Institutionalizing pop feminism: a key to women's empowerment

MAPPING ONLINE GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE Editor Mariateresa Garrido V. MAPPING ONLINE GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE Mariateresa Garrido V. Editor First Edition Mapping online gender-based violence Copyright 2022 ©UPEACE Press University for Peace San José, Costa Rica 2022 All the opinions expressed in this book correspond to the authors, and in no form can be considered as representative of the oficial possition of the University for Peace. CC BY-NC-SA: This license allows reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format for noncommercial purposes only, and only so long as attribution is given to the creator. If you remix, adapt, or build upon the material, you must license the modified material under identical terms. To cite: Garrido V., M. (Ed.).(2022). Mapping online gender-based violence. University for Peace ISBN: 978-9930-542-32-3 Printed in San Jose, Costa Rica by P.Digital - April 2022 CONTENTS Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. i Preface Mapping Virtual Challenges and Threats Into Real Actions Francisco Rojas Aravena ..................................................................................................................iii Introduction Between Offline and Online Gender-Based Violence: The Challenges Ahead Mariateresa Garrido V. ...................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 Institutionalizing Pop Feminism: A Key to Women’s Empowerment Ioanna Pervou ..................................................................................................................................11 Chapter 2 Fighting Against Gender-Based Abuse of Deepfake Technology: Are We Only Tackling the Tip of the Iceberg? Nguyen The Duc Tam .......................................................................................................................23 Chapter 3 Cyber Dating Violence and Porn Revenge From a Gender Perspective Maria Jara Rodriguez Fariñas and Laura Carrascosa ...................................................................35 Chapter 4 Tertiary Victimization of Sexual Violence Victims Online: How the Internet Needs to Become a Safer Space for Women Mikayla Pevac...................................................................................................................................53 Chapter 5 Preventing violence in the digital age: Women Peacebuilders and Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence Agnieszka Fal-Dutra Santos and Panthea Pourmalek .................................................................71 CHAPTER 1 Institutionalizing Pop Feminism: A Key to Women’s Empowerment Ioanna Pervou Currently, the majority of states realize and recognize the need for women to be empowered, in order to promote gender equality and build more stable societies. International organizations have experienced and attested how women’s empowerment stimulates national and regional stability, thus incorporating gender equality in their official and functional operations (UNSC Res 1325/2000, NATO WPS, 2018). Yet, the process for this change is turbulent, since the enactment of relative legislation on a national level does not always suffice, either due to state reluctance, or because of legislative restraints. In this context, many have already argued that feminist theories need be spread with a view to better illustrate the pleas and arguments of women’s movements (Rowbotham, 1992). That is, to create a strong ideological counterweight against political and legislative deficiencies (Mazur, 2002). However, feminist theories have long been attracting severe criticism, mainly because there seems to be no real connection with society. Traditionally, the archetypical concept of feminism refers to academic inferences, urging for change and gender equality. Only recently, during the last decades societies embraced feminist activism, as the proper way to achieve a change they so longed for (Kalsem & Williams, 2010). Feminist activism though, requires cumulatively the backing of street demonstrations, to evince the existence of a movement (a), press coverage, to gain public sympathy (b) and also, support by concerned members of parliament (MPs), who will commit to feminist causes (c). Despite coordinated efforts to pull all forces together, feminist activism brought limited results. There are also voices pointing out that it had an adverse effect, as it divided the public (Mackay, 2015). No matter how one perceives feminist activism, there is significant increase in sexist attacks and expansion of insults against women, demonstrating that activism may not always bring the results expected. In this context, rejuvenating the feminist idea remained an unresolved puzzle (Franklyn, 2021). Many proposed substituting the term with this of 11 Ioanna Pervou “empowerment”, partly explaining why this term is used interchangeably to feminism. Therefore, “empowerment” stands for the “principles, such as the ability of individuals and groups to act in order to ensure their own wellbeing or their right to participate in decision-making that concerns them” (Levy Simon, 1994, p. 41). This terminological change marks the first shift in the approach towards the consolidation of gender equality. The goals of this chapter are primarily four: a) to demonstrate how feminist activism is transformed and reshaped in the digital era; b) to analyze how gender empowerment is facilitated through the use of social media platforms; c) to explain how the digital era promotes the idea of relativism in human rights, thus accepting the perception of their end users’ and not their theoretical archetypes; and finally, d) to show how popular personalities, celebrities and hashtag campaigns are employed to the achievement of gender equality. Gender equality in the digital world: from feminism to empowerment The reconfiguration of feminism evolved gradually, as soon as it became obvious that feminist communities do exist on the web and fill the gap of formal initiatives. Gender empowerment has been facilitated by new tools available and accessible even to the most vulnerable groups (MadraSawicka et al., 2020). The use of digital social media has been revolutionary in many aspects, basically because they involve interaction through selfgenerated content. From this perspective, digital platforms and social media enable empowerment in two ways: they allow users to create freely their own content as a form of expression and inclusiveness (a) and at the same time they offer to users the option to publicly share their information and interact, spreading and sharing their message. For this reason, it is supported that social media form sort of a “virtual gender asylum” (Chang, Ren & Yang, 2018, pp. 339-340). From this angle, these digital tools are most necessary in societies were gender equality is far from being achieved, and women’s rights are not prioritized. However, on a comparative level, it is these very governments which put severe impediments on social media access, occasionally targeted against women (Lafi Youmans & York, 2012). In general though, it is common ground social media platforms have reconfigured the traditional concept of feminism and feminist activist, by leading gender empowerment in a more tangible era, accomplishing high levels of women’s inclusion. From that point on, social media and the digital world have been employed by states and international organizations 12 Institutionalizing Pop Feminism: A Key to Women’s Empowerment for the promotion of gender equality. Having witnessed the power of the medium, they began employing people who enjoy high popularity, so as to spread the message of feminism through digital media. There are two parallel routes leading to women empowerment in the digital era: first, the involvement of women themselves as individuals in such platforms, and second the institutional use of these media for the very same end. Pop feminism: institutional feminism at the digital era The institutional rebranding of feminism came in the form of pop feminism. It may be defined as a non-academic approach to feminism, arising from pop culture, taking advantage of digital tools. It is an attempt to influence and further mobilize the public to espouse feminist values and women’s rights (Jouet, 2018). The United Nations (UN) soon recognized the power and dynamics of pop feminism, and launched the “HeforShe Campaign”, a Global Solidarity Movement for Gender Equality, in 2014. The inaugural talk of the UN ambassador, actress Emma Watson, went viral and brought feminism to the fore once again. The campaign though, did not rely on the ambassador’s high popularity only (Valiantien, 2015); rather, it opted to gain support by internationally renowned personalities, considered leaders in their field of expertise. Thus, the campaign turned to heads of state, universities and the corporate sector (www.heforshe.org, online). These three pillars include actors from all categories which play all a crucial role in the enforcement of feminist ideas and gender empowerment. First, through state officials the campaign opted for legislative initiatives towards this goal. Second, it approached the corporate sector and in particular some leading multinational corporations, so as to target issues like the payment gap, or abusive behaviors in the working place. These corporations were expected to set the pace and serve as examples for the employment sector in states as a whole. Finally, pop feminism did not denounce the academic strand overall, rather it did not rely solely upon it; ergo, the spread of gender empowerment through educational institutions and the commitment of top universities to this was the strategy’s third pillar. What is more, the ‘HeforShe Campaign’ sets a new mindset regarding gender equality and empowerment: it does not proclaim patriarchy as the cardinal cause of gender inequality; rather it attempts to make a positive approach through the solidarity the two genders shall share. The strategy does not attempt to juxtapose the two genders; on the contrary it 13 Ioanna Pervou emphasizes on the concept solidarity between men and women. Thereat, the campaign points out that both men and women have suffered from mistreatment in the course of time. It explains how men have suffered in particular cases due to their masculinity. This strategic choice of the UN reminds that gender equality precedes from gender empowerment (Kirby & Shepherd, 2016). This strategy is indicative of the UN’s deep understanding that the promotion of women’s rights is both a legal issue as well as a social process. These two are tallied with one another, resulting in gender empowerment and finally equality. Thereat, it is argued that gender equality cannot be effectively achieved only through favoring supranational and national legislations, introducing – for instance – quotas (Krook & Norris, 2014), but needs solid social underpinnings to motivate society. The institutionalization of pop feminism is a firm political choice, a policy which has to be adopted by the pertinent international bodies. Overall, there is a shift in the way the international community treats feminism. International actors have simplified the core idea behind feminism, define it as the pursuance of balance and equality, and focus primarily on the means that will allow these notions to spread and get incorporated by societies (Brilmayer, 1993). Pop feminism amplifies people’s attention and explains best the message (Fotopoulou, 2016). Pop feminism in practice: vertical and horizontal examples Apart from the concept’s novelty, pop feminism’s effectiveness and usefulness are broader, given that may be deployed both vertically and horizontally. Moving to the first limb of the practical application of pop feminism, this includes the involvement of popular personalities who already enjoy the public’s trust, so that one can more easily identify themselves with the ideas of feminism (Spiers, 2018). Worldwide well-known singers, actresses and artists, or women who leave their imprint in particular domains join their forces with international organizations, or national authorities to promote ideas which fall under the notion of gender equality. These messages reach their target audience through popular social media applications. They use short slogans and powerful images to create awareness on issues of gender empowerment. In this regard, the examples of well-known women who may serve as role models to speak for the gender gap, issues of sexual harassment, genderbased violence, or domestic violence, female emancipation, girls’ rights, or overcoming trauma are multiple (Hopkins, 2018). 14 Institutionalizing Pop Feminism: A Key to Women’s Empowerment From the very beginning, it was clear that pop feminism coupled with the application of digital platforms combines potentially influential messengers and very powerful means. From this point of view, pop feminism bears and indispensable advantage: it constitutes a strong strategy from its starting point. The second most important advantage of pop feminism is its worldwide ambit. Celebrities and other personalities employed already serve as role models for large population groups and many people can identify with them (Wheeler, 2011). Thus, pop feminism includes the idea of human rights relativism. Promotion of gender equality and women’s rights does not follow standardized western models. It may well employ people who do not follow western stereotypes with regards to woman emancipation. This flexibility allows for a more inclusive model of feminism, which will embrace equally cultural relativism and thus look upon women’s rights not only through Western lens. In particular, the influence of western models on feminism led to deep controversy or even contempt by those who could not identify themselves with remote role models (Nagamia, 2002-2003). In this regard, pop feminism outreaches conventional forms of feminism. However, this quality of pop feminism is a double cutting knife, since cultural relativity inclusiveness grows its audience, but it may at the same time blur the message conveyed (Puren & Young, 1999). More specifically, it carries the peril of promoting messages which are not clear, or hide embedded misogyny. The most prominent example is the promotion of maternity as the ultimate goal of women’s life, a proposition which has long been interpreted as a pro-feminist one, which relates woman empowerment with human nature. Thereat, many voices underline that popular feminism may switch to ‘popular misogyny’ at once taking also into consideration that digital empowerment comes through short standardized messages (Anderson, 2014). Moreover, there are two parameters which inflate this danger: first, the use of pop feminism by celebrities as a tool to promote their own interests and not emphasizing on empowerment messages. Occasionally, goodwill ambassadors take advantage of their nomination to boost their carrier and gain further popularity. Although this is an anticipated side probability, in some cases it runs contrary to the very ideas of gender equality. In such cases, pop feminism ambassadors are characterized as self-interested, or worst as populist diluters (Wheeler, 2013). The second peril of pop feminism relates to those who employ popular people to spread messages regarding important political and 15 Ioanna Pervou social issues. In particular cases, governmental campaigns ran by regimes which do not embrace gender equality, attempt to spread their policy through popular people. In such cases, the concept of pop feminism and the use of digital platforms rest in the wrong hands. The proliferation of the message managed through pop feminism may be used to the detriment of gender equality, or empowerment. Examples of such national campaigns prioritize the said state’s cultural and historical features which require from women to run a modest life and occupy their time mostly with taking care of the household and family needs. As it was mentioned above, pop feminism and the use of social media allow empowerment to be free from stereotypes and adjust to each society’s cultural needs. Evidently, there are cases where national campaigns comprehend gender equality through the spectrum of cultural and religious attires (Coomaraswamy, 2002-2003). To conclude, the practical function of vertical pop feminism is effective and efficient, except for the two dangers presented above: either the misuse of the message by national campaigns, or misconduct by celebrities occupied with social and political issues. Nevertheless, institutionalized, or vertical, pop feminism has limited applications. Such policies and the use of social media platforms may be applied only by international organizations, or states. The significance and value of pop feminism is fully unfolded when it comes to horizontal pop feminism that is without institutional guidance. When it comes to horizontal pop feminism, one usually refers to activism regarding specific issues around gender equality and empowerment, taking place on the Internet, attracting attention and action by popular personalities (Dadas, 2017). This case it is usually referred in theory as “hashtag activism” or “self-publishing feminism”. These terms are used interchangeably, but the key elements which remain the same are four: a) spread of feminist ideas horizontally, with no institutional involvement, b) use of digital platforms for gender empowerment, c) attraction of popular personalities due to extended public interest in a particular issue, d) use of short slogans to promote an idea (Stache, 2014). To better assess the results of horizontal pop feminism, one needs to measure its effectiveness by the examination of two factors. First, how this particular form of pop feminism contributes to gender empowerment, and second, if it activated legal and social change. As for the first parameter, horizontal pop feminism has thrived during the last years, when popular personalities decided to take stand on a particular topic and share their personal views, or even more powerfully their personal experiences. Issues of rapes, violence, or revenge porn 16 Institutionalizing Pop Feminism: A Key to Women’s Empowerment are but a few examples of horizontal pop feminism. The usual course of action is that shocking incidents which gained public incidents, pushed celebrities to share their own personal experiences. In this way, they set a good example for victims of gender inequality to talk about issues that until recently were considered taboo, due to the trauma and stigma they create. The most emblematic example of all is the American #metoo movement; it had a worldwide impact when Hollywood stars with innumerable victims and talked publicly. This horizontal pop activism spiraled in many countries all over the globe, due to social media. The movement’s hashtag became a trend within hours and opened the file of gender inequality and harassment in the workplace, in many countries (Gill & Orgad, 2018). This example perfectly illustrates the linkage between pop feminism and digital activism with social and legal change. In many cases digital activism resulted in cementing the legal framework: it extended the limitation period for the reporting of such incidents, gave to victims initiatives to talk openly, and changed the legal sentences (Yin & Sun, 2020). In this regard, the effectiveness of horizontal pop feminism is tangible. The examples of horizontal pop feminism are various and are not limited in the #MeToo movement. As such, a case which demonstrated the power of the digital world in feminist activism is that of Ireland. In 2018 social media activists brought forward two hashtags to activate Irish citizens to vote in favor of the change in the constitution, granting to women the right to abortion. The first slogan was #repealthe8th, with a clear message to vote for the review of the Irish constitution. The second slogan was #hometovote, to get the Irish diaspora to travel in their home place to exercise their political rights. This is an example of horizontal feminism: the campaigns were initiated by human rights activists, engaging in the domain of gender equality and feminism (Enright, McNeilly & de Londras, 2020). There was no institutional guidance, or a state policy to adopt and follow. This example of activism, also portrays how digital platforms substitute for the gathering of communities which miss the element of proximity. The campaigns managed to spread awareness among thousands of people, who believed in this cause and travelled to Ireland to support the referendum (Calkin, de Londras & Heathcote, 2020). The above demonstrate that digital media and social platforms add up to the feminist movement, since they offer connectivity and mobility creating an active community. Moreover, the digital world allows people who are not committed to activism, to supports such causes and participate in the public sphere. Therefore, horizontal digital activism leaves an open 17 Ioanna Pervou door to anyone wishing to take a stance as far as important social and legal issues are concerned. The pitfalls of pop feminism in the digital era Although the pop feminism via social media bears a positive sign, there are still pitfalls in its application. Critics focus mostly on the fact that activism on social media and the use of short phrases runs the risk of creating “girl power” messages, “where the language of feminism acts as a poor substitute for real political action” (Riordan, 2001). This line of argumentation follows the exact same rationale as the one mentioning the perils of popular people engaging with feminist activism. It underlines that any social media user becomes easily a “commodified agent” of feminist ideas, without any deeper knowledge on the said topic. Even if this argument is well grounded, it offers no alternate. Digital media succeeded in the reconceptualization of feminism, which remained until then a field of expertise of few. If inclusion and participation are considered as a flawed commodity, then gender empowerment and the activism required thereto will become a purely academic, numerus clausus group. With regards to the second pitfall though there is more to worry. It relates to the commercialization of horizontal digital feminism. In many occasions multinational companies attempted to get involved aspects of gender equality. They adopted the same slogans, and embraced campaign hashtags. Although this practice is not dangerous prima facie, there is always the peril of using feminist activism as a commercial strategy to improve corporate purchases. This may lead in long-term to the “depoliticization of feminism” (Banet-Weiser & Portwood-Stacer, 2017). Although criticism brings to light to significant features regarding this form of feminism, there is only one question to answer: whether we need gender equality and feminist ideas to spread through the public and engage people with different backgrounds. Gender empowerment through pop feminism: the rise of a new collective right? Pop feminism alongside digital media has reshaped the forms of activism. Gender empowerment and the ultimate goal of gender equality find their place among Internet users, attracting attention from popular personalities as well. The effectiveness and functionality of this new field for feminist activism is analyzed above. The final aspect of this topic relates to the consolidation of activism to all those who engage in digital platforms 18 Institutionalizing Pop Feminism: A Key to Women’s Empowerment with gender equality. Digital media users form an online society of potential activists, shaping altogether the message of gender equality. This sort of active participation, on their own initiative, and with the use of their personal digital space leads in the formation and emergence of a new participatory right. By participating in information society and engaging in gender equality causes, digital media users act politically. They enjoy the right of participation in the public sphere. What is more, in cases where world online campaigns run this positive participation for gender equality makes users “digital citizens” in the service of gender equality (Wajcman, Young & Fitzmaurice, 2020). In this regard, digital platforms enhance participation from more vulnerable groups, like marginalized women, victims of violence, or women who do not enjoy the full palette of human rights in their country of origin. Their personal digital space becomes a place of expression, which would otherwise not exist. It seems that digital platforms, although remote in spatial terms, allow users to freely express their opinions and act for them. It is this remoteness which empowers online movements. This new condition is manifest proof of how digital tools allow online communities to thrive. For this reason, one may well argue that a collective participatory right emerges on the Internet. As far as gender equality is concerned, this unique collective participatory right is a right to express views and act in favor of women’s empowerment. Its content is wide, since it includes the expression of denouncement on official policies, it uses the power of the image to tell stories regarding gender inequality and forms of harassment, and it presses for political and legal change. Therefore, it could be considered as part of the right to express oneself, through the digital community created in the digital era. This collective digital community evinces how feminist activism has evolved during the last years and it is exemplary of the trend to promote gender equality through social media. Further, it allows for inclusion, and thus there is the widest possible range of participants: from celebrities, to activists and vulnerable groups, marginalized people, or victims of violence. Therefore, it directly involves end users to shape the content of gender equality. 19 Ioanna Pervou List of References Anderson, K.J. (2015). Modern Misogyny, Anti-feminism in a Post-feminist Era.. Oxford University Press. 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