Polytechnic education as a prefiguration of dual training?

TRENDS AND COMPETENCIES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Petr Adamec Michal Šimáně Martina Miškelová (Eds.) Published in London, UK by Sciemcee Publishing in October 2022 TRENDS AND COMPETENCIES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Petr Adamec Michal Šimáně Martina Miškelová (Eds.) Trends and Competencies in Vocational Education Copyright © 2022 by Petr Adamec, Michal Šimáně, Martina Miškelová (Eds.) ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Published by Sciemcee Publishing. LP22772, 20-22 Wenlock Road London, United Kingdom N1 7GU Sciemcee Publishing is part of SCIEMCEE. It furthers the SCIEMCEE's mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner without the express written consent of the publisher, except in the case of brief excerpts in critical reviews or articles. All inquiries be address to Sciemcee Publishing, LP22772, 20-22 Wenlock Road, London, N1 7GU or [email protected]. 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ISBN 978-1-7399378-2-9 Includes bibliographical references and index. Reviewers Prof. Pavol Findura Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra Slovakia Prof. Dzintra Illiško Daugavpils University Latvia Prof. Péter Tóth Budapest University of Technology and Economics Hungary 4 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 7 1 THE CHANGING WORLD OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION – DEVELOPMENTS, NEW CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES .............................................................................. 13 1.1 Towards competence 4.0 new challenges for education Renata Tomaszewska .......................................................................... 14 1.2 Polytechnic education as a prefiguration of dual training? Lajos Somogyvári .............................................................................. 31 2 THE ROLE OF VOCATIONAL AND SOFT SKILLS DEVELOPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION .................... 42 2.1 The importance of ‚Life skills‘ in undergraduate and lifelong teacher education in the 21st century Markéta Švamberk Šauerová ................................................................ 43 2.2 Personal and social competencies and their development during under-graduate teacher training Zuzana Geršicová, Silvia Barnová, Slávka Krásna .................................... 67 2.3 Transactional analysis as a tool for the development of teachers’ competencIes in vocational education David Kryštof, Petr Adamec.................................................................. 84 3 APPROACHES TO THE SUSTAINABILITY OF QUALITY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE ................... 102 3.1 Digital literacy in transversal competences of future teachers of vocational subjects Čestmír Serafín.................................................................................103 3.2 Introducing of a coaching approach to online teaching as a support of communicative competence of teachers and students from a didactic point of view Kateřina Tomešková, Petr Svoboda ........................................................128 5 3.3 Teacher’s competence for problem-based and research-oriented teaching of vocational subjects in the conditions of digital education and connectivism Pavel Pecina, Peter Marinič .................................................................163 3.4 The quality of teaching and the benefit of the selected general education subjects at the University of Technology Jaroslav Lindr .................................................................................182 4 SELECTED ASPECTS AFFECTING KEY ACTORS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION .....................................................219 4.1 Key competences of a secondary school principal in the Czech Republic Eva Urbanová, Jana Marie Šafránková .................................................220 4.2 Competencies of educators and pupils in the system of dual education Peter Marinič, Ľudmila Rumanová, David Vorel, Helena Zelníčková ............238 4.3 Role of lecturer in the education of university teachers and the fulfilling of their educational needs Jana Trabalíková .............................................................................257 4.4 Selected contexts of the development of agricultural teacher training in the Slovak Republic Tímea Šeben Zaťková .........................................................................278 SUMMARY ......................................................................................296 LIST OF AUTHORS ........................................................................298 INDEX..............................................................................................301 6 1.2 Polytechnic education as a prefiguration of dual training? Lajos Somogyvári 31 Introduction This chapter tries to build bridges from the key notion of socialist polytechnic education toward recent models of dual training, focusing on how the economic and technological aspect emphasised more and more in general education. By doing this, I will use the Soviet polytechnic education in the late 1950s, and the Hungarian example of implementing a school reform in 1961, which intended to be a new Sputnik of the education (these experiments failed some years later). As a main goal, I am trying to discover similar and different characteristics related to the old model and new ideas about combining school life and work in the same system. According to the theories of educational transfer, some crucial concepts travelled and transformed geographically and temporally, adapting to different circumstances and contexts, like old/new pedagogical ideas. Modern education faced several times with the following big challenge and question: What are the possible connections between school-knowledge and requirements of real work-life? A possible answer occurred from time to time again, getting labour market and school education closer. I do not think that these two models (socialist polytechnic education and dual training forms after regime changes, from 2000’s) had an equal background or shared meanings, but the mechanism which can be observed, may give us some conclusions about taking education as a tool into consideration, when strengthening its economical and labour side. Polytechnic education has very different meanings comparing the Western viewpoint (e.g. Atchoerana & Bolina, 1996; Auzinger, Ulicna, & Messerer, 2016) and the educational heritage of post-socialist countries. If we look at the second one, it is the part of the educational past – meanwhile dual trainings are very much alive –, polytechnic education based on the ideological model of socialist education. This kind of working education (or preparation and implementing into working) offered an experience of proletariat lifestyle to secondary high school students (mainly from the middle class) by participating one-day practice per week. On the other hand, it aimed to orientate them to blue-collar works (rather than producing more intellectuals, by increasing the volume of higher education) to restructure the human labour market. These motivations and discourses echoed decades later in unreflective ways in the background of contemporary dual training forms: the aim of this paper is to outline these deep-rooted links. 1.2.1 Methodology and theoretical background Returning to the history of educational ideas may increase our consciousness in understanding the development of recent trends, the context of frequently re- 32 invented pedagogical thoughts (Muir, 1998). I follow a retrospective approach in my research; starting with the general description of present-day dual systems, then the specifics of polytechnic education go after, to see similarities and differences in thinking parallel education in the schools and at the workplaces. I am interested in the core logics, easily found in the theories of dual training and socialist polytechnics, as a special kind of comparative literature review. According to the historical discourse analysis (Landwehr, 2008) the socio-historical reality always constituted by several thematic points (propositions, which are repeatedly emphasized) and absences (covered aspects). After a literature review, I made a theoretical framework (see Table 1), in which my findings will be portrayed. Table 1 Focal points of the research Thematic focus Short description (details) Main principles education in schools and at the workplaces: transition and/or integration Goals social, economic, ideological Organization schedule, teachers and trainers, collaboration Values socialization into the work ethic, hierarchy These aspects commonly appeared in both discourses (dual vs. polytechnics), as a key pedagogical features characterised these concepts and appointed possible problems at the same time. Like a Begriffsgeschichte a la Koselleck (2006), a special educational language emerge, with the leading popular slogan of ‘Let’s bring the school closer to life and work!’, in very different contexts. The process of reasoning a needful cooperation between schools and companies may be explained by the concept of educational transfer too, which is about borrowing and lending educational ideas through different transformations and adaptations (Steiner-Khamsi, 2006, 2012); including a continuous circulation of discourses, practices and policies (Cowen, 2009; Phillips 2009). 1.2.2 Findings and discussion Speaking about recent dual-training systems always used the examples of Germanspeaking countries as role models, but integrating vocational education and training experiences has several other examples from the developed world (Choy, Wärvik, & Lindberg, 2018). The literature draws our attention to the inherent logic of every important educational reform or innovation on a global scale after 33 1945: there are flagship countries, has to follow by the others. In the post-WW2 situation, the Soviet Union dominated the educational policies and of CentralEastern Europe; after the regime changes in 1989–1990, the Western influences (UN, World Bank, European Community) played a similar hegemonic role. Turning back to the “duality” or work-based learning: this principle means a complex and mutual interaction nowadays, “how work experience is integrated within education” and “how educational experience is or can be integrated into work” (Grollmann, 2018, p. 65). It seems as a necessary requirement toward the educational system to give more practical knowledge (and not just in vocational education), which has been a longstanding demand against the “book-school”. In 1958, Khrushchev published an article in Pravda, entitled ‘Regarding the Strengthening of Ties Between School and Life and the Further Development of the Public Education System’, announcing a new school reform. If we read it without the ideological ballast, it is a list of familiar problems and solutions; a product of a usual educational crisis, starting with a statement that education is essential, because: “Particularly great is the role of education in our time when the successful development of the national economy would be impossible without the broadest utilization of the latest achievements of science and technology. (…) Nevertheless, we cannot be satisfied with the organization and the very system of higher and secondary education. (…) The major, fundamental defect in our secondary higher education is its isolation from life” (Khrushchev, 1958, p. 3). Another confidential source from Hungary based on the same logic two years later, referring familiar arguments about school and life. The following details are from a proposal aimed to be a manual for educationalists and party members to argue and justify the Hungarian polytechnic reform: “If someone asks, what the essence of the educational reform is, we can say: it is crucial to bring the school closer to life, connecting education with life and production. The core of the problems (…) that school was separated from life…” (Oktatásügyünk továbbfejlesztéséért, 1960, p. 4). Polytechnic education – a “milder” form of dual system – was a key to bridge this gap in late 1950s, early 1960s, which did not mean a close integration of working and learning experiences in one, rather an orientation or transition toward labor market. This is another formative element beside a pedagogical synthesis of classrooms and workplaces in the dual trainings: the “work-oriented turn” exceed the traditional “distinction between ‘theory=school’ and ‘practice=company’ (Gessler, 2017, p. 715). We can understand the previous sentence as a reframing our thinking about what we do in the trainings from the viewpoints of parents, students, teachers, educationalists and so on – orientation before integration (or parallel with it), which is not an easy task. As a consequence of the intention 34 about getting school and work-life closer, the Marxist-Leninist ideas of all round development (physical, intellectual, aesthetic and labor), and permanent education widely spread in the educational thinking of the socialist countries (Malkova, 1979), this development defined as lifelong learning in Western countries (Jessup, 1970). Why we have to do this? What is the need behind such duality? Several goals has been justifying this purpose, then and now. The first type of arguments are social: initially, inclusion and cohesion in welfare states (Atzmüller, 2015, p. 193), achieving low unemployment rate (Gessler, 2017, p. 701) belonged to these reasons in the literature of dual trainings. In the ideologically driven approach of polytechnic education, the public discourses suggested a presupposition/ belief, that if every student from the secondary high schools met with physical work in the agriculture or industry, it would raise their proletariat consciousness and develop adequate communist attitudes (Shapovalenko, 1965; and this clearly directs us to the our next question related to the values). It has economic advantages too: in the global competition, nearing education to labour market needs may result getting high economic power (OECD, 2010). If we take a look at the realization of polytechnic education in 1960s Hungary, secondary high school students were free human resources for factories and state-farms; linking with a pseudo-reform in education (Laczik & Farkas, 2019, p. 1091). The 5-year economic plans pointed out the attendance of students in production work (for example in the Soviet Union, see: Simon, 1954, p. 3), so their contribution was expected by the party leaders for the higher GDP outcome. Obviously, two opposite ideologies supported the vocationalization trend (about the cultural-historical origins from the 19th Germany, see: Deissinger, 2019). Involving youngsters into the work life in educational context has a definite role of socialization to the capitalist work ethic, hierarchy, including its cultural aspects (Atzmüller, 2015, p. 192); meanwhile the hardcore ideologists interpreted polytechnic education as a part of the socialist cultural revolution, breaking the educational monopoly of the bourgeoisie (Layonchkovsky, 1958). The target group and institutional form is very different. The socialist education tried to make general polytechnics for every secondary school students, with the ultimate purpose of transforming the mindset of the whole society. Meanwhile the dual systems are a bit narrower, focusing mainly on vocational education, and/or peripheral youth, early school leavers to reintegrate into work and school (Atzmüller, 2015, p. 190) – the ratio of attendance in dual trainings varied from country to country (Choy, Wärvik, & Lindberg, 2018). The devil is always in the details: how the process organize in everyday circumstances. In Germany, the dual training is carried out usually three days per week in companies and two days a week in schools (Gessler, 2017, p. 695). 35 On the opposite, the common name of Hungarian polytechnic education was ‘5+1’ system in the 1960s, because every high school student spent 5 days in the institution and 1 day in a factory or farm (that time, a workweek and schoolweek meant 6 days and not 5). The first school – work distribution is a real duality, a parallel training; the second one was like an introduction, made physical work more attractive for many students – in the reality, sometimes youngsters learnt more like avoiding work and hanging around at workplaces, than real work, as the personal memories confessed about the years of existing socialism. There are two sites of learning here, school and workplace; and acquiring the elements of the work culture in the fully employed socialism or in a competitive capitalist atmosphere are both useful knowledge. According to the duration and sequencing of periods, school-based and work-based dual systems operating and many alternatives between the two poles (Eiriksdottír, 2018, p. 146). The leading countries of Austria, Germany and Switzerland combined vocational classes and on-the-job trainings at host companies in the form of apprenticeship (Rosenstein, Dif-Pradalier & Bonvin, 2015, p. 239). There are different forms of how companies, educational institutions and other stakeholders/actors involved in the process and organized all over the world, including the many tasks about finance, responsibilities, tasks and so (Grollmann, 2018). There are cultural differences in this: in “Continental” Europe (Germany, France) the “conservative-corporatist” education functioning in a “coordinated capitalism”, where the State is very strong; on the contrary in the Anglophone world, the market model and liberal regimes is dominant (Deissinger, 2019, p. 293). Knowing the risks of every simplification and dichotomy, Hungary and Central-Eastern Europe belongs rather to the centralizing first type, in which legislation regulates many details: for example, how to make a contract between a school and company, select institutions to participate etc. For example, in a specific agreement from 1960, between a local secondary high school and an agricultural company, the following issues and many more were fixed: schedule, insurance, content and forms of training, control, evaluation, finance, labor safety, cultural and social life in the collective farm, etc. (Szerződés…, 1960). It may has a positive aspect of a possible strong support from the governmental bodies in local actions, but on the other side, processes can slow down with growing bureaucracy. The Anglo-Saxon model gives a greater autonomy and freedom to choose for the educational actors, with all the pros and cons of such diversity (more to the two types: Meuret & Duru-Bellat, 2003). If we go beyond, demands ere the same of every dual system in Europe and globally, independently from the previously drafted differences: developing infrastructure; and providing sufficient teachers, well-qualified trainers to it, with a good preparation (Evans, 36 2019). Through decades, we can read consequently alike debates about the crucial role of teachers, their deficiencies and responsibilities; and this great loading of new tasks may cause different forms of refusing, resistance or neglecting these interventions, but this is the job of anthropology and everyday history to discover (and the hidden voice of students are still missing). 1.2.3 Conclusion Was polytechnic education really a prefiguration of dual training? The answer is a definite no. I can made only two statements about it: one is that similar challenges may led analogous resolutions and secondly, the languages of education, politics and economy affected to each other in every implementation, reform, and intervention into schooling. The socialist polytechnic education was not a success: it started as an innovation in early Soviet-Russia, changed into a traditional vocational education under Stalin, and became one of big and utopian experiment of Khrushchev, an elixir to every problem related with schooling (to the developing history of the idea until 1953, see: Lawton & Gordon, 2002, pp. 176–178). As the Soviet party leader proclaimed in 1958 in front the representatives of the Hungarian Science Academy: “the planned reform of the secondary and higher education will be the new Sputnik” (Somogyvári, 2018, p. 136). The rise and fall of the slogan was depended on political turns. High expectations and a kind of admiration followed the reception of dual trainings too, but differently from the socialist working education, the discourses contained some critical and reflective elements, showing the different intentions and conflicts of interest groups, which is natural in democratic societies. In my study, I concentrate only on the secondary level and excluding higher education from the investigation, which is another great field to explore. Alliances between educational institutions and entrepreneurships will be more and more important in the future, as the scope of education is increasingly extending, based on international directions and proposals of the EU an UN (just two examples: The European Pact4Youth, 2017; UNESCO Recommendation…, 2020), aiming the next milestone of 2030. Another vision replays some of the previously mentioned goals and values: “European VET systems by 2030 should aim to deliver excellent and inclusive education and training that offer opportunities for both economic and social cohesion, support competitiveness and growth and smart, inclusive and sustainable development, and foster democratic citizenship and European values – thus helping all individuals to develop their full potential in a lifelong learning continuum.” (Advisory Committee on Vocational Training, 2018, p. 6) 37 Vocationalization supports social and economic goals, associated with several values: this description fits to every modern educational system. From a historical viewpoint, we can call this trend as educationalization or pedagogization of outside schooling-problems: pushing social responsibilities to teachers and trainers, establishing and legitimizing interventions and reforms in education (Smeyers & Depaepe, 2008). 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