Biblical Psychology

B Baal Shem Tov Mark Popovsky General Israel ben Eliezer (ca. 1700–1760), the founder of the Hasidic Movement, was born in the Ukraine at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Among devotees, he is most commonly referred to as ‘‘The Besht’’ – an acronym of his Hebrew title, Baal Shem Tov, literally ‘‘Master of the Good Name.’’ His purported ability to perform miracles accounts for the moniker as he was able to harness the power of the ‘‘good name’’ – that is, God’s name – for healing. In his 30s he emerged as a charismatic leader, story-teller and traveling healer who quickly amassed a wide following among the impoverished Jews of Galicia. The Baal Shem Tov functioned mostly outside of the established communal structure. The stories told by his followers usually depict him as speaking in small groups or with individuals instead of preaching in the synagog. Core Teachings The Baal Shem Tov preached an anti-establishment message, downplaying the importance of traditional text study as an act of piety in favor of narrative, song and dance. Such spiritual practices are accessible to everyone, not only the educated religious elite. He taught that individuals attain spiritual redemption by striving for a state of constant joy, especially when worshiping. Rather than something to be restricted, physical pleasure is valued because it leads to spiritual pleasure which in turn brings one closer to God. Some of the Baal Shem Tov’s sharpest criticism was reserved for Jewish leaders who encouraged asceticism through fasting or other rigorous practices which limited physical pleasure. Though there is no evidence that the Baal Shem Tov was a scholar of Talmud or Jewish law, he did study Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism). Until his time, Kabbalistic traditions generally resided in the hands of a small elite and were not taught or practiced widely. Through his travels, the Baal Shem Tov attempted to popularize some Kabbalistic notions, especially those related to the idea that an individual can become one with the divine through spiritual practice and good deeds. However, he also rejected some Kabbalistic principles, especially those that encouraged individual isolation. The Baal Shem Tov and his followers were roundly criticized by many contemporaneous rabbis for oversimplifying complicated mystical teachings and for creating a cult that was preoccupied with miracles, talismans, and the supernatural. Influence in Hasidic Movement The Baal Shem Tov became the first of many Hasidic Tzadikkim (‘‘righteous ones’’; sing: ‘‘Tzadik’’). The Tzadik or ‘‘Rebbe’’ was recognized by his followers to have attained a higher spiritual level and was believed to have the power to elevate the souls of those in his community through his righteous acts and ritual practice. Consequently, the Tzadikkim of the Hasidic movement garnered loyal and devout ad hominum followings, much more so than that of a standard rabbi in the non-Hasidic world. After his death in 1760, a number of the Baal Shem Tov’s grandchildren and disciples became Tzadikkim with their own followings. Within two generations, the Hasidic movement had spread throughout Eastern European Jewry attracting many adherents and simultaneously eliciting vigorous rabbinic opposition. It remained the primary spiritual orientation for many religious Jews in the region until the destruction of Eastern European Jewry during the Holocaust. The Baal Shem Tov never wrote any works of his own; the stories he told were passed on orally among his followers. However, after his death his scribe, Dov Baer of Linits, compiled a collection of teachings, correspondences and narratives in a volume entitled Shivhei Ha-Besht, translated into English as In Praise of the Baal Shem Tov. Some modern scholars have argued that the Baal Shem Tov’s emphasis on the spiritual value of storytelling, extensive use of symbolic language, fascination D. A. Leeming, K. Madden, S. Marlan (eds.), Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-71802-6, # Springer Science+Business Media LLC 2010 92 B Bahais with dream material and veneration of physical pleasure indirectly influenced the thought of Sigmund Freud whose father was raised in the Hasidic tradition. See also: > Buber, Martin > Freud, Sigmund > Kabbalah Bibliography Buber, M. (1995). The legend of the Baal-Shem (M. Friedman, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Buxbaum, Y. (2006). Light and fire of the Baal Shem Tov. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. Dov Baer of Linits. (1994). Shivhei Ha-Besht (In Praise of the Baal Shem Tov, English translation). D. Ben-Amos & J. R. Mintz (Eds.). Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Publishing. Bahais Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi The history of the Bahais presents us with a fascinating case study in religious, cultural, and psychological transformation. It starts with the appearance of the Babis, a millenarian group of Islamic origins, which developed out of the messianic Shiite tradition, founded by Ali Muhammad (1819–1850) of Shiraz, Iran, known as the Bab. Ali Muhammad proclaimed himself to be the Bab (Gate) in 1844, a thousand years after the disappearance of the twelfth imam, according to Islamic Shiite tradition. (In the Shiite Muslim tradition, Muhammad ibn alHannifiya, who disappeared (or died) in 880 CE is the Hidden Imam, who is in hiding and would come back one day to restore peace and justice.) The Bab, in Shiite lore, was supposed to announce the coming of one greater than himself, who would open a new era of peace and justice. At first, Mirza’s claim was welcomed, but when he started deviating from the Islamic tradition, the reaction was violent. In 1848, the Babis declared publicly their secession from Islam, and 2 years later Muhammad was executed by a firing squad. The group leadership was then assumed by 2 halfbrothers, Yahia Nuri (1830–1912), later known as Sabh-i Azal, and Husayn Ali Nuri (1817–1892), later known as Baha’u’llah. The next stage was a split in the movement which occurred when the former claimed to be the appointed successor, while the latter said that he was the prophet foretold by the Bab. Followers of Baha Allah started a new movement, BAHAIS. The followers of Yhaia Nuri, known as Azalis, continued the tradition of BABISM. Their sacred book is al-Bayan, written by Ali Muhammad of Shiraz. According to this book, some elements of traditional Islamic law are abolished, and a promise is made of a prophet to come. The number 19 had central significance, and a calendar of 19 months, having 19 days each, was created. Another splinter group, the Bayanis, rejects Sabh-i Azal, and claims to follow the Bab alone. The founder of Bahaism, Husayn Ali Nuri, known as Baha Allah or Baha’u’llah (‘‘Glory of God’’), was a Babist who, while in exile and in prison, became convinced that he himself was the prophet or the Messenger of God, whose coming was announced by the Bab. He wrote the Bahai scripture Kitab-i-Aqdas, detailing the laws of the faith. In 1863 he announced that he was the promised ‘‘Manifestation of God.’’ After his death, his son Abbas Effendi (1844–1921), known as Abd-ul-Baha (‘‘Servant of Baha’’), was recognized as the leader, and starting in 1908, when he was released from prison after the ‘‘Young Turks’’ political reforms in the Ottoman Empire, undertook successful missionary work, especially in English-speaking countries. In 1921 the leadership passed to the founder’s great-grandson, Shogi Effendi (1897–1957). After his death in 1957, the movement was reorganized, and it is now being run by a nine-member body, known as the Universal House of Justice, elected in 1963. The world center of Bahaism, and its holy places, are located in Israel. Bahaism’s holiest shrines are concentrated in the Haifa area, where the founder worked and died, and the Shrine of the Bab, with its golden dome, is one of Haifa’s best known landmarks. The BAHAI organization in the United States, among the largest in the world, is known as the National Spiritual Assembly (NSA) of Bahais in the United States. A National Spiritual Assembly (NSA) exists in more than 100 countries. Bahaism, having distanced itself from Islam, claims to be a universalist religion, preaching the religious unity of humankind and human equality. The religious prophecies of all past religions are supposedly being fulfilled now through the movement. Baha’u’llah is described as the messianic figure expected by Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Earlier prophets are recognized, but with the coming of Baha’u’llah, the ‘‘Manifestation of God’’, a new era has begun, lasting 5000 years. It will lead to the Bahai Cycle, lasting 500,000 years. This will happen only after a global catastrophe and the disintegration of the present world order. Bahais There are rules covering prayers, fasting, marriage, divorce, and burial, and prohibitions against political activities, homosexuality, and the use of drugs. Alcohol and pork are avoided. Prayers are said five times a day, and in addition there are blessings for many everyday occasions. Bahais of West Asian origin are expected to follow special rules, in keeping with Islamic customs. The numbers 19 and 9 are considered sacred. All Bahais are expected to pay 19% of their earnings to the group. The BAHAI calendar, which started in 1844, has 19 months, each having 19 days, and the year starts on March 21, following the Zoroastrian calendar. The 19 days preceding it are fast days till sundown. Bahais meet on the first day of the month, and regular meetings are devoted to scripture readings. Local congregations are tightly knit, and the private lives of members are closely supervised by the congregation and its leaders. While there is no involvement in politics, Bahais support the ideal of a world government and the activities of the United Nations. They have suffered prosecution in Islamic countries, especially Iran, where the persecution has become especially severe after the founding of the Islamic republic in 1979. According to Amnesty International, about 200 BAHAIS were executed between 1979 and 1992 in Iran. Some descendants of Bahaism’s founder, Baha’u’llah, have refused to accept leadership succession and organizational authority, as they were being marginalized by the leadership. The Bahai World Federation was founded in 1950 in Acre, Israel, by Amin Effendi, the founder’s last surviving grandson, but it has become more marginal after losing all legal struggles against the majority leaders over Bahai real estate holdings and over official recognition by the State of Israel. Since the 1950s, there have been several Bahai splinter groups groups in the United States which have predicted catastrophic floods and nuclear wars for 1963, 1980, and 1995. One such group is Bahais Under The Hereditary Guardianship, known also as Orthodox Bahais or Remeyites, founded in 1960 by Charles Mason Remey (1873–1974), who in 1957 became a member of the Bahai collective leadership of 27, known as Hands of the Cause and also of the 9 Chief Stewards following the death of Shoghi Effendi. In 1960 he proclaimed himself to be the Second Guardian of the Faith, and was declared a Covenant-Breaker by the other members of the leadership, thus being excommunicated. According to the group’s doctrine of the great global catastrophe, major changes in the earth’s crust would lead the rise of the seas and the death of two thirds of humanity. Remey predicted in 1960 that a catastrophic B flood would inundate most of the United States and urged his followers to move to the Rocky Mountains. This catastrophe was initially prophesied for 1963 and then postponed to 1995. Bahais Under The Provisions Of The Covenant (BUPC) is a U.S. schismatic BAHAI group, founded in 1971 by Leland (‘‘Doc’’) Jensen (1914–1996). Jensen left the official United States Bahai organization in 1960 and joined the Bahais Under The Hereditary Guardianship. Noting the predictions of Charles Mason Remey about the impending flood that would cover the low lying areas of the United States in 1963, Jensen moved to Missoula, Montana, where he opened a chiropractic office in 1964. In 1969 he was convicted of sex offenses and sentenced to 20 years in prison. After arriving in prison, Jensen reported having a series of revelations, and claimed the identity of several personalities mentioned in the Bible. Jensen combined Bahai teachings, occult ideas, and Christian eschatology to create the BUPC credo. He predicted a nuclear holocaust in 1980, followed by a thousand years of peace for those who would join BUPC and save themselves from destruction. He was paroled in 1973 and started recruiting followers immediately. April 29, 1980 at 5:55 p.m. was the time specified by Jensen for a nuclear war to destroy one third of humanity. That would be followed by 20 years of added upheavals, starvation, revolutions and natural disasters, and in the year 2000 God’s Kingdom would be established, followed by 1000 years of peace. About 150 followers made preparations for the nuclear holocaust. When this did not take place, revised predictions were issued. The group entered a period of crisis and decline, but managed to survive. The Bahai movement, which started as a heterodox Moslem sect growing out of Babism has proselytized successfully in the West, and now has followers on all continents. Its history reflects continuing psychological tensions between visions of apocalyptic destruction and of universal unity and peace. The appearance of dissident groups, competing with the main leadership, reflects these tensions. We should keep in mind that this is a modern movement, started fairly recently, which has undergone quite a few transformations. At the leadership level, we can observe the expected conflicts stemming from personal ambitions and opposing visions. The movement has undergone a series of identity upheavals, involving social, psychological, and geographical changes, as its leadership has shown creativity and the ability to adapt and go beyond its historical origins to. What started in Shia millenarianism is today often perceived as a Western belief system, attracting followers all over the world. Its public 93 B 94 B Baptism image is clearly at variance with its complex history and the psychological processes which created it. See also: > Islam Bibliography Bahá’u’lláh. (1989). The Kitáb-i-Íqán. US Bahá’ı́ Publishing Trust. Bahá’u’lláh. (1992). The Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Bahá’ı́ World Centre. Baptism David A. Leeming Baptism, (Greek: baptein ¼ immersion) is a term usually applied to the Christian ritual of initiation by water, and it is the psychology of this ritual that will be addressed here. It must be noted, however, that such acts are by no means peculiar to Christianity. In many other traditions of the ancient and modern world water is used for ritual cleansing and/or initiation. Ritual washings at death can symbolize a cleansing in preparation for the journey to another world, as in the case of the ancient Egyptians. The Greeks had many bathing rites, as, for example in the washing of initiates entering into the Eleusinian mysteries. Jews have ablution ceremonies associated with washing away various forms of uncleanliness. Muslims perform ritual ablutions before praying. Baptism for Christians can be compared to Jewish circumcision in the sense that through baptism the individual is ‘‘marked as Christ’s own forever’’ as in circumcision the Jew is marked as a part of his ‘‘nation’’ for ever. Christian baptism has immediate antecedents in the Jewish tradition of baptizing converts seven days after circumcision and in the then radical practice of John the Baptist (the Baptizer) who performed the ritual in the Jordan River. Jesus came to John to be baptized into his life’s mission. It was the apostle Paul (formerly Saul), in the early development of the Christian church as it broke away from its Jewish roots, who established the full symbolism of the baptismal ritual, one administered at various stages in Christian history at death, in early adulthood, or in infancy and in various ways according to the sect involved. The descent into or ritual administering of water in the ceremony was, for Paul, a symbolic death based on the death of Jesus. Arising from the water the initiate follows Christ’s resurrection and is reborn. The initiate dies to the old life and is reborn, this time into life as part of the Church, the ‘‘Body of Christ.’’ There was always a psychological element to the sacrament of baptism for Christians, a sense of a new knowledge or understanding that comes through the new life. The early church father and theologian, Clement of Alexandria, believed that ‘‘baptized, we are enlightened.’’ In terms of modern psychology baptism can become a symbol of the birth or recovery of Self. Water has always been the symbol of pre-creation, the symbol of the universal mother, the primal birth waters. In baptism it can be said that the initiate returns to the creative waters to be reborn as potential Self, ready in this new state of being to confront the various traumas and passages of life and ultimately death itself. The descent into the waters can also be seen as a model for the necessary descent into the mysteries and traumas of the unconscious and the old life in order to be reborn, this time with the understanding making it possible to face the realities and challenges of the life ahead. See also: > Christ > Jesus > Judaism > Primordial and Psychology Waters > Self > Water Bibliography Jung, C. (1967). Symbols of transformation. Princeton, NJ: Bollinger. Meslin, M. (1987). Baptism. In M. Eliade (Ed.), The encyclopedia of religion (Vol. 2, pp. 59–62). London: Macmillan. Bhagavad Gita Fredrica R. Halligan The Gita, as it is affectionately called, has been described as the bible of the Hindus. It is a verse Upanishad, and has become widely known even in the West because it has been the daily reading of Mahatma Gandhi as well as millions of other Indians. The story of the Bhagavad Gita is the tale of the Mahabharata war, the great conflict of good and evil. In this epic tale of war between cousins, the Pandavas won out because they relied entirely on God. Arjuna, the Pandava prince and accomplished archer, Bhagavad Gita turns to Krishna, his friend and charioteer who is God in disguise, for answers to the great questions of life. " Imagine! A man we can all identify with is in dire straits, at a crossroads, brought to his knees by the great pressures and complexities of life, shakily reaching out. And his best friend, an incarnation of God, takes his hand and walks him through the answer – explaining step-by-step the most profound secrets of all ages (Hawley, 2001: xxiv). The Gita is thus the story of a psychological war we all wage within, and the answers given teach us how to live so as to win God’s grace. Chapters two and twelve are the most significant in their messages to humanity. The Gita’s Essential Wisdom This spiritual wisdom has profoundly beneficial results in psychotherapy today. It is, of course, counter-culture in the USA to talk of desirelessness and relinquishing the fruits of our labors, but anxiety disorders can be ameliorated by psychoeducation with this ‘‘wisdom of the East’’ in mind. God’s Most Beloved Devotees In chapter twelve of the Bhagavad Gita Krishna teaches Arjuna that God especially loves those who are genuinely devoted and surrendered to Him, those who love and serve others, and those who are possessed of equanimity. In the expression of particular love, Krishna in the Gita teaches humankind how to live in harmony with God’s Will. He states that he loves most: " In Chapter 2, Arjuna is bent down with worry and remorse, not wanting to begin the battle that will cause the bloodshed of so many of his family and mentors. In response, Krishna teaches him that (1) we must each do our duty, (2) the death of the body is not the death of the person because the soul (Atman) lives on (with a description of the doctrine of re-incarnation) and (3) to be an instrument of the Divine is to be in union with God. This third point is the essence of the wisdom of the Gita. When we surrender to God, and dedicate all our actions to the Divine One, then we can get beyond our own egos and allow God to take over. We must: ‘‘Let go and let God’’ (as this same thought is reworded in the 12-step programs for recovery from addictions today). To accomplish this vital surrender to God, we must let go of our personal desires, and we must leave the outcome in God’s hand. This leads to equanimity, when we neither relish the praise, nor cringe under accusations and blame, that may accompany the outcome of our actions. " The central points of issue, Arjuna, are desire and lack of inner peace. Desire for the fruits of one’s actions brings worry about possible failure – the quivering mind I mentioned. When you are preoccupied with end results you pull yourself from the present into an imagined, usually fearful future. Then your anxiety robs your energy and, making matters worse, you lapse into inaction and laziness. . . . Work performed with anxiety about results is far inferior to work done in a state of calmness. Equanimity – the serene mental state free from likes and dislikes, attractions and repulsions – is truly the ideal attitude in which to live your life (Hawley, 2001: 20f). B He who hates no being, who is friendly and compassionate to all, who is free from the feeling of ‘I and mine,’ evenminded in pain and pleasure and forbearing. Ever content, steady in meditation, self-controlled and possessed of firm conviction, with mind and intellect fixed on Me, he My devotee is dear to Me (Chidbhavananda, 2000: 658). This is a profound statement of how to live a spiritually-oriented, values-based lifestyle, as valid today as it was thousands of years ago when the Bhagavad Gita was written. In a recent, more Western translation, Krishna is also saying: " I love those who do their worldly duties unconcerned by life. I love those who expect absolutely nothing. Those who are pure both internally and externally are also very dear to Me. I love devotees who are ready to be My instrument, meet any demands I make on them, and yet ask nothing of Me. I love those who do not rejoice or feel revulsion, who do not yearn for possessions, are not affected by the bad or good things that happen to and around them and yet are full of devotion to Me (Hawley, 2001: 112). Sai Baba (q.v.), a contemporary Avatar in India teaches that the wisdom of the Gita provides guidance for all humans who live today. He summarizes: " The great teaching of the Geetha is: ‘Put your trust in God, carry on your duties, be helpful to everyone and sanctify your lives.’ Dedicate all actions to God. That is the way to experience oneness with God. God is in you. You are in God. This oneness is the basic truth. Chant the name of the Lord and render social service in a spirit of selflessness and devotion to God (Sai Baba, 1995: 235). 95 B 96 B Bible Oneness with God has long been the aim of the mystical traditions of all religions. These small clues on how to attain that sense of union are vital for all spiritually-oriented clients in psychotherapy or spiritual direction. To dedicate one’s daily actions to God is a profound spiritual practice with beneficial results in both the psychological and spiritual dimensions of life. See also: > Atman > Avatar > Hinduism Bibliography Chidbhavananda, S. (Ed., & Trans.). (2000). The Bhagavad Gita. Tirupparaithurai, India: Sri Ramakrishna Topovanam. Hawley, J. (2001). The Bhagavad Gita: A walkthrough for westerners. Novato, CA: New World Library. Sai Baba. (1995). Sathya Sai speaks (Vol. XXVIII). Prashanti Nilayam, India: Sri Sathya Sai Books & Publications Trust. Bible Jeffrey B. Pettis The Bible (Greek, ‘‘the little books’’) constitutes a collection of writings understood to be sacred and essential for the life and worship of Judaism and Christianity. Most of these works are compilations of various oral and literary traditions ranging from the second millennium BCE through the second century CE. They reflect the life and narrative of various groups and socio-political contexts of a monotheistic religion taking on distinct qualities and notions of ritual and worship. The Book of Genesis evidences many of the themes which permeate the Bible as a whole. The account of the creation story (Gen.1–3) sets forth the creative powers of the Divine to bring about life ex nihilo (‘‘out of nothing’’). This is a YHWH who is mighty and receives sacrifices from patrons to appease his temperament and persuade his actions in the mortal, material world: ‘‘And Noah built an altar (Hebrew, mzbch) unto the Lord. . .and offered burnt offerings on the altar. And the Lord smelled a sweet savor; and the Lord said in his heart, I will never again curse the ground any more for man’s sake’’ (Gen. 8.20–21). Compare Isaac’s altar at Bersheba (Gen. 26.25), Jacob’s altar at Shechem (Gen. 33.20), Moses’ altar at Rephidim (Ex. 17.15), Solomon’s altar at Giben (1K. 6.20; 8.64). The notion of ‘‘revelation’’ also occurs as a central theme in Genesis and other texts, the purpose and needs of the Divine being made known to the heroes of the Jewish people. Abraham has a revelation that his people will become a great nation (Gen. 12.1–4) and that God is with him as a ‘‘shield’’ (Gen. 15.1). At Bethal Jacob has a dream of angels ascending and descending a ladder and awakens afraid, knowing that he has been encountered (Gen. 28.10–22). His son Joseph dreams and interprets dreams through which the divine purpose becomes realized (Gen. 37–50; cf. 1 Sam. 3; 1 Sam. 28; 1 Kings 9; Isa. 6.1). Compared to the Canaanite religion of that time, the notion of afterlife in the Jewish Scriptures is minimal. Covenantal existence with God in the present world through faithfulness to Torah receives the primary focus. To be in right relation with YHWH is to experience the goodness and blessing of a full life: ‘‘Blessed is the one who does not walk in the counsel of the ungodly. . . but delights in the law of the Lord. . . He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water, that bring forth fruit’’ (Ps. 1.1–3). It is not until the Book of Daniel (168–165 BCE)—the latest writing of the Jewish scriptures—that any clear notion of resurrection and life after death occurs (Dan. 12; cf. Ezek 37; Isa. 24–27). Embraced by Jewish groups such as the Pharisees and the Essenes, it is this belief which becomes central for early Christian communities and its writings. Paul writes how Jesus died, was buried, and was raised on the third day according to the scriptures. Jesus then ‘‘became manifest’’ (ōphthē) to Cephas, then the twelve disciples. Then he appeared to more thane five hundred brethren at one time’’ (1 Cor.15.3–6). Paul himself had a theophanous experience while traveling to Damscus. The event leads to his conversion to Christianity as one of its strongest advocates (Acts 9.1–22; 2 Cor. 12.1–5; 1 Cor. 9.1; cf. 1 Cor. 15.5–7). His understanding that a person is justified through faith and not through the works of the Law (Gal. 3.10–14) points to the cultural and political conflict over religious identity and the issue of Gentile (nonJewish) membership in Jewish Christianity. Jesus as the ‘‘Son of Man’’ (Matt. 16.27–28, 10.23; Mark 10.45; cf. 1Tim. 2.5–6; Eph. 5.2; Titus 22.13–14), may be understood to continue the Son of Man in Judaism and occurs in the Book of Daniel (Dan. 7.13–14), a writing itself part of apocalyptic tradition especially rooted in the Maccabean Wars (168–65 BCE) and the Jewish resistance to the oppression of Antiochus Epiphanes the Seleucid King of Syria (Dan. 7.8; 8.9; cf. 11.31; 12.11). He is the central figure who points to the anticipated ‘‘new age’’ of divine justice and redemption, where those who have suffered and died for the sake of their faith will be restored to new Biblical Narratives Versus Greek Myths life (cf. 1 En. 46–48; 4 Ezra 13.3, 51f.; 1 Cor. 15.37–50). According to Jung, in Christian Gnosticism the Son of Man is the Original Man, a visualization of God as Archanthropos, and the real organizing principle of the unconscious (Jung, 1969, 203). As an apocalyptic and visionary, Jesus as the final sacrifice (John 6.53–54) is presented in the Gospels expecting a dramatic change of world-order. In Matt.1.15 he declares: ‘‘The time is fulfilled (peplērōtai ho kairos) and the kingdom of God is near’’ (cf. Matt. 4.17, 16.28; Luke 4.19). Christ is both Messiah and ‘‘Lord’’ – an apocalyptic identification which is unique to early Christianity and its reading of sacred text (see Ps. 110.1; cf. 11QMelech). Paul too anticipates the return of Jesus and new world-order: ‘‘For the Lord himself will descend from heaven with a cry of command, with the archangel’s call, and with the sound of the trumpet of God’’ (1 Thes. 4.16; cf. 1 Cor. 13.12, 15.1–6; 2 Cor. 3.18). For Paul, the new age begins with Christ’s resurrection and will conclude with is return. The Book of Revelation, the last book of the Bible and dated around the end of the first century CE presents this age as the ‘‘new heaven and new earth’’ (Rev. 21.1). However, by the third generation of Christianity the immediate return of Christ and notions of millennialism lessen as the church focuses (necessarily) more on the manifest practice of its beliefs in the present world. Implicit within this shifting is an interest in evangelism and personal witness which roots Jesus’ life and resurrection in real time. Unlike Paul’s inward mysticism and his notion of the ‘‘spiritual body,’’ the Gospels present the fleshly resurrected Jesus (John 21.24–31) who appears for the salvation of the outward world: ‘‘Go tell the disciples and Peter that he goes before you into Galilee; there you will see him, as he told you’’ (Mark 16.7). The Jesus of the Gospels have a missionary emphasis and a focus upon faith in the apostolic tradition. This more material-world orientation becomes a foundation for the formation of the ‘‘church’’ in concrete terms. The Book of Acts is a good of example of the story of the church establishing itself in the GrecoRoma second century world. Other writings such as the Epistle of James, 1 Peter, and 1 Timothy show this religio-social shift from Pauline interiority and the numinous to the outward and literal orientation. In this way the unconscious processes and content of religious experience in Christian and Jewish scriptures is becoming conscious and formulated. This includes the instituting of rituals such as the Eucharist and baptism, and codes of behavior, dress and diet. See also: > Christ > Christianity > Genesis > Judaism and Psychology > Resurrection > Jesus B Biblical Narratives Versus Greek Myths Kalman J. Kaplan . Matthew B. Schwartz Fifty years ago, Dr. Eric Wellisch, medical director of Grayford Child Guidance Clinic in England, called for a Biblical psychology, arguing that: " The very word ‘‘psyche’’ is Greek. The central psychoanalytic concept of the formation of character and neurosis is shaped after the Greek Oedipus myth. . . . In ancient Greek philosophy, only a heroic fight for the solution but no real solution is possible. Ancient Greek philosophy has not the vision of salvation . . . There is need for a Biblical psychology (Wellisch, 1954: 115). Religious leaders in traditional societies often performed the function of applying the psychological wisdom implicit in the Biblical religious traditions to the particular life problems of members of their flock. Rabbis, priests and pastors used Biblical wisdom to help people with concrete real-life problems. The contemporary situation is very different. The therapist is largely ignorant of if not antagonistic to religion, often in a manner incongruent with the patient’s own orientation. Several studies for example, have found that over 90% of patients believe in a transcendent God, compared to only about 40% of clinical psychologists. This is a huge disconnect! Most mental health professionals avoid reference to, or recognition of their patients’ religious beliefs and the deep influence of these beliefs on patients’ lives. Few mental health professionals fully incorporate a patient’s religious beliefs into a treatment plan. There are a number of possible reasons for the resistance toward religion on the part of mental health professionals, and for the resistance of religious leaders to the insights and findings of the mental health field. For one, the fields of religion and mental health have historically been in conflict with each other with psychology/psychiatry allying itself to science and medicine. Second, psychology/psychiatry often has approached issues of spirituality in a superficial manner, treating spiritual development as something foreign to the development of the individual personality. Third, issues regarding life meaning are too often relegated to the theological realm alone. Fourth, much of the biological cause of mental illness has been relegated to psychology and psychiatry. Finally, much of traditional psychotherapy has been based on classical 97 B 98 B Biblical Narratives Versus Greek Myths Greek rather than Biblical foundation models. For example, traditional psychoanalysis has focused on Greek foundation stories such as Oedipus, Electra and Narcissus rather than on respective Biblical alternatives such as Isaac, Ruth and Jonah. In a series of books on religion and mental health, we (Kaplan, Schwartz and Markus-Kaplan, 1984; Kaplan and Schwartz, 1993; Schwartz and Kaplan, 2004; Kaplan and Schwartz, 2006; Schwartz and Kaplan, 2007; Kaplan and Schwartz, 2008) have delineated ten important contrasts with regard to mental health between classical Greek and Biblical thinking: (1) the primacy of God versus nature; (2) the harmonious relationship of body and soul, (3) cyclical versus linear conceptions of time, (4) the relationship between self and other, (5) the relationship between man and woman, (6) the relationship between parent and child, and (7) sibling rivalry and its resolution, (8) the relationship between freedom and suicide, (9) the question of rebelliousness versus obedience, and finally (10) a tragic versus therapeutic outlook on life. Let us briefly describe each of these Hellenistic biases in mental health and suggest a biblical alternative. God and Nature Hesiod’s Theogony portrays Earth and Sky mating and giving birth to the titans, in particular Cronus, who later begat the Gods. In other words nature exists before the gods and creates them. The family pathology commences immediately, as the Sky father shoves the children back into the Earth mother. Such action of course breeds reaction and Earth repays Sky, by plotting with their son Cronus to castrate his father. The father-son conflict becomes ingrained as a law of nature foretold by Earth and Sky. The Biblical story of creation sees God as creating heaven and earth. In other words, God exists before nature and creates it. (Gen. 1:1). God then proceeds to create order out of chaos. First, light is divided from darkness (Gen. 1:24). God then divides water from the land (Gen. 1:9). Then, God begins to prepare this world for the entrance of man. First, He has the earth bring forth vegetation (Gen. 1:11). He places living creatures in the sea and fowls in the air (Gen. 1:20). Now God places living creatures on the earth – cattle, creeping things, and other beasts (Gen. 1:24). The world is now ready for people, and God creates them, His ultimate handiwork, in His own image and gives them dominion over all that He has created. (Gen. 1:27–29). There is no irreconcilable conflict between people and God, between man and woman, or between parent and child. Body and Soul Plato sees the relationship between body (soma) and soul (psyche) as conflictual and unfortunate. The soul is a helpless prisoner in the body, compelled to view reality only indirectly and unclearly (Phaedo, 82d). Plato, perhaps following Orphic teachings, called the body a prison of the soul, and others with comparable ideas called it a tomb (The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 1970: 895). In Biblical thought, the human body and soul are both sacred, both created by God. They can and must function in harmony to fulfill God’s purpose in the world. Emotion, intellect and body are all integral components of a human being, and there is no opposition between body and soul or flesh and spirit (Urbach, 1979). Conceptions of Time The pervasive Greek view of time is cyclical, mirroring the seasons of nature. A man rises up only to be overcome by hubris (pride) and cast down into nemesis (retribution), the nadir of the circle. The Biblical view of time is linear, freeing itself from the cyclical seasons of nature. History begins in God’s creation, continues with His ongoing revelation to man, and ends in God’s messianic age. The book of Ecclesiastes distinguishes the cyclical view of time regarding natural events: ‘‘The sun riseth, and the sun goeth down.’’(1:3–7) from the developmental view embedded in human events ‘‘To everything there is a season, and a time for every purpose under the heaven: A time to be born, and a time to die’’ (3: 1–8). Self and Other Greek thought sees self and other as fundamentally opposed. One wins at the expense of another losing. The legend of Narcissus is prototypical in this regard. The earliest sources of the myth of Narcissus have long since been lost. Our most complete account from antiquity is from Ovid’s Metamorphosis (ca. 43–17 CE). Although physically beautiful, Narcissus leads a life full of precarious oscillation between self-absorption and infatuation with another, which turns out to be his own reflection. He ends up in his psychotic attempt to integrate self and Biblical Narratives Versus Greek Myths other, and he suicides (Ovid, 1955: 3; Conon, 1798: 24) ‘‘Alas! I am myself the boy I see. . . I am on fire for love of my own self.’’ The Apollonian side of Greek culture relies totally on a walled-off and disengaged intellect. The Dionysiac side of Greek culture portrays an enmeshment which destroys individual boundaries. Biblical thought sees self and other in harmony. Jonah avoids the polarities of disengagement and enmeshment. When he runs away to Tarshish, (Jonah 1: 1–3). God acts as a protective therapist, saving Jonah from suicide on several occasions: first with a fish (2: 2–11), and then with a gourd (4: 6). Jonah finally learns the message of divine mercy (4: 9–11) and that he can reach out to another without losing himself. In the words of the Jewish sage, Hillel, ‘‘If I am not for myself, who will be for me? If I am for myself only, what am I?’’ Man and Woman Greek narratives portray men and women in basic conflict. Pandora, the first woman, is sent by Zeus as a punishment to man because Prometheus has attempted to steal fire for man to make him autonomous. Pandora is given many gifts to entice man, but, ultimately, is seen as responsible for man’s destruction and as a block to his autonomy. She opens the box she has brought to Epimetheus containing all the evils of the world, leaving only hope left locked inside and unavailable to humanity (Hesiod, 1973: 60–96). Biblical narratives portray men and women as different, but in basic harmony. Eve is sent as a blessing and partner, a ‘‘helpmeet opposite,’’ not as an instrument of punishment. Together she and the man are seduced by the serpent to eat of the fruit of the tree of knowledge, and while this leads to their expulsion from Eden, they do not die but build a life together with divine help and hard work (Genesis 2 and 3). Parents and Children Fathers and Sons: Laius/Oedipus vs. Abraham/Isaac: The Greek story of Oedipus portrays the father (Laius) and the son (Oedipus) in basic conflict. The father is told by an oracle that his son will kill him and marry his (the son’s) mother. Such a conflict is originally portrayed in the Greek theogony discussed above, and describes a pattern where the father feels the son is trying to displace him and the son feels the father is trying to block B him. The story begins with Laius trying to kill Oedipus and proceeds with Oedipus killing Laius and marrying his mother, Jocasta (Sophocles, Oedipus Rex). This conflict is resolved in Freudian thinking through a fear of castration. This is the basis of the introjection of the superego for the son, and thus it is fear-based (Freud, 1923a, 1923b, 1924). The Biblical story of Isaac portrays the father Abraham receiving the gift of a son, Isaac, late in his and his wife Sarah’s lives. Abraham then receives the command from God to sacrifice this son that he loves to God. However, this is only a test, and Abraham demonstrates his loyalty to God, Who sends an angel to stay Abraham’s hand, preventing child-sacrifice which had been so prevalent in surrounding cultures. The blessing of Abraham will continue through Isaac. (Genesis, 22) Covenantal circumcision can be seen as a non-injurious alternative to castration, transforming the father into a teacher and the son into a disciple. The father wants the son to both succeed and surpass him. The mother is not a seductress but a harmonizer. The basis of morality is thus not fear but a covenantal relationship between God, father and son. The son does not need to rebel against the father because he already has his father’s blessing. Mothers and Daughters: Clytemnestra/Electra vs. Naomi/ Ruth: The Greek story of Electra portrays a basic antagonism between mother (Clytemnestra) and daughter (Electra). Clytemnestra accuses Electra of preferring her father, Agamemnon. Electra accuses Clytemnestra of being unfaithful to her father. She and her brother Orestes murder their mother (Aeschylus, Agamemnon, Euripides, Electra). This story of Electra has been used by Jung as a term for a ‘‘feminine Oedipus Complex’’ (Jung, 1961: 347–348). The Biblical Book of Ruth tells of the relationship between the Moabitess Ruth and her mother-in-law, Naomi. Even when Ruth’s husband dies, she refuses to abandon Naomi. Naomi does not try to block Ruth and, indeed, facilitates her marriage to Naomi’s kinsman Boaz, who is impressed by Ruth’s kindness to Naomi. Naomi is brought into the household as a nurse to their son Obed who is described as the father of Jesse, who is father of David. There is no hint of the antagonism between mother and daughter implicit in the Electra complex. Siblings and Family The Hebrew Scripture contains many stories of sibling rivalry: Cain and Abel, (Genesis 4), Isaac and Ishmael (Genesis 17–25), Jacob and Esau (Genesis 25–27) and 99 B 100 B Biblical Narratives Versus Greek Myths Joseph and his brothers (Genesis 37–50). The greater incidence of sibling rivalry in narratives in Genesis than in Greek mythology is misleading. It is a function of the underlying purpose of the biblical family – the sons compete to inherit the covenant of the father. The father’s blessing can help resolve this rivalry, as with Jacob’s blessings to his sons, each given uniquely given the blessing he needed to suit his own personality and his situation (Genesis 49). The Greek family is purposeless. The father is not a source of inheritance but an impediment. Sibling rivalry is initially masked by the threat of the father to the sons, who must band together to protect themselves: Uranus versus his sons (Hesiod, 1973: ll. 155–210), Cronus versus his sons (ll. 453–725), Zeus versus Heracles and Iphicles (Hesiod, 1914: ll. 35, 56 and 80)., and Oedipus versus Polynieces and Eteocles (Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus; Aeschylus, The Seven Against Thebes). However, this bonding is shallow and will disappear as the paternal threat recedes. This pattern is expressed tragically in the curse of the weakened and blinded Oedipus to his two sons to slay each other at the gate of Thebes. (Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus, ll. 1386–1394; Aeschylus, The Seven Against Thebes, ll. 879–924). Freedom and Suicide Like many Greeks both historical and mythological, the Stoics clearly approved of suicide. The Roman Stoic Seneca, for example, saw suicide as freedom. ‘‘You see that yawning precipice? It leads to liberty. You see that flood, that river, that well? Liberty is housed within them. You see that stunted, parched and sorry tree? From each branch, liberty hangs. Your neck, your throat, your heart are so many ways of escape from slavery. . . Do you inquire the road to freedom? You shall find it in every vein of your body (Seneca, De Ira, 3.15.3–4). Indeed, for Plato, philosophy is ‘‘preparation for death.’’ Biblical thought is clearly opposed to suicide as no better and perhaps worse than homicide. ‘‘For your lifeblood too, I will require a reckoning’’ (Genesis 9. 5). The human being is commanded to choose life: ‘‘See, I have put before you today life and death, blessing and curse, and you shall choose life so that you and your seed shall live.’’ (Deuteronomy 30.19) Freedom is seen not in suicide, but in life following God’s commandments. ‘‘Read not harut (carved) but herut (freedom). One is not free unless he devotes himself to the study of Torah’’ (Avot, 6.2). Indeed, Hebrew thought sees the Bible as a ‘‘guide for living.’’ Rebelliousness Versus Obedience A great deal has been made of the clash of Islamic and Western (European, American and Judeo-Christian) civilizations. Yet there is a more profound line of demarcation between those cultures that view rebellion and rebelliousness as the highest form of development (e.g., Albert Camus) and those that view obedience to the divine will as the highest goal. The underlying message of the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals after the Second World War was to mock the defense ‘‘we were just following orders.’’ Thus the mantra of the west came to be a distrust of authority per se (i.e., parents, community and religious leaders, and law and system of morality) rather than of a particular authority. Yet the Bible criticizes the Israelites, newly freed from Egypt, for building a golden calf. (Exodus 32). The question of rebelliousness versus obedience is complicated. In Greek mythology, Zeus cannot be trusted. Prometheus must rebel against him to help human beings. Prometheus steals fire for men, who are then punished by Zeus by means of the woman Pandora. In Biblical thinking, in contrast, God can be trusted and indeed must be trusted. According to Talmudic interpretation of the Biblical story of creation, God has provided the means for Adam to invent fire (Midrash Genesis Rabbah, 11:2). Thus the serpent is tempting Eve with the siren call of disobedience, but in Biblical teaching, this act is sinful. In short, one must know who one’s god is. If it is Zeus, one should rebel: if it is the Biblical God, one should obey. This does not mean we should not question a particular authority. However, this is different than questioning the very idea of authority. Tragedy Versus Therapy Bruno Snell (1935) has argued that the differences in the respective orderings of God and nature are not just chronological, but logical and psychological as well. The Classical Greek view is deterministic and the essence of the tragic vision of man; the Biblical view is intrinsically open to the possibility of change and transformation and lies beneath the idea of genuine psychotherapy. Before the Biblical God, nothing is impossible: He can cancel the natural order of things, alter it in any number of ways, or, indeed, create something out of nothing, just the way He created nature. A Greek god is confined to acts that may show his power but that cannot truly transcend natural law or defy fate. Lev Shestov (1966) argues very much the same thing, insisting that the Biblical God is not subordinate to Necessity. The Biblical Psychology Greek view of tragedy and the Biblical view of therapy can be contrasted in two main points. First, bad family background is impossible to overcome in the Greek tragic vision: ‘‘But now, I am forsaken of the gods, son of a defiled mother, successor to his bed who gave me my own wretched being.’’ (Sophocles, Oedipus the King, ll. 1359–1361). However, a bad family background can be overcome in the Biblical therapeutic vision: ‘‘Cast me not off, neither forsake me, O God of my salvation. For though my father and mother have forsaken me, the Lord will take me up’’ (Psalms 27:9–10). There is a profound difference between the Greek and Biblical vision with regard to the efficacy of prayer and a general sense of hopefulness. For the Greeks, prayer is useless in this determined world: ‘‘Pray thou no more; for mortals have no escape from destined woe’’ (Sophocles, Antigone, l. 1336). The Bible believes in the efficacy of prayer, even in the most hopeless of situations. Acknowledgment Dr. Kaplan is currently teaching an online course in a Biblical Approach to Mental Health. Sponsored by the John Templeton Foundation (see www.rsmh.org). See also: > Bible > Biblical Psychology > Christianity > God > Myth Bibliography Apollodorus. (1976). The library (M. Simpson, Trans.). Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. Avot D’ R’ Nathan. (1987). S. Schechter (Ed.) Vienna: n.p. Conon. (1798). Narrationes quinquaginta et partheniee narrationes amatoriae. Gottingae: J. C. Dietrich. Freud, S. (1923a). The ego and the id. In J. Rivere (Ed., & Trans.), Standard edition of the complete works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 12–59). London: Hogarth Press. Freud, S. (1923b). The infantile genital organizations: An interpolation into the theory of sexuality. In J. Strachey (Ed., & Trans.), Standard edition of the complete works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 141– 148). London: Hogarth Press. Freud, S. (1924). The dissolution of the Oedipus complex. In J. Strachey (Ed., & Trans.), Standard edition of the complete works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 173–179). London: Hogarth Press. Hesiod. (1914). The shield of Heracles. In H. G. Evelyn White (Trans.), The Homeric Hymns and Homerica. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hesiod, & Theognis. (1973). Theogony and Works and days (Hesiod) and Elegies (Theognis) (D. Wender, Trans.). England: Penguin Classics. The Holy Scriptures. (1917). (2 vols.). Philadelphia, PA: Jewish Publication Society of America. B Jung, C. G. (1961). The collected works. Volume 4: Freud and psychoanalysis (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Kaplan, K. J., & Schwartz, M. B. (1993). A psychology of hope: An antidote to the suicidal pathology of western civilization. Westport, CT: Praeger. Kaplan, K. J., & Schwartz, M. B. (2006). The seven habits of the good life: How the biblical virtues free us from the seven deadly sins. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Kaplan, K. J., Schwartz, M. B., & Markus-Kaplan, M. (1984). The family: Biblical and psychological foundations. New York: Human Sciences Press. Kaplan, K. J., & Schwartz, M. W. (2008). A psychology of hope: A biblical response to tragedy and sucide. Ground Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Midrash Rabbah (Hebrew). (1971). (2 vols). Jerusalem. Oates, W. J., & O’Neil, E., Jr. (Trans., & Eds.). (1938). The complete Greek drama (2 vols). New York: Random House. Ovid. (1955). The metamorphoses (M. Innes, Trans.). London: Penguin Classics. The Oxford Classical Dictionary (2nd ed.). (1970). N. G. I. Hammond & H. H. Scullard (Eds.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Plato. (1954). The last days of Socrates (including Euthyphro, The apology, Crito, Phaedo) (M. Tredennick, Trans.). Middlesex, England: Penguin Classics. Schwartz, M. B., & Kaplan, K. J. (2004). Biblical stories for psychotherapy and counseling: A sourcebook. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Pastoral Press. Schwartz, M. B., & Kaplan, K. J. (2007). The fruit of her hands: A psychology of biblical woman. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Seneca, L. A. the Younger. (1971). Seneca. (R. Gunmore, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Shestov, L. (1966). Athens and Jerusalem. New York: Simon and Schuster. Snell, B. (1982/1935). The discovery of the mind. New York: Dover. Urbach, E. E. (1979). The sages: Their concepts and beliefs (2nd ed.) (I. Abrahms, Trans.). Jerusalem: The Magnes Press of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Wellisch, E. (1954). Isaac and Oedipus: Studies in biblical psychology of the sacrifice of Isaac. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Yerushalmi, Y. (1991). Freud’s Moses: Judaism terminable and interminable. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Biblical Psychology Jeffrey H. Boyd Mindfulness, a Buddhist view of human experience, is widely employed in psychology today. Every major religion offers a view of human experience, i.e., a spiritual psychology. The most popular is the biblical view. 101 B 102 B Biblical Psychology There are two billion people in the world who say they are Christian, one billion Muslims, 0.8 billion Hindus, 0.4 billion Buddhists, 0.02 billion Jews, and 1.6 billion people who are none of the above. The biblical view is shared by those who call themselves Jews, Christians, and Muslims. There is more than one biblical view. For example, in the book of Joshua there is a ferocious attitude toward people of other religions (‘‘kill the Jebusites’’); whereas Jesus taught us to live peaceably in a pluralistic society (‘‘love your neighbors’’). The Bible’s God-Centered Approach The Bible from a Christian perspective offers a Godcentered view of people. God is the creator, rescuer, and goal of humans. Comparing today’s popular psychology with the biblical approach is like comparing a preCopernican to a Copernican model of the solar system. Popular psychology teaches clients to love themselves and trust their own understanding. The Bible teaches that we should ‘‘Trust in the LORD with all your heart and lean not on your own understanding’’ (Proverbs 3:5). Claudius Ptolemy said that the sun and planets revolve around the earth. Nicolaus Copernicus said that the earth and planets revolve around the sun. We are facing a similar debate in psychology today. Popular magazines, TV and public opinion teach that YOU are the center of the psychological universe: ‘‘believe in yourself.’’ The Bible proposes that you revolve around God, meeting or frustrating God’s wishes: ‘‘believe in God.’’ Self-esteem is considered essential in popular psychology today, because you are the center of value in a preCopernican solar system. Self esteem is almost completely absent from the Bible. Often self esteem is viewed as a problem, as in the quote above from Proverbs 3:5. All value comes from God. Humility is valued: we should worship and obey God, not worship ourselves. When a non-Christian psychotherapist urges a Christian client to acquire self-esteem, the therapist is barking up the wrong tree. She would be more successful speaking to the client about how God values the client. While popular psychology speaks of self-esteem, Christians speak of Christ crucified. They are parallel statements. Why? Because ‘‘Christ crucified’’ implies he died for me. Therefore I am valuable. The implication is that if Jesus had not been crucified for my sake, then I would have no value, because I would be a sinner with no foundation for being forgiven by God. But since Christ was crucified in place of me, my worthlessness doesn’t count, and God loves me without reservation, as if I were Jesus Christ himself. Not only is self esteem otherwise absent from the Bible, the Bible is the most realistic description of humans acting horribly that has ever been written. Another difference between the Bible and popular psychology is that individualism is almost entirely absent from the Bible. The Bible thinks of people socially, as members of a church, family or nation. The community is the central focus; individuals are important as they serve the needs of a community. When we compare an individualistic (i.e. popular psychology today) with a God-and-community (i.e. biblical) view of humans, different things are emphasized. The individualistic approach values breaking rules, refusing to submit to authority, being unique. The God-andcommunity approach emphasizes obedience to rules, submitting to authority, and loving God and neighbor as much as you love yourself. The individualistic view emphasizes authenticity and honesty; but the Bible encourages you to control your tongue (James 1:26; 3:3–12). The Bible values humility and seeing yourself as small in the larger scheme of things. Popular psychology cannot comprehend that idea. When others are obnoxious, popular psychology tends to hold grudges and resentments. The Bible demands that we forgive our enemies, just as God previously forgave us even though we didn’t deserve it. This implies that, when you are married to someone obnoxious you should forgive and reconcile with your spouse. The Bible’s Story Every day the news media report disasters. What sort of a world do we live in? Is this an evil place? The Bible’s view is that the world is primarily good, for God created it (Genesis 1). But then humans rebelled (Genesis 3). Things have been a mess since people arrived. The story of the Bible, starting in Genesis 12, is how the hero of the Bible (God) sets about to rescue people, and also the environment, from disaster. People are at war with God. The central problem is how God can love people who are vicious both to God and to God’s representatives (those who are those people who are powerless). God offers a series of peace treaties (called ‘‘covenants’’), which say, in effect, ‘‘If you follow these simple rules then I will bless you; but if you violate them, I will curse you.’’ The Ten Commandments is such a covenant (Exodus 20, Deuteronomy 5). People violated the Commandments, so God destroying the nation Israel in the year 587 BC. Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht, and ‘‘O’’ The last peace treaty in the Christian view is based on Jesus’ blood. God offers to be at peace with people providing they made a decision to believe that Jesus had died for their sake. The Bible promises an experience of ‘‘the peace of God, which surpasses all understanding’’ (Philippians 4:7). The blessings and the curses attached to this treaty are more severe than to the Ten Commandments. The blessing is that, if you accept the terms (i.e. belief in Jesus), then you would have eternal life, which is a quality of everyday experience, and also a promise after death. But the curse is that, if you reject Jesus, then you are choosing to remain at war with God, so you will suffer an embattled life now and misery after death. A person without faith usually lacks motivation or interest in the God of the Bible. Some people, upon hearing about this God, find the biblical story repulsive. Others make a decision to become part of the biblical story. At that moment God comes into the person’s heart and fills it with an awesome experience of new energy. Suddenly there is peace with God; the antagonism of life vanishes. This does not mean that the believer is a perfect person. It means that God treats the person generously and is now responsive and available. From then on the believer has a psychological problem: whether to indulge in the old worldly lifestyle, or stick to the new lifestyle described in Matthew 5–7. Experience shows that the new lifestyle is more rewarding. Over decades there is slow progress of the good gaining more influence. But by the time of death the believer is still a thousand miles from perfection. The believer approaches death with confident anticipation. See also: > Bible > Biblical Narratives Versus Greek Myths Bibliography Boyd, J. H. (1996). Reclaiming the soul. Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim. Center for Study of Global Christianity. From http\\:www.worldchristiandatabase.org. Delitzsch, F. (2003). A system of biblical psychology. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. Johnson, E. (Ed.). (1998). Psychology within the Christian tradition. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 17(4). Roberts, R. (1993). Taking the word to heart. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Society for Christian Psychology. From http\\:www.christianpsych.org. Theissen, G. (1987). Psychological aspects of Pauline theology. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress. Vitz, P. (1994). Psychology as religion. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Yancey, P. (1997). What’s so amazing about grace? Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. B Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht, and ‘‘O’’ John Eric Killinger Speaking of ‘‘O’’ In seeking to formulate a general theory of the internal object, the British psycho-analyst Wilfred Ruprecht Bion (1897–1979) developed an epistemological understanding of the absolute truth in and of any object. This absolute truth he called O. While O cannot be known, it can be known about – even its presence can be recognized and felt as, for example, in the Zen or Archimedean experience of eureka. But O itself is unknowable. Knowledge respectfully leads to the indescribable ultimate reality, godhead, or ‘‘O,’’ but the two concepts are not synonymous. Mathematically, Bion might have written this as K ! O, not K = O, for K 6¼ O. Transformations occur in or under ‘‘O,’’ the godhead rather than imago dei or God, for both imago dei and God are imbued with activity, while the godhead is irreducible to operations. K, which stands for knowledge, is usually referred to by Bion as ‘‘curiosity.’’ Bion often quoted a statement of French author and critic Maurice Blanchot (given him by André Green) – La réponse est la malheur de la question (Blanchot, 1969: 13) – translating it as ‘‘the answer is the dis-ease of curiosity.’’ This is a key feature in understanding that we must allow for possibilities and not close off the realm of the imaginal, especially the Void and formless infinite that is another way of referring to O. To kill curiosity is simplicity itself: just stuff an answer down a person’s throat. If curiosity is flattened, then mystery dies with it. In another paper, Bion (1957/1984) points out the movement that ensues from attempting to extinguish curiosity from life. When this occurs, the death of curiosity leads to arrogance, and arrogance is on the road to stupidity. The bumper stickers that proclaim Jesus as La réponse express an attitude of ‘‘I know,’’ which indicates the inhibition and prohibition of the occurrence of possibilities. If this attitude prevails, curiosity becomes not unlike the image of the crucifixion of Jesus as, for example, Matthias Grünewald imagined and painted him, who stretched out in his agony, assumes the leprosy of the marginalized. When curiosity begins breeding scintillae, or soul-sparks, we ought to be fanning them into flame 103 B 104 B Bion, Wilfred Ruprecht, and ‘‘O’’ rather than trying to stamp them out because of their seeming irrationality. Mental pain is thus necessary to sustain the dynamism within the analytic encounter so as to make possible and foster development. By mental pain, which the patient (and analyst!) must come to tolerate, is meant a link to transformation in K – knowledge/curiosity – that leads to transformation in O and the passing through of resistance (psychological turbulence), which can be written TK ! TO. Psychological turbulence is resistance to an interpretation that moves one from the comfort zone of ‘‘knowledge about’’ to a less comfortable one of ‘‘becoming being’’ because O is equated with the Void and formless infinite. As with Jung’s notion of individuation, this passage is not a once-for-all event but a process. The mental pain comes about because most people prefer the ‘‘knowing about’’ to ‘‘being’’ or ‘‘becoming being.’’ This is comparable to William Sheldon’s understanding that most people are comfortable/content with repression (the ‘‘dying back of the brain’’) rather than soul-making. Speaking of O is not unlike attempting to define the Tetragrammaton, ‫( יהזה‬YHWH), in which the vowels are left out of the name of the godhead because it is a way of talking about a force or power that cannot be described in articulate speech appropriate when discussing omnipotence, omniscience, or other formulations of religion. Bion’s Lateral Move Essentially what Bion does is begin with Plato’s theory of Forms to anchor the significance of O. Transformations of phenomena into representations of what once was but is/ are no longer known are representations of a person’s experience of O. This gives the transformations themselves an anamnestic quality, that is, they serve to re-mind or help us unforget what has been repressed. The lateral move that Bion makes is from Platonic Forms to the doctrine of Incarnation as expressed by the so-called Rhineland mystics Meister Eckhart and Doctor Admirabilis, John (Jan) van Ruusbroec. O is not 0 (zero). O is unknown ultimate reality. O is whole. The desire to be either completely good (the absence of evil) or completely evil (the absence of good) does a disservice to O, for O is being, the thing-in-itself. To be either good or evil is to be forever split, which is not in accord to being O or even attaining at-one-ment with it. O is analogous to Meister Eckhart’s prayer, ‘‘I pray God to rid me of god,’’ (Eckhart, 1941: 231) an invocation of emptiness that allows one to be filled with the godheadness of the godhead. The capitalization and lower case usage of ‘‘God’’ and ‘‘god’’ respectively in this translation is explained by Eckhart’s reading of the Timaeus of Plato. Ruusbroec describes a movement from union through an intermediary (God’s grace + one’s holy way of life) through union without intermediary (bare and imageless understanding, i.e., the abyss) to union without difference (the dark stillness which always stands empty out of which all things come [tohuvabohu, abaissement de niveau mental (!)], superessential to us and essential to God). It is a good demonstration of Bion’s epistemological movement of transformations of curiosity to transformations of unknowable ultimate reality, or TK ! TO. Distilled from the thinking of these medieval mystics, O as a function of knowledge that emanates from being without implying action in the world does so without preconceptions, foreknowledge, even identification, for doing so would put distance between O and the person. We can be O but we cannot identify with O. Qualities attributed to O are links to O (such as Love, Hate, and Knowledge [curiosity]), and these qualities or links are but substitutes for and approximations of O. These links are inappropriate to O; however, they are appropriate to transformations in (or under) O, written as TO. After enumerating several types of transformation, Bion raises the question: " It is possible through phenomena to be reminded of the ‘form.’ It is possible through ‘incarnation’ to be united with a part, the incarnate part, of the Godhead. It is possible through hyperbole for the individual to deal with the real individual. Is it possible through psycho-analytic interpretation to effect a transition from knowing the phenomena if the real self to being the real self? (1965: 148). What is at Stake For Bion, what is at stake is this bit between, the gap betwixt what he terms ‘‘knowing about phenomena’’ and ‘‘being reality.’’ For example, one could compare this to knowing about psychology and being psychologized – experiencing the stirring of soul, its provocation, the waking of the sleeping bear, which despite being quite wrong by standards of common sense is quite right in order to free the dynamis of psyche by means of provoking or sustaining mental pain. This is what leads to realizing transformations in or under O. At-one-ment with O is possible, though it is not attainable through curiosity/knowledge (K). Curiosity depends upon the evolution of O ! K, which means ridding curiosity of memory and desire. So it would seem that to become one with O requires a transcendent position, and it is analogous to the Lacanian Real. Black Elk Grotstein (1996/2000) notes that the letter aleph in Borges’ story, ‘‘The Aleph,’’ captures the essence of O. In the Hebrew alphabet, aleph as first letter represents a person reaching simultaneously toward the sky and toward the earth. As such, the aleph is the point at which all points converge. Regarding the story of Borges (1949/1998), a view of its shadow and a penumbra of associations is offered by Blanchot (1959/2003). In the Kabbalah, aleph is the Ein Sof or Godhead. According to a story regarding the creation in Sefer Zohar, the blessed Holy One explains that despite creating the world through the second letter of the alphabet, a (aleph) is to be the first of all the letters, and only through aleph does the blessed Holy One become One. ‘‘No union,’’ remarks the blessed Holy One, ‘‘is actualized except by a [aleph]’’ (Matt, 2004: 16). The change from curiosity to the unknowable ultimate reality (K ! O) is for Bion a special case of transformation, and he regards it as of particular concern to the analyst in ‘‘[their] function of aiding maturation of the personalities of [their] patients’’ (Bion, 1965: 158). In such a transformation from description of action in the world to representation emanating from being, psychological turbulence, or resistance to interpretation, is bound to occur. Bion cites the third dark night of the soul from The Ascent of Mt. Carmel of St. John of the Cross. This transformation in O (K ! O) that involves becoming is felt as being inseparable from becoming ultimate reality. The dark night pain is, according to Bion, the fear of megalomania, and this fear inhibits acceptance of being responsible and/or mature because it has the appearance of involving being God with the pain that can be expressed inadequately as megalomania (Bion, 1965: 159). Grotstein notes ‘‘The generally feared connotation of ‘mysticism’ has occurred through the projective identification of ‘mystique’ onto it by those who, according to Bion, are afraid of truth and so mystify its clarity’’ (1996/ 2000: 301). What is needed is to learn to see things as they really are, to see through the camouflage and deception of words and symbols. See also: > John of the Cross Eckhart > Zen > Kabbalah > Meister Bibliography Bion, W. R. (1965). Transformations. London: Karnac. Bion, W. R. (1970). Attention and interpretation. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. Bion, W. R. (1984). On arrogance. In Second thoughts: Selected papers on psycho-analysis (pp. 86–92). London: Karnac. (Original work published 1957) B Bion, W. R. (1994). Cogitations (New extended ed.). London: Karnac. (Original work published 1992) Blanchot, M. (1969). L’Entretien infini [The infinite conversation]. Paris: Éditions Gallimard. Blanchot, M. (2003). Literary infinity: The aleph (C. Mandell, Trans.). In The book to come (pp. 93–96). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. (Original work published 1959) Borges, J. L. (1998). The aleph (A. Hurley, Trans.). In Collected fictions (pp. 274–286). New York: Penguin Putnam. (Original work published 1949) Eckhart, J. (1941). Blessed are the poor (R. B. Blakney, Trans.). In Meister Eckhart: A modern translation (pp. 227–232). New York: Harper & Row. Grotstein, J. S. (2000). Bion’s transformations in O. In Who is the dreamer who dreams the dream?: A study of psychic presences (pp. 281–304). Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press. (Original work published 1996) John of the Cross. (1987). The ascent of Mt. Carmel. In K. Kavanaugh (Ed., & Trans.), Selected Writtings (pp. 415–154). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. Matt, D. C. (Trans.). (2000). The Zohar. (Pritzger ed., Vol. 1). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Ruusbroec, J. (1985). The spiritual espousals and other works (J. A. Wiseman, Trans.). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. Black Elk Richard W. Voss . George A. Looks Twice . Georgine Leona Looks Twice . Alex Lunderman, Jr. . Vern Ziebart Black Elk, also known as Hehaka Sapa (Brown, 1953), Nicholas, Baptismal name (Steltenkamp, 1993), and Choice, Black Elk’s boyhood name, Kahnigapi (Neihardt, 1984), was born in December 1863 in a family of healers; his father and grandfather were prominent Oglala medicine men. (DeMallie, 1984: 3). He, too, was a powerful thunder medicine man, leading in traditional (Yuwipi) ceremonies. As a Heyoka he worked with the thunder and dog medicines; and, as such, often worked in paradoxical (contrary) ways. The Heyoka or thunder dreamers often do or say the opposite of the intended meaning. Black Elk actually practiced traditional healing and medicine throughout his life, converting to Catholicism only in 1929 when he married his first wife, Katie War Bonnet who was a Catholic. Black Elk’s family believes that his ‘‘conversion’’ to Catholicism and his work as a catechist were not absolute. Family members recall that he continued to pray with the pipe, especially when the 105 B 106 B Black Elk thunder beings came (during thunder and lightening storms), along with maintaining his Catholic practices (G. A. Looks Twice, 8 August 2007, personal communication). However, some family members report that Black Elk did not practice the traditional ceremonies after his conversion to Catholicism. Black Elk as an Historical Figure As an historical figure he was remarkable in many ways. As a young man he fought in the Battle of Greasy Grass (Little Horn) and traveled with Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show across the United States, performing at Madison Square Garden and in Europe, including England, France, and Germany. He was actually left behind when the Wild West Show returned to America, and lived in Europe for a year, traveling across Europe. In a letter written in 1889, Black Elk commented that he wished he could have seen the land ‘‘where they killed Jesus. . .’’ but noted that it required ‘‘four days on the ocean and there was no railroad. [and] If horses go there they die of thirst. . . .’’ nothing that ‘‘[It would require] much money . . . ’’ (DeMallie, 1984: 10). He was a survivor of the massacre that occurred at Wounded Knee in 1890. Black Elk survived three wives and fathered numerous progeny. He married Katie War Bonnet in 1892. He had three sons from this union, William (1893), John (1895), and Benjamin (1899); all baptized as Catholics. Katie died in 1903 and Black Elk was baptized as a Catholic in 1904 and named ‘‘Nicholas Black Elk’’. In 1906, he married Anna Brings White, a widow who had two daughters. He fathered three children from this union, Lucy (Looks Twice), Henry, and Nick, Jr. (Goins, n.d.). Two of his grandchildren, George A. Looks Twice, 74, co-author of this article and Esther Black Elk DeSersa, 80, still live in the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation (Fig. 1). There are also five other living grandchildren of Nicholas Black Elk Sr., whose father was Nicholas Jr. Nick Jr. was married to a Rosebud (Sicangu) woman by the name of Bertha Brings Three White Horses. Black Elk died in August, 1950, at the ripe old age of 87. Black Elk as an Anthropological Informant Most of what the non-Indian world has come to know of Black Elk has been through recorded or transcribed interviews about his vision talk and explanation of the rites of Black Elk. Figure 1 This photo shows Black Elk and his grandson, George Looks Twice (co-author) at the summer Indian Pageant held in the Black Hills, Rapid City, South Dakota, during the 1930s. (Photo from Vern Ziebart’s collection, Rapid City, S.D.) the Oglala that he gave to non-Indian partners whom he made his kinship relatives through formal (Hunka) adoption ceremonies. From 1931 to 1947, he shared different things about himself with each partner and relative. These interviews were given to John G. Neihardt (summer of 1931) and later published in Black Elk Speaks (1932) and When the Tree Flowered (1951). They focus on Black Elk’s pre-reservation experiences as a boy and young man and his life-long struggle with the major vision which he carried with him with much sadness and regret. Neihardt based these books on material gathered from three visits to Black Elk. Later, Black Elk shared extensive information about the rites of the Oglala with Joseph Epes Brown who published The Sacred Pipe: Black Elk’s Account of the Seven Rites of the Oglala Sioux (1953). Brown actually lived with Black Elk and his family for almost a year, during which time he became a part of Black Elk’s family. Black Elk Black Elk as a Transformational Leader It is difficult, if not impossible, for the non-Indian unfamiliar with reservation life to comprehend Black Elk. Recall the two extensive works (Brown, 1953; Neihardt, 1932) written about him, which chronicle about 20 years of his life – mostly his pre-reservation experiences, ‘‘the way things used to be for the Lakota...’’ This leaves approximately 67 years unaccounted for, which leads us to consider the third source of information about this important figure in the history of religion and cultural studies. This source is Lucy Looks Twice, Black Elk’s daughter, who shared her perspective on her father with Michael F. Steltenkamp, who at the time was a teacher at the Red Cloud Indian High School (1993) on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. This perspective on Black Elk paints a different image of him from the earlier sources (Neihardt, 1932, 1951 and Epes Brown, 1953) in that it looks at the previously unrecorded years of Black Elk’s life, when he was known for his tireless catechetical work with the Jesuit missionaries. As Steltenkamp talked to people in Black Elk’s home community, he realized that while few people even knew about the books written about the man, everyone know Nick Black Elk for his sense of humor and his dedication and skill in teaching Catholic doctrine to children, as well as his kindness and tireless service to his community (Steltenkamp, 8 February 2007, personal communication; see also Steltenkamp, 1993). Steltenkamp felt that Neihardt had misunderstood Black Elk to some extent, and missed some of the humor in Black Elk’s interviews. One example was where in Black Elk Speaks, Nick Black Elk talked about escaping Wounded Knee, commenting that, ‘‘We were very hungry because we had not eaten anything since early morning, so we peeped into the tepees until we saw where there was a pot with papa (dried meat)...’’ While eating the papa, they came under fire by the soldiers; he noted that they ‘‘kept right on eating until we had our fill. Then we took the babies and got on our horses and rode away. If that bullet had only killed me, then I could have died with papa in my mouth...’’ (Neihardt, 1961: 270). While Neihardt viewed this comment with a deep sense of sadness and loss, Steltenkamp noted that this was a good example of Nick Black Elk’s wry humor... comparable to the warning many mothers give to their children to always wear clean socks... ‘‘you never know when you might be in an auto accident [and you don’t want to be found wearing dirty socks when you go to the hospital].’’ There was also a striking sense of defiance – in that even while under fire, the young Black Elk and his friend eat their fill of the B 107 papa. Steltenkamp felt that Neihardt missed the essence of Black Elk’s humorous style. B Decolonizing Black Elk‘s Legacy Of course, there has been considerable debate as to ‘‘Who is the real Black Elk?’’ We see the traditional Oglala holy man, the brave, self-sacrificing warrior who resisted, fought, and survived the massacre at Wounded Knee in 1890, the witness of the traumatic events during the transition of the plains Oglala Lakota to reservation life, a devout Roman Catholic catechist and the archetypal image of the plains Indian portrayed to tourists visiting the old Indian village during the 1930s (Fig. 2). Clearly, Black Elk is a complex figure who defies simple categorization. The second author, Georgine Looks Twice, believes that Black Elk’s ‘‘conversion’’ to Catholicism was due in part to his sadness toward his vision but also a way to protect the rituals and traditions that at that time and space were banned by the Black Elk. Figure 2 This photo shows Black Elk poring in full regalia at the summer Indian Pageant held in the Black Hills, Rapid City, South Dakota, during the 1930s. (Photo from Vern Ziebart’s collection, Rapid City, S.D.) 108 B Bodhi Tree U.S. Government (Indian Offenses Act, in Lame Deer, 1992: 230). To Black Elk’s descendents, Black Elk’s conversion to Roman Catholicism was also a survival strategy (Georgine Looks Twice, 17 February 2008, personal communication; see also Lone Hill, 2008). Converting to Catholicism during the early reservation era enabled Black Elk to assert leadership in his community during a very tumultuous period of history for the Lakota people. Black Elk’s great granddaughter (and co-author) believes that Black Elk’s compliance with the Catholic missionaries was his response to the oppression that was part and parcel of reservation life. Black Elk discovered a way to transform the broader and pervasive oppression into personal and spiritual transformation, enabling his people to better understand their new situation while holding on to traditional values. The process of understanding Black Elk is like setting up a traditional 3-pole Lakota tipi – each pole a different informant – Neihardt, Brown, and Steltenkamp. While setting up the tipi may seem simple at first glance, it is much more complex and elegant than someone inexperienced with the process might realize. The foundation of the traditional Lakota tipi are three poles laced in such a way that two of the poles can be pulled apart to form the inverted V shape, with the third forward pole serving as the lifting pole, which actually raises the tipi – this can all be done by one person which is quite remarkable considering that each pole is approximately 20–26 feet high and may weigh as much as 50–60 pounds each. After the foundation tripod has been set, the remaining poles are lashed under each of the three foundation poles, which, when finished, forms an elegant spiral when looking up at the poles from inside the center of the tipi. Of course, invariably there are inexperienced people trying to set up a tipi. They generally yell instructions to one another, maybe become so frustrated they may even give up. Most of the times the end result of their effort is usually a disaster – or at least a very wobbly tipi that will blow away in the strong prairie winds. For many non-Lakotas, attempting to understand Black Elk is like this. Acknowledgment Dedicated to the memory of my Hunka relative (adoptive mother, one of the ceremonies which Black Elk discusses), whose name is Margaret Richard Lunderman, a Member of the Oglala Sioux Tribe and descendant of Chief Red Cloud. She crossed into the spirit world on 03-03-08. With esteem, Rick Voss. See also: > Native American Messianism Shamanism > Vision Quest > Visions > Shamans and Bibliography Black Elk DeSersa, E., Black Elk Pourier, O., DeSersa, A. Jr., & DeSersa, C. (2000, 2003). In H. Neihardt & L. Utecht (Eds.), Black Elk lives: Conversations with the Black Elk family (Introduction by C. Tremble). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Brown, J. E. (Recorder & Editor) (1953). The sacred pipe: Black Elk’s account of the seven rites of the Oglala Sioux. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. (Reprinted (with new preface) New York: Penguin Books, 1971). DeMallie, R. J. (Ed.). (1984). The sixth grandfather: Black Elk’s teachings given to John G. Neihardt, with a Foreword by Hilda Neihardt Petri. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska. Goins, W. G. (n.d.). Chautauqua: An astonishing journey into the past. Black Elk (1864–1950). Retrieved February 26, 2008 from http:// greenvillechautauqua.org/blackelk.html. Holler, C. (1995). Black Elk’s religion: The sun dance and Lakota catholicism. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Lame Deer, A. F. (1992). Gift of power: The life and teachings of a Lakota medicine man. Introduced by A.M. Josephy. Santa Fe, NM: Bear & Co. Lone Hill, K. D. (2008). Black Elk. Retrieved February 17, 2008 from http://users.multipro.com/whitedove/encyclopedia/black-elkc-1863–1950.html. Neihardt, H. (1995). Black Elk & Flaming Rainbow: Personal Memories of the Lakota Holy Man and John Neihardt. [electronic resource]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. (Electronic reproduction. Boulder, Co.: NetLibrary, 2000). Neihardt, J. G. (1932). Black Elk speaks: Being the life story of a Holy Man of the Ogalala Sioux. New York: William Morrow. (Reprinted (with new preface, introduction, illustrations, appendices). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1961, 1979). Neihardt, J. G. (1951). When the tree flowered: An authentic tale of the old Sioux World. New York: Macmillan. Rice, J. (1991). Black Elk’s story: Distinguishing its Lakota purpose. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. Steltenkamp, M. F. (1993). Black Elk: Holy man of the Oglala. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. Bodhi Tree Paul Larson The Bodhi Tree is a symbol in Buddhism. It is so called because it was under such a tree that Siddhartha Guatama became the Buddha of this age. By legend it was a fig tree Body and Spirituality (ficus religiosa), known for its heart shaped leaves. In modern Bodh Gaya, India, a tree at the Mahabodhi Temple is revered as the Bodhi Tree, though the exact spot where a tree stood in Buddha’s day is not known with precision. The original tree was destroyed in the seventh century, but the current tree is a scion of a scion of the original tree which was sent by Asoka to Sri Lanka. For the pilgrims, it doesn’t matter, because the act of reverence is sanctifying beyond the literal aspects of history. See also: > Buddhism Bibliography B Boddhisattva is compassion and any merit one’s actions gain is dedicated, therefore, to the enlightenment of all sentient beings. In Buddhist iconography, images of transcendental Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are numerous. Among the most important of the Bodhisattvas is Avalokiteshvara in the Indian and Tibetan traditions, and Kuan Yin in the Chinese, Korean and Japanese traditions. The former is represented as a male, the latter as a female. These images are used in meditation to generate the underlying attitude of compassion, and also serve as foci of devotion, prayers, incense and other offerings. Other Bodhisattvas include Manjushri and the Boddhisattva who will become the next Buddha, Maitreya. See also: > Arhat > Buddhism > Compassion > Guan Yin Fischer-Schreiber, I., Ehrhard, F.-K., & Diener, M. S. (1991). The Shambala dictionary of Buddhism and Zen (M. H. Kohn, Trans.). Boston, MA: Shambala. Bodhisattva Bibliography Shantideva. (2003). The Bodhicaryavatara: A guide to the Buddhist path to awakening (K. Crosby & A. Skilton, Trans.). Newtown, NSW: Windhorse Press. (Original work 8th century CE) Shantideva. (2003). A guide to the Bodhisattva’s way of life. (K. Gyatso, Trans.). Glen Spey, NY: Tharpa Publications. (Original work 8th century CE) Paul Larson In Buddhism, the ‘‘Bodhisattva’’ (Snskt) is one who has realized enlightenment, or ‘‘nirvana,’’ but out of compassion for the suffering of sentient beings has deliberately resolved to delay reaching final nirvana, complete release from samsaric rebirth, in order to aid others in achieving enlightenment. This is a principal doctrine of the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism, also known as the northern transmission, since it passed into the rest of Asia from India northwest via the Silk Road. It is the motivation that drives spiritual development in the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions in contrast with the model of the arhat (cf.), which is the motivating ideal in Theravada Buddhism, the southern transmission, going from Sri Lanka to the rest of southeast Asia. The Boddhisattva vow is taken by lay and monastics alike in the Mahayana tradition, and involves the commitment to work for the release not only of oneself (the goal of the arhat) but for all sentient beings. The eighth century Indian Buddhist scholar, Shantideva, authored the Bodhicaryavatara, roughly translated as the path of the boddhisattva, which is one of the major statements of Mahayana doctrine, and a source of numerous commentaries. The ethical heart of the image of the Body and Spirituality Roberto Refinetti In secular philosophy, the distinction between body and spirituality is more commonly known as the distinction between body and mind. In either case, it is assumed that humans have at least two dimensions: a material one (body) and a spiritual one (mind). How these two dimensions relate to each other is a contentious matter. Body and Mind For over a century, it has been common understanding that the part of the body related to mental activity is not the foot, the heart, or the liver, but the brain. Thus, the socalled mind-body problem is actually the mind-brain problem – that is, how psychological phenomena relate to 109 B 110 B Body and Spirituality the activity of the nervous system. Many potential types of relationship between mind and brain have been proposed. Classifications of systems of ideas are always arbitrary to a certain extent, but a convenient classification recognizes four major groups: idealism, mentalism, psychophysical parallelism, and materialism (or materialist monism). Idealism refers to a conception that only the mental realm truly exists and that the brain (and the rest of the material world) is merely an illusion. This position has very few sponsors nowadays. Mentalism refers to the conception that mental events can be fully explained by psychological concepts without any reference to the nervous system. This is a dualistic viewpoint, as it implies that mind and brain are distinct and largely independent from each other. Psychophysical parallelism refers to the conception that mind and brain are distinct but closely related to each other. This form of dualism may imply that mind and brain are only different sides of the same coin or even that neural activity can affect the operation of the mind without actually creating the mind. Finally, materialist monism refers to the conception that mental events are nothing more than neural events. This is a monist viewpoint because it implies the existence of only one dimension – the neural dimension. As one reads the scientific literature, one gains the impression that psychophysical parallelism is the dominant conception among behavioral neuroscientists. To start with, the idea that mental events are correlated with neural events has a long tradition in psychology. Four of the major psychologists in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century made explicit statements about the parallelism between mind and brain: the highly influential William James, the father of psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud), the discoverer of classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov), and the creator of the intelligence test (Alfred Binet). Particularly after the development of positron-emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic-resonance imaging (fMRI), it has become evident that activity in particular circuits of the brain is correlated with particular mental events. Going beyond mere correlation, however, lesion and stimulation studies in animals and in brain-surgery patients have provided evidence that mental events do not have a life of their own – that is, that mental events can be reduced to neural events. As philosopher Mario Bunge put it, behavioral neuroscience performs a limited type of reduction: an ontological reduction without full epistemological reduction, but nonetheless a reduction. Thus, although most neuroscientists are not themselves aware of it, their work actually provides support for materialist monism. The reduction of mind to matter is also a basic assumption in cybernetics, as Norbert Wiener (the creator of cybernetics) asserted that if we could build a machine whose mechanical structure is entirely consistent with human anatomy and physiology, then we would have a machine whose intellectual capabilities are identical to those of human beings. It is not difficult to see why behavioral neuroscience needs the reduction of mental events to neural events. After all, if one can see, touch, and disturb nerve cells, one would like to do the same with mental events. Because one cannot do the same with mental events, one assumes that they do not really exist. If mental events are neural events, then there is no immaterial world to be dealt with. Thus, we feel terrified or ecstatic, drowsy or excited, because of specific electrochemical processes taking place in our brain. Likewise, so-called psychological causes of mental illness are merely those causes whose neural bases are not yet known. In general, to understand behavior is to understand the action of the nervous system. The mind is simply a name associated with brain functioning, just like breathing is a name associated with lung functioning and movement is a name associated with particular forms of muscle functioning. Francis Crick (Nobel laureate for the discovery of DNA) called this The Astonishing Hypothesis because most people who are not neuroscientists (and even many neuroscientists) are astonished to learn that the mind is nothing more than a label attached to the operation of the brain. Body and Soul Although various religions have pronouncements about the relationship of mind and body, the lack of technical detail in these pronouncements prevents close comparisons with the secular perspective. A major roadblock is the nebulous distinction between mind and soul. In Christianity, both Augustine and Aquinas held that the soul lives in the body but is non-material and immortal. Because most psychologists believe that the mind ceases to exist when the body dies, the soul must be distinct from the mind. Thus, there may be a need to recognize three human dimensions: body, mind, and soul, which are only loosely related to the Ancient Greek concepts of soma, psyche, and pneuma. On the other hand, mind (or spirit) and soul are used interchangeably in many biblical passages, which favors a simple dichotomy of body and soul (the latter somehow incorporating the mind). The major difficulty in equating mind and soul is that the qualities of the mind cannot be properly characterized without the restrictions of time and space, whereas the Boisen, Anton soul is eternal and not bound by geography. For instance, in Piaget’s model of cognitive development, the mind of a 4-year-old child operates according to a pre-operational scheme, whereas that of an adult operates according to a formal operational scheme. Under what principle does the soul operate? Similarly, the mind of an American speaks English, whereas the mind of an Angolan speaks Portuguese. What language do their souls speak? It would seem that the soul must be distinct from the mind. In this case, the concept of spirituality would be related partly to the mind and partly to the soul. Whether or not the mind is considered to be the same as the soul, the concept of the soul is incompatible with a materialist view that reduces spirituality to the operation of nerve cells. Therefore, the religious perspective (at least in the tradition of Christianity) favors either idealism or mentalism (as defined above) and is, therefore, in disagreement with the secular perspective that favors psychophysical parallelism and materialist monism as explanations for the relationship between body and spirituality. In analytic psychology, Carl Jung was a major proponent of mentalism and had great interest in religion. See also: > Freud, Sigmund > Jung, Carl Gustav, and Religion > Soul: A Depth Psychological Approach Bibliography Chalmers, D. J. (Ed.). (2002). Philosophy of mind: Classical and contemporary readings. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Crick, F. (1995). The astonishing hypothesis: The scientific search for the soul. New York: Simon & Schuster. Young, J. Z. (1987). Philosophy and the brain. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Boisen, Anton Curtis W. Hart Boisen’s Life Anton T. Boisen was born in Bloomington, Indiana in 1876. His early life was marked by the death of his father at the age of seven. An able scholar and student, he graduated from the University of Indiana at Bloomington and taught romance languages there for a time before entering the Yale School of Forestry. Later he attended B Union Theological Seminary in New York where he studied under George Albert Coe, a professor steeped in the approach of William James to the psychology of religion. After ordination in the Presbyterian Church and a lackluster career of some ten years in the parish ministry, he experienced in 1920 the first of three psychiatric hospitalizations where his diagnosis was that of schizophrenia of the catatonic type. The second occurred in 1930 after the death of his mother and the third on the occasion of the death of the love of his life, Alice Batchelder, a woman he courted for years even as she consistently rebuffed his advances and proposals of marriage. He became convinced that his first hand encounter with mental illness was for him, as he often said, a ‘‘problem solving experience’’ that permitted him a new lease on life and vocation when he was well into middle age. He set about the task of educating seminarians and clergy about mental illness and ministry in mental health in the hospital setting and doing research in the sociology of religion and the psychology of religious experience. This investigation into mental illness and religions experience utilized what he had personally gone through and followed William James’ descriptive and biographical approach to these phenomena in his magisterial work The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902). Boisen held two major chaplaincy positions, first at Worcester (Massachusetts) State Hospital and later at Elgin (Illinois) State Hospital where he died in 1965. Boisen’s Contribution to Psychiatry Boisen made invaluable contributions to the dialogue between religion and psychiatry. His pioneering work includes, first, his efforts at establishing pastoral care as part of treatment in psychiatric institutions and, second, his passionate interest in the education of seminarians and clergy through encounters with what he called ‘‘the living human documents,’’ individuals making their way through psychiatric illness, an experience he poetically describes as ‘‘the wilderness of the lost.’’ He inspired individuals to follow him into this field of endeavor that evolved overtime into clinical pastoral education that is regularly offered to or required of those involved in graduate theological education. At the same time he tirelessly promoted his ideas and articles of an interdisciplinary character that reached a wide professional audience in both the religious and psychiatric communities. Besides his autobiography, Out of the Depths (1965), he also wrote The Exploration of the Inner World: A Study of Mental Illness and Religious Experience in 1936, a work that is still regarded as a classic in the field. His articles appeared 111 B 112 B Bonnell, John Sutherland regularly in the journal Psychiatry, a publication edited by his friend and colleague, the well known and highly regarded psychiatrist Harry Stack Sullivan. Sullivan thought very highly of Boisen whose books he reviewed and ideas and writings he utilized and quoted. He also visited Boisen’s pastoral education training programs at Elgin State Hospital where he interviewed patients for student groups and shared in their case reviews. Boisen’s work has been highly regarded enough to have one of his pieces entitled ‘‘Personality Changes and Upheavals Arising Out of A Sense of Personal Failure’’ written in 1926 and published in the American Journal of Psychiatry included in that august publication’s Sesquicentennial Anniversary Supplement in 1994. There it appeared alongside seminal pieces by such luminaries as Sullivan, Erich Lindemann, and Leo Kanner. Boisen’s article focuses upon the existential dimension of the experience of mental illness as it relates to broader philosophical concerns. The article demonstrates both his analytical gifts and rhetorical powers. Boisen’s Legacy The latter half of Boisen’s life was filled with professional success along with a great deal of personal loneliness. His efforts in promoting the dialogue between psychiatry and religion were formidable. Among his shortcomings was what critics have identified as his all too clear and certain separation between organic and functional causal factors in psychiatric illness. He also developed as years went on something of a brusque, authoritarian manner in dealing with both colleagues and students. He also lacked the organizational skills to help guide the twentieth century’s clinical pastoral movement past its early stages in the 1920s and 1930s. He remains, however, an important figure and formative influence whose person and ideas deserve ongoing attention. Bonnell, John Sutherland James G. Emerson Introduction In 1962, John Sutherland Bonnell (January 10, 1893– February 26, 1992) known as ‘‘Sid’’ to his closest friends, retired as Pastor of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church in New York City. Contribution from the Personality Sciences Although known best through his radio ministry when he succeeded Harry Emerson Fosdick as the preacher on ABC’s National Vespers, his basic contribution lay elsewhere. As a pastor, Dr. Bonnell brought the insights of psychoanalysis into the world of pastoral care in a way that gave those of conservative faith access to that field. In effect, his witness gave the conservative pastor ‘‘permission’’ to see the positive contributions of Freud, Jung and Adler to the practice of ministry – even though the pastor might not agree with the philosophical or psychological views of any of those three when it came to the Christian faith. In many ways, through his books Pastoral Psychiatry and Psychology for Pastor and People, Dr. Bonnell opened doors not only for what clergy might do but what people in the pew might consider both for themselves and for their ‘‘lay ministries.’’ See also: > Religious Experience > Sullivan, Harry Stack Brief Biography Bibliography ‘‘Sid’’ Bonnell was born in a barn on a farm of Dover, Prince Edward Island, Canada. He became a truant in the eighth grade and worked in Falconwood Hospital – a hospital for the ‘‘insane’’ – of Charlottetown, PEI, where his father had become superintendent. (His father was not a doctor but a farmer with administrative skills who was brought to the management of the hospital.) In that hospital a patient by the name of Brown took interest in the tall, lanky young Bonnell and tutored him. Out of that training he passed the examinations for entrance to Prince of Wales College, and he was on Boisen, A. (1936). Exploration of the inner world. A study of mental illness and religious experience. New York: Harper. Boisen, A. (1960). Out of the depths. New York: Harper. James, W. (1902). The varieties of religious experience: A study in human nature. New York: The Modern Library. Spiegel, D. (1995). Clinical description: Introduction. Boisen’s personality changes and upheavals arising out of a sense of personal failure. American Journal of Psychiatry, Sesquicentennial Anniversary Supplement 1844–1994 151(6), 93. Stokes, A. (1985). Ministry after Freud. New York: Pilgrim. Bonnell, John Sutherland his way. The hands – on experience of working in the Falconwood Hospital, however, remained the background and basis for Bonnell’s further studies as the works of Sigmund Freud and William James became part of the educational scene in Canada and the United States. ‘‘Sid’’ Bonnell also enlisted in the Canadian army in World War I, was twice wounded in Europe, and then was sent home after suffering the effects of mustard gas. A shell fragment would have taken his life were it not for a large watch that he carried in his chest pocket. The watch deflected the fragment. Princeton Lectures In 1923 ‘‘Sid’’ married Bessie Louise Caruthers, of Charlottetown, PEI. She was the daughter of a prominent physician on ‘‘the Island.’’ The Bonnells had four children, George, Catherine, Elizabeth, and Margaret. After a four point pastorate in the area of Cavendish, PEI (a community made famous by the story of Anne of Green Gables), the Bonnells moved to the St. Andrews parish in St. John New Brunswick; the Westminster Church of Winnipeg; Canada, and then in 1936, the pastorate of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church in New York City. Although the Bonnells became American citizens, they never lost their Canadian roots. Three months of every summer found them on Prince Edward Island where Dr. Bonnell did most of his writing. B The Context of Care Dr. Bonnell took seriously the context in which the ‘‘cure of souls’’ (read, ‘‘care of souls’’) took place. He made use of a small but comfortable room with cathedral style window frames that gave both a church frame of reference and a source of comfortable outside light. On the wall he had a picture of Christ at prayer in Gethsemane. The parishioner sat in an upright but comfortable chair and Dr. Bonnell sat behind a small desk that served simply as a prop for use when necessary but did not give the impression of an imposing study. The room for this counseling was set across a hall from the entrance to the floor and avoided both the pastoral offices and the secretarial offices. The context for the pastoral counseling was therefore both private and faith centered but not doctrinally overwhelming. Evaluation of His Work Dr. Bonnell never developed a particular system for pastoral care nor did he formulate a theological construct for his work. Basically, Dr. Bonnell was a practitioner and his lectures were more case studies than theoretical discussions. Whereas the work of Norman Vincent Peale, a contemporary and friend in New York, became popular best sellers, much of the two key books in the field by Dr. Bonnell centered on the work of the pastor. His lectures at Princeton were heavily attended. Basic Viewpoint The Evaluation by Others After writing the book Pastoral Psychiatry, Dr. Bonnell also became a visiting lecturer at Princeton Theological Seminary in New Jersey. His course basically dealt with case studies that grew out of his own experience. His early work showed the influence of Sigmund Freud’s writings, but Dr. Bonnell never moved the work of pastoral care into a pastoral model of Freudian analysis. Rather, he used the nomenclature of Freud’s work, such as ‘‘the Oedipus Complex’’ as a tool for helping a parishioner identify the nature of a problem. He wrote, ‘‘. . .the minister who values his time and desires to conserve his mental and spiritual resources will inform himself of the teaching of these sciences that deal with the human mind’’ (Bonnell, 1938: 53). Dr. Bonnell therefore saw the science of psychotherapy as something that spoke not just to therapy and counseling but to the whole range of ones ministry. 113 Others in the academic field of that day, such as Seward Hiltner of Chicago and Princeton and Hans Hoffmann of Harvard, saw three strengths in Dr. Bonnell’s work: an uncanny ability to sense an individuals ‘‘real’’ problem when that person went to the counseling room; a clear, structured means of communicating an answer to that problem; and a clear context of faith that was not imposed on the one with a problem but created an atmosphere of safety and of concern. The weaknesses observed by these and others were: a person with a weak ego could be overwhelmed and lost in the ‘‘larger than life’’ presence and approach of Dr. Bonnell; for the same reason, pastors often tried to imitate him rather than understand the dynamics behind a counseling session. That failure resulted in a B 114 B Breathing pastor or student failing to develop his or her own approach to a parishioner. The lack of a theoretical framework within which to understand the counseling process left a major need in the area of pastoral care and counseling. Bibliography Bonnell, J. S. (1938). Pastoral psychiatry. New York: Harper. Bonnell, J. S. (1948). Psychology for pastor and people. New York: Harper. Bonnell, J. S. (1958/1990). No escape from life. New York: Harper. Hunter, R. J. (Ed.). (1990). Dictionary of pastoral care and counseling. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. Books Written Although Dr. Bonnell wrote some 13 books in his lifetime, the key ones that relate to the field of psychology and religion are listed below. In the first two of these, Dr. Bonnell spoke of pastoral psychology as the ‘‘healing of the soul’’ E. B. Holifield sees him as understanding the goal of pastoral psychology as that of ‘‘keeping one in touch with God and the spiritual resources that flowed from God’’ (Hunter, 1990: 105). His practice also showed three dimensions: a dimension of personal strength and competence that he brought into the counseling room, a dimension of concern for the well being of the parishioner who came for help, and a dimension of diagnostic accuracy the later professionals such as Seward Hiltner regarded as remarkable (In personal conversation with the writer). His solutions were practical and immediate. It was not uncommon for a counselee to leave the office with a sense of direction and an immediate task to do. One such counselee needed space and time to work out his concerns and Dr. Bonnell facilitated his having work on a farm for a summer. Another counselee needed a meaningful role that would give a sense of purpose in life and found herself given an opportunity to visit shut ins. That opportunity had the double value of meeting the need of others and, in so doing, meeting her need for a meaningful role in life. Some sessions ended with prayer; but that was not the rule. Dr. Bonnell was not ‘‘client centered’’ in the way of Carl Rogers, but he was aware of where the person was, of what the person brought to the counseling moment, and of the fact that the person, not he, set the agenda for the hour in the counseling room. In the third of these books, Dr. Bonnell sought to reach lay people. In a day called ‘‘the age of anxiety,’’ he focused on anxiety and both inadequate remedies and sound remedies. He had a particular concern for the issue of the ultimate escape – namely suicide. In the book, he sought to help the reader learn how to confront the problems of the day from a spiritual as well as a psychological frame of reference. See also: > Freud, Sigmund > Oedipus Complex toral Counseling > Rogers, Carl > Pas- Breathing Paul Larson The use of the breath in spiritual practice has a long history and the metaphor of the breath as a symbol for life is equally long-standing. First let us note its strong association with life itself. We now know that there are heart beats and brain function in the womb, but before that knowledge we knew that taking in a breath was one of the first things we did as we are born. Our airway was cleared, the cord cut, and then we cried out. It is also the last thing we do as we die, we expire, literally. So the glyph in Egyptian for life was an airway and lung, the word in Hebrew for the life spirit is ‘‘nefesh,’’ the ancient Greeks termed the life force, ‘‘pneuma,’’ and in Sanskrit ‘‘prana’’ is also a term linking breath and life. A basic limb of yoga as laid out by Patanjali was pranayama, the discipline of using the breath as a spiritual practice. Anyone who has practiced hatha yoga knows how intimately the breath is connected with the ability to stretch the body into the postures, or asanas. Different styles of breath are used for different purposes. Alternate nostril breathing has a purifying effect, the breath of fire, short rapid breaths is an energizer, and so on. Likewise most of the Asian forms of martial arts make great use of breath control to enhance the power of blocks, punches or kicks. A standard technique in Western stress management techniques is diaphragmatic relaxing breath. It is among the most useful techniques since it can be done relatively unobtrusively. As any singer or orator knows, breath support and breath control is essential in performing long phrases whether chanted, sung or spoken. So indirectly, breath control is implicitly involved in a wide range of other spiritual practices. In short, the breath is a foundational skill in a wide range of human activities, many of which are directly or indirectly spiritual in nature and the breath has an obvious association with life itself. In Western Buber, Martin psychology, diaphragmatic breathing is taught as a relaxation and stress management technique (Everly and Lating, 2002). Similar approaches are used in a variety of voice training (speaking or singing) and in many of the martial arts. Thus, the ability to effectively use the mechanisms of breath has importance as a clinical tool and for effectiveness in a variety of recreational activities. The breath as both involuntary capacity to sustain life and as a voluntary tool is a vital part of psychology and spirituality. See also: > Yoga Bibliography Everly, G. S., & Lating, J. M. (2002). A clinical guide to the treatment of the human stress response (2nd ed.). New York: Kluwer Academic. Rama, S., Ballentine, R., & Hymes, A. (1979). Science of breath: A practical guide. Honesdale, PA: Himalayan International Institute. Buber, Martin Maurice Friedman Martin Buber (1878–1965) had a highly significant impact both on the religious thought of his time and on the theory and practice of psychotherapy. The foundation for both of these contributions was Buber’s early and later lifelong concern with Hasidism – The popular communal mysticism of the Jewry of Eastern Europe that arose with Israel ben Elieazer (the Baal Shem Tov) (1700–1760). In his lifelong work on Hasidism Buber moved from the fuller stories of his youth, such as The Legend of the Baal Shem, to the much shorter tales of the Hasidim – ‘‘legendary anecdotes.’’ When in 1948 the great German-Swiss novelist Hermann Hesse nominated Buber for a Nobel Prize in Literature, he claimed that by his tales of the Hasidim Buber had enriched world literature as had no other living person. Buber also wrote For the Sake of Heaven, his Hasidic chronicle-novel and the little classic The Way of Man According to the Teachings of the Hasidim plus essays on Hasidic life and community that were collected and published in English translation in Hasidism and the Modern Man and The Origin and Meaning of Hasidism. In Hasidism Buber found a great emphasis upon kavana-dedication, devotion, and inner intention. Accompanied by a life of action for man and B God best expressed in the phrase ‘‘hallowing the everyday,’’ Buber was not himself Orthodox and observant. This led many to criticise Buber for his failure to emphasize in the tales halakah-the Jewish law, including his friend Abraham Joshua Heschel, a scion of Hasidism who was directly descended from some of the great Hasidic zaddikim. Once, however, when someone suggested to Buber that he free Hasidism from its confessional fetters as part of Judaism, Buber replied, I do not need to leave my ancestral house to speak a word that can be heard in the street. ‘‘I brought Hasidism to the Western World against the will of the Hasidim themselves.’’ Although there were many things in Judaism that Buber could not accept, he felt that in the Hebrew Bible, more than anywhere else there appeared the dialog between God and man, it was to biblical Judaism and not to the rabbinical Judaism that succeeded it that Buber gave his full attention. He translated the Hebrew Bible into German with his friend Franz Rosenzweig, until Rosenzweig’s death in 1929, emphasizing the ‘‘cola’’ or breathing units of the text. ‘‘Do we mean a book? We mean a voice,’’ he said. God does not ask for ‘‘religion’’ but for community. Buber unfolded his view in a series of important biblical interpretations: The Kingship of God (from the beginning of the covenant with Israel, God makes the absolute demand of bringing all of life in relation to him), Moses (here Buber replaced source criticism by ‘‘traditional criticism’’), The Prophetic Faith, and Two Types of Faith, in which Buber contrasted the emunah, or trust in relationship, of the Hebrew bible, Jesus and the Hasidism with the pistis, or faith based on a knowledge proposition that characterized Paul and many Christians who followed him. Buber’s philosophy of dialog, with the eternal Thou that is met in each finite Thou did, however, speak in universal and not just Jewish terms. Buber saw God as the ‘‘absolute Person’’ who is not a person but becomes one to know and be known, to love and be loved by us. We can dedicate to the absolute Person not only our personal lives but also our relationships to others. Buber moved from the actual event-the ‘‘lived concrete’’–to symbol and myth. Countless concrete meetings of I and Thou have attained expressions in the relatively abstract form of myth. It is just this that gives these myths their universality and profundity and enables them to tell us something of the structure of human reality that nothing else can tell us. The that can only be met as a Thou. ‘‘Love is the responsibility if an I for a Thou.’’ Buber was a philosophical anthropologist as well as a religious and community socialist. His teaching of the ‘‘life of dialogue,’’ influenced many fields of thought that 115 B 116 B Buber, Martin are not in themselves religious, such as sociology, education, psychology and psychotherapy. Basic to these fields of thought was the dialog between person and person and not between God and man. A German book has appeared entitled (in English translation) Buber for Atheists! In psychotherapy, as in teaching and in the relationship of pastor and congregant Buber spoke of ‘‘a normative limitation of mutuality.’’ This limitation did not mean the I-It relation but a one-sided I-Thou in which the therapist or teacher ‘‘imagines the real’’ makes the other person present in his or her uniqueness. No such seeing the other side of the relationship is possible for the patient or pupil. Yet the patient is not, to Buber, the subject of a psychoanalysis but of a ‘‘psychosynthesis,’’ to use the term that Buber shared with the Italian therapist Roberto Assagioli. Buber’s concern was the whole person who made decisions out of the depths of his or her being rather than with the conscious rational mind alone. ‘‘Inclusion,’’ or imagining the real, in the essential first step to making the other present, and making the other present in his or her uniqueness is the essential step to ‘‘confirmation.’’ Confirmation, to Buber, did not mean merely accepting or affirming the person. It could indeed include confrontation and wrestling with the other. ‘‘The inmost growth of a person does not occur, as people like to suppose today, through one’s relation to oneself but through being made present by another and knowing that one is made present.’’ Buber’s influence was not confined to individual oneon-one psychotherapy. It also affected group therapy and that ‘‘contextual’’ or intergenerational family therapy that was founded by Ivan Boszormenyi-Nagy, M.D. In such therapy the adult children come to understand the childhood of their parents while avoiding ‘‘parentifying’’ their own children. So here the central statement of I and Thou – ‘‘All real living is meeting’’– is applied to the relationship between person and person within the family or outside of it without any explicit reference to an I-Thou with the eternal Thou. In 1957 the Washington (DC) School of Psychiatry brought Buber to America to give the Fourth William Alanson White Memorial Lectures on ‘‘What Can Philosophical Anthropology Contribute to Psychiatry.’’ The lectures that Buber gave then brought together into one whole (now published in Buber’s book The Knowledge of Man) the various strands that have before and since, served as the groundwork for all Hialogical Psychotherapy. The between is the ontological dimension in the meeting between persons, or the ‘‘interhuman’’ (not to be confused with the ‘‘interpersonal which includes I-It as well as I-Thou!’’) that is usually overlooked because of our tendency to divide our existences into inner and outer, subjective and objective Dialogue is the way through which we relate to others in their uniqueness and otherness and not just as a context of our experience. The intrapsychic is only the accompaniment of the dialogue and not as so many psychologists tend to see it, the touchstone of reality in itself. Underlying the I-Thou as also the I-It is the twofold movement of ‘‘setting at a distance’’ and ‘‘entering into relation’’ (distance and relation). Essential in psychotherapy when it is a question not of some repair work but of restoring the atrophied personal center, is ‘‘healing through meeting.’’ Corollary to this is the fact that Buber saw the unconscious as the wholeness of the person before the differentiation and elaboration into psychic and physical, inner and outer. Buber felt that Freud and Jung and all other psychologists missed because of the logical error that if the unconscious is not physical, as many claimed, then it must be psychic. The unconscious can only e grasped dynamically and in process and not as some sort of fixed object. Buber particularly wanted to guard against that ‘‘psychologism’’ that removes reality and the meeting with others into the intrapsychic so that life in the soul replaces life with the world. Jung saw religion as psychic events that take place in relation to the unconscious and God as an autonomous psychic content, a function of the unconscious. ‘‘Otherwise,’’ wrote Jung, ‘‘God is not real for he nowhere impinges upon our lives.’’ Psychology becomes in Jung the only admissible metaphysics. The fiction of the world in the soul conceals the possibility of a life with the world. Existential guilt, is an event of the between, something that arises from the sickness between person and persona and that can be healed only through illuminating the guilt, persevering in that illumination, and repairing the injured order of existence through an active devotion to it. Existential guilt is an ontic dimension that cannot be reduced to inner feelings or the introjection of the ‘‘superego.’’ This put Buber at variance with Freud who saw guilt as only neurotic and Jung who saw guilt as one’s failure to achieve individuation. Neither saw guilt as a reality of the human person in relation to the reality entrusted to him or her. Therapy too rests on the I-Thou relationship of openness, mutuality, presence and directness. Yet it can never be fully mutual. There is instead what Buber called ‘‘a normative limitation if mutuality’’ that applies to the therapist, the teacher the pastor, and, of course, the parent. There is mutual contact, mutual trust, and mutual concern with a common problem but not mutual inclusion. The therapist can and must be on the client’s side and, in a bipolar relationship, must imagine quite concretely what the client is thinking, feeling and willing. The therapist cannot expect or demand that the client practice Buddha-Nature such inclusion with him or her. Yet there is mutuality, including the therapist’s sharing personally with the client when that seems helpful. Inclusion or ‘‘imagining the real,’’ must be distinguished from the empathy that goes over to the other side of the relationship and that identification that remains on one’s own side and cannot go over to the other. Confirmation comes through the client being understood from within (by parents, family, friends, and lastly through the therapist) and through the therapist going beyond this to that second stage in which the demand of the community is placed on the client. This demand enables the client to go back into dialogue with those from whom he or she has been cut off. Buber saw inclusion, or making the other present, as anything but passive or merely receptive. It is rather a ‘‘bild swinging’’ into the life of the other where one brings all one’s resources into play. See also: > Baal Shem Tov > Bible > Hasidism > Psychotherapy Bibliography Friedman, M. (1985). The healing dialogue in psychotherapy. New York. Friedman, M. (1988). Martin Buber’s life and work (3 vols.). Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. Friedman, M. (1991). Encounter on the narrow ridge: A life of Martin Buber. New York: Paragon House. Friedman, M. (2002). Martin Buber: The life of dialogue (4th ed.). London/New York: Routledge. Hycner, R. (1993). Between Person and Person: Toward a dialogical psychotherapy. New York: Gestalt Journal Press. Buddha-Nature Trish O’Sullivan Buddha-nature is a teaching of the Buddha regarding the true nature of Self. After attaining enlightenment the Buddha stated that all beings have Buddha-nature. Propagated in the Mahayana School especially, the teachings espouse that all sentient beings possess a True Self that is unconditioned, undefiled, indivisible, and timeless. This True Self or Buddha-nature is beyond the realm of ordinary consciousness and practitioners must transcend ordinary conceptual thought (usually through meditation) in order to perceive it. While it is said that Buddha-nature is to be attained through meditation, it is also emphasized B that everyone already has it and the process is one of piercing conceptual ignorance and uncovering something that is already there. The experience of attaining Buddhanature is realization or enlightenment. The realization of Buddha-nature brings with it a cessation of over-identification with the body, emotions and mental processes. This results in release from Samsara or suffering related to attachment to the idea of a separate self and the related grasping and aversion that results from that idea. Buddha-nature contrasts with the idea of the self as the essence of over individuality in that with the realization of Buddha-nature all notions of individuality and separateness become less fixed. Psychologically this concept of interconnectivity and non-distinction from all sentient beings, since all beings have the same Buddha Nature is a perspective that decreases isolation and brings compassion, understanding and peaceful practices such as ahimsa or nonharming. It can also diminish the fear of death and other forms of insecurity. From the psycho therapeutic perspective, the experience of being viewed by the Buddhist therapist as someone who is ultimately undamaged and has the capacity for attaining enlightenment and full Buddhahood is a positive one. Many Buddhist authors and therapists encourage psychotherapy clients to meditate in order to diminish attachment to negative emotions and situations. This can reduce suffering while the client works through their issues and is a valuable skill useful throughout life. Buddha-nature is not something that can be adequately explained with words but must be experienced for complete comprehension. Within Buddhism there are many teaching tools that point to Buddha-nature rather than attempt to explain what it is. The following is a traditional Chinese Zen poem of unknown authorship pointing to Buddha-nature: " The Human Route Coming empty-handed, going empty-handed— That is human When you are born, where do you come from? When you die, where do you go? Life is like a floating cloud which appears. Death is like a floating cloud which disappears. The floating cloud itself does not exist. Life and death, coming and going are also like that. But there is one thing which always remains clear. It is pure and clear, not depending on life or death. Then, what is the one pure and clear thing? See also: > Buddhism 117 B 118 B Buddhism Bibliography Dalai Lama (1997). The Buddha nature: Death and eternal soul in Buddhism. Woodside, CA: Bluestar. Hanh, T. N. (2003). Creating true peace ending violence in yourself, your family, your community, and the world. New York: Free Press. Harthranft, C. (2003). Yoga sutra of Patanjali: A new translation with commentary. Boston, MA: Shambala. Joeng, B. (Trans.). (2006). The mirror of Zen: The classic guide to Buddhist practice by Zen Master So Sahn. Boston, MA: Shambala. Seung Sahn, Zen Master. (1997). The compass of Zen. Boston, MA: Shambala. Buddhism Paul Larson Buddhism is one of the world’s major religions. It arose in northern India in the 6th century before the current era in the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (563–483 BCE.). It grew out of Hindu thought and shares a common world view based on the concepts of dharma, karma, reincarnation, and the manifest world as illusion or ‘‘maya.’’ Dharma, translated often as ‘‘law,’’ ‘‘way,’’ or ‘‘path’’ refers to the immutable structure of the world and its constituent elements. But it differs from the Western concept of law, as it is not promulgated by a personal creator god, but rather is simply the structure of reality. ‘‘Karma’’ (cf.) is likewise an impersonal force through which the fruits of one’s actions come back to enhance or diminish from one’s growth on the spiritual path. This contrasts with the Western view of being subject to judgment by a personal god. Reincarnation refers to the cycle of individual birth, life, death and rebirth. This is termed the ‘‘wheel of life,’’ or ‘‘samsara.’’ The goal of spiritual development is to end this cycle. Siddhartha Gautama was reputedly a son of a king of the Śakya tribe (hence the epithet, ‘‘Shakyamuni,’’ or sage of the Śakyas) and was sheltered from viewing human suffering by his father. At age 29 he encountered a old person, a sick person, a corpse, and a mendicant, or wandering holy beggar common in the Hindu tradition. He found this new awareness deeply troubling and decided to leave his wife and child, his palace and life of comfort to pursue the religious life. He wandered with the sadhus, received much training in meditation and the practice of self denial and discipline. However he felt he had not received full attainment. After he broke a fast by taking a bowl of milk from a woman cow herder, his followers left him, thinking he had strayed from the path. Then he sat down in meditation firmly intending to make the final breakthrough. He continued into the night and received many temptations for power, comfort and so on, but persisted. He did achieve a final enlightened state where the whole of existence was made known to him including knowledge of all his previous life times. As the dawn broke he realized he had achieved his goal. His title, the Buddha, means ‘‘the enlightened one.’’ He claimed to have awakened fully and completely to the ultimate nature of reality with the capacity to retain this awareness while still embodied in the flesh. This day is celebrated in Buddhist tradition as Visaka. It is a combined birthday and day of enlightenment. He initially doubted humans could either believe him or achieve this same result, but became convinced he nonetheless needed to tell humanity about his achievement. So he sought out his former students who had gone to a deer park in Sarnath near what is now Varanasi (Benares) and preached his first sermon. This is known as the ‘‘first turning of the wheel of dharma.’’ In this sermon he identified the Four Noble Truths which include the Noble Eight-fold Path. The first of the four Noble Truths is the reality and pervasiveness of human suffering. The second noble truth is the awareness that suffering comes mostly from our very human attitude of grasping, desiring, reaching out for something. That can be a feeling, a mental state, a relationship with a person, or an object such as wealth, power, or fame. The third noble truth states that there is a way out of this endless cycle of suffering. The fourth noble truth is that the way out can be summarized in the noble eight-fold path, eight specific ways in which one can work toward achieving that same enlightenment that the Buddha experienced. The Noble Eight-fold Path is the most succinct statement of Buddhist spiritual methods and means by which spiritual growth is to be accomplished and how one is to live. It is often broken down in to three groups, two comprised of three truths, and a third comprised of two. The first triad, ‘‘sila,’’ (Skt. morality), is comprised of right speech, right action, right livelihood. The second triad, ‘‘samadhi’’ (Skt. meditational absorption) consists of right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. The third, ‘‘prajna’’ (Skt. wisdom) involves right understanding and right thought. The former means seeing the world as it truly is and not as it appears, the second refers to the transformation of our thought processes which comes Buddhism from the practice of the others, particularly those involved in samadhi. Of all of the major world religions, Buddhism is often described as the most psychological. This is true, since the whole foundation of the religion is the practice of meditation, a certain type of mind state that is cultivated through practice. In a comparative sense, the ‘‘gnosis’’ that leads to salvation (nirvana) is completely experiential and direct. It is not mediated through concepts and talking or thinking about the divine; it is the experience of the divine. In both Hindu and Buddhist views, that experience is beyond personhood and the boundaries of conceptual logic. The path of spiritual development of all beings is the attainment of that state of non-duality which is known as nirvana. The very etymology of ‘‘Buddha’’ refers to the view that enlightenment is state of being fully awake and aware in a cosmically uncompassing mind. Despite the ineffable nature of the mystic union which Buddhists call enlightenment, it is the attainment of that state through the discipline of the mind that makes it such a powerful psychological tool. The goal of spiritual development is ultimately the dissolution of the self, which really is a fiction anyway. This contrasts with the Western goal of salvation of the individual soul. After the death of the Buddha, there were several Buddhist councils which sought to redact his teachings (Skt. sutras) and codify rules for monastic life (Skt. vinaya). Soon explanatory and philosophical discourses (Skt. abhidharma) were added to make the third division of material within the Buddhist scriptural canon. The cannon is known as the ‘‘Tripitaka,’’ (Skt) meaning three baskets in reference to these major divisions of the material (Goddard, 1938/1966). The Buddhist sangha, or community, comprised of both monastic and lay followers soon diversified into several schools of thought. The initial distinction occurred geographically, one branch went south, to Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. The other branch went first to the northwest, to Pakistan and Afghanistan, then over the high mountains of central Asia into the Tarim basin of modern China. Here several Buddhist kingdoms flourished before the arrival of Islam. From there it went on to China, Korea, Japan, and meeting the southern transmission in Vietnam. The Sanskrit term ‘‘yana’’ is generally translated as ‘‘vehicle,’’ and the southern stream called the Hinayana, or lesser vehicle and the northern transmission called the Mahayana, or greater vehicle. The original Hinayana teachings became transformed into the modern Theravada school, which is the only remnant of that transmission (Theravada is the preferred name for this B score, avoiding any pejorative connotations of Hinayana). Later, in the first millennium Buddhism was influence by a pan-Indian movement known as Tantrism. Out of this influence came esoteric Buddhism, or the Vajarayana, or diamond vehicle, as it is now known. It is not a great surprise that the generation of Western students of Buddhism which began in the 1960s was drawn to the religion through the practice of meditation rather than the cultural aspects of daily religious practice that is at the heart of Buddhism in the ethnic Asian communities where Buddhism was the dominant religion (Fields, 1986). Westerners went right for the psychological consciousness-based experiences and only later became aware of and began to find meaning in the cultural cycles of feasts, fasts, and the close interrelationship between a lay and a monastic community. The job of religious education of children and communal bonding was for many Westerners, a secondary acquisition. Buddhist meditation practices are quite wide-ranging. It shares with Hindu tradition the use of mantra meditation, based on developing the psychological of concentration, it has especially developed an open-focused meditation style now known as ‘‘mindfulness’’ in the psychological literature (Germer, Siegel, and Fulton, 2005). Tibetan meditational practices are the most complex, involving visualizations, chanting, use of gestures (Skt. mudras) and ceremony. The spectrum of Buddhism offers just as much variety of religious experience as in the Western monotheisms. As with many religions, there are traditions and sects where profound devotion to a particular saint, guru, or person is worked out through more emotional sorts of practices and devotional liturgies, and others which are more austere and involve solitude and or denial. The artistic iconography of Buddhism likewise reflects the full range of human experience, from the bare and clean lines of a Japanese rock and sand garden, through the ornate and vivid tankas of multi-armed divine beings in coital embrace all portrayed with a busy border of paisley brocade. See also: > Buddha-Nature > Esoteric Buddhism > Karma > Samsara and Nirvana > Sangha Bibliography Fields, R. (1986). How the swans came to the lake. Boston, MA: Shambala. Fischer-Schreiber, I., Ehrhard, F.-K., & Diener, M. S. (1991). The Shambala dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. (M. H. Kohn, Trans.). Boston, MA: Shambala. Germer, C. K., Siegel, R. D., & Fulton, P. R. (Eds.). (2005). Mindfulness and psychotherapy. New York: Guilford. 119 B 120 B Buddhism Getty, A. (1914/1988). The Gods of northern Buddhism: Their history and iconography. New York: Dover. Goddard, D. (1938/1966). A Buddhist Bible. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Robinson, R. H., & Johnson, W. L. (1997). The Buddhist religion (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Sangharakshita. (1980). A survey of Buddhism (1st ed.). Boulder, CO: Shambala. (Revised Ed. available). Snelling, J. (1991). The Buddhist handbook: A complete guide to Buddhist schools, teaching, practice, and history. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions.