part) Juan Antonio Belmonte Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain xi xii Section Editors Prehistoric Europe (Central and Eastern Part) and Central Asia Stanisław Iwaniszewski División de Posgrado, Escuela Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia, Tlalpan, México, D.F., Mexico Ancient Egypt and the Classical World John M. Steele Department of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Traditional Astronomies in Medieval and Modern Europe Stephen C. McCluskey Department of History, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Ancient Near East John M. Steele Department of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA India and the Islamic Near East John M. Steele Department of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA China and the Far East Xiaochun Sun Institute for the History of Natural Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xicheng, Beijing, China Oceania (Including Australasia and Malay Archipelago) Alejandro Martı́n López Sección de Etnologı́a, Instituto de Ciencias Antropológicas, Facultad de Filosofı́a y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina Contents Volume 1 Part I Themes and Issues Juan Antonio Belmonte ................................ 1 1 Concepts of Space, Time, and the Cosmos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stanisław Iwaniszewski 3 2 Calendars and Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 15 3 Astronomy and Chronology - Babylonia, Assyria, and Egypt . . . Rolf Krauss 31 4 Astronomy and Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fernando Pimenta 43 5 Astronomy and Power Edwin C. Krupp ................................. 67 6 Astronomy and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John M. Steele 93 7 Astrology as Cultural Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nicholas Campion 103 8 Astronomy, Astrology, and Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dorian Gieseler Greenbaum 117 9 Ancient “Observatories” - A Relevant Concept? . . . . . . . . . . . . . Juan Antonio Belmonte 133 10 Origins of the “Western” Constellations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roslyn M. Frank 147 11 Astronomy in the Service of Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stephen C. McCluskey 165 xiii xiv Contents 12 Astronomy in the Service of Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David A. King 13 Interactions Between “Indigenous” and “Colonial” Astronomies: Adaptation of Indigenous Astronomies in the Modern World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alejandro Martı́n López 14 Development of Archaeoastronomy in the English-Speaking World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alun Salt 181 197 213 15 Disciplinary Perspectives on Archaeoastronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stephen C. McCluskey 227 16 Astronomy and Rock Art Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . William Breen Murray 239 17 Presentation of Archaeoastronomy in Introductions to Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Victor B. Fisher 18 Archaeoastronomical Concepts in Popular Culture Edwin C. Krupp 19 Astrotourism and Archaeoastronomy Stanisław Iwaniszewski 20 251 .......... 263 ..................... 287 Archaeoastronomical Heritage and the World Heritage Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michel Cotte 301 Part II Methods and Practice ............................. 313 Cultural Interpretation of Archaeological Evidence Relating to Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stanisław Iwaniszewski 315 Cultural Interpretation of Historical Evidence Relating to Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stephen C. McCluskey 325 Cultural Interpretation of Ethnographic Evidence Relating to Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alejandro Martı́n López 341 Nature and Analysis of Material Evidence Relevant to Archaeoastronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 353 Stephen C. McCluskey 21 22 23 24 Contents 25 xv Best Practice for Evaluating the Astronomical Significance of Archaeological Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 373 26 Techniques of Field Survey Frank Prendergast ............................. 389 27 Analyzing Orientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 411 28 Analyzing Light-and-Shadow Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stephen C. McCluskey 427 29 Visualization Tools and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Georg Zotti 445 30 Basic Concepts of Positional Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 459 31 Long-Term Changes in the Appearance of the Sky . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 473 32 Solar Alignments - Identification and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Juan Antonio Belmonte 483 33 Lunar Alignments - Identification and Analysis A. César González-Garcı́a ............. 493 34 Alignments upon Venus (and Other Planets) - Identification and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ivan Šprajc 507 35 Stellar Alignments - Identification and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 517 Part III Pre-Columbian and Indigenous North America . . . . . . . . . Stephen C. McCluskey 531 36 Inuit Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John MacDonald 533 37 Medicine Wheels of the Great Plains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David Vogt 541 38 Hohokam Archaeoastronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Todd W. Bostwick 551 39 Mesa Verde Archaeoastronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gregory E. Munson 565 xvi 40 Contents Great Houses and the Sun - Astronomy of Chaco Canyon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. McKim Malville and Andrew Munro 577 41 Rock Art of the Greater Southwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Edwin C. Krupp 593 42 Hopi and Anasazi Alignments and Rock Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bryan C. Bates 607 43 Sun-Dagger Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ray A. Williamson 621 44 Diné (Navajo) Ethno- and Archaeoastronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Von Del Chamberlain 629 45 Pueblo Ethnoastronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ray Williamson 641 46 Hopi and Puebloan Ethnoastronomy and Ethnoscience . . . . . . . Stephen C. McCluskey 649 47 Astronomy and Rock Art in Mexico William Breen Murray ...................... 659 48 Boca de Potrerillos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . William Breen Murray 669 Part IV Pre-Columbian and Indigenous Mesoamerica . . . . . . . . . . Stanisław Iwaniszewski 681 49 Astronomical Deities in Ancient Mesoamerica Susan Milbrath .............. 683 50 Astronomy in the Dresden Codex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gabrielle Vail 695 51 Counting Lunar Phase Cycles in Mesoamerica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stanisław Iwaniszewski 709 52 Astronomical Correlates of Architecture and Landscape in Mesoamerica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ivan Šprajc 715 53 Astronomy at Teotihuacan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stanisław Iwaniszewski 729 54 Pecked Cross-Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stanisław Iwaniszewski 737 55 Templo Mayor, Tenochtitlan - Calendar and Astronomy . . . . . . Jesús Galindo Trejo 743 Contents xvii 56 Cave of the Astronomers at Xochicalco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arnold Lebeuf 749 57 Colonial Zapotec Calendars and Calendrical Astronomy . . . . . . John Justeson 759 58 Layout of Ancient Maya Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grant R. Aylesworth 769 59 Governor’s Palace at Uxmal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ivan Šprajc 773 60 E-Group Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grant R. Aylesworth 783 Volume 2 Part V Pre-Columbian and Indigenous South America . . . . . . . . . 793 Alejandro Martı́n López 61 Pre-Inca Astronomy in Peru J. McKim Malville ............................ 795 62 Chankillo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iván Ghezzi and Clive L. N. Ruggles 807 63 Geoglyphs of the Peruvian Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 821 64 Inca Astronomy and Calendrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David S. P. Dearborn and Brian S. Bauer 831 65 Inca Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mariusz Ziółkowski 839 66 Ceque System of Cuzco: A Yearly Calendar-Almanac in Space and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R. Tom Zuidema 851 67 Inca Royal Estates in the Sacred Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. McKim Malville 865 68 Machu Picchu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. McKim Malville 879 69 Island of the Sun: Elite and Non-Elite Observations of the June Solstice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David S. P. Dearborn and Brian S. Bauer 893 xviii 70 Contents Inca Moon: Some Evidence of Lunar Observations in Tahuantinsuyu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mariusz Ziółkowski, Jacek Kościuk, and Fernando Astete 897 71 Observations of Comets and Eclipses in the Andes . . . . . . . . . . . Mariusz Ziółkowski 913 72 Landscape, Mountain Worship and Astronomy in Socaire . . . . . Ricardo Moyano 921 73 Skyscape of an Amazonian Diaspora: Arawak Astronomy in Historical Comparative Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fabiola Jara 931 74 Astronomy in Brazilian Ethnohistory Flávia Pedroza Lima 75 Ticuna Astronomy, Mythology and Cosmovision Priscila Faulhaber ............ 953 76 Moxos’ Lagoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Juan Antonio Belmonte and Josep F. Barba 959 77 “Chiriguano” Astronomy - Venus and a Guarani New Year . . . Gonzalo Pereira 967 78 Astronomy and Cosmology of the Guarani of Southern Brazil . . . . Flávia Cristina de Mello 975 79 The Sky Among the Toba of Western Formosa (Gran Chaco, Argentina) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cecilia Paula Gómez ..................... 945 981 80 Astronomy in the Chaco Region, Argentina Alejandro Martı́n López ................ 987 81 Ethnoastronomy in the Multicultural Context of the Agricultural Colonies in Northern Santa Fe Province, Argentina . . . . . . . . . . Armando Mudrik 997 82 Selkᛌnam Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sixto R. Giménez Benı́tez Part VI Indigenous and Islamic Astronomy in Africa ......... 1005 1011 Alejandro Martı́n López 83 Cultural Astronomy in Africa South of the Sahara . . . . . . . . . . . Jarita Holbrook 1013 84 Indigenous Astronomy in Southern Africa Thebe Rodney Medupe 1031 ................. Contents 85 xix “Reading” Central African Skies - A Case Study from Southeastern DRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allen F. Roberts 1037 86 Mursi and Borana Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 87 Yoruba Ethnoastronomy - “Orisha/Vodun” or How People’s Conceptions of the Sky Constructed Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dafon Aimé Sègla 1051 Pre-Islamic Dry-Stone Monuments of the Central and Western Sahara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yves Gauthier 1059 88 1041 89 Astronomy at Nabta Playa, Southern Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. McKim Malville 1079 90 Pre-Islamic Religious Monuments in North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . César Esteban 1093 91 Astronomy as Practiced in the West African City of Timbuktu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thebe Rodney Medupe 1101 Calendar Pluralism and the Cultural Heritage of Domination and Resistance (Tuareg and Other Saharans) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clare Oxby 1107 92 93 Pre-Hispanic Sanctuaries in the Canary Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . Juan Antonio Belmonte 1115 94 A Modern Myth - The “Pyramids” of G€ uı́mar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Antonio Aparicio and César Esteban 1125 Part VII Prehistoric Europe [Western Part] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133 Juan Antonio Belmonte 95 Patterns of Orientation in the Megalithic Tombs of the Western Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael Hoskin 1135 96 Seven-Stone Antas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael Hoskin 1149 97 Megalithic Cromlechs of Iberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fernando Pimenta and Luı́s Tirapicos 1153 98 Iberian Sanctuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . César Esteban 1163 xx 99 Contents Taula Sanctuaries of Menorca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael Hoskin 1169 100 Celtic Sites of Central Iberia Manuel Pérez Gutiérrez ........................... 1175 101 Basque Saroiak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Luis Mari Zaldua Etxabe 1187 102 Possible Calendrical Inscriptions on Paleolithic Artifacts . . . . . Michael A. Rappengl€ uck 1197 103 Possible Astronomical Depictions in Franco-Cantabrian Paleolithic Rock Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael A. Rappengl€ uck 1205 Astronomical Symbolism in Bronze-Age and Iron-Age Rock Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marco V. Garcı́a Quintela and Manuel Santos-Estévez 1213 104 105 Stonehenge and its Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 106 The Neolithic and Bronze Age Monument Complex of Thornborough, North Yorkshire, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jan Harding 1223 1239 107 Irish Neolithic Tombs in their Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frank Prendergast 1249 108 Boyne Valley Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frank Prendergast 1263 109 Recumbent Stone Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 1277 110 Scottish Short Stone Rows Clive L. N. Ruggles 1287 ............................. Part VIII Prehistoric Europe [Central and Eastern Part] and Central Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stanisław Iwaniszewski 111 112 1297 TRB Megalithic Tombs and Long Barrows in Central Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stanisław Iwaniszewski 1299 Neolithic Longhouses and Bronze Age Houses in Central Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emı́lia Pásztor and Judit P. Barna 1307 Contents 113 Neolithic Circular Ditch Systems (“Rondels”) in Central Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emı́lia Pásztor, Judit P. Barna, and Georg Zotti 114 Celestial Symbolism of the Vučedol Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emı́lia Pásztor 115 Celestial Symbolism in Central European Later Prehistory - Case Studies from the Bronze Age Carpathian Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emı́lia Pásztor xxi 1317 1327 1337 116 Nebra Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emı́lia Pásztor 1349 117 Lessons of Odry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stanisław Iwaniszewski 1357 118 Astronomical Orientation in the Ancient Dacian Sanctuaries of Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Florin Stănescu 1365 119 Astronomy in the Bulgarian Neolithic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alexey Stoev and Penka Maglova 1377 120 Thracian Sanctuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Penka Maglova and Alexey Stoev 1385 121 Thracian Dolmens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. César González-Garcı́a, Dimiter Kolev, and Vesselina Koleva 1395 122 Sardinian Nuraghes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mauro Peppino Zedda 1403 123 Nuraghic Well of Santa Cristina, Paulilatino, Oristano, Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arnold Lebeuf 1413 124 Temples of Malta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frank Ventura and Michael Hoskin 1421 125 Minoan Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mary Blomberg and Göran Henriksson 1431 126 Astronomy in the Ancient Caucasus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Irakli Simonia and Badri Jijelava 1443 127 Carahunge - A Critical Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. César González-Garcı́a 1453 128 Observational and Cult Sites in Pre-Christian Georgia . . . . . . Irakli Simonia, Badri Jijelava, G. Gigauri, and Gordon Houston 1461 xxii Contents Volume 3 Part IX Ancient Egypt and the Classical World .............. 1469 John M. Steele 129 Egyptian Cosmology and Cosmogony James P. Allen .................... 1471 130 Egyptian Constellations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . José Lull and Juan Antonio Belmonte 1477 131 Ancient Egyptian Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anthony Spalinger 1489 132 Egyptian “Star Clocks” Sarah Symons ............................... 1495 133 Orientation of Egyptian Temples: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . Juan Antonio Belmonte 1501 134 Monuments of the Giza Plateau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 1519 135 Karnak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Juan Antonio Belmonte 1531 136 Kingdom of Kush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Juan Antonio Belmonte 1541 137 Greek Cosmology and Cosmogony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alexander Jones 1549 138 Greek Constellations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stamatina Mastorakou 1555 139 Ancient Greek Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Robert Hannah 1563 140 Greek Temples and Rituals Efrosyni Boutsikas 1573 141 Greek Mathematical Astronomy Alexander Jones ........................ 1583 142 Material Culture of Greek and Roman Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . James Evans 1589 143 Reconstructing the Antikythera Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tony Freeth 1603 144 Greco-Roman Astrometeorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daryn Lehoux 1625 ............................ Contents xxiii 145 Greco-Roman Astrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roger Beck 1629 146 Etruscan Divination and Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Giulio Magli 1637 147 Roman City Planning and Spatial Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . A. César González-Garcı́a and Giulio Magli 1643 148 Light at the Pantheon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Robert Hannah and Giulio Magli 1651 149 Nemrud Dag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Juan Antonio Belmonte and A. César González-Garcı́a 1659 150 Mithraism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roger Beck 1669 Part X Traditional Astronomies in Medieval and Early Modern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stephen C. McCluskey 1677 151 Skylore of the Indigenous Peoples of Northern Eurasia . . . . . . Roslyn M. Frank 1679 152 Qibla in the Mediterranean Mònica Rius-Piniés ............................ 1687 153 Interactions Between Islamic and Christian Traditions in the Iberian Peninsula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. César González-Garcı́a and Juan Antonio Belmonte 1695 154 Orientation of Christian Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stephen C. McCluskey 1703 155 Orientation of English Medieval Parish Churches Peter G. Hoare .......... 1711 156 Church Orientations in Slovenia Saša Čaval ........................ 1719 157 Church Orientations in Central and Eastern Europe . . . . . . . . Rimvydas Laužikas 1727 158 Role of Light–Shadow Hierophanies in Early Medieval Art . . . Kirsten Ataoguz 1733 159 Light–Shadow Interactions in Italian Medieval Churches Manuela Incerti .... 1743 160 Lost Skies of Italian Folk Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Piero Barale 1755 xxiv Contents 161 Folk Calendars in the Balkan Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dimiter Kolev 1767 162 Wooden Calendar Sticks in Eastern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vesselina Koleva and Svetlana Koleva 1773 Part XI Ancient Near East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1781 John M. Steele 163 Orientation of Hittite Monuments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. César González-Garcı́a and Juan Antonio Belmonte 1783 164 Orientation of Phoenician Temples José Luis Escacena Carrasco ...................... 1793 165 Astronomy in the Levant During the Bronze Age and Iron Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andrea Polcaro 1801 166 Petra and the Nabataeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Juan Antonio Belmonte and A. César González-Garcı́a 1813 167 Mesopotamian Cosmogony and Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wayne Horowitz 1823 168 Mesopotamian Star Lists Wayne Horowitz .............................. 1829 169 Mesopotamian Celestial Divination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lorenzo Verderame 1835 170 Mesopotamian Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John M. Steele 1841 171 Astronomy, Divination, and Politics in the Neo-Assyrian Empire Lorenzo Verderame 1847 172 Babylonian Observational and Predictive Astronomy . . . . . . . . John M. Steele 1855 173 Babylonian Mathematical Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mathieu Ossendrijver 1863 174 Late Babylonian Astrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John M. Steele 1871 175 Transmission of Babylonian Astronomy to Other Cultures Alexander Jones 1877 ... Contents xxv 176 Ancient and Medieval Jewish Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sacha Stern 1883 177 Astronomy in the Book of Enoch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jonathan Ben-Dov 1889 178 Astronomy and Calendars at Qumran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jonathan Ben-Dov 1895 179 Ancient Persian Skywatching and Calendars Arkadiusz Sołtysiak 1901 Part XII .............. India and the Islamic Near East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907 John M. Steele 180 Islamic Mathematical Astronomy Clemency Montelle ....................... 1909 181 Islamic Astronomical Instruments and Observatories . . . . . . . . Tofigh Heidarzadeh 1917 182 Islamic Folk Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Petra G. Schmidl 1927 183 Folk Astronomy and Calendars in Yemen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniel Martin Varisco 1935 184 Star Clocks and Water Management in Oman . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harriet Nash 1941 185 Astronomy of the Vedic Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yukio Ôhashi 1949 186 Use of Astronomical Principles in Indian Temple Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. S. Shylaja 1959 Astronomy of Indian Cities, Temples, and Pilgrimage Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. McKim Malville 1969 187 188 Mathematical Astronomy in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kim Plofker 1981 189 Vākya System of Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. S. Sriram 1991 190 Kerala School of Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishnamurthi Ramasubramanian 2001 xxvi Contents 191 Astronomical Instruments in India Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma ...................... 2007 192 Observatories of Sawai Jai Singh II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Susan N. Johnson-Roehr 2017 Part XIII China and the Far East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xiaochun Sun 2029 193 Ancient Chinese Astronomy - An Overview Yunli Shi ............... 2031 194 Observation of Celestial Phenomena in Ancient China . . . . . . . Xiaochun Sun 2043 195 Chinese Constellations and Star Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xiaochun Sun 2051 196 Chinese Calendar and Mathematical Astronomy Xiaochun Sun ........... 2059 197 Shang Oracle Bones David W. Pankenier .................................. 2069 198 Excavated Documents Dealing with Chinese Astronomy Yuzhen Guan ..... 2079 199 Astronomy and City Planning in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David W. Pankenier 2085 200 Gnomons in Ancient China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geng Li 2095 201 Taosi Observatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xiaochun Sun 2105 202 Dengfeng Large Gnomon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fengxian Xu 2111 203 Ancient Chinese Sundials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kehui Deng 2117 204 Chinese Armillary Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xiaochun Sun 2127 205 Water-Powered Astronomical Clock Tower Xiaochun Sun ............... 2133 206 Beijing Ancient Observatory Yunli Shi ........................... 2141 Contents xxvii 207 Astronomical Aspects of Korean Dolmens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hong-Jin Yang 2149 208 Korean Astronomical Calendar, Chiljeongsan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eun Hee Lee 2157 209 Striking Clepsydras Moon-Hyon Nam .................................. 2163 210 Song I-Yeong’s Armillary Clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sang Hyuk Kim and Yong Sam Lee 2179 211 Cultural Astronomy in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steven L. Renshaw 2197 Part XIV Oceania (Including Australasia and Malay Archipelago) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alejandro Martı́n López 2205 212 Cultural Production of Skylore in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gene Ammarell and Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing 2207 213 Australian Aboriginal Astronomy - An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . Ray P. Norris and Duane W. Hamacher 2215 214 Australian Aboriginal Astronomy and Cosmology Philip A. Clarke .......... 2223 215 Archaeoastronomy in Polynesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 2231 216 Ancient Hawaiian Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clive L. N. Ruggles 2247 217 Archaeoastronomy of Easter Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Edmundo Edwards 2261 Erratum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E1 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2269 Contributors James P. Allen Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Gene Ammarell Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA Antonio Aparicio Departamento de Astrofı́sica and Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Fernando Astete Parque Arqueológico Nacional de Machu Picchu, Dirección Regional de Cultura Cusco, Cusco, Peru Kirsten Ataoguz Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN, USA Grant R. Aylesworth Anthropology, St. Thomas University, Fredericton, NB, Canada Piero Barale Società Astronomica Italiana, Rome, Italy Josep F. Barba Centre d’Estudis Amazònics, Barcelona, Spain Judit P. Barna Balatoni Museum, Keszthely, Hungary Bryan C. Bates Coconino Community College, Flagstaff, AZ, USA Brian S. Bauer University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Roger Beck University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada Juan Antonio Belmonte Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Jonathan Ben-Dov Department of Bible, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel Mary Blomberg Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Todd W. Bostwick PaleoWest Archaeology, Phoenix, AZ, USA Verde Valley Archaeology Center, Camp Verde, AZ, USA Efrosyni Boutsikas University of Kent, Canterbury, UK xxix xxx Contributors Nicholas Campion University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Lampeter, UK Saša Čaval Institute of Anthropological and Spatial Studies, Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Ljubljana, Slovenia Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Von Del Chamberlain Kanab, UT, USA Philip A. Clarke Environmental & Landscape Planning, Urban Research Program, School of Environment, Griffith University, Nathan, Qld, Australia Michel Cotte University of Nantes, Nantes, France Flávia Cristina de Mello Department of Anthropology, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz – UESC, Ilheus, Bahia, Brazil David S. P. Dearborn Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA Kehui Deng College of Humanities and Sciences, Donghua University, Shanghai, China Edmundo Edwards Centro de Estudios Isla de Pascua, Universidad de Chile, Santiago Metropolitan Region, Chile José Luis Escacena Carrasco Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Seville, Seville, Spain César Esteban Departamento de Astrofı́sica and Instituto de Astrofı́sica de Canarias, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain James Evans University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA Priscila Faulhaber Museum of Astronomy and Related Sciences, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Victor B. Fisher Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Criminal Justice, Towson University, Towson, MD, USA Roslyn M. Frank University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA Tony Freeth Antikythera Mechanism Research Project, South Ealing, London, UK Jesús Galindo Trejo Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico Marco V. Garcı́a Quintela University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain Yves Gauthier Réaumont, France Iván Ghezzi Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas, Miraflores, Lima, Peru G. Gigauri Eqvtime Takaishvili Historical Society, Tbilisi, Georgia Contributors xxxi Sixto R. Giménez Benı́tez Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina Cecilia Paula Gómez Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina A. César González-Garcı́a Instituto de Ciencias del Patrimonio, Incipit, Santiago de Compostela, Spain Dorian Gieseler Greenbaum University of Wales, Trinity Saint David, Lampeter, Wales, UK Yuzhen Guan Department of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Duane W. Hamacher Nura Gili Indigenous Programs Unit, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia Robert Hannah University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Jan Harding School of History, Classics and Archaeology, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK Tofigh Heidarzadeh University of California, Riverside, CA, USA Göran Henriksson Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Peter G. Hoare Ely, Cambridgeshire, UK Jarita Holbrook University of the Western Cape, Belville, South Africa Wayne Horowitz The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel Michael Hoskin Churchill College, Cambridge, UK Gordon Houston Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Manuela Incerti Department of Architecture, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy Stanisław Iwaniszewski División de Posgrado, Escuela Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia, Tlalpan, México, D.F., Mexico Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne, Warszawa, Poland Fabiola Jara Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Cultural Anthropology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Badri Jijelava Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Susan N. Johnson-Roehr Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA Alexander Jones Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, New York University, NY, USA xxxii Contributors John Justeson University at Albany, Albany, NY, USA Sang Hyuk Kim Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea David A. King Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany Dimiter Kolev Institute of Astronomy and National Astronomical Observatory, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria Svetlana Koleva Faculty of Classical and Modern Philology, Sofia University, Sofia, Bulgaria Vesselina Koleva Institute of Astronomy and National Astronomical Observatory, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria Jacek Kościuk Laboratory of 3D Scanning and Modelling, Institute of History of Architecture, Arts and Technology, Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland Rolf Krauss Humboldt-University, Berlin, Germany Edwin C. Krupp Griffith Observatory, Los Angeles, CA, USA Rimvydas Laužikas Faculty of Communication, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania Arnold Lebeuf Institute for the History of Religions, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland Eun Hee Lee Yonsei University Observatory, Seoul, Republic of Korea Yong Sam Lee Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea Daryn Lehoux Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada Geng Li Center of Ancient Chinese Astronomy, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Flávia Pedroza Lima Rio de Janeiro Planetarium Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Alejandro Martı́n López Sección de Etnologı́a, Instituto de Ciencias Antropológicas, Facultad de Filosofı́a y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina José Lull Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain John MacDonald Nunavut Research Institute, Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada Giulio Magli Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy Contributors xxxiii Penka Maglova Stara Zagora Department, Space Research and Technology Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria J. McKim Malville Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA Stamatina Mastorakou Institute for Research in Classical Philosophy and Science, Princeton, NJ, USA Stephen C. McCluskey Department of History, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Thebe Rodney Medupe Department of Physics, North West University, Mahikeng, South Africa Susan Milbrath Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA Clemency Montelle University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand Ricardo Moyano Escuela Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia, México, D.F., Mexico Armando Mudrik Facultad de Matemática, Astronomı́a y Fı́sica, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina Andrew Munro Centre for Astronomy, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld, Australia Gregory E. Munson Dolores, CO, USA William Breen Murray Departamento de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de Monterrey, San Pedro Garza Garcı́a, Nuevo León, Mexico Moon-Hyon Nam Konkuk University and Jagyeongnu Research Institute, Seoul, Republic of Korea Harriet Nash University of Exeter, Exeter, UK Ray P. Norris Department of Indigenous Studies, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia CSIRO Astronomy & Space Science, Epping, NSW, Australia Yukio Ôhashi Tokyo, Japan Mathieu Ossendrijver TOPOI, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany Clare Oxby Institute of Social Anthropology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland David W. Pankenier Department of Modern Languages and Literatures, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA xxxiv Contributors Emı́lia Pásztor Magistratum Studio, Dunaföldvár, Hungary Gonzalo Pereira Planetario Max Schreier, Carrera de Fı́sica, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia Manuel Pérez Gutiérrez Higher Polytechnical School of Ávila, University of Salamanca, Ávila, Castilla y León, Spain Fernando Pimenta Associação Portuguesa de Investigação Arqueológica (APIA), Lisbon, Portugal Kim Plofker Union College, Schenectady, NY, USA Andrea Polcaro Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy Frank Prendergast Spatial Information Sciences, College of Engineering and Built Environment, Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland Krishnamurthi Ramasubramanian Cell for Indian Science and Technology in Sanskrit, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India Michael A. Rappengl€ uck Adult Education Centre and Observatory, Gilching, Germany Steven L. Renshaw Kanda University of International Studies, Chiba, Japan Mònica Rius-Piniés Arabic Studies, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Allen F. Roberts University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Clive L. N. Ruggles School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK Alun Salt University of Leicester, Leicester, UK Manuel Santos-Estévez Centro de Ciencias Históricas y Sociales (CSIC), Madrid, Spain Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma D€ usseldorf, Germany ur Orient– und Asienwissenschaften – Abteilung Petra G. Schmidl Institut f€ Islamwissenschaften, Rheinische Friedrich–Wilhelms–Universit€at, Bonn, Germany Exzellenzcluster Germany “Normative Ordnungen”, Goethe–Universit€at, Frankfurt, Dafon Aimé Sègla Martin–Luther University, Halle, Germany Université d’Abomey Calavi UAC – Centre Universitaire d’Aplahoué, Abomey Calavi, Benin Republic Yunli Shi University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China Contributors xxxv B. S. Shylaja Jawaharlal Nehru Planetarium, Bangalore, India Irakli Simonia Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Arkadiusz Sołtysiak Institute of Archaeology, University of Warsaw, Warszawa, Poland Anthony Spalinger Department of Classics and Ancient History, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand Ivan Šprajc Institute of Anthropological and Spatial Studies, Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Ljubljana, Slovenia M. S. Sriram Department of Theoretical Physics, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, India Florin Stănescu University “1 Decembrie 1918”, Alba Iulia, Romania John M. Steele Department of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Sacha Stern University College London, London, UK Alexey Stoev Stara Zagora Department, Space Research and Technology Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria Xiaochun Sun Institute for the History of Natural Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xicheng, Beijing, China Sarah Symons McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada Luı́s Tirapicos Centro Interuniversitário de História das Ciências e da Tecnologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA Gabrielle Vail Division of Social Sciences, New College of Florida, Sarasota, FL, USA Daniel Martin Varisco Department of Anthropology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY, USA Frank Ventura University of Malta, Msida, Malta Lorenzo Verderame “Sapienza” Università di Roma, Rome, Italy David Vogt Media & Graphics Interdisciplinary Centre (MAGIC) Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada Ray Williamson Secure World Foundation, Broomfield, CO, USA Fengxian Xu Institute for the History of Natural Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xicheng, Beijing, China xxxvi Contributors Hong-Jin Yang Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea SohNam Institute for History of Astronomy (SIHA), Seoul, Republic of Korea Luis Mari Zaldua Etxabe Urnieta, Basque Country, Spain Mauro Peppino Zedda Agorà Nuragica, Cagliari, Italy Mariusz Ziółkowski Centre for Precolumbian Studies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland Georg Zotti Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and Virtual Archaeology, Vienna, Austria R. Tom Zuidema University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA