MOZAMBICAN ETHNIC GROUPS

Samuel Francisco Ngovene 2º Year - PhD Candidate in General Anthropology Charles University of Prague Czech Republic Phone: +420775314580 Email: [email protected] MOZAMBICAN ETHNIC GROUPS Prague December 2021 0 Table of contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 2 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 3 Nationalism and Ethnicities ................................................................................................... 4 Is Ethnicity synonymous of regionalism? .............................................................................. 5 The Mozambican Ethnic Groups ........................................................................................... 7 South - Shangana or Tsonga ................................................................................................ 11 Center- Shona-Karanga ....................................................................................................... 13 Shona .................................................................................................................................. 14 Ndau and Sena ethnic groups .............................................................................................. 15 North - Makuwa-Lomwe Ethnic group ................................................................................ 16 Makhuwa ............................................................................................................................ 16 Makonde ............................................................................................................................. 17 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 20 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 21 1 Abstract It is the scope of this chapter, a description of the main ethnic groups in Mozambique, grounded in the historical past. Therefore, it is important to bring about the origin and settlement of communities living in Mozambique. In order to be precisely approached this content, it was necessary to define three especific objectives: i. to relate the nationalism and ethnicities; ii. to identify the main Mozambican groups; iii. to characterize the cultural and political framing of Mozambican ethnic groups into nationalism. The chapter encompasses two sessions. The first session defines nationalism and discusses the integration of ethnicities into its scope. The second session describes the main Mozambican ethnic groups based on geographic and lineage system division. The chapter is important as it paves the way to understand the influence of ethnicities in political conflicts. Methodologically, the chapter is merely bibliographic, that is, its production was based on literature review of the authors that were interested in the studies of ethnicities from different points of views. It came to the conclusion that the strength and weakness of the main ethnic groups from the three regions of Mozambique could be used to explain the favouritism in the assumption of political power. The Shangana or Tsonga ethnic group in the south has a strong political power felt from the settlement and ruling of the Gaza Empire. Key-words: Ethnic groups; Mozambique; nationalism; Shangana; Sena; Makhuwa. 2 MOZAMBICAN ETHNIC GROUPS Introduction The connection between ethnicity and political organization or political power, sometimes clashes and, in some other times cooperates, and in the worst cases, it ends up in political conflicts. This approach is the core centre of the research and we will find it throughout the thesis, however, the focus here, is the main ethnic groups in Mozambique, grounded in the historical past. Then, in this historical perspective, it is important to bring about the origin and settlement of communities living in Mozambique. The ethnic construction and organization is centred in a local basis and, it opposes to the principles of nationalism. The later sought to aggregate different ethnic groups into the same territory with the borders clearly defined and under a central authority. The chapter aims to analyse the main Mozambican ethnic groups in the context of nationalism. Therefore, in order to be precisely approached this content, it was necessary to define three especific objectives: i. to relate the nationalism and ethnicities; ii. to identify the main Mozambican groups; iii. to characterize the cultural and political framing of Mozambican ethnic groups into nationalism. In methodological terms, the chapter is merely bibliographic, that is, its production was based on literature review of the authors that were interested in the studies of ethnicities from different points of views, such as Malyn Newitt (1995), Alcinda Honwane (2002), João Cabrita (2000). Regarding the structure, the chapter encompasses two sessions. The first session defines nationalism and discusses the integration of ethnicities into its scope. In this discussion, the ethnicities are analysed as the basis of nationalism. This approach is different from those who consider ethnicity as the creator of regionalism. The second session describes the main Mozambican ethnic groups based on geographic and lineage system division. Throughout this session, the ethnic groups are analysed from their settlement, method and the possible influence to acquire political power, currently. This approach is important as it paves the way to the next chapters about the influence of ethnicities in political conflicts. 3 Nationalism and Ethnicities The construction of a nation in its modern concept breaks up with the ancient community's organizational, based on tribes and ethnic groups. In this construction, two questions rise: i. Is ethnicity a question of past history? ii. How do we explain the continuing power of ethnicities today? According to Smith (2003, p.45), the adjectives ‘ethnic’ and ‘national’ are interchangeable, and they make little distinction between ethnic groups and nations. For Grosby (2005, p.46), ethnicity signifies a cleavage within a nation, usually within a nation state, and it is considered as regionalism, seen as a kind of sub-nation. The above approaches seem to have different understandings about the same point. Hence, this research follows the latter position based on the location of ethnicity in Mozambique. The history of Mozambique has treated ethnicities as something opposing nationalism from the emergence of anti-colonial national movements. The anti-colonial discourses, shaped by the will to create a new nation-state, treated the ethnic organization as outdated, and against the principles of nationalism. In the aftermath of independence (1975), talking about ethnicities or tribes was a tabu1. However, the reality of facts proves otherwise, as Smith (2003, p.46), wrote "the rediscovery of the ethnic past furnishes vital memories, values, symbols and myths, without which nationalism would be powerless". There are some pre-existing ethnic considerations which nationalism must use, such as the sense of belonging. However, in order to adjust the European imperialism, these ethnic considerations such as kinship, languages, etc., were shifted away to accommodate the construction of nationalism, not only in Mozambique but in many African countries. In this regard, Nairn (1997), identifies two forms of nationalism in Africa. - The civic or territorial nationalism, based upon the colonial territory and the colonial experience. This form is the most popular and accepted in modern context of postcolonialism. The territory frontiers were created through Berlin Conference (1884/1885)2. - The more ethnic, genealogical form based upon pre-existing popular ethnic communities. This kind of nationalism is less discussed, mostly because, from the one side, the territorial 1 Something forbidden to do or to say, but without explanation about its wrongness. 2 Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 Meeting at which the major European powers negotiated and formalized claims to territory in Africa 4 boundaries from one community to another are not clear and, from the other side, there have been rivalries with other ethnic community. Although the latter form of nationalism is not considered as such, its organization and its ideological basis has an influence in different areas of the government of a given nation. Thus, the research aims to fill out this gape, by gauging the influence of ethnicities in political conflicts in Mozambique. Is Ethnicity synonymous of regionalism? For those who consider ethnicity as strength of regionalism, they ground in the principle that the continual resistance of smaller ethnic groups situated at the margins of large states may pressures the organisation of modern state. In the words of Smith (2003, p.61), the ethnicities engender the fear of existence of small states within the main state. Fig.1: Relationship in community organization Source: Adapted by the Author, 2021. This thesis justifies the sharpness of political attitude to combat ethnical organisation to pave the emergence of nationalism without internal obstacles. The so called internal obstacles combine the structural organization, which at some point, influences to the labour organization, with the spatial and economic organisation. Following this logic of thought, it is possible to analyse the consequences of cultural stratification within the main regions of Mozambique. In this regard, Honwane (2002), highlights the ethnic organization Nguni, in the south of Mozambique, based mainly in migration to the neighbour South Africa to work in the mineral 5 enterprises and back to Mozambique to pay dote3 for their wife's family. While in the centre, due to the fertility of its soil, the ethnic group Ndau devoted to agriculture, performed mainly by women. The author put this approach to indicate the origin of different lineage systems in Mozambique, which probably would play a key role in regionalism. We will discuss in depth the lineage systems latter. Up to this stage the important is to show the connection between ethnicity and regionalism. Indeed, the ethnic organization creates local centres of power based on the memory of the past through histories, episodes, which people commonly have about a certain time. These cleavages were polished by colonial administration. The colonial administrative organization was strongly structured in some regions, and less in others, creating by this way the centre and periphery. Cabrita (2000), explains that in a colonial perspective, the placement of the firsts Portuguese capitals in Mozambique flourished the regional centrifugation. From the beginning the Portuguese settled in the Mozambican coastal where they built the fortresses of Sofala (1505) in the centre, and in the Island of Mozambique - Nampula (1507) in the north. The advent of Berlin Conference forced Portugal to effectively occupy the territory of Mozambique. Due to its military and financial incapability, to fulfil this obligation in order to gain the monopoly of belonging of colony, Portugal used the alternative to rent the sovereignty of huge territory areas to the majestic and concessionary companies4. Based on these limitations, the Portuguese administration was well structured and fixed in the south relocating Maputo as its capital from 1898. By doing this, the geographic regions, naturally divided through the rivers Save and Zambeze 5, and ethnically created through the arrival of Mozambican people from the great lakes with different languages, Portuguese colonialism was flourishing the ethnic regions. Thus, the Portuguese administration was unbalanced felt in different regions. It is important to remember that Portuguese rule gave some advantages for people within the territory of its 3 Dote, (lobolo)= bridewealth - is a way to compensate the wife's family to have created her. It is normally paid by money, cows and other species. 4 The majestic companies - They receive permission from his majesty, directly from the King of Portugal to explore the lands in its domain with less influence of Portuguese bourgeoisies. E.g: Company of Mozambique and Company of Niassa. The Lease or concessionary companies - some economic enterprises were given the possibilities to explore the territory but recognising the Portuguese sovereignty. E.g.: the Company of Zambézia. 5 Geographically Mozambique is divided into 3 regions: 1. South: From Maputo to Save River; 2. Centre: from Save to Zambeze Rivers; 3. North: From Zambeze to Rovuma Rivers. 6 authority, based in a set of criteria. The most appealing is the status of assimilado6. The assimilado had the same rights as the Portuguese citizens. In fact, in terms of regional unbalance, there is the problem of ‘overdeveloped’ regions. According to Cabrita (2000:19), in the Macua's view, "Southerners benefited more in terms of education and training due to the colonial administration being more strongly felt in the south of Mozambique". The identification of regional privileges within a nation, whether economic, political or status, it grounds the emergence of frictions amongst regions. This approach, based on ethnic regional identification, is a grass root to analyse the influence of ethnicities in political conflicts. The Mozambican Ethnic Groups Mozambique is a multicultural country with a long history of traditions, coexistence of different races, religions and ethnic groups. It reflects the cultural values that jointly create the Mozambican modern identities, that is, the so called fluid identity according to Bauman (2000)7. Most of Mozambican ethnic groups belong to the "Bantu" ethno-linguistic family. According to Newitt (1995), Bantu ethnicities are ancestrally indigenous to South and Central Africa, and make up the majority of the population south of the Sahara Desert. Regardless of its cultural and religious diversity, in no time Mozambique lived a declared ethnic conflict. The coexistence of ethnic groups is apparently friendly. Is this coexistence absolutely peaceful? How does ethnic orientation shape political parties? What is the influence of ethnicity in political conflicts? These questions are at the centre of research. Aiming to create a national identity, the Portuguese was adopted to become the official language from independence in 1975. However, according to Atlas de Moçambique in Gil (1982), there are about 58 ethnic groups along with the country, with some linguistic specifications. 6 Assimilado- Is the term used to identify Mozambican with basic education, to differentiate them with indigenas (original people). 7 Fluidity- as the leading metaphor for the present stage of the modern era. In simple language, is that liquids, unlike solids, cannot easily hold their shape (Bauman, 2000, p.2). 7 Figure 1: Map of Ethnic groups of Mozambique Source: Atlas de Moçambique, in Gil (2012) 8 The map shows a detailed distribution and location of groups and it can be clearly indicated through the table 1. However, some groups could be found in different provinces which influenciate the accountancy of the exact number. Table 1: Distribution of ethnic Groups trough provinces Province Ethnic groups Number Niassa Angónis, Yaos, Nyanjas, Ajauas, Metos 5 Cabo-Delgado Makondes, Andondes, Angónis, Macuas, Muanis 5 Nampula Eratis, Metos, Chacas, Lomwes, Macuas, Imbamelas 6 Zambézia Cocolas, Anguros, Acherimas, Lomwes, Maganjas, 12 Arrobis, Chuabos, Morrumbalas, Lacoanes, Maones, Marenjes, Macuas Tete Pimbes, Sengas, Azimbas, Ademas, Chicundas, Angónis, 11 Antumbas, Ambus, Tauares, Nhungwes, Maganjas Manica Bargues, Tongas, Manicos, Ateves, Mandaus, vadandas 6 Sofala Senas, Podzos, gorongosas, Macaias, Bangues, Vanhais, 7 Machangas Inhambane Chenguas, Tsuas, Mandaus, Tongas 4 Gaza Changanes, Mabungelas, Chopes 3 Maputo Cossas, Changanes, Rongas 3 Total 58 Source: Adapted by the author, 2021 According to the map of distribution of ethnic groups there are some linguistic similarities among close ethnicities. This proximity creates small hybrid ethnic groups in their contact zones, which become difficult to find a consensus of the precise number of ethnic groups. The typical example is the Macua-Lomwe group, which is half Macua and half Lomwe, as a result of mixing Macua and Lomwe. 9 Figure 2: Generation of a new hybrid Ethnic Group, Macua-Lomwe Source: Adapted by the Author, 2021. The close relationship between ethnic groups, based on their language and other cultural ties elements, simultaneously, facilitates and complicates the study of ethnic groups. From one side the closeness complicates the study due to the increase and an unstable number of ethnic groups. The comprehensive studies have been identifying some new ethnic groups through time and it has opposing the previous anthropological studies. From the other side, it gives the anthropologist the opportunity to aggregate the ethnic groups with similarities into ones big in size and few in numbers. Indeed, Newitt (1995, p.32), states that the Portuguese first described east central Africa and they clearly distinguished three African peoples: North of the Zambezi were the Makua while to the south there were Karanga and Tonga. The Mozambican reality best fits in this approach and, based on the latter position, as an opportunity, in this research we aggregate the aforementioned 58 ethnic groups from Mozambique into main three groups: Macua, shona and shangana. This convention is based on three aspects, inter alia: In the first place, we consider the natural regional division through rivers. From the Mozambican Channel in Maputo to the Save river - South; From Save to Zambeze rivers Centre; and from Zambeze to Rovuma rivers - North. In the second place, we may consider the linguistic ties which enable them to understand each other, using the dominant language being, Changana in south, Chona-caranga in centre and Macua in the north. 10 In the third position, we placed the lineage systems. One of the important ethnic differences is that between matrilineal and patrilineal systems of descent. Matrilineal is a complex phenomenon of tracing descent through the mother’s line of the family. This system is dominant in the north of Zambeze river. Patrilineal, on the other hand, means that descent is traced from the father to his son. The patrilineal system is clearly applied in the southern, that is, from Maputo to Save rivers. In the centre we find a mixed system of lineage combining matrilineal and patrilineal. By combining these elements we find pattern-criteria to merge close ethnic groups into ones big enough, settled in south, centre and northern regions. South - Shangana or Tsonga The literature regarding to the settlement and description, such as the denomination of this ethnic group is diverse and slightly opposing. The first communities of what is now known as Mozambique were Khoisan. According to (Isejarah, 2017, p.6), the term “Khoisan” has been used to describe a broad similarity in cultural and biological origins of two groups: the “Khoikhoi” and “San”. “Khoikhoi” was the original name of Hottentots and “San” was the name of the Bushmen. This term "Khoisan" was invented because it is often difficult to distinguish clearly between the Khoikhoi and the San, especially after significant changes had occurred in their lifestyles. Historically, according to Fage & Oliver (1980, p.27), the settlement of Tsonga in southern Mozambique is closely regarding to the Nguni8 migration, an ethnic-cultural group among Bantu. The territorial dispersion of this group was due to its commitment to agriculture, from I-IV centuries. Their main activities were agriculture and cattle grazing. As the drought was 8 Ngunis were a group of people who migrated from Egypt to the Great Lakes region of sub-equatorial Central/East Africa. They then followed the eastern part of southern Africa in their southward bound looking for the fertile soils. They splitted into several groups, one entered what is now South Africa, other in Mozambique and Zimbabwe (South Rodhesia). 11 affecting the region, they migrated to southern Mozambique to find soil for agriculture and herding. Another theory, accepted among others, was Mfecane9 (or Difacane) as the main cause of settlement of Tsonga group in the south of Mozambique. Indeed, this occurrence forever changed the settlement patterns and ethnic structure of the southern African population of the areas of Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland (Eswatini), Lesotho, Zimbabwe. Mfecane was a war incorporating the small loser tribes into the winner, and the later becoming biggest. The history of dispersion starts from two key figures among the African tribes in southern Africa: Dingiswayo, leader of the Mtethwa tribe; and Zwide, leader of the Ndwandwe tribe. According to Isejarah (2017, pp.16- 18), Dingiswayo’s army soon attacked smaller tribes which were allowed to continue their existence as tribes, only if they agreed to recognise him as their paramount chief. One of the tribe which was dominated was Zulu and initially accepted Dingiswayo as its paramount chief. One of the talented sons from Mtetwa tribe, Shaka became the chief of Zulu tribe. Dingiswayo was killed by Zwide in the battle against Ndwandwe. From that moment (1819), Shaka assumed the chiefdom of Mtetwa tribe and in time defeated completely the Ndwadwe tribe. Shaka also defeated Soshangane and Zwangendaba and they fled to Mozambique and settled at Delagoa Bay (Maputo). As Mfecane continued, Shaka attacked Sochangane then he moved on to Middle Save and settled near Zwangendaba. Then, forced Zwangendaba to move to settle in Tanzania. "With Soshangane’s biggest enemies out of the way, he began building his Gaza Kingdom. From his capital, Chaimite, soldiers were sent in all directions to attack other tribes" (Ibid. p.20) Due to its origin from incorporation war, the Tsonga people are a diverse group of tribes that include the Shangaan, Thonga, Tonga, Vandzawu, VaTshwa, Vakalanga and Valoyi to name a few. According to Honwane (2002), tribal differences often lead to rejection of the title Shangaan or Tsonga, depending on who you are speaking to. It is important to understand that Tsonga 9 The term Mfecane (Nguni languages) means “destroyed in total war”. (Isejarah, 2017, p.16) available in http://isejarah.fib.unair.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/THE-EARLY-HISTORY-OF-SOUTH-AFRICAilovepdf-compressed.pdf accessed in September 26, 2021. 12 people share one origin, but each tribe has assumed different identities, and they also expanded from South Africa to Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Certainly, through Mfecane the ethnic map of Southern Africa, specifically (South Africa, Lesotho, Zimbabwe and Mozambique), was completely changed. In Mozambique, those people mostly occupied from the South African border to the Save River. According to Smith (1973, p.565), citing Junod, he argued that these peoples resulted in ethnic subgroups, identified as Rjonga, Hlanganu, Bila, Djonga, Nwalungu, Khossa and Hlengwe. Additionally, to the Tsonga group, Junod recognized separate identities for peoples he called the Chopi and the Tonga, living in the coastlands near the Limpopo River, while the Tonga lived in the area encircling the town of Inhambane. However, using linguistic evidence, Tsonga, Rjonga and Tonga are part of a linguistic group known as Southeast Bantu. Discarding previous views, Junod proposes that the peoples of southern Mozambique should all be included in one group. Hence, due to the reasons evoked whether by Junod, or for that regarding to facilitate the studies, people from the south's Save River would be aggregated into one major ethnic group - Tsonga or Changana, in this research. It is important to clarify that Changana and Tsonga would be used as synonymous here. Center- Shona-Karanga Based on the natural and economic division, from Save to Zambezi rivers we identify this region as the centre of Mozambique, composed by four Provinces: Manica, Sofala, Tete and Zambezi. Due to the importance given to Zambezi River, some literatures consider the designation of high Zambezi valley and low Zambezi valley to refer, respectively the north and south of this river. According to Newitt (1995,p.35), the climacteric conditions of these regions contributed to a clear difference, economically and culturally, from one to another. The fertility of soils from the north paved the practice of agriculture which has empowered the women and consequently, the region became the centre of matrilineal system. This is because women are much involved into agriculture than the men then, from the agriculture the first was accumulating the wealth. The drier grassland of low Zambezi was suitable only for cattle. 13 Though it is a natural division, it has a strong influence in political and ethnical organization and, to a religious distribution. In religious terms, the early contact with Arabic traders dated back to VII century, has strongly influenced the north to Islamic religion, while the south was later shaped by European Christianity. Politically, the centre was least important from the ancient times, as Newitt (1995, p.32), points out: They carried on mixed farming from stockade villages, but because of climatic conditions in the low veldt, cattle could not be an important part of their economy and they therefore lacked the principal means whereby wealth in Africa is accumulated and redistributed. This lack of easily accumulated wealth may explain why their society lacked dominant elites and large, powerful chieftaincies. Although the apparent powerless of the Central Mozambique, there was a remarkable kingdom in the History of Mozambique and Southern Africa in general- Muenemutapa. "The kingdom of the Muenemutapa, the older and more important, embraced an area stretching from the southern bank of the Zambesi River to the Save River and into the highlands of contemporary Zimbabwe, and incorporated a number of ethnically disparate peoples", (Isaacman & Isaacman, 1983, p.12). The list of ethnic groups in this region includes shona, sena, ndau, Nyanja, among others. Shona The Shona are the largest ethnic group in Zimbabwe. The history of Shona ethnic group in Mozambique is closely related to the movement of people from the "Great Zimbabwe"10. Based on the records from Beach (1980), the name "Shona" comes from Hindi and means "Gold". The Kingdom of Mutapa from lower Ethiopia, through Botswana to Natal in South Africa, was based on mining, especially gold, then the whole land became known as the land of gold and the trade in gold reached as far as in India. In Gujarati it is also called ‘sona’ or ‘sonu’ and it is derived from the word "Sohna" in Punjab. Hence Shonaland means lands of gold. 10 Great Zimbabwe was constructed between the 11th and 15th centuries and was continuously inhabited by the Shona peoples until about 1450. (Garlake, 1973, p.43). 14 According to Garlake (1973), by about 1500, Great Zimbabwe’s political and economic influence waned due to political instabilities characterised by invasions and the continuous drought. In addition, other theories consider that diseases may have afflicted livestock, hence, people may have to find another safe and comfortable settlement. Newitt (1995, p.36), points out that Portuguese described these people as Shona-karanga. The Shona-Karanga occupied the territories currently known as the Provinces of Manica and Sofala. The lands are rich of fine gold but their natives did not show interest in extracting mineral resources. They were most interested in breeding the cattle in inappropriate lands. The selection of the main activity of that group and the characteristics of the region may concur to an explanation of the lack of power of this ethnic chiefdom. Due to the history of shona ethnic origin, the group is mostly based in Manica Province, bordering with Zimbabwe, their origin. Ndau and Sena ethnic groups In the same province of Manica, there is Ndau ethnic group. According to Patricio (2011, p.2), Ndau identity is deep-rooted in Monomotapa Empire, previous to the Mozambique-Zimbabwe border establishment and prior to colonialism. The fragmentation of Monomotapa Empire and Mbire kingdom around fifteenth century gave a birth to the ndau ethnic group that occupied the central Mozambique between Buzi and Save rivers, mainly in Mossorize district - Manica Province, bordering to Zimbabwe. Patricio (2011, p.5), explains that the name "ndau" was given to this group by the Ngunis and it is related to the way they used to greet their important chiefs, "they kneel, clap their hands and repeatedly and rhythmically scream ndau ui ui, ndau ui ui" Then, for people none speaking this language, the only word sounding was "ndau", becoming definitely the name of the whole ethnic group. Regarding the Sena ethnic group, Isaacman & Isaacman (1983), point out that this group was between shona and Nyanja groups and occupied mainly the Zambezi River valley. The Sena ethnic group can be found in Mozambique, in the provinces of Tete, Sofala, Manica and Zambézia and in Malawi. 15 Therefore, the historical description of shona-karanga ethnic group shows its political powerless, based on the main activities. This approach remains important in modern days to discuss the centres of political power between the three regions of Mozambique. North - Makuwa-Lomwe Ethnic group The ethnic groups from north of Zambeze river, apart from language and common ancestors, they have a clear and strong influence of religious traces, that is, Christianity and Muslim. The first contacts with the Arabic traders with the Makhuwa, mainly from Nampula, contributed to spread the Islamism in the north of Mozambique, before the arrival of Portuguese. It is worthwhile to remember that the Arabic traders arrived in Mozambique in the VII century in the North of Mozambique, while the Portuguese arrived in the XV century with a Christian religious. By this way, the imposition of Christianity supported by the concordat 11, brought a conflict between the two main religious (Christian and Muslim), putting the Christian in favour. This favouritism contributed for the Colonial administrators to impose limitations on the creation of Madrasahs or Islamic education. Hence, this distinction with advantages of certain ethnic groups based on religious beliefs, have an impact in the acquisition and maintenance of political power. Makhuwa Makhuwa, is the largest ethnic group of Mozambique. Based on INE (2017), Makhuwa occupies 29,5% and jointly with Lomwe, both occupy 40% of Mozambican population. Indeed, the 2017 census showed that Makhuwa is the mother tongue of 67.1% of the population of the provinces of Cabo-Delgado, Nampula, Zambézia and Niassa, together. Apart from the numerical size of its population, the leaders of Mozambican northern organizations declared that "the Makhuwa are the only one ethnic group profoundly rooted in Mozambique". (Alpers, 1974, p.50) The same idea is shared by Newitt (1995, p.63), by referring that "Makhuwa traditions record only that the home of the nation was in the Namuli mountains, and it is likely that initially 11 Concordat was the agreement signed in May 7, 1940 between Portugal and the Catholic Church in Europe and in the Portuguese colonial territories. The agreement restored many rights to the Catholic Church, such as the authority to teach religious contents in public schools. 16 only the highlands east of the Lake were occupied, the newcomers mixing with the San population whom they found inhabiting the region". Many scholars, such as Newitt (1995), Alpers (1974), have defended that Mozambique is the origin of Makhuwa group. However, in our understanding and for the purpose of this research, the Makhuwa group were originally from the Great Lakes, in Central Africa and they moved to the southeast Africa during the first wave of Bantu migration. This position opposes with that of other authors but, it gives the better explanation for the existence of Makhuwa in the neighbour countries of Malawi, Tanzania and Madagascar. According to Feijó (2020, p.5), Makhuwa is a heterogeneous group, mostly associated with the Islamic religion in the coastal areas, but with strong Christian penetration in the hinterland and, it can be found in Mozambique and Tanzania. The vast group has its ramification along the north bank of Zambezi River. According to Newitt (1995, p.63), in the far north were the people who today are known as the Medo and Niassa Makua, while in the south were those sometimes grouped under the name of Lomwe, becoming as a group, named as Makhuwa-Lomwe. During the times of African kingdoms and Empires, the Makhuwa did not create a large scale political organisation in comparison of that of Monomotapa and Gaza in the south bank of Zambezi River. Monclero, quoted by Newitt (1995, p.64), with this regards, stated that there was no great chief to whom they paid tribute but they lived as in a republic. The lack of strong or powerful chiefdoms is related with the matrilineal system in which, much emphasis was given to the female, that is, the mother and senior sister of the chief enjoyed a certain political preponderance. Makonde The Portuguese less explored the north of Mozambique, hence less is known about the origin of this ethnic group. However, scholars such as, Newitt (1995) and Smith (1973), to quote some, they consider that Makonde settled to the plateau of Cabo-Delgado coming from the west, fleeing from attacks from Nguni and retreating to an area that was, first, empty, or almost empty, and second, easier to defend. Makonde is the second large ethnic group concentrated mainly in the Province of CaboDelgado, specifically in the Mueda plateau. According to INE (2017), Makonde appeared with 20% of the population of northern Mozambique. 17 The Makonde is a mostly Christian group, whose main economic activity is agriculture, complemented by livestock. This group is well known by its bravura for fighting against its enemies. According to Dias, quoted by Feijó (2020, p.7), the Makonde, as a people, they never feared and they became known for their aggressiveness, becoming disparagingly called Mavia, meaning a nervous or violent person, particularly when provoked. Politically, they used their fierceness to actively participate during the liberation struggle in Mozambique, but their influence in the country diminished after independence. Due to the brave feature, the Makonde is the only ethnic group with a fix identity, that is, with no changes through the time, regardless the effects of migration, specifically in their language and mapico12 dance. The Makonde tries to retain its identity in its original land of Cabo-Delgado and abroad, during the migrations, as Ogechi (2019, pp.123-4) states: In February 2017, Mozambican Makonde settled in the Kenyan south coast during the 1930s trekked to Nairobi to petition President Kenyatta for identity as Kenyans citizens and the Makonde ethnic group. President Kenyatta declared the Makonde, the forty third ethnic group of Kenya. Hence, the group received two identities, being one as Kenyan citizens and other as Makonde ethnic group in that country. This distinctive characteristic is, indeed, important for our research and considered as the starting point of "we" and "they" in political support in Mozambique to fuel political conflicts based on ethnicities. Such as in the southern, in northern there are certain ethnic groups with less political histories, e.g. Mwani. The Mwani group predominates along the Cabo Delgado coast north of Pemba, from the Ibo to the Rovuma rivers, as well as on the various islands of the Quirimbas archipelago. This group is mostly Islamic and, it is a group strongly dedicated to fishing. Hence, in the north Zambezi there is a common characteristic of matrilineal lineage, however the economic activities and religious orientations contributed to unbalance certain ethnic groups. These differences have created rivalries among and between ethnic groups. 12 A typical mask dance created by Makonde ethnic group for its identity. The mask, from a carved wood, represents a strong man and, through the Mapico dance this man is integrated into Makonde tradition by initiation rite. 18 Throughout the history, the ethnic cleavages, fuelled by the access of scarcity resources, have ended up with political conflicts in Mozambique. 19 Conclusion The strength and weakness of the main ethnic groups from the three regions of Mozambique could be used to explain the favouritism in the assumption of political power. Summing up, in each region we have one dominate ethnic group in political sphere: - Shangana or Tsonga ethnic group in the south with a strong political power felt during the settlement and ruling of the Gaza Empire; - Shona ethnic group in the center strengthened during the enlargement of Mwenemutapa Empire. - In the North, the Makhuwa is the biggest ethnic group. However, the Makonde is the most appealing ethnic group due to its contribution in the armed national liberation war. As it was clearly demonstrated throughout the chapter, the emergence and growth of each ethnic group aimed to stabilise a local authority. The modern state was created from independence in 1975, and its focus was on nationalism. However, the ethnic consciousness, such as regionalist discourses, has shown the failure of nationalism by ignoring the ethnicity to pave this political creation - nationalism. Depending on how we deal with this ethnic consciousness to access opportunities and, taking into consideration to the advantages found by holding the power, it creates ethnic cleavages ending in political conflicts. How and what is the weight of ethnicities in political conflicts will be answered in the coming chapters. 20 Bibliography ALPERS, Edward A. (1974). Ethnicity, Politics, and History in Mozambique. Africa Today. Vol.21, No.4, (39-52), Bloomington: Indiana University Press. BAUMAN, Zygmont. (2000). Liquid Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press. BEACH, David N. (1980). 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