Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26)

Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 89–108 Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26) Mark J. Keown Laidlaw College [email protected] Philippians 1:19–26 is a difficult passage in which Paul appears simultaneously to have genuine concern for his potential death (1:20–21, 23a), the capacity to choose his fate and to withhold disclosing this choice in writing (1:22c), and yet utter certainty of release (1:25). This article proposes a fresh solution for Paul’s situation, namely, that at the time of writing, Paul, with help from friends at his point of incarceration (1:13; 4:22), was considering escape from prison dependent on the outcome of his forthcoming trial. To make this case, I first explicate the dilemma the text poses. Then, I discuss other possible solutions, noting that all have limitations. I then outline the elements of a possible escape plan, demonstrating how it fulfils the requirements of Philippians, the historical setting in which escape was not uncommon, and Paul’s thought and mission that includes his previous escape (2 Cor 11:32). I finally counter possible objections to the idea, arguing that none of them are terminal. I argue not that Paul necessarily used escape to leave his imprisonment but that escape is a plausible suggestion to be considered alongside a range of others by students of Paul and Philippians. Key Words: Philippians, prison, Paul, escape Philippians 1:19–26 raises a range of questions. Aside from discerning the place of Paul’s incarceration, 1 arguably the most difficult is how best to explain the tension between Paul’s concern for his potential death (1:20–21, 23a), his capacity to choose his fate and yet withhold his choice (1:22c), and 1. Corinth, Caesarea, Ephesus, and Rome are proposed. I consider Rome to fit the data best. An escape can fit all of the proposals but works best for Rome. On Rome, see especially P. T. O’Brien, The Epistle to the Philippians: A Commentary on the Greek Text (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991) 19–26. Offprint from: Journal for the Study of Paul and his Letters 5.1 © Copyright 2015 Eisenbrauns. All rights reserved. 90 Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 (2015) his certainty of release (1:25). This tension is the subject of this article, in which I propose a fresh solution, namely, that at the time of writing, Paul was considering escape from prison if his forthcoming trial led to further imprisonment or a death sentence. To make this case, I will first explicate the dilemma the text poses. Then, I will discuss other possible solutions, noting their limitations. I will then outline the hypothesis that Paul is considering an escape plan, demonstrating how it fulfils the requirements of the text, the historical setting, and Paul’s thought and mission. I will finally counter possible objections. I hope to demonstrate that this idea, while hypothetical as all such suggestions are, 2 is a possibility worth consideration for students of Philippians, especially those who hold that Paul writes from Rome. The Nature of the Dilemma Here, I will demonstrate how Paul in Phil 1:19–26 speaks of the real possibility of death, his control to choose the outcome of his situation, his withholding of his choice from the Philippians (at least in writing), and his certainty of release. The Real Possibility That Paul Will Die It is apparent that, at the time of writing Philippians, Paul’s situation is precarious. He is in chains (τοῖς δεσμοῖς μου), likely meaning he is literally chained to a Roman soldier (Phil 1:7, 13, 17; cf. 2 Tim 2:9). 3 He is facing the imperial authorities (ἐν τῇ ἀπολογίᾳ καὶ βεβαιώσει τοῦ εὐαγγελίου, 1:7). 4 He is experiencing persecution (θλῖψις, 1:17c). Awareness of the reason for his imprisonment, Christ (ἐν Χριστῷ), is penetrating a circle including the whole Praetorium. 5 This refers either to those in the Roman provincial governor’s residences in Caesarea Maritima (Acts 23:35) or Ephesus, or, to Nero’s imperial guard in Rome. 6 Whichever setting is correct, some of these 2. R. P. Martin, The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians (TNTC 11; 2nd ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987) 87, rightly says “we are left to guesswork because there is no sure evidence on which to build.” 3. G. D. Fee, Paul’s Letter to the Philippians (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995) 92. 4. Ἀπολογίᾳ and βεβαιώσει may be wider than judicial situations but certainly include them. See Gerald F. Hawthorne and R. P. Martin, Philippians (rev. ed.; WBC 43; Dallas: Word, 2004) 27–28; O’Brien, Philippians, 69. 5. Τοῖς λοιποῖς πᾶσιν is hyperbole speaking of a significant number of people connected with Paul’s situation (cf. 4:22). See O’Brien, Philippians, 94. 6. Caesarea Maritima: e.g., E. Lohmeyer, Der Brief an die Philipper, an die Kolosser und an Philemon (10th ed.; KEK 9; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1954) 3; cf. Acts 23:35. Ephesus: e.g., J. Gnilka, Der Philipperbrief (HTKNT 10/3; Freiburg: Herder, 1968) 24, 57. Keown: Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26) 91 have likely become Christians creating further tensions (Phil 4:22). 7 Further, a significant portion of Christians in the setting are fearlessly engaging in evangelism (1:14), 8 including some falsely motivated to increase Paul’s persecutions (v. 17a). 9 This suggests real malice and may run as far as wanting Paul physically harmed or dead. 10 Clearly, Paul is in a dangerous place of suffering and potential death (cf. 1:30; Acts 16:19–40). The possibility of death is clearer in Phil 1:20b–22b. 11 First, Paul’s desire is not to be shamed but speak courageously at his forthcoming trial. 12 His hopeful expectation indicates a real threat to his person. His desire that Christ is always glorified in his body (ἐν τῷ σώματί μου) speaks of Paul’s life as a whole (cf. Rom 12:1). 13 However, the choice of σῶμα rather than other anthropological terms (e.g., σάρξ, ζωή, ψυχή), or the simple dative ἐμοί, “in me,” suggests the potential of bodily suffering (cf. Phil 1:17; 3:21). 14 In addition, in Phil 1:20c–23a Paul speaks of the “either-or” of life and death (especially vv. 20c, 21, 23a) and considers the ramifications of the Rome: e.g., J. B. Lightfoot, Saint Paul’s Epistle to the Philippians (London: Macmillan, 1913) 99–102; G. W. Hansen, The Letter to the Philippians (PNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009) 67–68. 7. E.g., K. Barth, The Epistle to the Philippians (trans. J. W. Leitch; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2002) 28; I. H. Marshall, The Epistle to the Philippians (London: Epworth, 1992) 21; M. J. Keown, Congregational Evangelism in Philippians: The Centrality of an Appeal for Gospel Proclamation to the Fabric of Philippians (Paternoster Biblical Monographs; Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2008) 73 n. 17. 8. Attaching ἐν κυρίῳ to πεποιθότας rather than τοὺς πλείονας τῶν ἀδελφῶν, which would be tautologous (e.g., Fee, Philippians, 114 n. 41). E. E. Ellis, “Paul and His Co-Workers,” in Prophecy and Hermeneutic in Early Christianity: New Testament Essays (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978) 3–22, and others limit ἀδελφοί to co-workers. However, the “brothers” here are likely church members in Paul’s context (see especially Fee, Philippians, 115; Keown, Evangelism, 75–86). 9. These are subgroups of the majority in 1:14. See J. H. Michael, The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians (MNTC; London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1928) 37; Keown, Evangelism, 86–91. 10. Some play this down, e.g., O’Brien, Philippians, 102: they intend to “stir up some inward annoyance, some trouble of spirit.” However, Paul is in a Roman prison, facing death (Phil 1:20–22), and τοῖς δεσμοῖς μου suggests persecution. 11. As G. Eichholz (“Bewahren und Bewähren des Evangeliums: Der Leitfaden von Phil 1–2,” in Hören und Handeln [ed. H. Gollwitzer and H. Traub; Munich: Kaiser, 1962] 94) puts it, “Zu deutlich spricht er von der doppelten Möglichkeit, von Leben und Tod.” 12. Παρρησία and παρρησιάζομαι are most often related to bold speech. See J. Ware, The Mission of the Church in Paul’s Letter to the Philippians in the Context of Ancient Judaism (NovTSup 120; Leiden: Brill, 2005) 205. 13. E.g., R. H. Gundry, “Sōma” in Biblical Theology: With Emphasis on Pauline Anthropology (SNTSMS 29; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1976) 37. 14. Similarly S. E. Fowl, Philippians (Two Horizons New Testament Commentary; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005) 47–49; Fee, Philippians, 137–38. 92 Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 (2015) two options (ongoing life in Christ, or postmortem life with Christ). Moreover, later references to suffering and death in Philippians (2:27, 30; 3:10), and, most importantly, the Christ-hymn (esp. 2:8) suggest that death is a real possibility. On the face of it then, Paul is facing a real life-and-death situation. Paul’s Power to Choose the Outcome of His Situation Paul’s control over his situation is seen in his use of αἱρέω in Phil 1:22b. Αἱρέω means “take, win, seize, or comprehend” and in the middle usually means “choose, to select, to take for or to oneself.” 15 In the LXX, it has a range of meanings all indicating active “choice” in some sense. This includes people making active choices (e.g., Deut 26:17; Josh 24:15; 2 Kgs 15:15; Job 34:4; Jer 8:3; 2 Macc 11:25), or God’s choices (e.g., Deut 26:18; Isa 38:17; Pss. Sol. 17:21). Josephus uses αἱρέω for active choice including choices made by people (e.g., Ant. 3.303; Life 10) or God (e.g., Ant. 3.190; 4.200). Similarly, Philo uses it extensively of active choice in a range of ways including the appointment or election of people (e.g., Leg. 2.51), 16 God’s election (e.g., Mut. 151; Virt. 184), and often ethical and life choices (e.g., Leg. 3.16; Migr. 189). 17 Additionally, Wansink argues persuasively that the word in Greco-Roman literature usually suggests active choice (e.g., Appian, Bel. Civ. 4.16.117; Demosthenes, Or. 15.3; Dio Chrysostom, Or. 53.8.7; Plato, Symp. 213e; Pol. 265b; Plutarch, Mor. 620b; Polybius, Hist. 31.23.21; Xenophon, Anab. 1.4.6; Dio Cassius, Rom Hist. 53.9.3). 18 The middle of αἱρέω is used twice elsewhere in the NT, both times indicating active choice. In 2 Thess 2:13, Paul 19 uses it of God’s election (εἵλατο) 15. BDAG 28; H. Schlier, “αἱρέομαι,” in TDNT 1:180; A. T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research (Nashville: Broadman, 1919) 809 (accessed through Logos Bible Software). 16. See also Conf. 112; Ios. 161; Mos. 1.83; 2.141; Decal. 175; Spec. 1.303; Virt. 68; Flacc. 74. 17. For further detail and examples, see my Philippians (Evangelical Exegetical Commentary; Bellingham, WA: Lexham, forthcoming). 18. C. Wansink, Chained in Christ: The Experience and Rhetoric of Paul’s Imprisonments (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996) 100–101. To this, I would add Plutarch, Adv. Col. 2; Aem. 11.3; Ant. 43.2; Xenophon, Anab. 1.3.5, 14, 15, 20; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Ant. rom. 4.8.2; Aristotle, Ath. pol. 3.4; 4.2; 5.2; 11.2; 13.2; Diodorus Siculus, Hist. 1.62.1; Appian, Bell. civ. 1.24; 2.122; Plato, Theaet. 196c; Soph. 217d, among many others. 19. On Pauline authorship of 2 Thessalonians, see C. A. Wanamaker, The Epistles to the Thessalonians: A Commentary on the Greek Text (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990) 17–28. Keown: Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26) 93 of believers. In Heb 11:25, it is utilized of Moses as an example of faith (Heb 11:23–28). O’Brien has argued that αἱρέομαι in Heb 11:25 means “prefer.” 20 Rather, it refers not merely to a preference but to Moses’ active choice to identify himself with God’s people and experience mistreatment rather than identify with Egypt and choose sin. 21 Here in Phil 1:22 then, rather than merely indicating preference, 22 the first person of αἱρέω likely speaks of Paul’s active choice. 23 The first-person future indicates it refers either to Paul’s own choice at or after the forthcoming trial. It is clear then that Paul has control over his situation; he can choose life or death. 24 Paul’s Withholding of His Choice from the Philippians The verb γνωρίζω (Phil 1:22c) means “make known, reveal,” and more rarely, “to perceive, know.” 25 In the LXX and the non-Pauline NT, my analysis suggests all uses carry the sense “made known” (e.g., Exod 21:36; Ezra 5:10; 7:35; Ruth 2:2; Ps 31:5 [32:5 MT]; 3 Macc 2:6; Luke 2:15; John 15:15). 26 Pauline uses are consistent with this, including God making something known to people (Rom 9:22, 23; 16:26; cf. Eph 1:9; 3:3, 5; Col 1:27) or spiritual powers (Eph 3:10), of Paul making the gospel known with clarity (Eph 6:19), of people making their requests known to God (Phil 4:6), and finally, as here, of Paul making something known (or not) to his readers (1 Cor 12:3; 15:1; 2 Cor 8:1; Gal 1:11; cf. Eph 6:21; Col 4:7, 9). As γνωρίζω is sometimes used with the meaning “know” outside of the LXX and the NT, some contend that Paul here means “know;” he does not 20. O’Brien, Philippians, 126; see also U. Müller, Der Brief des Paulus an die Philipper (THKNT 11/1; Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1993) 62: “Wahrscheinlich liegt ein uneigentliches Verständnis von Wählen vor: αἱρεῖν im Sinne von ‘vorziehen’ (wie Hebr. 11,25).” 21. W. L. Lane, Hebrews 9–13 (WBC 47B; Dallas: Word, 1998) 271. Also P. T. O’Brien, The Letter to the Hebrews (PNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010) 430 (emphasis mine), where he contradicts his earlier argument regarding Philippians, stating that in Heb 11:25 ἑλόμενος speaks of “deliberate choice . . . a choice of one option over against another. . . . The verb αἱρέομαι (‘choose’) was used of personal choice (Phil. 1:22), of choosing God (Josh. 24:15) and life rather than death (Jer. 8:3).” 22. BDAG 28. 23. See Fowl, Philippians, 50; Ware, Mission, 211; Wansink, Chained, 100–101; J. A. Smith, Marks of an Apostle: Deconstruction, Philippians, and Problematizing Pauline Theology (SemeiaSt 53; Atlanta: SBL, 2005) 57; J. Chrysostom, Hom. Phil. 3.1.22. 24. Cf. F. F. Bruce, Philippians (2nd ed.; NIBCNT; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1989) 50, who states, “the choice, however, did not lie with him.” The first-person verb emphatically suggests it did. 25. See BDAG 203; R. Bultmann, “γνωρίζω,” in TDNT 1:718. 26. For more examples, details, and analysis, see my Philippians. 94 Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 (2015) know what he will choose, tell, or prefer (e.g., Gk. Apoc. Ezra. 4:28; T. Ash. 6.4; Philo, Cher. 40; Plato, Lach. 181c; Aristotle, Eud. eth. 1245a.35–39). 27 While possible, it is more likely Paul is using γνωρίζω consistently with the LXX, the Pseudepigrapha, the wider NT, and his own use. It should then be rendered, “what I will choose I do not make known” (cf. ESV). 28 The present tense indicates that he is not prepared to do so presently as he writes to the Philippians. As the term is often used in the LXX, Pseudepigrapha, and the NT of spiritual revelation (e.g., 1 Sam 6:2; Ps 15:11 [16:11 MT]; T. Job. 41.5), some argue that his refusal to disclose his situation is because God has not yet revealed it to him. 29 However, the first-person “I will choose” suggests Paul’s agency rather than God’s. 30 At face value then, Paul is speaking of his own active choice and his unpreparedness to disclose it in the letter. Paul’s Certainty of Release Paul’s certainty of release creates the tension in the passage. How can Paul, genuinely facing death, know he will gain his freedom? Three verses potentially speak of Paul’s certainty of release (Phil 1:19, 25; 2:24). I will look at each in turn. Vindication, Release, or Salvation in 1:19 In Phil 1:19, echoing two passages in Job (Job 19:25; 13:16), Paul indicates that he knows that his current situation (τοῦτο) will turn out for his σωτηρία through the prayers of the Philippians and the help of the Spirit. 31 “I know” (οἶδα), as in Phil 1:25, is emphatic, referring to certainty rather 27. Lightfoot, Philippians, 93; BDAG 203; Fee, Philippians, 144, 146; J. Reumann, Philippians (AB 33B; New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008) 223; D. Flemming, Philippians: A Commentary in the Wesleyan Tradition (New Beacon Bible Commentary; Kansas City: Beacon Hill, 2009) 75. For other examples, see my Philippians. 28. M. Bockmuehl, The Epistle to the Philippians (BNTC; London: Continuum, 1997) 90; O’Brien, Philippians, 127–28; M. R. Vincent, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles to the Philippians and to Philemon (ICC; New York: Scribners, 1897) 27–28. 29. Lohmeyer, Brief an die Philipper, 61–62; O’Brien, Philippians, 128; J.-F. Collange, The Epistle of Saint Paul to the Philippians (trans. A. W. Heathcote; London: Epworth, 1979) 64. 30. Similarly, I-J. Loh and E. A. Nida, A Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Philippians (UBS Handbook Series; New York: United Bible Societies, 1995) 33; Hawthorne and Martin, Philippians, 58. 31. For a full discussion of Job 19:25, see my Philippians. For Job 13:16, see R. B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989) 21–24. See also my “The Use of the Old Testament in Philippians,” in All That the Prophets Have Declared: The Appropriation of Scripture in the Emergence of Christianity (ed. M. R. Malcolm; Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2015) 139–64. Keown: Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26) 95 than conviction or hope. 32 My analysis of Paul’s 102 other uses of οἶδα indicates that, without exception, the verb for Paul implies some form of stated knowledge. 33 The perfect tense speaks of a state of knowing that Paul holds in the present (cf. 1:25). 34 The conjunction ὅτι, as in 1:25 and 2:24, marks the content of the knowledge signaled by οἶδα. 35 What Paul knows is that his situation will turn out εἰς σωτηρίαν. A range of suggestions has been given for εἰς σωτηρίαν including (1) Paul’s well–being, (2) “vindication” (cf. Job 13:16), (3) “release,” (4) eschatological salvation, or (5) deliberate ambiguity to cover all or some of the dynamics above. 36 Though there are nuances, the question is effectively whether Paul is speaking of his release from prison or eschatological salvation. Taking τοῦτο as Paul’s whole situation (τὰ κατʼ ἐμὲ [v. 12]). Similarly, W. Schenk, Die Philipérbriefe des Paulus: Kommentar (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1984) 145; O’Brien, Philippians, 109. Taking the clause subjectively: “the help which the Spirit of Jesus Christ affords” (e.g., R. R. Melick, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon [NAC 32; Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1991] 82; B. B. Thurston and J. Ryan, Philippians and Philemon [SP 10; Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2005] 63). 32. For examples of those who take it as a Pauline conviction, see Thurston and Ryan, Philippians, 62; G. B. Caird, Paul’s Letters from Prison (New Clarendon Bible; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976) 113, . 33. Further Keown, Philippians. 34. Alternatively, if we apply a more traditional temporal approach, something Paul has known previously and continues to know (on aspect, see S. E. Porter and D. A. Carson, eds., Biblical Greek Language and Linguistics: Open Questions in Current Research [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993], passim). 35. BDAG 731. See also Phil 1:6, 12, 16, 18, 20, 25, 27; 2:11, 16, 22, 24; 4:10, 11, 15. 36. (1) E.g., J. D. Pentecost, The Joy of Living: A Study of Philippians (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1996) 36: “for my benefit.” (2) E.g. J. L. Sumney, Philippians: A Greek Student’s Intermediate Reader (Peabody, MA: Hendrikson, 2007) 119; B. Witherington III, Paul’s Letter to the Philippians: A Socio-rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011) 84; P. A. Holloway, Consolation in Philippians: Philosophical Sources and Rhetorical Strategy (SNTSMS 112; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001) 108–9. (3) E.g. Hawthorne and Martin, Philippians, 49–50; Thurston and Ryan, Philippians, 62; J. S. Vos, “Philippians 1:12–26 and the Rhetoric of Success” in Rhetoric, Ethic, and Moral Persuasion in Biblical Discourse (ed. Anders Eriksson, Thomas H. Olbricht, and W. Übelacker; ESEC 8; London: T. & T. Clark, 2005) 147; B. W. Winter, Seek the Welfare of the City: Christians as Benefactors and Citizens (First-Century Christians in the Graeco-Roman World; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994) 210. (4) E.g., Bockmuehl, Philippians, 83; O’Brien, Philippians, 109–10; C. J. Ellicott, St. Paul’s Epistles to the Philippians, Colossians, and to Philemon: With a Critical and Grammatical Commentary, and a Revised Translation (Andover: Draper, 1876) 37; F. F. Beare, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians (3rd ed.; HNTC: New York: Harper & Bros., 1976) 62; Gnilka, Der Philipperbrief, 66; F. F. Bruce, Philippians (2nd ed.; NIBCNT; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1989) 48; H. C. G. Moule, The Epistle to the Philippians (CGTC; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1897) 22; Flemming, Philippians, 71; U. Müller, Brief des Paulus 96 Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 (2015) The idea of salvation as “release,” “deliverance from his situation,” or “vindication” is favored, first, by his confidence of release (Phil 1:25). Second, in the NT, σωτήρ terms are sometimes of deliverance from physical threat. 37 Third, the linguistic parallels between 1:19 and 1:25 (οἶδα, ὅτι, τοῦτο) could indicate that σωτηρία parallels μενῶ . . . τὴν ὑμῶν. 38 Fourth, the echoes of Job could point in the direction of present deliverance or vindication. Finally, σωτηρία is used in Greek epistolary contexts of deliverance from such things as a sea voyage or ill health. 39 However, there are difficulties with this view. First, the dominant use of σωτήρ language in the wider NT is of eschatological salvation. 40 More importantly, while some texts are disputed, 41 salvation language is used exclusively in Pauline literature (including Philippians) of eschatological salvation (1:19, 28; 2:12; 3:20). 42 Further, the present context emphasizes Paul’s eternal future as much as present deliverance (vv. 21–24). This eschatological concern also features through the letter (1:6, 10–11, 28; 2:10– 11, 12, 16; 3:10–14, 19–21; 4:3, 5, 17). 43 Finally, Job is not without the hope an die Philipper, 59; Schenk, Die Philipperbriefe, 146. (5) See Ware, Mission, 209; M. Silva, Philippians (2nd ed.; BECNT; Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005) 69–70, 72; Reumann, Philippians, 210. 37. Including flood (Matt 8:25; Acts 27:20, 31; Heb 11:7), sickness (e.g., Matt 9:21; Mark 5:23; Luke 7:50; John 11:12; Acts 4:9; Jas 5:15), crucifixion (e.g., Matt 27:40; Mark 15:30; Luke 23:35), starvation (Acts 27:34), death (Mark 3:4), or from enemies (Acts 7:25; Jude 5). It is also used in wider literature this way; see my Philippians. 38. Ware, Mission, 209. 39. See L. A. Alexander, “Hellenistic Letter-Forms and the Structure of Philippians,” JSNT 37 (1989) 96; J. T. Reed, A Discourse Analysis of Philippians: Method and Rhetoric in the Debate over Literary Integrity (JSNTSup 136; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997) 213 n. 226; e.g., P. Mich. 3.212.9–11; 8.490.6–7, 12–14; PSI 4.392.5. 40. O’Brien, Philippians, 279; Keown, Philippians. 41. On 2:12, see J. H. Michael, “Work Out Your Own Salvation,” The Expositor 9/12 (1924) 439–50, where Michael, followed by others, argues that σωτηρία means “community wholeness.” However, while Paul’s concern includes the healing of division (esp. Phil 2:14; cf. 2:2–4; 4:2–3) Paul is referring to “the present ‘outworking’ of their individual eschatological salvation within the believing community” (Fee, Philippians, 234–35). For 1 Tim 2:15, a range of options exist; see I. H. Marshall, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles (ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1999) 233–36. 42. Gnilka, Der Philipperbrief, 66, rightly states, “σωτηρία bleibt bei Paulus immer auf das Verhältnis des Menschen zu Gott beschränkt und zielt ab auf die endgültige Rettung, die der Mensch im Endgericht erfahren soll”; cf. Müller, Brief des Paulus an die Philipper, 59. See also my Evangelism, 126. 43. That is, assuming that 4:5 is taken eschatologically rather than leading into Phil 4:6. See, e.g., Lightfoot, Philippians, 160; Gnilka, Der Philipperbrief, 169; Schenk, Die Philipperbriefe, 245; Hansen, Philippians, 289; Fee, Philippians, 407–8; O’Brien, Philippians, 489; Flemming, Philippians, 220. See also my Evangelism, 63. Keown: Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26) 97 of eschatological deliverance, including Job 19:25–27, which is echoed in Phil 1:19 (cf. Job 14:1–5). As both ideas can be defended, Paul may be being intentionally ambiguous with both ideas in mind. If so, in Phil 1:19 the emphasis falls on ultimate salvation whereas in 1:25 the emphasis is on release. Paul’s Certainty of Release Made Clear (1:25) If Phil 1:19 is elusive, Paul’s certainty of release is unequivocal in v. 25. In vv. 20–24, Paul ponders his dilemma over life and death. However, despite the seeming life and death quandary (καί), in 1:25 Paul expresses his certainty that he will be released. 44 Πεποιθώς is the perfect active participle of πείθω (Phil 1:25) which has a range of meanings based around the ideas of conviction, persuasion, confidence, trust, and certainty. 45 In the LXX, in the active perfect, it translates ‫ ָּבטַח‬meaning “trust, confidence,” especially in God. 46 Of the 30 nonPauline NT uses, two are stative (perfect tense-form), both speaking of a state of confidence in God (Matt 27:43; Heb 2:13). 47 All but two of Paul’s 22 uses are perfect active. God is never the subject of the verb, 48 so it forms a part of Paul’s faith language. Outside Philippians, Paul uses the perfect six times of his state of confidence in God or Christ (Gal 1:10; 2 Cor 1:9; 2 Thess 3:4; cf. Rom 8:38; 2 Cor 10:7). Elsewhere in Philippians, he uses it of his confidence of release (2:24), his refusal to place his confidence in the flesh (3:3, 4), and of the locals’ conviction to share the gospel (1:14). Confidence in God despite circumstances also emerges at other points in the letter (esp. 1:19–26; 2:13; 3:15, 20–21; 4:3, 7, 9c, 13, 19; cf. 1:12–14). O’Brien rightly notes that πεποιθώς is a “favorite device of Paul in this epistle” to speak of assurance (1:6), confidence (1:14), and conviction of release (1:25). 49 Here, then, it speaks of Paul’s being “convinced, (be) sure, certain.” 50 44. Τοῦτο likely refers back to his whole situation rather than just the necessity of release (O’Brien, Philippians, 138; Loh and Nida, Handbook, 35; Gnilka, Der Philipperbrief, 94; Collange, Philippians, 70). 45. For a fuller discussion, see BDAG 791–92. Cf. Müller, Brief des Paulus an die Philipper, 71: “einer festen Überzeugung.” 46. See, e.g., Lev 25:18–19; Deut 32:37; Judg 8:11; Ruth 2:12; 2 Sam 22:3; 2 Kgs 18:22; 2 Chr 14:10; Pss 2:12; 24:2 [25:2 MT]; 124:1 [125:1 MT]; Prov 3:5; Isa 8:17; 12:2; Amos 6:1; Jer 17:7. 47. See Matt 27:43 (negatively from crowds). In Heb 2:13, quoting Isa 8:17, it is used in a Pauline sense of confidence in God. 48. O’Brien, Philippians, 64. 49. Ibid., 327. 50. BDAG 792. 98 Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 (2015) The participle provides the basis of Paul’s knowing (οἶδα). It can be taken adverbially (“I know confidently,” “I am confidently persuaded”), 51 or causally (“because I have been persuaded”). As in Phil 2:24, the term indicates his confidence of release. The perfect refers to Paul’s present state, a state he has previously entered. His confidence is not a completely new thing. 52 So, on its own, πεποιθώς speaks of a strong conviction of release. Paul, however, using οἶδα as in Phil 1:19, moves beyond conviction to certainty (cf. 1:16; 4:12, 15). While it is common to read this phrase as an expression of Paul’s great confidence, faith, conviction, and hope, rather than absolute certainty, 53 as discussed above on v. 19, without exception, Paul uses οἶδα of real certitude leaving little room for uncertainty or hope. The combination of πεποιθώς and οἶδα is emphatic, highlighting Paul’s conviction and certainty that he will gain release and come to Philippi. 54 It is argued that 1:27, 2:12, and 2:24 are conditional and reinforce the idea that Paul is speaking of a hope and conviction. However, neither 1:27 nor 2:12 is conditional of his coming, but rather they speak of the Philippians’ behavior whether he is with them or not. The content of his knowledge is signaled by ὅτι (cf. 1:19; 2:24): 55 μενῶ καὶ παραμενῶ πᾶσιν ὑμῖν. Here, Paul utilizes two μένω terms (cf. ἐπιμένω, 2:23) in a wordplay that emphatically speaks of his release and his coming to Philippi to see his readers and stay awhile. Paul knows he will not be killed but will be released and reunited with the Philippians (cf. 2:24). Paul’s Confidence of Release Reiterated (2:24) A further reference to Paul’s release comes in Phil 2:24. After expressing his hope to send Timothy to Philippi (2:19, 23), and before speaking of Epaphroditus’s return likely bearing the letter (2:25), 56 Paul states his confidence (πέποιθα) in the Lord (ἐν κυρίῳ) that (ὅτι) he will come soon/ quickly to Philippi. 51. So Loh and Nida, Handbook, 35; Lightfoot, Philippians, 108; Hawthorne and Martin, Philippians, 62. 52. See also Reed, Discourse Analysis, 388. 53. So the majority of scholars, e.g., Eichholz (“Bewahren,” 94–95), who argues so because of Paul’s continued gospel mission. 54. If Paul wanted to express hope, he could have used ἐλπίζω as in Phil 2:19, 23, or πεποιθώς alone as in 2:24. 55. BDAG 731. 56. So many scholars, e.g., Silva, Philippians, 141; Hendriksen and Kistemaker, Philippians, 137; Bockmuehl, Philippians, 33; Loh and Nida, Handbook, 82; O’Brien, Philippians, 480; Fee, Philippians, 12. Keown: Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26) 99 Πέποιθα contrasts with ἐλπίζω in Phil 2:23 (cf. 2:19). 57 The shift from hope to confidence is not merely “the ebb and flow of spirits,” evidence of style with “hope” and “persuaded” synonyms, or the result of Paul being less confident of coming to Philippi. 58 Rather, as expressed in 1:25, it summarizes and reexpresses his more detailed statement of his certainty of release in 1:19. 59 The qualifying prepositional phrase ἐν κυρίῳ suggests more than just the sphere of confidence per se 60 but a sense of certainty of God’s will perhaps due to a revelation, prophecy, word, or inward spiritual assurance. 61 If he has an escape plan, it too comes with a sense of divine assurance. As in Phil 1:19 and 1:25, ὅτι introduces the content of his conviction (“that”). The καί suggests “in addition to my plans concerning Timothy.” The αὐτός is emphatic, “I myself.” The adverb ταχέως can mean “soon” (Acts 17:15; Heb 13:23) or “quickly” (Gal 1:6; 2 Thess 2:2; 1 Tim 5:23; 2 Tim 4:9; Luke 14:21; 16:6; John 11:31; 31:27; 20:4; Heb 13:19). 62 Likely, as in 1 Cor 4:19, here it indicates “come soon.” 63 Alternatively, it suggests “come quickly” if escape is used. Either way, Paul is confident that he is coming to Philippi in the near future. How can he be so sure when his situation is so precarious? I will now focus on answering this question. Possible Solutions to the Dilemma A number of solutions have been made to resolve Phil 1:19–26, with each having difficulties. Some suggest that Paul was released as his trial did not fall within the statutory period of 18 months. 64 Sherwin-White contends 57. Note also the contrast with Paul’s statement that he has already sent Epaphroditus in Phil 2:25. 58. Ebb and flow of spirits: B. C. Caffin, Philippians (Pulpit Commentary; London: Funk & Wagnalls, 1909) 63; Beare, Philippians, 97. Hope and pursuaded: Schenk, Die Philipperbriefe, 228. Diminished confidence: Caird, Prison Epistles, 129; Bruce, Philippians, 94. 59. Also considering Paul to be confident, although without reference to any escape plan, are O’Brien, Philippians, 327; Sumney, Philippians, 62; Hawthorne and Martin, Philippians, 157. In that Phil 1:25–26 is fuller and precedes 2:24, I suggest that the latter should be read as a summary of the former. 60. Ellicott, Philippians, 72. 61. Similarly, Hansen, Philippians, 199; Barth, Philippians, 86. 62. BDAG 992. 63. O’Brien, Philippians, 327. 64. See W. M. Ramsay, “The Imprisonment and Supposed Trial of St. Paul in Rome,” The Expositor 8/5 (1913) 264–84; K. Lake, “What Was the End of St. Paul’s Trial?” Interpreter 5 (1908–9) 147–56; H. J. Cadbury, “Roman Law and the Trial of Paul,” in The Beginnings of Christianity, part 1: The Acts of the Apostles, vol. 5: Additional Notes to the Commentary (ed. F. J. F. Jackson and K. Lake; London: Macmillan, 1933) 297–338, esp. p. 326. 100 Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 (2015) that this was a case of simple discharge. 65 Bengel ponders whether Paul received a word from God indicating his impending release. 66 However, none of these explain Paul’s real concern for death. Additionally, if Philippians is from Rome, discharge without trial is unlikely in light of his appeal to Caesar and the political situation in Rome at the time. 67 Moreover, the so-called statutory period has been shown to be a third-century law. 68 Some simply believe Paul assumes he will be released. 69 Michaelis argues Paul is speaking after his trial after receiving a favorable verdict. 70 Martin suggests he has just received news of a positive verdict from the judiciary. 71 But the use of the future tense in Phil 1:19–26 clearly indicates the trial and decision are yet to occur: “this will turn out,” “expectation and hope,” and “Christ will be exalted.” Besides, if the verdict is known, there is no choice to be made, and death is ruled out. These views render talk of potential death in vv. 20–22 redundant, deceitful, hypothetical, or merely rhetorical. Kim suggests that Paul does not intend to preach an anti-imperial gospel at all but intends to convince the authorities that his gospel is politically harmless, cautiously hoping to convince them to treat him as Gallio did in Corinth (Acts 18:12–17) and release him. 72 However, this plays down the real possibility of death, Paul’s genuine power over his situation, and his certainty of release in the passage. Another possibility is that Paul contemplated suicide. 73 This idea is drawn from positive views of heroic suicide in Jewish and Greco-Roman 65. A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1963) 109–19, on the basis of Nero’s imperial right to clemency. 66. J. A. Bengel, Gnomon of the New Testament (ed. M. Ernest Bengel and J. C. F. Steudel; trans. James Bryce; vol. 4; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1860) 127; Lohmeyer, Brief an die Philipper, 66–67; R. Gromacki, Stand United in Joy: An Exposition of Philippians (Gromacki Expository Series; Woodlands, TX: Kress, 2002) 73. Another possibility is that Paul was expecting divine help. Wansink notes examples of divine help for escape from prison including Peter’s release twice and Paul’s release from Philippi (Acts 5:19–20; 12:6–19; 16:25–26; cf. Acts Paul 7; Acts Thom. 119–22, 154, 161; Acts Andr. Mth. 19; PGM 1.96–102; 12.16–78; 13.289–96, 327–34, 1065–1075; 36.312–20; Mart. Perp. Fel. 16.2; see Wansink, Chained, 92–95). However, this is unlikely here because Paul is the agent of his choice, as οἶδα indicates. 67. F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit (Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 1977) 377. 68. Bruce, Paul, 377. See also J. Murphy-O’Connor, Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) 355. 69. See Hawthorne and Martin, Philippians, 57. 70. See W. Michaelis, Der Brief des Paulus an die Philipper (THKNT 11; Leipzig: Deichert, 1935) 27; Bruce, Philippians, 52. 71. Suggested by Martin, Philippians, 82. 72. S. Kim, Christ and Caesar: The Gospel and the Roman Empire in the Writings of Paul and Luke (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008) 43–50. 73. A. J. Droge, “Suicide,” in ABD 6:225–31; A. J. Droge and J. D. Tabor, A Noble Death: Suicide and Martyrdom among Christians and Jews in Antiquity (San Francisco: Harper- Keown: Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26) 101 thought. 74 Furthermore, suicide is not condemned in the NT (Matt 27:3– 10; Acts 16:27–28). Paul then is consciously considering suicide as a way to gain immortality. However, Paul does not reject suicide in principle, but he chooses life. While it is clear Paul knows that to die will bring eternal gain (Phil 1:21) and that he desires release to eternal glory (cf. 1:23), suicide can quickly be ruled out. First, it is difficult to reconcile suicide with the details of the passage, in particular, his joy (1:18a, b), 75 the confidence of 1:19–20, his positive view of life (1:21a, 22b), and his certainty of release (1:25–26; 2:24). Second, any thought of suicide is difficult to reconcile with Paul’s view of suffering in Philippians. His suffering has led to the expansion of the gospel (1:12–14). He urges the Philippians to stand firm in unity contending for the faith of the gospel, being determined not to be intimidated by those causing them suffering. He also considers the Philippians’ suffering a gift (1:27–29; cf. 4:1). He presents the suffering Christ as the ultimate pattern for Christian life (2:5–11). He celebrates Epaphroditus’s service to the point of death (cf. 2:8) commending him to the Philippians (2:28–30). He desires to participate fully in Christ’s sufferings and death (3:10). He states his desire to press on and urges the Philippians to emulate his example (3:12–17). Appeals of this sort would be rendered meaningless were he considering suicide. 76 Another variation on suicide is to read “choose” in a softer manner of voluntary death. Fowl, for example, argues that Paul, like Socrates and Jesus, is considering raising no defense before his accusers and inciting his own death. 77 Holloway conversely suggests that Paul could choose voluntary death through courageous parrēsia in court, leading to his opponents putting him to death. 78 However, both suicide and voluntary death fail to account for Paul’s certainty of release—if Paul knows he will be released, why would he contemplate killing himself? Moreover, he clearly states his hope to speak boldly at Collins, 1991) 119–28; J. L. Laquette, “A Not-So-Noble Death: Figured Speech, Friendship and Suicide in Philippians 1:21–26,” Neot 28 (1994) 177–192; idem, “Life and Death, Adiaphora, and Paul’s Rhetorical Strategies,” NovT 38 (1988) 263–54; Holloway, Consolation, 115. 74. For Jewish sources, see Droge, “Suicide,” 6:229–30, which notes Judg 9:54; 16:29–30; 1 Sam 31:4–5; 2 Sam 17:23; 1 Kgs 16:18; 1 Chr 10:4–5; cf. Job 7:15; 13:15; Philo, Legat. 236; Josephus, J.W. 3.362–382; 2 Macc 14:37–46, and other references. A Greco-Roman example is 2 Macc 6:226–27. 75. Fowl, Philippians, 55. 76. So also Bockmuehl, Philippians, 90–91. 77. Ibid., 58–59 (see Xenophon, Apol. 9; Epictetus, Diatr. 1.9.22–24; Mark 15:2–3 and par.; Luke 23:8–11; cf. Martyrdom of Polycarp). See also Wansink, Chained, 96–125. 78. Holloway, Consolation, 114–15. 102 Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 (2015) his trial (Phil 1:20) and yet knows he will be released. Both suicide and voluntary death confuse Paul’s intent, blur the appeal to participate in Christ’s sufferings in Philippians, and conflict with Paul’s wider theology of suffering and mission (e.g., Rom 5:3–5; 8:18; 2 Cor 1:5–7; 6:4–5; 11:23–28). The majority of scholars hold that Paul is referring to life as the better of the options and not as a result of active choice. It is what he himself wants to do, a personal conviction, the optimistic climax to Paul’s internal dialogue concerning his fate. 79 He is expressing his conviction out of faith and not certainty. 80 That is, the choice is not between death and life in terms of his own ability to influence these outcomes (if he could choose), but which is the better of the two options. 81 O’Brien adopts this line partly on the grounds that αἱρέω here means “prefer.” 82 As noted previously, this is ruled out because the verb most likely involves active choice. Further, the language of Phil 1:25 (cf. 2:24) speaks of absolute certainty. As such, these views do not deal with what is apparent in the text. Collange argues Paul was about to reveal his Roman citizenship. 83 However, if Paul is in Rome, his citizenship is already known due to his appeal to Caesar (provocatio; Acts 25:11–12, 21, 25; 26:32; 28:19). 84 This likewise does not work for Caesarea, as Luke regularly refers to Paul openly referring to his citizenship (Act 21:39; 22:25–29; 23:37). While it can potentially work for Ephesus, it is unlikely due to the length of Paul’s imprisonment implied by the details of Philippians. 85 More importantly, the idea does not cohere with Paul’s certainty of release in 1:25 for any city. 86 Even if he declares his citizenship; he may be tried and sentenced to death anyway. 79. Personal conviction: e.g., Lightfoot, Philippians, 108; Michael, Philippians, 60; Fee, Philippians, 144; Bockmuehl, Philippians, 90, 94; Hansen, Philippians, 85; Flemming, Philippians, 76; Lohmeyer, Brief an die Philipper, 61: an internal decision; Gnilka, Der Philipperbrief, 72: a decision before God alone. Paul’s internal dialogue: O’Brien, Philippians, 138. 80. E.g., Lightfoot, Philippians, 108; Bockmuehl, Philippians, 94; Bruce, Philippians, 52. 81. G. D. Fee, God’s Empowering Presence (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994) 739. See also Hansen, Philippians, 85; Fee, Philippians, 144; cf. Hawthorne and Martin, Philippians, 62. 82. Beare, Philippians, 63; O’Brien, Philippians, 126. 83. Collange, Philippians, 51, 62; Reumann, Philippians, 238, 242, in Ephesus. It cannot be argued that Paul was considering appeal to Caesar, as in Phil 1:25 he is certain he knew he would be released to Philippi rather than Rome. 84. On the provocatio, see Witherington, The Acts of the Apostles: A Socio-rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998) 724–26. 85. Philippians suggests a long imprisonment with time for Paul’s situation to become known in Philippi, Epaphroditus to travel to him, news of his imprisonment to spread substantially locally (Phil 1:13), local Christians to engage in fearless proclamation (1:14), and division to develop over Paul (1:14–18). 86. Cf. Reumann, Philippians, 238, which suggests that this is Paul’s trump card by “death cannot be excluded.” Keown: Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26) 103 Increasingly popular are rhetorical interpretations of the passage. 87 Debanné suggests that Paul’s argument reflects a “from the more and the less” argument based on a silent premise concerning the boasting in v. 26, that is, “The MORE ‘boasting in Christ’ will be potentially caused by a future event, the MORE God is inclined to make it happen to encourage the faith of believers.” 88 However, it is not clear that Paul’s conviction of release is drawn from a view that greater boasting in Christ will lead to deliverance. Rather, the converse is implied: Paul’s release will lead to greater boasting in God on the part of the Philippians (Phil 1:26). Furthermore, the idea that Paul’s theology includes a utilitarianism, based on the idea that the more something (apparently) leads to boasting the more God will do it, is highly dubious. Holloway suggests Paul is using the rhetoric of reassurance (or rebuke), which is “a thinly veiled complaint” against their emotional frailty for expecting a letter of thanks. 89 However, there is nothing to suggest that Paul is critiquing the Philippians in this passage. 90 Vollenweider argues Paul is using synkrisis (“comparison”) whereby a writer compares or evaluates two persons (for example, Ajax and Achilles) or things (for example, summer and winter) and sometimes life and death. Sometimes one thing is seen as great and the other greater, as here. As with some other synkrisis examples, here death is preferred. Thus, this passage can be seen as “a little synkrisis of life and death.” 91 Bockmuehl suggests, “its function is to give Paul’s readers closer insight into his deliberations on the matter, offering them access to his own Christ-like example of preferring a life of service to others.” 92 However, while Paul may be employing synkrisis, this does not explain his emphatic confidence of release. Croy contends Paul uses “feigned perplexity” (aporia, diaphoresis or dubitation, addubitatio), a rhetorical trope involving the pretense of uncertainty and the posing of a question to strengthen or dramatize an argument. So, the tension in the text is feigned. Paul knows he will remain but presents it in a way that amplifies his personal dilemma to demonstrate 87. Those who take it rhetorically generally include Smith, Marks, 58; Marshall, Philippians, 28. 88. M. J. Debanné, “An Enthymematic Reading of Philippians: Towards a Typology of Pauline Arguments,” in Rhetorical Criticism and the Bible (ed. S. E. Porter and D. L. Stamps; JSNTSup 195; London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002) 494–95 (emphasis original). 89. Holloway, Consolation, 112–13. 90. See the discussion of Holloway in Hawthorne and Martin, Philippians, lxv–lxvi. 91. S. Vollenweider, “Die Waagschalen von Leben und Tod: Zum antiken Hintergrund von Phil 1, 21–26,” ZNW 85 (1994) 93–115 (translated quotation, p. 96). Followed by Bockmuehl, Philippians, 87; and Reumann, Philippians, 235–37. 92. Bockmuehl, Philippians, 87. 104 Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 (2015) his commitment to the Philippians. 93 However, while Paul uses rhetoric in his letters, and is undoubtedly presenting his account to demonstrate his emulation of Christ and to inspire the Philippians to do the same, it is debatable that Paul would use a feigned dilemma. Elsewhere, he repudiates using “dishonest techniques” (e.g., 2 Cor 4:2; 1 Thess 2:3–5). With uncertainty over all previous proposals, it is appropriate to consider another possibility: namely, Paul is considering escape from prison dependent on the outcome of his trial. Escape from Roman Prison Explored The thesis of this article is this: Paul, with the help of friends, has an escape plan in place that he will use depending on the outcome of his forthcoming trial (Phil 1:20–21). While Paul is hopeful, the outcome of his trial is uncertain. He will either be released, detained for further judicial process, or sentenced to death. If released, the plan will be redundant. However, if detained or sentenced to death, he can put the plan into place. The plan may include, first, sending Timothy and Epaphroditus away from the “dangerzone” (2:19–30). Then, he himself, with the help of friends in the Praetorium and others, will escape (1:25; 2:24). Paul’s refusal to disclose his choice in writing may be due to the dangers of doing so in a letter likely dictated in the presence of guards and/or read by the authorities (1:22). The idea of escape resolves Phil 1:12–26. First, it allows for the uncertainy of the result of Paul’s forthcoming trial: death (cf. 2 Tim 4:6–8, 16), detainment, or release. Second, escape allows for Paul’s power to choose the outcome of his situation (Phil 1:22). 94 He knows he will be released either through the court’s decision or through escape (1:25; 2:24; cf. 1:19). Third, Paul has friends in the imperial inner circle, some of whom could provide the means of escape (Phil 1:13; 4:22). Moreover, while Paul has opponents in Rome, he also has Christian supporters who can assist him to depart (1:14, 16; 4:22; cf. Rom 16:1–3–15; Col 4:10–14; Phlm 23–24). Fourth, escape explains οὐ γνωρίζω in Phil 1:22c, which is arguably a coded way of saying that Paul is not prepared to state openly his plan, probably to avoid his captors becoming aware of any potential escape. Fifth, escape may explain Paul’s decision to release Timothy, despite his uniqueness and importance to Paul (Phil 2:20–22), and Epaphroditus (2:25–30). They will not only help the Philippians in their struggles and be 93. See N. C. Croy, “‘To Die Is Gain’ (Philippians 1:19–26): Does Paul Contemplate Suicide?” JBL 122 (2003) 517–31; followed by others including Cousar, Philippians, 141; Flemming, Philippians, 75; and Thurston and Ryan, Philippians, 64. 94. Smith (Marks, 58) rightly states, “Paul knew something and refused to reveal it.” Keown: Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26) 105 living examples of self-sacrifice for the gospel, but they will be safe away from Rome and able to prepare for Paul’s reception in Philippi. Sixth, it explains Paul’s certainty of release in 1:25. He will gain release whatever happens, whether by the judiciary or by escape (cf. 1:19; 2:24). This hypothesis is supported by evidence that on one known occasion, with the help of friends, Paul escaped from a life-threatening situation (2 Cor 11:33; Acts 9:23–25). Although this was not an imprisonment, it involved escape from trial before royalty (Aretas). Additionally, Paul was prepared to move on from persecution throughout his mission (1 Thess 2:2; 2 Cor 1:8–11; Acts 14:5–6; 17:10, 14). Escape also fits with our knowledge of Roman imprisonment. Although not suggesting Paul was considering escape in this passage, Wansink discusses escape from Roman prisons. 95 He notes that, while prison guards were often brutal and dangerous (e.g., Philo, Ios. 81, 84), sometimes guards were fair and humane (e.g., Josephus, J.W. 18.203, 231–32; Philo, Ios. 81; cf. Mart.Perp.Fel. 9.1). There was great nervousness among prison guards at the possibility of escape (e.g., Acts 12:10; 16:27; Acts Thom. 153). 96 While guards were often killed in prison escapes (Lucian, Tox. 33), sometimes “good relations with guards actually afforded [people] the opportunity to escape.” 97 However, these escapes were not always successful (e.g., Plutarch, Ag. Cleom. 37.4–5). Escape was usually engineered externally and could lead to death (Dig. 48.3.12, 14; 48.4.4). 98 Escape was sometimes arranged through bribery of guards or officials (Dig. 48.3.8; Josephus, J.W. 2.273). 99 People of influence could facilitate an escape (Josephus, Life 419, 450; J.W. 1.666) or disguises could be used (Plutarch, Mor. 247b–c). 100 The best example of escape is Crito’s attempt to assist Socrates’ escape through bribes; however, Socrates refused (Plato, Cri. 44b–46b). Wansink notes of Socrates possible escape, “Socrates’ friends express no doubt that if Socrates had ever wanted to escape or leave prison, it would be possible.” 101 This raises the question whether bribery could be involved in any escape plan for Paul. Reeves argues that the Philippians’ gift was designed to bribe 95. Wansink, Chained, 84–95. 96. Ibid., 89. 97. Ammianus Marcellinus 28.6.24 records that a certain Flaccianus was able to escape after bribing the guards. See also Polybius, Hist. 5.39.1–3 (ibid.). 98. See B. Rapske, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting, vol. 3: Paul in Roman Custody (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; Carlisle: Paternoster, 1994), 30, 260. 99. Ibid., 83–89. 100. Ibid., 90 n. 207. 101. Ibid., 92. 106 Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 (2015) the authorities to gain Paul’s release (2:30; 4:10–14). Paul in Philippians is explaining that he is not going to use their gift this way but has kept the money anyway. 102 Wansink has also noted that, while “bribery” is offensive to contemporary Westerners, calling the giving of money in this sort of instance “bribery” is a “misnomer” of a culturally expected protocol of the giving of gifts. 103 The idea of escape does not depend on a “bribe” (Paul has friends on the inside), and there are good reasons to disregard the idea. First, Luke records that Paul rejects the use of a bribe to gain release (Acts 24:26). Moreover, taking bribes was repudiated in Jewish thought. 104 In addition, although bribes were common among authorities, including Governors Felix or Albinus (Acts 24:26; Josephus, Ant. 20.216; J.W. 2.273), it was rejected in Roman law (Lex Repetundarum or Lex Iulia de repetundis). 105 It seems doubtful that Paul would approve a practice explicitly ruled out in Judaism and in Roman law. It is also unlikely that Paul would allow the use of violence for his escape (Rom 12:17–18). If an escape was planned, it likely involved converted soldiers and others (1:13) prepared to emulate the example of Christ and give themselves for the gospel’s sake. Potential Objections There are potential problems with the idea, but none rule it out. First, Paul’s theology of submission to the state (Rom 13:1–7) and Roman citizenship could preclude him considering escape from the imperial authorities. However, he may see this one occasion when his heavenly citizenship should take precedence (Phil 1:27; 3:20). Further, he may plan to return to Rome in the future. Second, escape seems to run counter to Paul’s desire to stand before Caesar in Rome (cf. Acts 23:11). However, Paul may already have stood before the imperial authorities (Phil 1:7), and so perhaps he has completed this portion of his mission to Rome (cf. Acts 28:30–31). What is more, his departure is due to overwhelming need and is not necessarily final. If he 102. R. R. Reeves, “To Be or Not To Be? That Is Not the Question: Paul’s Choice in Philippians 1:22?” PRSt 19 (1992) 272–89. 103. Wansink, Chained, 84. 104. Exod 18:21; 23:8; Deut 10:17; 16:19; 27:25; 1 Sam 12:3; Job 6:22; Ps 15:5; Prov 17:8, 23; 21:14; Eccl 7:7; cf. Josephus, Ant. 6.34; 10.250; Isa 1:23; 5:23; 33:15; Amos 5:12; Mic 3:11; 7:3. 105. See also Josephus, Life 79, where Josephus indicates his distaste for bribery and his own refusal to use them. For Roman law, see Witherington, Acts, 716. Rapske, Paul in Roman Custody, 34, also notes that punishment was severe (Cicero, Cat. 1.19). Keown: Did Paul Plan To Escape From Prison? (Philippians 1:19–26) 107 escaped, he perhaps intended to return to Rome. This may explain why Paul did later return to Rome; it was perhaps to fulfill his desire to face Caesar, a visit that likely ended in his martyrdom (2 Tim 3:10–4:18). 106 Third, there is no explicit evidence of Paul’s using escape from prison. Luke records that when the opportunity of escape was afforded him in Philippi, he did not take it (Acts 16:25–34; cf. Acts 27:42–28:1). However, as I have previously noted, there is some evidence that if the situation demanded it, he would utilize it. Fourth, because the punishment for guards in this situation was often death, his concern for the guards may have constrained him (cf. Cod. justin. 9.4.4; Acts 12:19). 107 However, any guards and officials involved may have escaped with Paul or been prepared to give their lives for Christ, emulating the example of Christ (Phil 2:5–8). Fifth, this potentially collides with Paul’s desire to go to Spain (Rom 15:24). But any release from Rome to Philippi clashes with this detail. Nor is it really an issue, because Paul often changed his travel plans due to circumstance. 108 Furthermore, if the Pastorals and traditions are authentic, they may suggest Paul left Rome toward the east and travelled through Greece, Asia, and Crete, before returning to Rome to die. 109 A visit to Macedonia is not difficult to imagine if Paul visited Nicopolis (Titus 3:12) and then Troas (2 Tim 4:13). 110 Sixth, Paul’s theology of suffering raises the question whether he would use escape. Still, he had escaped before and moved on when persecuted. Additionally, release from prison does not imply a cessation of suffering; he would face ongoing labor for the gospel if he lived (Phil 1:21–22; 3:10–14). 106. Murphy-O’Connor, Paul, 369–71, notes that it is assumed Paul was arrested as previously and transported to Rome. He rightly states “this basis is extremely fragile” (p. 369) and suggests he returned due to the need of the Romans after Nero’s persecution. This is also possible. 107. J. B. Polhill, Acts (NAC 26; Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995) 283, notes that Herod’s killing of the guards “was in accordance with Roman law, which specified that a guard who allowed the escape of a prisoner was to bear the same penalty the escapee would have suffered.” See also Rapske, Paul in Roman Custody, 34. 108. E.g. Rom 1:13; 15:22; 1 Cor 16:8–9; 2 Cor 1:16–2:13; 1 Thess 2:18; cf. Acts 16:6–10. 109. On the authenticity of the Pastorals, see T. D. Lea and H. P. Griffin. 1, 2 Timothy, Titus (NAC 34; Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2001) 23–27. See also Murphy-O’Connor, Paul, 341–71. 110. It is possible that Paul travelled east to Nicopolis (Titus 3:12); Troas (2 Tim 4:13); Ephesus (1 Tim 1:3); Colossae (Phlm 22); Miletus (2 Tim 4:20); Crete (Tit 1:5); and perhaps west to Spain; cf. Rom 15:24, 28 (1 Clem 5:7; Murphy-O’Connor, Paul, 359–63). See further J. J. Müller, The Epistles of Paul to the Philippians and to Philemon (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955) 66. 108 Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 5.1 (2015) Indeed, if he escaped he would potentially face greater danger as he traveled in the empire. An escape option may indicate the level of need Paul feels for his churches. Such need perhaps called for desperate measures. He may have a sense “in the Lord” (2:24) that it is not yet his time and that he will escape one way or another. Seventh, Paul states he will remain with the Philippians after his release (Phil 1:25–26), which may be problematic if he is an escapee and wanted by the Roman authorities. However, this would only be the case if he did escape. Perhaps he also had plans in place to conceal his entry into Philippi or to stay outside the town and move on if his situation became precarious. 111 His movements in the Pastorals may relate to this need to keep moving. Finally, no early church tradition refers to any escape of Paul from Rome or elsewhere. However, this is inconclusive because traditions concerning the end of Paul’s life are tenuous at best. 112 In addition, the absence of a tradition indicates that he did not need to utilize the plan; rather, he was released. Although objections can be raised, each proposal has problems. The issues with this thesis are arguably less than with some of the others proposed. Conclusion In this article, I have argued that, in Phil 1:19–26, Paul tells his readers that he is in prison and faces the real possibility of death. However, he has the power to choose his fate and will not presently disclose his choice. He knows he will be released. After exploring other possibilities and noting their limitations, I argue that the text may veil Paul’s intent to escape if his trial does not go well. This thesis satisfies the text and our knowledge of Paul and Roman imprisonment. This is a viable alternative explanation that Pauline specialists should consider when exploring Philippians and has potential implications for those who consider the Pastorals authentic. While it is possible that Paul escaped, it is more likely on what flimsy evidence we have that he was released by the Roman courts and continued in ministry. 111. A parallel may be Paul ministering to the Ephesian elders in Miletus rather than in the city (cf. Acts 20:17–38). 112. On Paul’s purported release and rearrest and final Roman imprisonment, see Bruce, Paul, 444–56.