Tourism in Africa’s economic development: policy implications

Tourism in Africa's economic development: policy implications Peter U.C. Dieke The Emirates Academy of Hospitality Management, Dubai, United Arab Emirates Keywords Tourism, Development, Strategy, Africa Abstract This paper assesses the progress that has been made in realizing the contributions of tourism to Africa's economic development. It does this by examining the nature of tourism development and identifying problems that have inhibited this. Consequently, the paper highlights the need for intraAfrican co-operation for the provision of an enabling environment and mobilization of strategic resources. It concludes that successful tourism development in Africa is predicated on attention to a range of issues such as clear tourism development objectives, integration of these into national plans, local involvement and control, regional co-operation and integration, tourism entrepreneurship, etc. Africa's experience may have relevance to other developing countries seeking to encourage tourism development strategy. In 1973, Robert Erbes put forward a view that ``Everything seems to suggest that developing countries look upon tourism consumption as manna from heaven that can provide a solution to all their foreign settlement difficulties'' (Erbes, 1973, p. 1). To some degree, this description of tourism as ``manna from heaven'' has gained some support, in part because tourism is a highly visible activity. Critics might conversely argue that the statement is rather absurd, if not oversimplistic, given the well-recognized weaknesses of tourism as a viable development strategy for less developed countries. Whatever the outcome of this particular debate, Erbes' statement and research since then (de Kadt, 1979; Jenkins, 1994; Sinclair, 1998) have focused attention on the far-reaching implications of tourism (for example, its strengths and limitations) as being a means of assisting in the process of development. Many less developed countries (LDCs) now regard tourism as an important and integral part of their economic development strategies (Sinclair, 1998). In such societies, tourism is perceived as a panacea for their fragile economies that are characterized by a scarcity of development resources such as finance and expertise. These resources are needed to increase the economic surplus, without which these countries would be forced to rely solely on international aid to support their development efforts. Therefore the well-recognized benefits of tourism are the usual reasons advanced for government support for the sector. The benefits are usually felt at two levels: macro or national, and micro or sub-national level. At the first level, tourism is expected to foster economic growth through foreign exchange earnings and an increase in state revenue and, at a second level, an improvement in people's well-being in the areas of job creation, revenue or income distribution and balanced regional development. In this respect tourism is described as an industry although it has no single production characteristics or defined operational parameters. Tourism is also multi-faceted and its economic dimension cannot occur without inputs of a social, cultural and environmental nature. Further to the foregoing point, it needs to be stated that as demand for tourism increases, so too will it bring with it not only opportunities for linkages with other sectors The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0025-1747.htm Introduction This paper examines tourism in Africa within the context of economic development, considers the critical factors which might stimulate and inhibit its development, and draws from the analysis implications to assist tourism policy makers in the continent in the development of the sector. These issues are discussed in three parts. First, a review of the overall pattern and performances illustrates the significance of tourism in some countries. The second part identifies and analyses some key issues in the development of tourism in the region. In the third part, consideration is given to aspects of policy to deal with these areas of concern. As used here ``issues'' refer to the challenges and opportunities associated with the process of developing tourism. ``Development'' is described as an improvement of opportunity and quality of life through the encouragement of tourism. Policy consideration relates to strategic development scenarios to overcome the areas of concern through a prioritization to formulate a tourism policy. Tourism in development Management Decision 41/3 [2003] 287-295 # MCB UP Limited [ISSN 0025-1747] [DOI 10.1108/00251740310469468] [ 287 ] Peter U.C. Dieke Tourism in Africa's economic development: policy implications Management Decision 41/3 [2003] 287-295 in the economy, but also consequences of a social, cultural and environmental nature. These consequences, such as crowded airports and urban traffic congestion, affect both the public and private sectors. In these areas where tourism impacts on the country and society, there may well be conflicts with competing demands for other sectors of the economy, or with community interests at large. It is, however, necessary to remember that tourism is more than an economic activity. It is, in essence, a massive interaction of people, demanding a wide range of services, facilities, and inputs that generate opportunities and challenges to host countries. For this reason, it is necessary to manage the growth of the sector and to have clear guidelines to ensure that growth is compatible with national and sectoral objectives. Policy provides the guidelines and the reference point against which any development of the sector should be evaluated. Although tourism development results in the provision of facilities and services, there are, however, instances when these facilities are not accessible to local residents, particularly if tourism development involves the creation of tourism enclaves. In addition, tourism has been criticized for exacerbating the problems of societies: the destruction of social patterns, neo-colonialist relationships of exploitation and dependence, inflationary pressure, among others. Both positions, admittedly, have merit. To take a more balanced view, this paper explores the issues within a broader framework of international tourism economy, relates the synthesis to African tourism perspectives, and assesses the critical factors, which might stimulate and inhibit tourism development in Africa. It is expected the analyses should provide policy directions, which should be considered before African policy makers in this field take major decisions. Trends in global tourism Global context The extent and impact of tourism, both at international and regional levels, can be seen by reference to Tables I-III. It is evident (Table I) that 693 million tourists travelled globally in 2001, a decrease of 0.6 per cent in comparison with 2000 and 6.8 per cent in 2000 over 1999. This demand characteristic suggests nevertheless that global tourism is still a high volume industry, despite the depressed nature of international economy. [ 288 ] It is further shown that US$464 billion (excluding international fare payments) were generated in international tourist receipts in 2001 (2.8 per cent lower than 2000). Despite this downturn in earnings, it can be said that global tourism is again a major feature in the world economy. In fact between 1995 and 2000, for example, tourist arrivals and receipts have respectively grown at an average rate of 4.8 per cent and 3.3 per cent per year. The WTO (2001) expects that in 2020 international tourist arrivals will total 1.6 billion trips, which will generate approximately US$2 trillion in international tourism receipts. Regional context At the regional level, Tables II and III present international tourist flows, receipts and overall market share for selected country groupings. The fastest developing area in 2001 continued to be East Asia and the Pacific, with a growth rate of 5.5 per cent and some 6 million more tourists than 2000. Africa was the next fastest growing region (4.3 per cent), followed by the Middle East. Other regions showed negative growth of tourist arrivals in 2001. For instance, Europe ± which accounts for about 58 per cent of international tourism ± had a negative growth of 0.7, nearly 3 million less trips than one year earlier (2000), so too were the Americas (±0.6 per cent). Similar negative patterns were also seen in tourist receipt terms, with the Americas, Europe and the Middle East showing respective 7.7 per cent, 1.8 per cent and 3.5 per cent records. Africa (8.8 per cent), South Asia (5.7 per cent) and East Asia and the Pacific (0.2 per cent) showed positive growths in their tourist receipts in 2001. In summary, two brief comments on the above trends might be appropriate. First, there has been a global redistribution in the foci of tourism activity, but this has benefited some regions, although on an unequal basis, and thus highlights a heavy geographical concentration of both tourist arrivals and receipts. These developments thus highlight the extent of tourist travel and the number of destinations, and the competition among them which increased noticeably. Secondly, tourism in Africa had a modest revival of growth in 2001, although this did not necessarily lead to a substantial share of the market, which might prompt a number of questions. Before considering these questions, however, it is useful to examine Africa's current situation with regard to their overall tourism sectors. Peter U.C. Dieke Tourism in Africa's economic development: policy implications Table I International tourist arrivals and receipts (for selected years) Management Decision 41/3 [2003] 287-295 1990 1995 1999 2000 2001 Arrivals (million) 457.3 551.7 652.3 696.8 692.6 Receipts (US$ bn) 263.4 405.3 457.2 477.0 463.6 Market share Average annual (%) Growth rate (%) growth (%) 1995 2001 00/99 01/00 95-00 100 100 100 100 6.8 4.3 ±0.6 ±2.8 4.8 3.3 Source: World Tourism Organization (2002, pp. iii, ix) Table II International tourist arrivals by (sub)region (for selected years) Growth rate (%) 00/99 01/00 Ave. annual growth (%) 95-00 2001 15.0 92.9 20.0 108.9 26.2 122.3 27.2 128.5 28.4 120.8 3.6 19.7 4.1 17.4 3.7 5.0 4.3 ±0.6 6.3 3.4 54.6 282.7 9.0 3.2 457.3 81.3 324.2 13.1 4.2 551.7 96.8 380.6 20.5 5.8 652.3 109.2 402.5 23.2 6.1 696.8 115.2 399.7 22.7 5.8 692.6 14.7 58.8 2.4 0.8 100 16.6 57.7 3.3 0.8 100 12.7 5.8 13.2 5.4 6.8 5.5 ±0.7 2.5 ±4.5 ±0.6 6.1 4.4 12.2 7.7 4.8 1990 Africa Americas East Asia and the Pacific Europe Middle East South Asia World Market share (%) 1995 2001 (million) 1995 1999 2000 Source: World Tourism Organization (2002, p. iii) Table III International tourism receipts by (sub)region (for selected years) 1990 Africa Americas East Asia and the Pacific Europe Middle East South Asia World (US$, billion) 1995 1999 2000 2001 Market share (%) 1995 2001 Growth rate (%) 00/99 01/00 Ave. annual growth (%) 95-00 5.3 69.2 8.1 99.6 10.5 122.1 10.8 132.8 11.7 122.5 2.0 24.6 2.5 26.4 2.7 8.8 8.8 ±7.7 5.9 5.9 39.2 143.2 4.4 2.0 263.4 73.8 211.2 8.9 3.5 405.3 75.0 233.9 11.2 4.6 457.2 82.0 234.5 12.2 4.7 477.0 82.2 230.4 11.8 5.0 463.6 18.2 52.1 2.2 0.9 100 17.7 49.7 2.5 1.1 100 9.4 0.2 9.1 3.5 4.3 0.2 ±1.8 ±3.5 5.7 ±2.8 2.1 2.1 6.5 6.4 3.3 Source: World Tourism Organization (2002, p. ix) Africa and international tourism Africa is comprised of 53 countries categorised into five geographical subregions: Central, Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western. Like other developing regions, Africa is a continent of considerable cultural, economic, geographic, political, and social diversity. Perhaps part of the variation has to do with differences in their colonial experience, following the balkanisation of the continent into arbitrary nation-states to meet the needs of the European governing powers (see Afigbo et al., 1992). A recent study (Dieke, 2000) has shown that there are clearly a wide variety of different types of tourism available in the region ± from safari tourism (e.g. wildlife, desert), beach tourism, and ``roots'' tourism to marine tourism. Some others include cultural/heritage and archaeological tourism, ethnic tourism, ``overland'' tourism (or desert, as noted) and, perhaps to a lesser degree, sex tourism. The extent and impact of international tourism in 2001 have been noted (Tables I-III). Within the African continent (Table IV), the dispersion of tourism arrivals and receipts by sub-regional groupings, for the period in focus, were as follows. Of the 28 million international tourist arrivals recorded in 2001, the Northern part received 10.6 million, Southern 8.5 million, Eastern 5.9 million, Western 3.0 million, and Central 0.4 million. [ 289 ] Peter U.C. Dieke Tourism in Africa's economic development: policy implications Management Decision 41/3 [2003] 287-295 Table IV Africa's tourist arrivals and receipts by sub-region (for selected years) Market share Ave. annual (%) Growth rate (%) growth (%) 1995 2001 00/99 01/00 95-00 Sub-regions 1990 1995 1999 2000 2001 Arrivals (million) North West Central East Southern Total 8.4 1.4 0.4 2.9 2.0 15.0 7.3 1.9 0.3 4.5 6.0 20.0 9.4 2.5 0.4 5.8 8.0 26.2 10.1 2.7 0.4 5.8 8.3 27.2 10.6 3.0 0.5 5.9 8.5 28.4 1.3 0.3 0.1 0.8 1.1 3.6 1.5 0.4 0.1 0.8 1.2 4.1 6.8 6.5 3.4 ±1.1 2.8 3.7 4.8 12.7 15.6 1.5 2.4 4.3 6.6 6.8 6.3 5.2 6.6 6.3 2.3 0.6 0.1 1.1 1.2 5.3 2.7 0.7 0.1 1.9 2.6 8.1 3.5 1.0 0.1 2.6 3.2 10.5 3.7 1.0 0.1 2.6 3.4 10.8 4.2 1.2 ± 2.7 ± 11.7 0.7 0.2 00 0.5 0.7 2.0 0.9 0.3 ± 0.6 ± 2.5 3.6 1.8 0.0 ±0.3 4.6 2.7 15.6 12.7 ± 6.1 ± 8.8 5.9 8.4 6.6 5.9 5.0 5.9 Receipts (US$, billion) North West Central East Southern Total Note: Countries are grouped into sub-areas as follows: North: Algeria, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia; West: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, CoÃte d'Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo; Central: Angola, Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe; East: Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Reunion, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe; Southern: Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland Source: World Tourism Organization (2002, pp. iii-iv, ix) Again, in 2001, available receipts were $4.2 million (Northern), $2.7 million (Eastern), and $1.2 million (Western). In 2000, for example, the most visited destination is South Africa (as indicated in Table V), which took 22 per cent of total traffic, followed by two Northern countries, Tunisia (18.6 per cent) and Morocco (15.1 per cent) and two Eastern countries, Zimbabwe (6.8 per cent) and Kenya (3.3 per cent) and one Western country, Nigeria (3 per cent). The pattern of receipts is similar (as indicated in Table VI), with South Africa the leading earner (26 per cent), followed by Morocco and Tunisia. However, although Zimbabwe and Kenya attracted considerable numbers of tourists, Tanzania, Mauritius and Ghana were able to earn more from tourism. Synthesis A number of conclusions can be drawn from these facts and figures. First, the statistics illustrate the nature and scope of international tourism in Africa and the significance of tourism in some countries, which is clearly influenced by the wider nature of economic development. Second, as noted elsewhere (Dieke, 2000, p. 3), there are considerable variations in the scale of tourism development in Africa, from the dominant (i.e. most developed) in theoretical development continuum to the Johnny-comelately (i.e. least developed or late starters). Some African countries, e.g. Kenya in the east, Mauritius and the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean, Morocco and Tunisia in the north, South Africa and Zimbabwe Table V Top six destinations in Africa (for selected years) South Africa Tunisia Morocco Zimbabwe Nigeria Kenya Tourist arrivals (1000) 1995 1999 2000 2001 Market share in the region (%) 1995 2000 Growth rate (%) 00/99 01/00 4,684 4,120 2,602 1,363 656 896 23.4 20.6 13.0 6.8 3.3 4.5 ±0.4 4.7 7.8 ±11.1 4.8 4.3 6,026 4,832 3,817 2,101 776 862 6,001 5,057 4,113 1,868 813 899 5,908 5,367 4,223 ± 955 841 Source: World Tourism Organization (2002, p. iv) [ 290 ] 22.0 18.6 15.1 6.9 3.0 3.3 ±1.5 6.5 2.7 ± 17.5 ±6.5 Ave. annual growth (%) 95-00 5.1 4.2 9.6 6.5 4.4 0.1 Peter U.C. Dieke Tourism in Africa's economic development: policy implications Table VI Top six earners in Africa (for selected years) Management Decision 41/3 [2003] 287-295 South Africa Morocco Tunisia Tanzania Mauritius Ghana Tourism receipts (US$ million) 1995 1999 2000 2001 Market share in the region (%) 1995 2000 2,126 1,304 1,393 259 430 233 26.2 16.1 17.2 3.2 5.3 2.9 2,637 1,880 1,560 733 545 304 2,707 2,040 1,496 739 542 386 ± 2,460 1,605 725 625 448 25.1 18.9 13.9 6.8 5.0 3.6 Growth rate (%) 00/99 01/00 2.7 8.5 ±4.1 0.8 ±0.6 27.0 ± 20.6 7.3 ±1.9 15.3 16.1 Ave. annual growth (%) 95-00 5.0 9.4 1.4 23.3 4.7 10.6 Source: World Tourism Organization (2002, p. x) (geographically) in the south, and CoÃte d'Ivoire and Senegal in the west, are wellestablished, ``successful'' tourism destinations. There are others, like Nigeria, Cameroon, Eritrea, Sierra Leone, Angola and Zambia, which, for a number of reasons, have limited tourism development but considerable potential. Third, they further highlight possible underlying reasons why there is relatively little tourism in some countries and more in others. Let me explain. The Northern dominance is explained not only by the subregion's proximity to the major European generating markets but, more importantly, its long-standing economic and other ties with these areas. There was also the suggestion back in 1972 that the sub-region is ``. . . simply a natural extension of European resorts, in the path of the inevitable southern push towards the sun and, initially at least, towards less crowded beaches' (Hutchinson 1972, p. 45). It is further argued, in respect of many less developed countries that ``. . . where foreign enterprises were present in a country's tourist industry they would be the most successful . . .'' (Britton, 1982, p. 340). This explains why the countries of Eastern and Southern Africa are, in tourism terms, significant, as the case study of Kenya shows: ``. . . pioneer facilities development were in place because Kenya had a vigorous expatriate community which sought to advance foreign commercial interests, including tourism'' (Dieke, 1993, p. 13). Some critics might argue, albeit harshly, that the problems in Africa's tourism are closely related to structural imbalances in its overall development pattern. There are no clear strategies for development in general or for tourism in particular, and tourism has not been integrated with other economic sectors. As a consequence, whereas tourism development in some countries has been insufficient (as in Cameroon), in others (for example, Kenya) it has been uncontrolled and excessive. Organisation of the tourism sector has been inadequate, which has contributed to a lack of profitability in many operations, and promotion prospects are poor, with massive reliance on expatriate staff. Above all, the major setback is inadequate training. Development issues and challenges In Africa, as elsewhere in the developing world, governments have already accepted not only the importance of tourism in economic development but also have played the dominant role in the planning process. This role might be adopted through political preference or necessity, or both. No two countries or sub-regions in Africa are similar in the range and difficulty of problems they face. As noted, many African countries have weak, embryonic tourism sectors, while other countries have vigorous, more developed tourism sectors. In the latter countries, much of the investment, management and development in tourism is from private sector initiatives. One might suppose that perhaps few African countries have given careful consideration to the type of tourism they want, and to what extent their declared aims are realistic, and what needs to be done to achieve those aims. Against this brief background, it is possible to identify a number of issues relating to the development of tourism in Africa. Addressing the issue areas is important, not least because the issues are crucial ingredients to maximise tourism's contribution to Africa's development. The issues are really of two kinds: those for the tourism industry itself and issues for African governments (Dieke, 2001; see also WTO, 2001, pp. 33-6). Issues for the tourism industry The first of these issues is the need to delineate the relative roles of the private local and foreign tourism partners in [ 291 ] Peter U.C. Dieke Tourism in Africa's economic development: policy implications Management Decision 41/3 [2003] 287-295 development decisions on the continent. In particular, the decisions in the areas of investment, marketing and operation of the tourism enterprises appear to be critical to the tourism industry. The key issue for all concerned is to recognize that the development decisions made by them do have wider economic consequences for Africa. It is therefore imperative that investors recognize the implications of their actions in the overall interest of the long-run economic sustainability of the tourism sector. The second major challenge is the need to develop human resources, particularly indigenous personnel, both for reasons of delivering quality services for tourists, as well as enhancing general skills of the local workforce (see Dieke, 2001). Achieving these broad objectives will potentially encourage sound utilization of local suppliers and thus enhance not only their productivity but also intersectoral linkages. In this sense, the spinoff effects are obvious: foreign exchange will be retained locally and further income would be earned. Third, there are problems facing the local tourism industries in Africa that are characterized by a large number of small and medium-sized tourism enterprises (SMEs). SMEs serve useful functions in tourism (e.g. the development of linkages, providing personal service, etc.), but for most of them, life is a daily struggle, with many of them operating at the margin of survival. They also lack the requisite experience to run tourism business along modern management principles. Even the nature of tourism demand renders them uncompetitive as they are unable to capitalise on the advantages that accrue from the economies of scale. The real challenge is for them to develop marketing strategies that would enable them to overcome some of these difficulties and thereby sell their products. Again, their limited resource base makes this objective hard to achieve. Issues for African governments The traditional role of government is to formulate policy for the tourism sector. Today the focus has changed because of changing priorities occasioned by development in the international tourism scene (e.g. the emergence of consumer interests). The challenge for national governments is to formulate tourism sector policies that best reflect the new thinking. Some important areas needing policy reorientation or refocusing are consultation with local communities in the planning process; forging partnership with the private sector; liberal immigration regulations to [ 292 ] facilitate free tourist movement; tourism infrastructure development policy to facilitate tourism development, for the benefit not just for tourism but the wider society. The last policy issue needs to be linked to devising viable and sensible options for financing tourism infrastructure. Other aspects of policy refocusing include entrepreneurial development initiatives, policies to enhance tourist length of stay. Last but not least, the policy to identify ways in which the benefits from tourism activity can be spread more evenly throughout the society. Elements of a policy strategy for Africa's tourism industry As a basis for identifying the policy considerations, the view of Kofi Annan, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, on the African development challenge (which also includes tourism), is instructive: The basic strategy for achieving sustainable development through economic growth is now well established. The core components of the strategy include macroeconomic stability and a stable investment environment; integration into the international economy; a reliance on the private sector as the driving force for economic growth; long-term foreign direct investment, especially in support of export-oriented activities; adequate investment in human development areas such as health and education; a fair and reliable legal framework; and the maintenance of basic physical infrastructures . . . Long-term success can be achieved only if African Governments have the political will not just to enact sound economic policies but also to persevere in their implementation until a solid economic foundation has been established (cited in ECA, 2001, p. 1). As tourism is essentially an export, international economic activity, we identify and examine in this section some of those elements of the strategy that are relevant to the long-term sustainable development of tourism in the African region. The following considerations are particularly striking because of their importance in shaping a coordinated African tourism development policy in practice. First, international tourism has come to stay for the foreseeable future and cannot casually be cast aside or treated less seriously than it deserves. The economic and other benefits and disbenefits accruing from its development are well recognized in Africa. Despite the mounting criticisms of the negative effects of tourism development, there is a groundswell of evidence that many African countries, encouraged by positive Peter U.C. Dieke Tourism in Africa's economic development: policy implications Management Decision 41/3 [2003] 287-295 developments elsewhere, continue to pursue its promotion as part of their economic development strategies. Thus tourism has now merited inclusion in national development plans of most African countries. Second, as tourism develops and becomes intricate it will require strategic management of the process. The objective is to maximise the benefits, contain and mitigate the negative impacts in order to ensure that development conforms to national policy objectives. Additionally, the development of the sector needs to be supported by large inflows of foreign resources (e.g. financial, personnel). Foreign involvement will obviously have wider repercussions for the decision-making sovereignty of the host government and thereby threatening the long-term sustainability of the sector. In other cases, the role of government institutions and technocrats may not help advance the cause of tourism. This brings us to a third point, namely, that tourism development cannot be separated from other facets of economy, society and polity. Merely creating national, sub-regional and regional institutions or planning bodies responsible for tourism is hollow in the absence of the political mandate and adequate resources to do their jobs. Here lie many of the difficulties with developing tourism in Africa ± resulting from ineffectual policies. This holds the key to future advances in tourism development in the region. Fourth, in the same way that political support and adequate resourcing hold the key to Africa's future tourism development, so too is the need to empower the African masses. This can be done in a variety of ways: by creating in them an awareness of the benefits of tourism, by allowing them access to entrepreneurial opportunities offered by tourism, permitting women a role in the industry, and perhaps finally giving them a sense of ownership in the sector. That said, these are proactive measures and ones that negate the spirit of state capitalism, also gender inequality. African tourism policy strategies should aim to redress these deficiencies. It then means, as noted, that the existence of credible political commitment on the part of African governments is a sine qua non to the realization of such strategies. Intra-African co-operation for tourism development Co-operation in developing tourism in African countries is advocated not only to achieve self-sufficiency but also to promote dialogue and international trade, and the structures proposed here would supplement (and interact with) such organisations as the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), that also exist to further co-operation within Africa and within tourism RETOSA (Regional Tourism Organisation of Southern Africa). Like other economic sectors, tourism in Africa suffers a continuous ``drain'' of senior staff. It is therefore proposed that an African Tourism Experts Association (ATEA) be formed, similar to the Association of Scientific Experts on Tourism. It would be a ``think tank'' and meeting-point for experts with the diverse skills required in tourism, allowing geographers, architects, engineers, research departments and social scientists, for example, to work closely with specialists in management, training and land development. As part of its activities, the Association should establish research programmes and consultancies. Creating an enabling environment African governments have a role to play in formulating appropriate policies and strategies for human resource development in tourism. Support for continental and regional structures are part of this, but it is also necessary to encourage private initiatives and, in particular, African entrepreneurs. Properly conceived, government intervention in the tourism sector can play an important catalytic role. It is important, for example, to create institutional mechanisms that bring together governments and private entrepreneurs, thus avoiding damage that may be caused if they work at cross-purposes. Education and training It is important to emphasise, again, the importance of training in a wide range of skills, including management and information technology. This should not be confined to the formal education system. While formal training is obviously important, it may often be more beneficial and more cost-effective, in practice, to focus on informal training, either on-the-job or through programmes carefully tailored to meet defined objectives and targeted at specific types of individuals. If financial leakages arising from the employment of foreign nationals, especially by trans-national corporations (TNCs), are to be minimised, governments and the private sector should collaborate in the formulation of policies and strategies to develop indigenous capabilities (see Dieke, 1992). If governments provide appropriate incentives, [ 293 ] Peter U.C. Dieke Tourism in Africa's economic development: policy implications for example, TNCs could develop training programmes for their African staff abroad, or organise in-service training for them. Management Decision 41/3 [2003] 287-295 Conclusion The importance of developing tourism in this continent cannot be over-emphasised. The argument presented in this lecture is that in African countries with a strong tourism sector, growth has been almost entirely demand-led. Late starters have been forced to invest heavily in accommodation and there is an urgent need for staff with technical expertise. In countries where the ``finished tourism product'' is still undeveloped, the successful formulation and implementation of a tourism development policy is predicated upon the mobilization of human, capital, physical and other resources. These resources spearhead any tourism policy, for they ensure the identification of the tourism product; organise its marketing, and are responsible for the overall control of the sector and its integration into the national economy. If they are inadequate, tourism plans will not succeed. However, it is generally accepted that account should be taken of the following elements: . Analysis of tourism development objectives as defined by the nation's policy. . The integration of sub-regional and regional considerations into national plans. . Analysis of systems of co-operation and exchanges. . Well conceived and well articulated but realistic tourism policy objectives. . Local involvement and control over tourism development. . Forging private-public sector partnerships for tourism development. . Raising gender awareness to enhance women participation in the tourism sector. . Promoting regional tourism co-operation and integration. . Availability and allocation of appropriate resources (e.g. financial, human, product). . Developing equity in tourism benefitssharing. . Promoting community tourism awareness campaign. . Availability of appropriate legal framework for tourism. . Building image of a destination through a marketing and promotional campaign. . Expanding tourism entrepreneurial initiatives/investment opportunities. [ 294 ] In the wider context of development in Africa, these ideas are reflected in the UN Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) of NEPAD (The New Partnership for Africa's Development) (ECA, 2001). NEPAD is surely consistent with the broad principles of selfreliance in Africa enshrined by the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), first in the Lagos Plan of Action, subsequently in the Final Act of Lagos, and then in the Abuja Treaty (which became operational in 1994). They were also emphasised more recently, in September 1999, when the Sirte Declaration was adopted at the OAU Extraordinary Summit on African Union in Libya, and in the Cairo Declaration and Cairo Plan of Action, adopted at the first Africa-Europe Summit, held in April 2000 under the aegis of the OAU and the European Union in Cairo (OAU, 1981, 1991; UNCTAD, 2000). It should be added also that for the tourism sector in Africa to respond to changing realities in the international tourism market scene, the strategic development of the industry is paramount. This requires cooperation from all concerned ± the tourism industry, the national governments and indeed, the international community ± to make it happen, provided there is political will. At the level of the future, it can be said that from this presentation some insight has been gained but the task is not complete. It is possible that future investigations into the tourism industry in the region as part of international tourism study could usefully examine other relevant facets. For example, how could African tourism policy makers take advantage of the US AGOA (African Growth and Opportunity Act of 2000, to improve the living conditions of the African masses? In this paper suggestions have been made as to how some of these difficulties might be overcome, and particular reference has been made to the need for intra-African co-operation to benefit from economies of scale. Alternatively, to do nothing would simply mean that in the new millennium Africa would continue to lag behind in a highly competitive tourism industry. If any single idea could guide tourism policy makers in Africa, it should be that ``Africans are their brother's keepers''. References Afigbo, A.E., Ayandele, E.A., Gavin, R.J., Omer-Cooper, J.D. and Palmer R. (1992), The Making of Modern Africa: The 19th Century, Vol. 1, Longman, London. Peter U.C. Dieke Tourism in Africa's economic development: policy implications Management Decision 41/3 [2003] 287-295 Britton, S.G. (1998), ``The political economy of tourism in the third world'', Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 331-58. de Kadt, E. (1979), Tourism: Passport to Development?, Oxford University Press, New York, NY. Dieke, P.U.C. (1992), ``Tourism development policies in Kenya'', Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 558-61. Dieke, P.U.C. (1993), Cross-national comparison of tourism development: lessons from Kenya and The Gambia, Journal of Tourism Studies, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 2-18. Dieke, P.U.C. (Ed.) (2000), The Political Economy of Tourism Development in Africa, Elmsford, Cognizant, NY. Dieke, P.U.C. (2001), ``Human resources in tourism development: African perspectives'', in Harrison, D. (Ed.), Tourism and the Less Developed World: Issues and Case Studies, CABI, Oxford, pp. 61-75. ECA Economic Commission for Africa (2001), The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), ECA, Addis Ababa. Erbes, R. (1973), International Tourism and the Economy of Developing Countries, OECD, Paris. Hutchinson, A. (1972), ``Tourism in Africa: Africa's tourism leaps ahead'', African Development, November, pp. 41-50. Jenkins, C.L. (1994), ``Tourism in developing countries: the privatisation issue, in Seaton, A.V., Jenkins, C.L., Wood, R.C., Dieke, P.U.C., Bennett, M.M. and Smith, R. (Eds), Tourism: The State of the Art, John Wiley, Chichester, pp. 3-9. OAU Organisation of African Unity (1981), Lagos Plan of Action for the Economic Development of Africa: 1980-2000, International Institute for Labour Studies, Geneva. OAU (1991), Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community, OAU, Abuja. Sinclair, M.T. (1998), ``Tourism and economic development'', The Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 34 No. 5, pp. 1-51. UNCTAD, United Nations Centre on Trade and Development (2000), Cairo Declaration and Cairo Plan of Action, Trade and Development Board (TD/B/EX/24/2, May), UNCTAD, Geneva. Williams, A.M. and Shaw, G. (1988), Tourism and Economic Development: Western European Experiences, Belhaven Press, London. WTO World Tourism Organization (2001), Tourism 2020 Vision: Global Forecasts and Profiles of Market Segments, Vol. 7, WTO, Madrid. WTO World Tourism Organization (2002), Tourism Market Trends: Middle East, WTO, Madrid. Further reading Go, F.M. (1997), ``Asian and Australasian dimensions of global tourism development'', in Go, F.M. and Jenkins, C.L. (Eds), Tourism and Economic Development in Asia and Australasia, Cassell, London, pp. 3-34. Theobald, W.F (Ed.) (1998), Global Tourism: The Next Decade, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. [ 295 ]