Christian Faith, Philosophy, and Culture

Cite as: Karuvelil,George.(2014). Christian Faith, Philosophy, and Culture (Version 1.0). Jnanadeepa: Pune Journal of Religious Studies, Jan-June 2014 (17/1), 101-118. http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4273645 J P J R S 17/1 I S S N 0 9 7 2 - 3 3 3 1 5 , J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 : 1 0 1 -1 1 8 DOI:10.5281/zenodo.4273645 Stable URL: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4273645 Christian Faith, Philosophy, and Culture: The Triumphs and Failures of Wisdom G e o r g e K a r u v e lil, S J J n a n a -D e e p a V id y a p e e th , Pune 411014 A b s t r a c t : C o n v i n c e d t h a t t h o s e w h o fail t o l e a r n f r o m h i s t o r y a r e d o o m e d t o r e p e a t it, t h i s p a p e r l o o k s a t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a n d c u l t u r e in t h e W e s t e r n t r a d i t i o n . P r e s e n t i n g t w o m i l l e n n i a o f h i s t o r y in s u c h l i m i t e d s p a c e is b o u n d t o b e f r a g m e n t a r y . B u t it s e r v e s t h e l i m i t e d p u r p o s e o f u n c o v e r i n g t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n f a i t h a n d c u l t u r e . I t is s e e n t h a t f a i t h f l o u r i s h e d a s l o n g a s it r e m a i n e d f a i t h f u l t o t h i s d y n a m i c s a n d it d e c l i n e d w h e n it f a i l e d to d o s o , i.e., f r o m t h e m o d e m p e r i o d t o t h e p r e s e n t . T h e l a t t e r c a n b e s e e n a s a f a i l u r e o f w i s d o m i n a s m u c h a s w i s d o m c o n s i s t s in c r e a t i v e l y r e s p o n d i n g t o a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n . T h i s r e a l i z a t i o n , in t u r n , p r o m p t s a n o t h e r l o o k at A q u i n a s t o s e e i f h e c a n f u n c t i o n a s a n e x e m p l a r f o r i n t e g r a t i n g r e a s o n a n d f a i t h in t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d . K e y w o rd s: G o d -m a n , A q u in as, P hilosophy, T heo lo g y , C u ltu re I n t r o d u c t io n R e c e n t p o n tiffs h a v e b e e n in siste n t o n lin k in g faith a n d r e a s o n .1 W h i l e t h e r e is m o r e t h a n o n e r e a s o n f o r t h i s i n s i s t e n c e , t h e m o s t c l e a r l y s t a t e d r e a s o n is a p e r c e i v e d c r i s i s i n “ p o s t c o n c i l i a r t h e o l o g y ” .2 S o m e o b s e rv e rs see this crisis e x is tin g a lre a d y b e fo re V atic a n I (1 8 6 9 7 0 ) 3, a n d s t i ll o t h e r s t r a c e it t o t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t . 4 T h e d e p t h o f t h e c r i s i s c a n b e g a u g e d f r o m t h e C h u r c h ’s i n c o h e r e n t , f l i p - f l o p r e s p o n s e s to m o d e rn ity . A f t e r an initial p e r io d o f w e l c o m i n g m o d e r n i t y th e C h u r c h b e g a n to b u ild th e p r o te c tiv e w a lls o f n e o - s c h o la s tic is m a r o u n d i t s t h e o l o g y , c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e a n t i - m o d e r n i s t o a t h ; t h e n it d e m o lis h e d that carefully, c o n s tru c te d fo rtress w ith o n e stro k e an d G e o r g e K a r u v e lil: C h r i s t i a n F a it h , P h i lo s o p h y , a n d C u l t u r e 101 e m b r a c e d t h e n e w c u r r e n t s a t V a t i c a n II; p r e s e n t l y t h e r e is t h e r a t h e r a m b ig u o u s stand o f se e in g T h o m a s A q u in a s as an “e x e m p la r” o f in te g ra tin g faith a n d re a s o n , w ith o u t g iv in g his th o u g h t an o ffic ia l s t a m p . 5 T h i s s t a n d is a m b i g u o u s i n a s m u c h a s it c a n b e r e a d e i t h e r as an o p e n e n d e d s t a t e m e n t o r as an a tte m p t to r e tu r n to s c h o l a s t i c i s m . W h a t is c l e a r is t h e m a n d a t e t o s t u d y “ t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e a s o n a n d C h r i s t i a n f a i t h - t h a t is, b e t w e e n p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y - f r o m a s y s t e m a t i c a n d h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w ” .6 T h is d e m a n d s e e m s to b e p r o m p t e d b y th e r e a liz a tio n th a t th o s e w h o fa il t o l e a r n f r o m h i s t o r y a r e d o o m e d t o r e p e a t it.7 P r o d d e d o n b y t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g s t u d y l o o k s at t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n p h i l o s o p h y a n d C h r i s t i a n f a i t h , in t h e b r i e f e s t p o s s i b l e m a n n e r . It w i l l b e s e e n t h a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o c a n n o t b e s t u d i e d in i s o l a t i o n f r o m c u l t u r e . T h u s , a d y n a m i c , t r i a d i c r e l a t i o n s h i p is s e e n b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n f a i t h , p r e v a i l i n g c u l t u r e , a n d philosophy. H isto ry o f th eir m u tu al in teraction s s h o w s a p attern su ch that c re a tiv e re s p o n s e to cu ltu ra l c h a n g e s e n a b le d C h ristia n f a i t h t o f l o u r i s h w h e r e a s t h e f a i l u r e t o d o s o l e d t o its d e c l i n e , o f w h i c h t h e p r e s e n t t h e o l o g i c a l c r i s i s is a s y m p t o m . T h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p a p e r is a s f o l l o w s : a f t e r s o m e t e r m i n o l o g i c a l c l a r i f i c a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g r a t i o n a l i t y o f f a i t h a n d its r e l a t i o n t o c u l t u r e th e r e w ill b e th r e e b r i e f s e c tio n s d e a li n g w ith th r e e i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t s in t h e h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a t i n s t a n t i a t e th is r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e f i f t h s e c t i o n e x a m i n e s in g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e e x e m p l a r y c h a r a c t e r o f A q u i n a s ’ m a n n e r o f re la tin g C h ris tia n faith to c u ltu re , a n d fin ally s o m e re flec tio n s on the o p p o rtu n itie s an d d a n g e rs p r e s e n te d by c o n te m p o r a r y c u ltu r e f o r C h r is tia n faith. 1. P r e l i m i n a r y C o n s i d e r a t i o n s ‘C u l t u r e ’ is u n d e r s t o o d a s a h u m a n l y c o n s t r u c t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a s o p p o s e d t o t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t ; it is a h u m a n a c h i e v e m e n t a n d n o t a g i v e n . 8 It is m a d e u p o f d i v e r s e c o m p o n e n t s , l i k e a r t a n d arch ite ctu re, scien c e and tech n o lo g y , e c o n o m ic an d p o litical o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y , a n d a b o v e a ll, l a n g u a g e , i d e a s , a n d t h e v a l u e s u n d e r ly i n g th e s e h u m a n c o n s t r u c t io n s (i.e., p h ilo s o p h y , t h e o l o g y , an d sc ie n c e s ). O f th e s e , w e w ill b e p ri m a r i ly c o n c e r n e d w i th th e la s t ( i d e a t i o n a l ) c o m p o n e n t . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c u l t u r e is t h a t t h e y 102 J n a n a d e e p a 17/1 J a n u a i y 2 0 1 4 p r o v i d e a p a t t e r n o f a c c e p t a b l e f o r m s o f lif e a n d b e h a v i o u r ( c u l t i v a t e d b e h a v io u r as a g a in s t in stin c tu a l b e h a v io u r) su c h that o n e d o e s n ot h a v e to start by r e - in v e n tin g th e w h e e l fo r o n e s e l f 9 T h e term ‘ f a i t h ’ c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d e i t h e r in a g e n e r i c , p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e o r in a m o r e s p e c i f i c r e l i g i o u s s e n s e . In a g e n e r i c s e n s e , f a i t h is t h e u l t i m a t e s t a n d o n e a d o p t s t o w a r d s l i f e in t h e w o r l d . In t h i s s e n s e e v e r y o n e l i v e s b y f a i t h . 10 H o w e v e r , t h e w o r d ‘f a i t h ’ is m o r e c o m m o n l y u s e d in t h e c o n t e x t o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . S i n c e I w i l l b e c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h C h r i s t i a n f a i t h , w h i c h is o n e s p e c i f i c f o r m o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h , I s h a l l i d e n t i f y its c o r e w i t h a c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e m y s t e r y o f t h e G o d - m a n , o r t h e d i v i n e a s e x p e r i e n c e d in t h e h u m a n p e r s o n o f J e s u s . T h a t h y p h e n a t e d t e r m ( G o d - m a n ) is m e a n t t o in d ic a te t h e b if o c a l v is io n o f th a t lies at th e h e a rt o f C h ris tia n ity , w h i c h m a k e s it a k i n d o f h u m a n i s m t h a t is r o o t e d in t h e T r a n s c e n d e n t . U n lik e th e s e c u la r h u m a n is m o f the m o d e rn era that s aw G o d as a th re a t to h u m a n a u to n o m y (se e s e c tio n 4 b e lo w ), th e h u m a n is m th a t lies at th e h e a r t o f C h r i s t ia n fa ith s e e s G o d a s th e s o u r c e a n d th e g u a r a n t o r o f h u m a n f u l f i l l m e n t . T h i s h u m a n i s m w a s b e s t p u t b y S t. Ire n a e u s ( 1 3 0 - 2 0 2 C .E .) w h e n h e p r o c la im e d th at the g lo ry o f G o d is m a n f u l l y a l i v e . T h i s b i f o c a l v i s i o n o f C h r i s t i a n f a i t h g i v e s it a n i d e n t i t y t h a t is i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m its m i s s i o n . O n t h e o n e h a n d , s i n c e n o t h i n g h u m a n is a l i e n t o t h e C h r i s t i a n , C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a s s u m e s a t r a n s - c u l t u r a l c h a r a c t e r . It h a s a p o i n t o f a c c e s s t o a n y c u l t u r e i n a s m u c h a s t h a t c u l t u r e is h u m a n ; n o c u l t u r e is a l i e n t o it. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , C h r i s t i a n f a i t h is n o t c o m p l e t e l y a t h o m e in a n y c u l t u r e b e c a u s e as m e r e h u m a n p ro d u c ts , e v e ry c u ltu re n e e d s to be to u c h e d a n d t ra n s fo r m e d b y th e m y s te ry o f th e G o d - m a n . T h is built-in te n sio n b e tw e e n C h ris tia n faith a n d c u ltu re w a s m o s t s u c c in c tly p u t by th e a u t h o r o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y d o c u m e n t E p i s tl e to D io g e n e t u s w h e r e it is s a i d t h a t f o r C h r i s t i a n s “ e v e r y a l i e n h o m e l a n d is t h e i r s a n d e v e r y h o m e l a n d a l i e n ” . 11 I f t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n faith a n d c u ltu re c o m e s fro m th e b e g in n in g s o f C h ristia n ity , its l a t e s t e x p r e s s i o n c o m e s f r o m P o p e F r a n c i s . H i s a f f i r m a t i o n t h a t “ ev ery c u ltu re o ffe rs p o sitiv e v a lu e s an d fo rm s w h ich can en rich t h e w a y t h e G o s p e l is p r e a c h e d , u n d e r s t o o d a n d l i v e d ” 12 i n d i c a t e s its a c c e s s t o all c u l t u r e s ; h i s s t a t e m e n t t h a t “ n o s i n g l e c u l t u r e c a n G e o r g e K a r u v e lil: C h r i s ti a n F a it h , P h i lo s o p h y , a n d C u l t u r e 103 e x h a u s t t h e m y s t e r y o f o u r r e d e m p t i o n in C h r i s t ” 13 e m p h a s i z e s its tran s-cu ltu ral character. T h e w o r d ‘r e a s o n ’ t o o h a s d i v e r s e m e a n i n g s a n d s i n c e I c a n n o t d e a l w i t h t h e m h e r e , I m e r e l y s u g g e s t t h a t P e t e r ’s a d d r e s s a t t h e t e m p l e a f t e r t h e P e n t e c o s t ( A c t 2: 12 f f ) b e t a k e n a s t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t at s h o w i n g t h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f C h r i s t i a n f a i t h . H e r e is a s i t u a t i o n o f p e rp le x ity a n d lack o f u n d e r sta n d in g ; the d iscip les are a c c u s e d o f b e in g irra tio n a l, d ru n k , o u t o f th e ir m in d s . P e t e r tells t h e m th a t s u c h is n o t t h e c a s e a n d h e l p s t h e m t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n b y r e f e r r i n g t h e m t o t h e w o r d s o f P r o p h e t J o e l . I f t h i s is t a k e n a s a m o d e l f o r l i n k i n g r e a s o n a n d f a i t h , t h e n it h a s t w o i m p l i c a t i o n s . F i r s t , r a t i o n a l i t y o f f a i t h c o n s i s t s in b r i n g i n g t h e c o n t e n t o f o n e ’s f a i t h ( o b j e c t o f o n e ’s s h r a d d h a ) a c c e s s i b l e t o o t h e r s w h o s e f a i t h ( o b j e c t o f s h r a d d h a ) d i f f e r s f r o m o n e ’s o w n . S e c o n d , t o m a k e o n e ’s f a i t h s o a c c e s s i b l e i s t o r e l a t e it t o t h o s e b e l i e f s t h a t a r e a l r e a d y a c c e s s i b l e t o th e lis te n e rs . In o th e r w o r d s , P e t e r w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a b le to e x p la in his fa ith w ith th e h e lp o f th e P r o p h e t, if h is lis te n e r s w e r e n o t J e w s . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t t h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f f a i t h c a n c h a n g e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e a n d f r o m c u l t u r e t o c u l t u r e . T h i s is a c r u c i a l p o i n t f o r e x p l o r i n g t h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f f a i t h d o w n t h e c e n t u r i e s , a s d o n e in this paper. W h a t a b o u t w i s d o m ? It c o n c e r n s “ s o u n d a n d s e r e n e j u d g m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n d u c t o f l i f e ” . 14 W i s d o m is a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r ; s o a r e t e c h n i q u e s . K n o w l e d g e , u n d e r s t o o d a s i n f o r m a t i o n , is b a s i c t o both w is d o m and te c h n iq u e s . B ut te c h n iq u e s are c o n te x t free; a n y o n e w h o k n o w s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e l e v e r c a n u s e it t o lift w e i g h t s . W is d o m c a lls fo r a c r e a tiv e r e s p o n s e to th e u n iq u e n e s s o f g iv e n s i t u a t i o n s . L e a r n i n g to u s e a g u n is to l e a r n a t e c h n i q u e ; b u t d e t e r m i n i n g w h e n t o u s e it c a l l s n o t o n l y f o r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e situ atio n b u t also fo r w is d o m . R e fle c tiv e n e ss an d j u d g m e n t are th e t w o b a s i c c o m p o n e n t s o f w i s d o m . 15 T h e r e f o r e , w i s d o m t e n d s t o b e c r e a t i v e w h e r e a s t e c h n i q u e is r e p e t i t i v e . I f r a t i o n a l i t y o f f a i t h c o n s i s t s i n m a k i n g o n e ’s f a i t h a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e p e o p l e o f a g i v e n c u l t u r e , d o i n g it c r e a t i v e l y w i t h o u t u n d e r m i n i n g t h e b u i l t - i n t e n s i o n b e tw e e n fa ith a n d c u ltu re d e m a n d s w is d o m . W e sh a ll se e th a t su c c e s s fu l re s p o n s e s to c u ltu ra l c h a n g e m a in ta in e d th is te n s io n w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r r e s p o n s e s u n d e r m i n e d it. T h e p r e s e n t c r i s i s o f 104 J n a n a d e e p a 17/1 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 C h ris tia n th e o lo g y c a n b e se e n as an in sta n c e o f th e u n f o ld in g o f t h i s d y n a m i c s . In o r d e r t o s h o w t h i s I s h a l l d i v i d e t h e h i s t o r y o f W e ste rn C h ristia n ity in to th ree m a in stages. 2 . P r e - T h o m i s t i c C h r i s t i a n i t y ( B e g i n n i n g s t o t h e 1 2 th c e n tu r y ) P la c in g this larg e c h u n k o f h isto ry into o n e c a te g o ry m ig h t se e m arb itrary , as a lot h a d c h a n g e d d u rin g th e s e c e n tu r ie s . C h ris tia n ity h a d c h a n g e d f r o m b e in g a p e r s e c u te d re lig io n to b e c o m i n g th e s u c c e s s o r to th e R o m a n E m p ire , u n itin g th e w h o le o f E u ro p e ; Islam h a d e m e r g e d as a p o w e rfu l force a b o u t w h ic h the C h u rc h did n o t f e e l v e r y c o m f o r t a b l e . In s p i t e o f s u c h m a j o r c h a n g e s , t h e r e a r e th re e r e a s o n s f o r p l a c i n g this p art o f h isto ry in to o n e c a te g o ry . First, th e G r e c o - R o m a n c u ltu re in to w h ic h C h ris tia n ity w a s b o m w a s an e n c h a n te d o n e , p e rm e a te d w ith g o d s, g o d d e sse s, an d sp iritual p o w e r s . It r e m a i n e d s o t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d . S e c o n d , w h i l e t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s w e r e u n s p a r i n g in t h e i r c r i t i c i s m o f v a n i t y o f th e ir d eities, th eir p h ilo so p h ie s - e s p e c ia lly n e o -P la to n is m and S t o i c i s m — r e m a i n e d s p i r i t u a l p u r s u i t s . P h i l o s o p h y in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d w a s n o t t h e o r e t i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n , b u t a w a y o f l i f e . 16 In a w o r l d th a t w a s s a tu ra te d w ith p h i lo s o p h ie s o f this k in d , C h ri s t ia n i ty w a s c o n s c i o u s l y c u l t i v a t e d a s a d i s t i n c t p h i l o s o p h y . 17 T h i s b r i n g s m e t o th e th ird re a s o n fo r p la c in g this p art o f h isto ry in to o n e c a te g o ry . T h r o u g h o u t t h i s p e r i o d , t h e r e is n o d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y . W h e t h e r it w a s J u s t i n m a r t y r o r O r i g e n o f o l d , o r A u g u s t i n e o r A n s e l m o f l a t e r c e n t u r i e s , t h e i r t h e o l o g y is p h i l o s o p h y . A n s e l m g o e s to th e e x t e n t o f tr y in g to e x p la in th e C h r i s t ia n d o c tr in e o f t h e I n c a r n a t i o n in a m a n n e r “ a s i f n o t h i n g w e r e k n o w n a b o u t C h r i s t ” . 18 T h e k in d o f te n s io n th at an e n c h a n te d w o rld b rin g s to C h ris tia n fa ith c o n c e r n s th e n a tu re o f th e deity. T h u s w e h a v e th e g re a t C h risto lo g ica l co n tro v ersies. C h ristian thinkers steadfastly m ain tain ed t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e i r f a i t h a n d c u l t u r e b y r e s i s t i n g a ll a t t e m p t s to d e n y e ith e r th e h u m a n ity o r th e d iv in ity o f Je su s. G e o r g e K a r u v e lil: C h r i s t i a n F a ith , P h i lo s o p h y , a n d C u l t u r e 105 3 . A q u in a s a n d th e A r is to te lia n C h r is tia n ity F r o m o u r p e r s p e c t iv e th e first m a j o r c u ltu ra l c h a n g e to o k p la c e in t h e t w e l f t h a n d t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . T h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y is m a r k e d b y th e rise o f t w o b rillia n t P e te rs: P e te r A b e l a r d d a z z l e d w ith his lo g ic al s h a r p n e s s a n d P e te r L o m b a r d b e c a m e a s h i n i n g s ta r o n a c c o u n t o f h i s b r i l l i a n c e in s y n t h e s i z i n g f a i t h s t a t e m e n t s f r o m the s ta lw a r ts o f th e p r e v io u s m ille n n iu m . T h e s e t w o P e te rs, to g e th e r, p re p a re d the w a y fo r th e g re at sc h o la stic flo u rish in g th a t fo llo w e d . F u rth er, u n iv e rsitie s like P aris a n d O x fo r d that w o u ld h o ld s w a y o v e r C h r i s t e n d o m in t h e f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r i e s c a m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e at t h i s t i m e . M o s t i m p o r t a n t o f a ll, s c h o l a r l y c o n t a c t w i t h t h e I s l a m i c w o rld b ro u g h t th e m a j o r w o rk s o f A ris to tle into lim e lig h t a n d b e g a n to g a in w id e c irc u la tio n . U n lik e the A u g u s tin ia n m o d e l th at stu d ie d n atu re ( B o o k o f n atu re ) u n d e r the g u id a n c e o f the B ib le ( B o o k o f s c r i p t u r e ) t o s e e t h e i m p r i n t s o f G o d in n a t u r e , A r i s t o t l e w a s s e e n to s t u d y n a t u r e o n its o w n t e r m s . T h i s p o s e d a m a j o r c h a l l e n g e t o C h r i s t i a n f a i t h . T h e i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n w a s t o b a n t h e s t u d y o f A r i s t o t l e ’s n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , b u t w i t h o u t m u c h s u c c e s s . It w a s t h e g e n i u s o f A q u in a s that o v e r c a m e this p ro b le m a n d m a d e A risto tle lo o k a lm o st a C h r i s t i a n . T o p u t in c o n t e m p o r a r y p a r l a n c e , h e w a s t h e f i r s t o n e to r e c o g n iz e th e a u t o n o m y o f th e s a c re d a n d s e c u la r w ith o u t a llo w in g that a u t o n o m y to b e c o m e a d iv is io n o r fra g m e n ta tio n . In o r d e r t o a c c o m p l i s h t h a t , A q u i n a s h a d t o a d d r e s s t w o p r o b l e m s . T h e First w a s t h e p r o b l e m o f i n t e g r a t i n g t h e n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y o f A ris to tle w ith th e t ra n s c e n d e n t fo c u s o f C h ris tia n faith. T h i s w a s n o t t o o d ifficu lt, as A ris to tle h i m s e l f h a d s h o w n a w a y o f d o i n g this b y lin k in g his p h y s ic s w ith m e ta p h y s ic s , by a r g u in g fr o m the o b s e r v e d w o rld to an U n m o v e d M o v e r to e x p la in th e o b s e r v e d c h a n g e a n d m o t i o n in t h e w o r l d . A q u i n a s f o l l o w e d t h i s m o d e l a n d w h a t h e a c c o m p li s h e d c a m e to be k n o w n as th e f a m o u s F iv e W a y s. T h e f a c t t h a t t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e w a s s till a n e n c h a n t e d o n e th a t p la c e d a h ig h p r e m iu m o n m e ta p h y s ic s m a d e this p a s s a g e fro m p h y s ic s to m e ta p h y s ic s s m o o th a n d effo rtle ss. T h e se c o n d p ro b le m aro se fro m A q u in a s ’ realizatio n that, as far as C h ris tia n faith w a s c o n c e rn e d , lo g ic a n d p h ilo s o p h y c a n g o so fa r a n d n o further. U n lik e A n s e lm , h e w a s v e ry c le a r th a t s o m e 106 J n a n a d e e p a 17/1 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 d o c trin e s o f C h ris tia n faith (lik e the T rin ity ) c a n n o t b e m a d e a c c e s s i b l e t o a ll. T h i s w a s a m o r e d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m t o h a n d l e t h a n th e first as he h a d n o m o d e l s o lu tio n s a v a ila b le ; he h a d to d e v is e o n e h i m s e l f . H i s s o l u t i o n c o n s i s t e d in m a k i n g a s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n “ n a tu ra l” re a so n an d su p ern atu ral revelation, p h ilo so p h y an d theology. H e a rg u e d that th ese tw o w ay s o f k n o w in g c a n n o t co n flict; on the c o n tra ry th e y c o m p le m e n t e a c h o th e r in a s m u c h as th e o n e tells us t h a t G o d e x i s t s a n d t h e o t h e r t e l l s u s w h a t G o d is. T h u s p h i l o s o p h y f u n c ti o n s as p r e a m b le s to th e o lo g y . T h u s A q u i n a s m a n a g e d to m a i n t a i n th e t e n s io n b e t w e e n faith a n d c u l tu r e b y d i s t in g u is h i n g th e o lo g y a n d p h ilo s o p h y a n d yet d y n a m ic a lly lin k in g the o n e w ith th e other. 4 . T h e C h a lle n g e o f M o d e r n ity T h e b ig g e s t c u ltu ra l c h a lle n g e to C h r is tia n fa ith c a m e w ith m o d e rn ity , th at a m a lg a m o f d isp a ra te fa c to rs th at c a m e to b e c a lle d E n l i g h t e n m e n t r a t i o n a l i t y . It i n c l u d e d t h e s c i e n t i f i c r e v o l u t i o n w i t h its e n o r m o u s p o t e n t i a l t o p r e d i c t a n d c o n t r o l t h e n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a , th e R e n a i s s a n c e o r the re b irth o f the c la s sic a l h u m a n is t c u ltu ra l tra d itio n s o f an c ie n t G re e c e a n d R o m e , the R e fo rm a tio n a n d c o u n te r ­ R e f o r m a ti o n w ith th e ir fo c u s on e c c le s ia s tic a l r e f o rm s , a n d the F r e n c h r e v o l u t i o n w i t h its p r o m i s e o f f r a t e r n i t y , e q u a l i t y , a n d l i b e r t y in p l a c e o f f e u d a l m o n a r c h y a n d e c c l e s i a s t i c a l h i e r a r c h y . T h e c o m b i n e d r e s u l t w a s t h a t in m a n y r e s p e c t s h u m a n b e i n g s b e g a n to o c c u p y t h e p l a c e r e s e r v e d f o r G o d in t h e e a r l i e r e r a . 19 It w a s a d e c la ra tio n o f h u m a n in d e p e n d e n c e fro m G o d a n d the w o rld , from s o c i e t y a n d its i n h e r i t e d t r a d i t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n h e r i t a g e . A u t o n o m y f r o m G o d r e s u l t e d in t h e s e c u l a r i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y , th at “ p ro c e s s b y w h ich sec to rs o f so ciety and c u ltu re are re m o v e d f r o m t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d s y m b o l s ” .20 T h i s w as an en tire ly d ifferen t kind o f h u m a n ism fro m the C h ristian h u m a n is m c o m in g fro m the in sp iratio n o f th e G o d -m a n . T h is w as a s e lf- e n c lo s e d h u m a n is m that d e riv e d en tirely fro m w ith in th e a lle g e d n a t u r e o f h u m a n b e i n g s t h a n f r o m a n y r o o t e d n e s s in t r a n s c e n d e n c e . 21 It w o u l d b e n o e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t m o d e r n i t y r e p l a c e d t h e G o d m a n w i t h M a n - g o d w h e r e m a n 22 c r e a t e d g o d s t o s u i t h i s t h i n k i n g . T y p ic a l w a s th e id e a o f a d e istic g o d that sa tisfie d th e h u m a n n ee d G e o r g e K a r u v e lil: C h r i s t i a n F a it h , P h il o s o p h y , a n d C u l t u r e 107 f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e w o r l d ; t h i s w a s in d i s t i n c t c o n t i n u i t y w ith the A r is to te lia n -T h o m is tic n atural th e o lo g y . B u t u n lik e th at t r a d i t i o n , t h i s g o d w a s n o t p e r m i t t e d t o i n t e r v e n e in a w o r l d t h a t fu n c tio n e d o n the b a s is o f m e c h a n ic a l sc ie n tific law s. E m e rg in g fro m an era o f p lag u es and B lac k D e a th m o d e rn m an d e c la r e d his a u to n o m y f ro m n a tu re . N o w o n h e w a s to c o n tro l n a t u r e r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g c o n t r o l l e d b y it. N a t u r e w a s s e e n a s a m a c h i n e , n o t a s o u r c e o f a w e a n d w o n d e r . A r i s t o t l e ’s c o m p l e x ra tio n a lity o f fo u r- fo ld c a u s e s g a v e w a y to j u s t o n e o f th o s e c a u s e s , nam ely, efficien t cau sality o r em p irical reason. E v en tu ally , e m p iric a l scien c es w o u ld be c o n sid e re d as the only legitim ate p a ra d ig m o f h u m a n k n o w l e d g e . T h i s r e s u l t s in p h i l o s o p h y ( t h a t w a s t h e h a n d m a i d o f th e o lo g y fo r the s c h o la s tic s ) b e c o m in g th e u n d e r - la b o u r e r o f sc ie n c e (L o c k e ). T h e o lo g y , the o ld q u e e n o f s c ie n c e s, w a s d e th ro n e d an d sen t in to ex ile, into th e m a rg in s o f m o d e rn u n iv e rsitie s. S c ie n c e s th e m se lv es, d ev o id o f the unity p ro v id ed by eith er the an cien t m etap h y sics or by G o d , w o uld b ec o m e n u m ero u s au to n o m o u s d i s c i p l i n e s , r e s u l t i n g in t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a n d life . M o d e m s d eclared their a u to n o m y not o nly fro m G o d an d n atu re b u t a l s o f r o m s o c i e t y a n d r e c e i v e d t r a d i t i o n s . “ H a v e t h e c o u r a g e to use y o u r o w n re a so n ” (K a n t) b e c a m e the m o tto o f the age. R e a s o n w as u n d e rsto o d as an in d iv id u al ac h ie v e m e n t, a m a tte r o f b rin g in g u n d e r c o n s c i o u s s c r u tin y a n d c o n tr o l. E a rlie r, h u m a n life w a s s e e n as h a v in g a b u ilt-in te lo s , a jo u r n e y to w a r d s G o d . M o d e r n ity h a d n o p lac e fo r su ch te lo s , e x c e p t th o se g o als w h ic h h u m a n b e in g s th e m s e l v e s p u t in p la c e . T h u s , m o d e r n m a n r e c o g n iz e d h i m s e l f as in s tin c tu a l a n d selfish , fre e to a c c u m u la te ( g r o w th o f c a p ita lis m o c c u rs at this tim e ) a n d c o p u la te , b u t as ra tio n a l b e in g s , th e s e a c t i v i t i e s c o u l d b e d o n e in a n o r d e r l y f a s h i o n b y f r e e l y c o m i n g t o g e t h e r in a so c ia l c o n tra c t. 4 .1 . R e s p o n s e s to M o d e r n ity T h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h r ig h tly s a w th a t m o d e m c u l t u r e a n d its s e l f - e n c l o s e d h u m a n i s m w a s a t l o g g e r h e a d s w i t h its o w n v i s i o n a n d m i s s io n . Its r e s p o n s e to s u c h c o m p r e h e n s i v e d i s s o n a n c e w ith t h e p r e v a l e n t c u l t u r e c a m e i n t h e f o r m o f A e t e r n i P a t r is ( 1 8 7 9 ) , t h e 108 J n a n a d e e p a 17/1 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 e n c y c l i c a l t h a t m a d e s c h o l a s t i c i s m its o f f i c i a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y , c u l m i n a t i n g in t h e a n t i - m o d e r n i s t o a t h o f 1 9 1 0 . T h e s e m o v e s g a v e a n i d e n t i t y t o t h e C h u r c h t h a t m a d e it d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e p r e v a i l i n g c u ltu re as w ell as fro m th e p ro te s ta n t tra d itio n s s tru g g lin g to c o p e w i t h t h e m o d e r n i t y . B u t it a l s o m e a n t t h a t w h i l e A r i s t o t l e w a s o u t o f f a v o u r in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c u l t u r e , A r i s t o t e l i a n t h i n k i n g r e m a i n e d t h e h e a r t o f t h e C h u r c h ’s i n t e l l e c t u a l life . W h i l e t h e i d e n t i t y f o s t e r e d b y t h e s c h o l a s t i c f o r t i f i c a t i o n l e d t o a v i b r a n t l i f e w i t h i n t h e C h u r c h , it w a s a n i d e n t i t y b o u g h t at t h e c o s t o f its m i s s i o n . It c o u l d n o t r e a c h o u t t o t h e m e n a n d w o m e n s t e e p e d in m o d e m c u l t u r e . T h e b u i l t - i n t e n s io n b e t w e e n faith an d c u ltu re w a s m a n a g e d b y is o la tin g its e lf f r o m c u ltu r e . I f th e o rig in al id e n tity o f C h ris tia n faith w a s in s e p a r a b le f r o m its m i s s i o n , t h e r e e x i s t e d a g a p b e t w e e n its n e w i d e n t i t y a n d its m i s s i o n . M i s s i o n w a s still e m p h a s i z e d , b u t it m e a n t r e a c h i n g o u t t o fa ra w a y lan d s that had not heard o f C h rist than b e c o m in g a leaven i n o n e ’s s u r r o u n d i n g c u l t u r e . It is t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n o f its c o m p r o m i s e d i d e n t i t y a n d m i s s i o n t h a t l e d t o V a t i c a n I I . 23 In h i s o p e n i n g a d d r e s s t o t h e C o u n c i l P o p e J o h n X X I I I s a i d , “ o u r d u t y is n o t j u s t t o s a f e g u a r d t h i s t r e a s u r e , a s t h o u g h it w e r e s o m e m u s e u m p i e c e a n d w e t h e c u r a t o r s , b u t e a r n e s t l y a n d f e a r l e s s l y t o d e d i c a t e o u r s e l v e s t o t h e w o r k t h a t n e e d s t o b e d o n e in this m o d e r n a g e o f o u rs, p u rs u in g th e path w h ic h th e C h u rc h has f o l l o w e d f o r a l m o s t t w e n t y c e n t u r i e s ” .24 In t h e w o r d s o f M e r c e l l i n o D ’A m b r o s i o , “ T h e g o a l o f t h e c o u n c i l w a s t o e q u i p t h e C h u r c h t o e ffectiv ely re -ev an g e lize the w o rld th ro u g h a c o m p e llin g p ro c la m a tio n o f J e s u s C h r i s t in a l a n g u a g e t h a t t h e w o r l d c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d ( e c c l e s i a a d e x t r a ) . ” 25 In t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m i s s i o n , it w a s n o t a m a t t e r o f t a k i n g th e g o s p e l to f a r a w a y la n d s as w a s d o n e d u r in g th e a d v e n t o f m o d e r n i t y b u t t a k i n g it t o t h e a l i e n a t e d c h i l d r e n o f m o d e r n i t y . I f t h e C o u n c i l w a s o c c a s i o n e d b y t h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e W e s t w i t h its s p e c i f i c f o c u s o n r e - e v a n g e l i z i n g t h o s e p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d t h a t h a d g o n e a w a y f r o m its C h r i s t i a n m o o r i n g s , t h i s g o a l c l e a r l y h a s n o t b o r n e t a n g i b l e f r u i t s in t h e p o s t c o n c i l i a r p e r i o d . T h e r e a r e n o i n d i c a t i o n s o f a n e w E u r o p e b r e a t h i n g in t h e f r a g r a n c e o f t h e g o s p e l . I f a n y t h i n g , t h e s i g n s p o i n t in t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n . G e o r g e K a r u v e lil: C h r is t ia n F a ith , P h il o s o p h y , a n d C u l t u r e 109 W h a t w e n t w r o n g ? W h i l e m a i n s t re a m C a t h o l ic t h e o l o g ia n s like R a h n e r v alian tly tried to re ach o u t to m o d e rn c u ltu re b y re w o rk in g o n t h e m o d e r n i s t c l a i m t h a t r e l i g i o u s t r u t h is a n a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e d i v i n e , 26 a t t h e h a n d s o f l e s s e r t h e o l o g i a n s C a th o lic th e o lo g y b e g a n to look like m e re r e s ta te m e n t o f “ s e c u la r i d e a s in t h e o l o g i c a l t e r m s ” .27 W h a t m a k e s t h i s a s s e s s m e n t c r e d i b l e is t h a t it c o m e s n o t f r o m t h e o p p o n e n t s o f t h e C o u n c i l b u t f r o m its le a d in g lig h ts, w h o , o fte n at g re a t p e r s o n a l c o s t to th e m s e lv e s , p io n e e r e d the re v o lu tio n a ry c h a n g e s . If L o u is B o u y e r ta lk e d a b o u t th e “ fo o lish c a p itu la tio n to the spirit o f th e tim e s ” H e n ri d e L u b a c w a r n e d o f “ t h e s e r v i l e a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e w o r l d a n d its c h a n g i n g i d o l s ” .28 S i m i l a r s e n t i m e n t s a r e f o u n d in t h e w r i t i n g s o f C o n g a r . 29 F i d e s e t R a t io e c h o e s t h e m w h e n it t a l k s o f t h e o l o g i a n s b e i n g “ sw a y e d u n c ritica lly by a sse rtio n s w h ic h h av e b e c o m e p art o f c u r r e n t p a r l a n c e a n d c u l t u r e ” .30 A l t h o u g h it s h o u l d n o t b e g e n e r a l i z e d , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t it s a y s s o m e t h i n g r i g h t a b o u t m u c h p o s t c o n c i l i a r t h e o l o g y , t h i s t h e o l o g y is a s g u i l t y o f f a i l i n g t o m a i n t a i n t h e t e n s i o n b e tw e e n faith a n d c u ltu re as n e o - s c h o la s tic is m . W h e r e a s n e o ­ s c h o la s tic is m re s o lv e d th e te n s io n b e tw e e n faith a n d c u ltu r e b y w ith d ra w in g w ith in the w alls, m u c h p o stc o n c ila r th e o lo g y re so lv e d it b y l o s i n g i t s e l f i n t h e p r e v a l e n t c u l t u r e . . N e i t h e r s o l u t i o n b e f i t s t h e C h ris tia n spirit th at ca lls fo r m a in ta in in g a c re a tiv e te n s io n b e tw e e n t h e t w o , s u c h t h a t t h e g o o d n e w s c a n b e h e a r d in t h e c u l t u r e w i t h o u t b e i n g l o s t in it. I n o t h e r w o r d s , C h r i s t i a n f a i t h c a l l s f o r a c t i v e l y e n g a g i n g w i t h a g i v e n c u l t u r e ; it c a n n e i t h e r i s o l a t e i t s e l f f r o m c u l t u r e n o r d i s s o l v e i t s e l f i n t o it. It is o n e t h i n g t o o b s e r v e t h a t m u c h p o s t c o n c i l i a r t h e o l o g y f a i l e d to m a in ta in th e t e n s io n b e t w e e n faith a n d c u ltu re a n d q u i te a n o t h e r t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y it h a p p e n e d . It s e e m s t o m e t h a t t h i s h a s t o d o w ith th e v e ry n a tu re o f th e re sso u rc e m e n t m o v e m e n t th a t led to th e c o n c ilia r c h a n g e s . F a c e d w ith th e arid ity a n d f o r m a li s m o f n e o s c h o l a s t i c s m a n d its i n a b i l i t y t o r e a c h o u t t o t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , th e p io n e e r s o f this m o v e m e n t s o u g h t to re tu rn to th e s o u rc e s o f C h ris tia n fa ith , th e p a trim o n y th e C a th o lic s s h a re d w ith th e P r o t e s t a n t s , i.e ., t h e s c r i p t u r e s a n d t h e F a t h e r s o f t h e C h u r c h . T h i s c a m e t o b e k n o w n a s r e s s o u r c e m e n t. T h e l o g i c o f r e s s o u r c e m e n t w a s s i m p l e . It w a s t h e e a r l y t h i n k e r s w h o h a d f i r s t s t r u g g l e d t o 110 J n a n a d e e p a 17/1 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 in teg rate th e ir C h ristia n c o m m i tm e n t w ith an alien cu ltu re an d th o u g h t p a tte rn . T h e r e f o r e b y r e tu r n in g to th e m , th e y h o p e d , o n e c o u ld learn v a l u a b l e l e s s o n s f o r r e a c h i n g o u t t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e s . M o r e o v e r , it w o u ld h a v e tan g ib le e c u m e n ic a l b en efits. W h a t w a s o v e r l o o k e d in t h e p r o c e s s w a s t h a t t h e F a t h e r s w e r e re la tin g th e ir faith to a c u ltu re th at w a s c o n s o n a n t w ith th e o v erall C h r i s t i a n p u r s u i t s . N o t o n l y w a s it a n e n c h a n t e d c u l t u r e b u t a l s o a c u l t u r e w h e r e p h i l o s o p h y w a s u n d e r s t o o d a s a w a y o f l if e . C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y , in t h a t c u l t u r e , t o o k t h e f o r m o f a d i s t i n c t p h i l o s o p h y a s w e h a v e s e e n . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e o lo g y f u n c t i o n e d as th e d ir e c t m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n faith a n d c u ltu re , th en . N e i t h e r o f t h e s e c o n s o n a n t f e a t u r e s e x i s t e d in m o d e r n c u l t u r e : it w a s n e i t h e r e n c h a n t e d , n o r w a s m o d e m p h i l o s o p h y a w a y o f life . It w a s T h o m a s A q u i n a s , a n d n o t t h e e a r l y F a t h e r s , w h o f a c e d a c o m p a r a b l e s i t u a t i o n in t h e p a s t . T h i s is w h a t m a k e s h i m a n e x e m p l a r f o r o u r t i m e s . W h e n t h e C h u r c h s a y s t h a t t h e “ C h u r c h ’s p r e f e r e n c e f o r h i s m e t h o d a n d h i s d o c t r i n e i s n o t e x c l u s i v e , b u t ‘e x e m p l a r y ’” 31, it s e e m s t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t y e s t e r d a y ’s s o l u t i o n c a n n o t w o r k f o r t o d a y ’s p r o b l e m s , b u t w e c a n l e a r n f r o m it t o a d d r e s s t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s i t u a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e le t u s r e tu r n to h o w A q u in a s m a n a g e d to m a i n t a i n th e te n s i o n b e t w e e n his faith a n d c u ltu re . 5 . A q u in a s a s E x e m p la r A q u i n a s ’s s o l u t i o n , w e h a v e s e e n , h a d t w o c o m p o n e n t s . T h e first w a s lin k in g th e n a tu ra l w o r ld to th e r e lig io u s w o r ld . T h i s to o k t h e f o r m o f a r g u m e n t s . In an e n c h a n t e d c u l t u r e A q u i n a s c o u l d o v e r lo o k th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n a th eistic G o d a n d th e A risto telian te r m s lik e th e “ U n m o v e d M o v e r ” a n d d e c la r e as a c o n c lu s i o n to e a c h o f his fiv e w a y s b y sa y in g , “ an d th is e v e r y o n e u n d e r sta n d s b y G o d .” A lth o u g h the g e n iu s o f B laise P ascal (1 6 2 3 -1 6 6 2 ) h ad seen th ro u g h th e im p o ssib ility o f su ch id en tificatio n , C ath o lic ap o lo g ists k e p t p o u r in g th e o ld A risto te lia n -T h o rn istic a r g u m e n ta tiv e w in e into t h e n e w e r N e w t o n i a n b o t t l e s b u t t o n o a v a i l . 32 P r o t e s t a n t t h i n k e r s w h o fo llo w e d S c h le ie rm a c h e r turn ed to re lig io u s e x p e rie n c e as the s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e o l o g y . T h i s w a s in k e e p i n g w i t h a n t h r o p o c e n t r i s m o f m o d e r n i t y , b u t K a r l B a r t h f o u n d its f r u i t s s o u n p a l a t a b l e t o h i s G e o r g e K a r u v e lil: C h r i s t i a n F a it h , P h il o s o p h y , a n d C u l t u r e 111 C h r i s t i a n s e n s i b i l i t i e s t h a t h e r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t it. In t h e p o s t c o n c i l i a r p e r io d R a h n e r trie d to r e w o r k th e p a th o f re lig io u s e x p e r ie n c e , as w e h a v e n o te d , b u t th e s u c c e s s o f th a t a tte m p t to r e a c h o u t to m o d e m cu ltu re rem a in s debatable. It is t h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t o f A q u i n a s ’ s o l u t i o n f o r m a i n t a i n i n g the t e n s io n b e t w e e n faith a n d c u ltu re that has a sp e c ia l s i g n i fi c a n c e t o d a y . T h i s is t h e d i s t i n c t i o n a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p h e s a w b e t w e e n p h ilo so p h y and theology. W e n o ted that he m a k e s a c lea r d istin c tio n b etw e en p h ilo so p h y an d th eo lo g y or w hat he ca lled “ sacred d o c t r i n e ” .33 P h i l o s o p h y f u n c t i o n e d a s p r e a m b l e s o r p r o l e g o m e n a t o theology. T h e n e e d fo r p re a m b le s a ssu m e s a g a p b e tw e e n C h ristia n f a i t h a n d c u l t u r e , b e t w e e n w h a t c a n b e c o m m u n i c a t e d t o a ll in a c u ltu re an d th o se C h ris tia n d o c trin e s th at c a n n o t b e d ire c tly c o m m u n i c a t e d t o a l l . 34 A n d it w a s t h e t a s k o f p h i l o s o p h y t o b r i d g e th is g a p . A s a m e d i a t o r , p h i l o s o p h y m u s t b e a c c e s s i b l e to all, C h r i s t i a n s a n d n o n - C h r i s t i a n s . I f it is t o b e a c c e s s i b l e t o all it m u s t u s e t h e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e t o all a n d s p e a k t h e c o m m o n l a n g u a g e t h a t A q u i n a s t e r m e d “ n a t u r a l r e a s o n ” . B u t , u n l i k e in A n s e l m a n d oth ers o f the e a rlie r p e rio d , p h ilo s o p h y d o e s n o t deal w ith th e “ s a c re d d o c t r i n e ” . “ S a c r e d d o c t r i n e ” g o e s b e y o n d t h e c o m m o n l a n g u a g e ; it is a c c e s s i b l e o n l y t o t h o s e w h o h a v e a c c e p t e d t h e p r e a m b l e s . I f p h i l o s o p h y is t o f u n c t i o n a s p r e a m b l e s t o C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y , n o t a n y p h i l o s o p h y t h a t is p r e v a l e n t in t h e c u l t u r e c a n d o t h i s j o b ; o n ly a p h ilo s o p h y th at a c c o rd s w ith th e C h ristia n faith c a n p e r fo r m th a t f u n c tio n . In o t h e r w o r d s , o n ly a C h r is tia n p h i l o s o p h y c a n b e a p re a m b le to C h ris tia n th e o lo g y . A q u i n a s k n e w this v e ry w e ll. T h is re a liz a tio n p r o m p te d h im to re je c t o r m o d if y th o s e e l e m e n t s o f A r i s t o t e l i a n p h i l o s o p h y t h a t d i d n o t a c c o r d w i t h t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h . 35 (In d o i n g so, h e f o l l o w e d th e e x a m p l e o f th e e a r lie r t h i n k e r s w h o c a rv ed a C h ristian p h ilo s o p h y o u t o f av ailab le cu ltu ral m aterial). S u ch m o d ificatio n s, o f co u rse, w ere d o n e th ro u g h re a s o n in g and arg u m e n ts . T h e re su lting p h ilo so p h y p ro v id e d an integral w a y o f life th a t r e s o n a te d w ith fa ith a n d c u l tu r e at th e s a m e tim e . E v e n after m o d ify in g A risto te lia n te a c h in g s to m a k e t h e m c o n f o r m to th e C h ristia n re v e la tio n , su c h p h ilo s o p h y (e v e n a C h r is tia n o n e !) still r e m a i n e d a p h i l o s o p h y ; it s t i ll f e ll s h o r t o f w h a t w a s r e v e a l e d b y 112 J n a n a d e e p a 17/1 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 G o d in J e s u s C h r i s t . T h e p h i l o s o p h y o f A q u i n a s , t h u s , b e c o m e s t h e i m m e d ia t e i n te rfa c e b e t w e e n th e C h ris tia n faith a n d th e s u rro u n d i n g cu ltu re, th e o lo g y b ein g the m o re m e d iate in terface. T h eo lo g y , for A q u i n a s , f u n c t i o n s li k e t h e b a l a n c i n g p o l e o f a t i g h t r o p e w a l k e r w h e r e p h i l o s o p h y is t h e r o p e t h a t is t i e d a c r o s s t h e c h a s m b e t w e e n f a i t h a n d c u ltu r e . In th is tig h tr o p e w a lk b e t w e e n C h r i s t ia n it y a n d c u ltu re , t h e o l o g y c a n d o its b a l a n c i n g a c t o n l y a s l o n g a s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l r o p e is f i r m l y t i e d t o t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h o n t h e o n e e n d a n d t h e p r e v a l e n t c u l t u r e o n t h e o t h e r . T y i n g it t o o c l o s e t o a c u l t u r e w o u l d s a c rif ic e C h r is tia n faith at th e a lta r o f c u ltu r a l f a s h io n a n d f a s te n in g it t o o c l o s e t o C h r i s t i a n f a i t h w o u l d s a c r i f i c e i t s m i s s i o n a t t h e a l t a r o f identity. T h e C h ris tia n p h ilo s o p h y o f A q u in a s m a n a g e d to h o ld on to b o th w i t h o u t c o m p r o m i s i n g e ith er. W h e n A q u i n a s ’ p h i lo s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y is n o t u n d e r s t o o d in t h i s i n t e g r a l f a s h i o n , it r u n s t h e r i s k o f t r e a t i n g h i s n a t u r a l t h e o l o g y a s a s o r t o f m i s s i o n a r y m a n u a l , 36 a n d his t h e o l o g y in to d o c trin a l s ta te m e n ts w i th o u t a c o n te x t. M ic h a e l B u c k l e y t e l l s u s t h a t t h e f o r m e r w a s t h e s in o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s in t h e i r i n i t i a l e n c o u n t e r w i t h m o d e r n i t y 37 a n d t h e r e s s o u r c e m e n t th in k e rs ta u g h t us that the latter w a s th e m is ta k e o f n e o -sc h o la s tic is m . T h is u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th eo lo g y and p h ilo s o p h y - th e o lo g y as the m e d ia te , a n d a C h ristia n p h ilo s o p h y as th e im m e d ia te , in te rfa c e b e t w e e n C h ri s t ia n faith a n d c u ltu re — h e lp s to e x p la i n th e s e e m i n g i n c o h e r e n c e o f th e v a rio u s re sp o n s e s o f the C h u r c h to m o d e rn cultu re. T h e C h u r c h ’s h i t h e r - t h i t h e r m o v e s b e c o m e i n e v i t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e d e m i s e o f s c h o l a s t i c i s m l e f t it b e r e f t o f a t i g h t r o p e f o r t h e o l o g y to w a lk on. T h e p re -c o n c ilia r C h u rc h to o k to fo rtify in g th e s c h o la stic w a l l s b e c a u s e it m i s t o o k s c h o l a s t i c i s m t o b e a p e r m a n e n t a c h i e v e m e n t a n d n o t as a b r id g e b e t w e e n C h ris tia n faith a n d a p a r tic u la r c u ltu re . S t r e n g t h e n i n g ( n e o - ) s c h o l a s t i c p h i l o s o p h y in t h e n e w c u l t u r e w a s like e r e c tin g an artificial w all o n to w h ic h th e c u ltu ra l e n d o f th e ro p e c o u l d b e f a s t e n e d ; t h e r o p e w a s t i g h t b u t it h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e l i v i n g c u l t u r e t o w h i c h t h e C h u r c h n e e d e d t o r e a c h o u t in m i s s i o n . T h e re ss o u r c e m e n t th in k e rs h e lp e d us to d e m o lis h th a t artificial w all s o t h a t it b e c a m e p o s s i b l e t o r e a c h o u t t o t h e e x i s t i n g c u l t u r e . I f p r e c o n c i l i a r t h e o l o g y re lie d on a tig h tr o p e th a t w a s tied to an e a r l i e r c u l t u r e , p o s t c o n c i l i a r t h e o l o g y l a r g e l y d i d a w a y w i t h a ll tig h tro p e s, as th e P ro tes ta n ts had d o n e b efo re. If the P ro tes tan ts G e o r g e K a r u v e lil: C h r i s t i a n F a ith , P h il o s o p h y , a n d C u l t u r e 113 c o n s c io u s l y s o u g h t to re tu rn to an e a rlie r tim e w h e n C h r is tia n ity w a s n o t “ c o r r u p te d ” by A r is to tle , the C a th o lic a tte m p t at r e s s o u r c e m e n t u n c o n s c i o u s l y t o o k it t o t h e s a m e p r e - T h o m i s t i c p e r i o d . W h a t w a s o v e r l o o k e d in b o t h i n s t a n c e s w a s t h e T h o m i s t i c in sig h t that re la tin g C h r is tia n faith to a d is s o n a n t c u ltu re c a lls fo r an in te rm e d ia ry b e tw e e n the tw o , that th eo lo g y c a n n o t b e related d irectly to s u c h a c u ltu r e . T h is a tte m p t at a th e o lo g ic a l w a lk w i th o u t a p h ilo s o p h ic a l tig h tro p e e x p l a i n s w h y e v e n a th e o lo g ic a l g ia n t like R ah n er has been d esc rib ed as a “ th e o lo g ia n in s e a r c h o f a p h i l o s o p h y ” .38 It is t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e u r g e n t n e e d f o r a n e w p h i l o s o p h i c a l t i g h t r o p e t h a t h a s l e d t h e C h u r c h t o c l e a r l y a f f i r m in m o re recen t tim e s that th ere ca n b e “ no C a th o lic th e o lo g y w ith o u t t h e r i g h t - p h i l o s o p h y ” .39 A l th o u g h s o m e a re lik e ly to se e th is as a call to re tu r n to th e safe ty o f the sc h o la stic w alls, th e C h u rc h s e e m s su ffic ie n tly c le a r t h a t it is n o t l o o k i n g at q u i c k - f i x s o l u t i o n s b u t s e t t i n g a l o n g t e r m a g e n d a , “ o n e o f the ta s k s w h i c h C h ris tia n t h o u g h t w ill h a v e to t a k e u p t h r o u g h t h e n e x t m i l l e n n i u m o f t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a ” 40. M o r e o v e r , t h e v e r y i d e a o f a n e x e m p l a r is t h a t o f s o m e o n e t o b e i m i t a t e d , n o t p a r r o t e d . T o i m i t a t e A q u i n a s t o d a y is t o b u i l d a t i g h t r o p e t o c o n t e m p o r a r y c u ltu re as he d id to his c u ltu re . S e e n th u s, th e C h u r c h is i n v i t i n g its i n t e l l e c t u a l s t o f o r g e a n e w t i g h t r o p e b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e o n w h i c h its t h e o l o g i c a l a r t i s t s c a n w a lk firm ly to re a c h o u t to th e m e n a n d w o m e n o f o u r tim e s w ith the g o o d n e w s . 6 . C o n c lu d in g O b s e r v a tio n s C o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e is r i g h t l y c a l l e d p o s t m o d e r n . L e t m e c o n c lu d e by m a k in g s o m e p re lim in ary o b s erv a tio n s a b o u t b u ild in g a tig h tro p e to this c u ltu re . T o d o fo r o u r c u ltu re w h a t A q u i n a s d id fo r his w o u ld re q u ire th at (1) w e sh o u ld k n o w the sim ila ritie s a n d th e d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n his c u ltu r e an d o u rs ; (2 ) d is c e r n th e o p p o rtu n itie s an d d a n g e rs o ffe re d by the id eatio n al c o m p o n e n t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l tu r e fo r C h r i s t ia n faith; a n d (3) d i a l o g u e w ith o u r c u l t u r e o n t h e b a s i s o f t h a t d i s c e r n m e n t . S u c h is t h e c h a l l e n g e f o r a n y o n e w h o w o u ld ta k e A q u in a s as an e x e m p la r for o u r tim es. 114 J n a n a d e e p a 17/1 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n h i s c u l t u r e a n d o u r s is th e a u to n o m y o f th e s e c u la r re a lm , in c lu d in g , a n d e s p e c ia lly , o f the s c i e n c e s . B u t t h e r e is a n i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e : w h e r e a s t h e s c i e n c e s (natural p h ilo s o p h y ) w e re unified u n d e r m e tap h y s ics an d h an d e d o v e r t o t h e q u e e n s h i p o f t h e o l o g y d u r i n g h i s t i m e , t h e r e is n o u n i f y i n g m e t a p h y s i c s n o w a n d t h e o l o g y is f o u n d o n l y o n t h e f r i n g e s o f a c a d e m ic s. A s a result the differen t scien ces are not o n ly a u to n o m o u s b u t a l s o f r a g m e n t e d . A n o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e m e c h a n ic a l p h ilo so p h y o f n ature p ro p a g a te d by m o d e rn ity has l o o s e n e d its g r i p w i t h t h e a r r i v a l o f q u a n t u m t h e o r y , it h a s n o t r e ­ i n s t a t e d t h e m y s t e r i o u s n e s s o f n a t u r e in a n y s i g n i f i c a n t w a y . O n t h e c o n tr a r y , th e o m n i p r e s e n t e le c tr o n ic m e d i a a n d in t e r n e t h a v e led to d e m o l i s h i n g a ll d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n n a t u r e a n d c u l t u r e , r e a l i t y a n d v irtu al reality, h u m a n p e r s o n s a n d ro b o ts ( im a g in e th e ta lk o f m a c h in e rig h ts s im ila r to h u m a n rig h ts!) T h e g o d s w h o w e r e b a n is h e d b y m o d e r n i t y a re a l l o w e d to re tu rn as lo n g as th e g o d s a r e c o n te n t to re m a in h u m a n c o n s tru c tio n s a n d n o t cla im a n y in d e p e n d e n t reality th at c a n p u t re stra in ts on the h u m a n fre e d o m to c o n stru c t. If the m o d e m s s p e c i a l i z e d in t a l k i n g a b o u t G o d , p o s t - m o d e r n s p r e f e r t h a t w e t a l k t o G o d , 41 i f w e s o c h o o s e . B u t in t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y r e a l G o d w e c a n listen to, o u r talk w o u l d e n d u p as m o n o l o g u e s to d e a f id o ls o f o u r o w n m ak in g . T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d is n o t w i t h o u t i t s o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Its a n th ro p o c e n tris m o ffe rs an o p p o rtu n ity for C h ristia n h u m a n is m , if it c a n b e r e s c u e d f r o m i t s s e l f - e n c l o s e d c h a r a c t e r . A l t h o u g h t h e m o v e a w a y fro m the m o d e rn m e c h a n ic a l p h ilo s o p h y to a m o re c o m p le x u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e w o r ld d o e s n o t a m o u n t to a n y re ­ e n c h a n t m e n t o f n a t u r e , it d o e s p e r m i t a m o r e w o n d e r i n g a t t i t u d e t o w a r d it. R e p l a c i n g t h e m i s p l a c e d s e l f - a s s u r a n c e o f t h e m o d e m s w h o id e n tifie d th e s e lf w ith th e c o n sc io u s , ra tio n a l s e lf w ith the m o r e m y s te r io u s a n d u n c o n s c io u s d im e n s io n s o f th e self, to g e th e r w i t h t h e m a n i f o l d a d v a n c e s in t h e s t u d y o f r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s , d o o ffe r a v e n u e s fo r m o v in g b e y o n d the self-en closed h u m a n is m o f t h e p a s t t o w a r d s th e t r a n s c e n d e n t h u m a n i s m o f C h r i s t ia n faith. T h i s is t h e c h a l l e n g e o f r e l a t i n g a l i v i n g f a i t h t o c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e . It is t h e c h a l l e n g e o f b e i n g a b l e t o l i s t e n t o a l i v i n g G o d a n d s p e a k i n g G e o r g e K a r u v e lil: C h r i s t i a n F a it h , P h i lo s o p h y , a n d C u l t u r e 115 o f w h a t o n e h a s h e a r d to th a t c u lt u r e , w ith th e f r e s h n e s s a n d c re a tiv ity that w i s d o m a lo n e p ro v id e s . N o te s 1. C f. P o p e J o h n P au l 11, F id e s E t R a tio ( M u m b a i : P a u l i n e P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1998); P o p e B e n e d i c t X V I , “ A d d r e s s to th e G e r m a n B u n d e s t a g ” o n S e p ­ t e m b e r 2 2 , 2 0 1 1 ; P o p e F r a n c is , L u m e n F id e i , no s. 3 2 , 3 3 , 3 4 . 2. D e c r e e o n th e R e fo n n o f E c c le s ia s tic a l S tu d ie s o f P h ilo s o p h y (2 0 1 1 ) issued b y th e C o n g r e g a t i o n f o r C a t h o l i c E d u c a t i o n ( C C E ) , h e n c e f o r t h , D e c r e e , no. 9. 3. F e r g u s K err, “ A D i f f e r e n t W o r l d : N e o s c h o l a s t i c i s m a n d Its D i s c o n ­ te n ts ,” I n te r n a tio n a l J o u r n a l o f S y s te m a tic T h e o lo g y 8, no. 2 ( 2 0 0 6 ), 129. 4. T h o m a s R e e s e SJ, “ 2001 a n d B e y o n d : P re p a r in g th e C h u r c h for the N e x t M i l l e n n i u m , ” A m e r i c a J u n e 2 1 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , 16. 5. D e c r e e , n o . 12. 6. D e c r e e , n o . 6 0 , l° b . 7. W in sto n C h u rc h ill, a d d re s s in g the H o u se o f C o m m o n s on 1 6 th N o v e m b e r 1 9 48. T h i s is a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f G e o r g e S a n t a y a n a w h o s a i d in h i s b o o k R e a s o n in C o m m o n S e n s e , “ T h o s e w h o c a n n o t r e m e m b e r t h e p a s t a r e c o n d e m n e d t o r e p e a t it” . S e e t h e V / i k i p e d i a article on G e o rg e S an tay an a, h ttp ://e n .w ik ip e d ia .o rg /w ik i/ G eo rg e_ S an ta y a n a 8. G e e r t z r e f e r s t o it a s “ w e b s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e h e h i m s e l f [ h u m a n b e ­ ing] h as s p u n ” . S e e , C l i f f o r d G e e r t z , T h e I n te r p r e ta tio n o f C u l­ tu r e s : S e l e c t e d E s s a y s ( N e w Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s , 1 9 7 3 ) , 5. 9. G e e r t z g o e s t o t h e e x t e n t o f s a y i n g t h a t c u l t u r e is “ t h e r o l e it p l a y s in s o c i a l lif e ” . S e e , I b id . vii. 10. S e e , T e r r e n c e W . T i l l e y , F a ith : W h a t I t I s a n d W h a t I t I s n ’t ( B a n g a ­ lore: T h e o l o g i c a l P u b l i c a t i o n s in I n d i a , 2 0 1 1 ) . 11. C i t e d in M a r g a r e t M a r y M i t c h e l l , F r a n c e s M . Y o u n g , a n d K . S c o t t B o w i e , e d s . , C a m b r i d g e H i s t o r y o f C h r is tia n ity , V ol. 1. O r i g i n s to C o n s ta n tin e ( C a m b r id g e ; N e w Y ork: C a m b r id g e U n iv e rs ity Press, 2 0 0 6 ) , 300. 12. P o p e F ra n c is , A p o s to lic E x h o r ta tio n E v a n g e lii G a u d iu m (V a tic a n Press, 2 0 1 3 ), no. 116; see also, no. 75. 13. 116 I b id . n o . 118. J n a n a d e e p a 17/1 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 14. B rand B l a n s h a r d , “ W i s d o m , ” in E n c y c l o p e d i a o f P h i l o s o p h y , e d . D o n a ld M . B o rc h e rt ( T h o m p s o n G ale, 2006), 793. 15. Ib id . 7 9 4 - 7 9 5 . 16. P i e r r e H a d o t a n d A r n o l d I. D a v i d s o n , P h ilo s o p h y a s a W a y o f L ife : S p i r i t u a l E x e r c i s e s f r o m S o c r a t e s to F o u c a u lt, t r a n s . M i c h a e l C h a s e ( M a l d e n , M A : B l a c k w e l l , 19 9 5 ). 17. W in ric h L o h r, “ C h ristia n ity as P h ilo so p h y : P r o b le m s an d P e r s p e c ­ t i v e s o f a n A n c i e n t I n t e l l e c t u a l P r o j e c t , ” V ig ilia e C h r i s t i a n a e 6 4 , no. 2 (2 0 1 0), 160-88. 18. St. A n s e l m , “ C u r D e u s H o m o , ” F o r d h a m U n i v e r s i t y C e n t e r f o r M e ­ d ie v a l S tu d ie s, h ttp ://w w w .fo rd h a m .e d u /h a lsa ll/b a s is /a n s e lrn proslo g iu m .h tm l, preface. 19. F r a n k B . F a r r e l l , S u b je c tiv ity , R e a lis m a n d P o s tm o d e r n is m : T h e R e ­ c o v e r y o f th e W o rld (C a m b rid g e : C a m b r id g e U niversity Press, 1996), 2. 20. P e t e r L . B e r g e r , T h e S o c i a l R e a l i t y o f R e li g io n ( H a m m o n d s w o r t h , M i d d l e s e x : P e n g u i n e B o o k s L t d , 1 9 7 3 ) , 113. 21. C f. L u m e n F id e i says, “ M o d e rn ity so u g h t to b u ild a u n iv e rsa l b r o th ­ e r h o o d b a s e d o n eq u ality , y et w e g ra d u a lly c a m e to realize that this b r o t h e r h o o d , l a c k i n g a r e f e r e n c e t o a c o m m o n F a t h e r a s its u l t i m a t e f o u n d a t i o n , c a n n o t e n d u r e ” . ( n o . 5 4 ) ; C h a r l e s T a y l o r c a l l s it t h e “ i m ­ m a n e n t f r a m e ” . S ee, C h a rle s Taylor, A S e c u la r A g e (C a m b rid e , M ass.: H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 2 0 0 7 ) , e s p e c i a l l y c h a p t e r 15. 22. I d e l i b e r a t e l y u s e t h e w o r d “ m a n ” h e r e ( a n d in t h i s s e c t i o n o n m o ­ d e rn ity ) not b e c a u s e o f g e n d e r insensitivity but for tw o unrelated r e a s o n s : ( 1 ) b e c a u s e o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c e a s e in s h o w i n g t h e r e v e r s a l o f th e G o d - m a n to M a n - g o d , a n d (2) b e c a u s e m o d e m p h ilo s o p h y a s a w h o l e h a d a t y p i c a l m a l e c h a r a c t e r in t e r m s o f its a g g r e s s i o n a n d in s e n s itiv ity to th e other. 23. A p a r t f r o m t h e n e e d t o r e a c h o u t in m i s s i o n to t h e m o d e m c u l t u r e , th e C o u n c i l w a s a l s o p r o m p t e d b y th e r e a l i z a t i o n th a t t h e n e o - s c h o l a s t i ­ c ism o f the n ineteenth a n d tw entieth centuries w a s far from the s c h o ­ l a s t i c i s m o f A q u i n a s , a n d a n e e d to r e t u r n to th e C h r i s t i a n ro o ts. 24. P o p e J o h n X X I I I , “ A d d r e s s a t t h e O p e n i n g o f V a t i c a n C o u n c i l I I ,” (h ttp ://w w w .c a th o lic cu ltu re.o rg /cu ltu re/lib rary / v ie w .c fm ? R e c N u m = 3 2 3 3 ,1962) 25. M arcellin o D ’ A m b r o s i o , “ T h e V i s i o n o f V a t i c a n II: B r i n g i n g A g g i o m a m e n t o t o t h e C h u r c h - P a r t 1,” G o o d N e w s A r c h i v e s M a r c h / G e o r g e K a r u v e lil: C h r i s t i a n F a i t h , P h i lo s o p h y , a n d C u l t u r e 117 A p ril, no. h ttp ://w w w .c c r .o r g .U k /a r c h iv e /g n 0 6 0 3 /g 0 5 .h tm # to p l (2006) 26. M a r y E. H i n e s , T h e T r a n s fo r m a tio n o f D o g m a : A n I n tr o d u c t io n to K a r l R a h n e r o n D o c tr in e ( N e w Y o rk : P a u l i s t P r e s s , 1 9 8 9 ). 27. R.R. R e n o , “T h e o l o g y after th e R ev o lu tio n ,” F irst T h in g s 173, M a y (2007), 19. 28. M a rc ellin o D ’A m b ro sio , “R essourcem ent T h eo lo g y , A g g i o r n a m e n t o , a n d th e H e r m e n e u t i c s o f T r a d i t i o n , ” C o m m u n io 18, n o . w i n t e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) , f . n . 7 4 . 29. F lynn an d M urray, eds., R e s s o u r c e m e n t: A M o v e m e n t f o r R e n e w a l in T w e n t i e t h - C e n t u r y C a t h o l i c T h e o l o g y 10. 30. F i d e s et R a t i o n o. 55. 31. D ec re e n o . 12 32. M ic h a e l B u c k le y , S .J., A t th e O r ig in s o f M o d e r n A th e is m ( N e w H a v e n : Y ale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 9 0 ). 33. “T h e o l o g y th a t is i n c l u d e d in th e s a c r e d d o c t r i n e d i f f e r s in k i n d f r o m th a t [n atu ral! t h e o l o g y w h i c h is p art o f p h i l o s o p h y ” . S T 1, q . l , a . i . 34. A q u i n a s c l a r i f i e s t h a t t h i s is n o t o n a c c o u n t o f a n y s h o r t c o m i n g in th e re v e la tio n fro m G o d b u t “ on a c c o u n t o f th e w e a k n e s s o f o u r i n t e l l i g e n c e ” a n d t h e n e e d “ t o m a k e its [ d i v i n e ] t e a c h i n g c l e a r ” ( S T 1, a . 5 . r e p l y to o b j . 1 a n d 2). 35. 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