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Black Liberation Theology: Postcolonial Perspective

A major emphasis for the field of postcolonial studies is to respond to discursive literature centered on European colonization efforts in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, the Pacific and throughout the world. Many postcolonial scholars have engaged in relocating both their space and place as an answer to the suppression of colonial voices by the dominant colonizer.

TEXAS CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY Black Liberation Hermeneutics: A Postcoloinal Perspective Written by Richard A.Thomas As part of coursework for HEBI 75970 The Bible and Empire Dr. R.S. Sugirtharaja Abstract A major emphasis for the field of postcolonial studies is to respond to discursive literature centered on European colonization efforts in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, the Pacific and throughout the world. Many postcolonial scholars have engaged in relocating both their space and place as an answer to the suppression of colonial voices by the dominant colonizer. One way that imperial forces subjugated the colonized is through the use of biblical literature. This sentiment holds true for the experience of African Americans in the United States. The African slaves were stripped of their home with respect to geographic location as well as their religious identity Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1 Scriptural Imperialism ................................................................................................................................... 1 Inculcation by the Society ............................................................................................................................. 2 Textualization by the Society ........................................................................................................................ 2 Displacement by the Society ......................................................................................................................... 3 Inculcation of African Slaves ......................................................................................................................... 3 Textualization by the Slaveholders ............................................................................................................... 4 Displacement of the African Slaves .............................................................................................................. 4 Theologies of Liberation ............................................................................................................................... 5 A Postcolonial Perspective ............................................................................................................................ 6 Liberation Hermeneutic from Hinduism ....................................................................................................... 6 Mohandas Gandhi: Jivanmukta .................................................................................................................... 6 Black Liberation Hermeneutic....................................................................................................................... 7 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 8 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................. 9 Introduction Both liberation and postcolonial theologies have added a new dynamic to the discourse of biblical hermeneutics. They have both acknowledged the presence of the multiplicity of voices within the biblical discourse, namely that of the poor. For African Americans in the United States poverty encapsulates sociopolitical, pecuniary, psychological, and spiritual forms. Any form of biblical hermeneutic must be able to address those forms. Liberation theology has been used by African American to include their experience of colonization through slavery as part of biblical hermeneutics. A postcolonial perspective on biblical hermeneutics allows African Americans to expand the context of liberation so that it fits multivalent appropriations. The effects of imperial powers extend far beyond the immediate period of colonization. This truth is most evident when exploring the relationship between colonization and biblical hermeneutics. The British and Foreign Bible Society diffusion of scriptural imperialism in India mirrored the efforts of the slaveholders in America to appropriate the Bible for slaves. To reclaim the biblical text both Indians and African Americans can reinterpret the biblical text using liberation theologies. Liberation theologies interpret the Bible so that it is life affirming for groups who are impoverished through colonial hermeneutics. The Hindu concept of the jivanmukta can be used by African Americans so that it expands the scope liberation to be more inclusive. One of the pivotal moments that marked the formation of the British scriptural imperial efforts in India was the formation of the British and Foreign Bible society.1 British and Foreign Bible Society The stated purpose of the society was to disseminate the Bible all across the world. According to John Owen, the society’s first general secretary it purpose was: The sole object shall be to encourage a wider dispersion of the Holy Scriptures. This society shall add its endeavors to those employed by other societies for circulation Scripture through the British dominions, and shall also according to its ability, extend its influence to other countries, whether Christian Mahomedan, or Pagan.2 However, through the Society’s efforts to spread the gospel they engaged in the practice of scriptural imperialism. Their use of biblical scripture served as a tool to impose their worldview on a population they believe to be pagan. It is also allowed them to devalue, dehumanize, and marginalize Hindus living in India.3 The British and Foreign Bible Society questioned the ability of the Hindu people to even receive divine revelation. Scriptural Imperialism The British and Foreign Bible Society monopolized the translation of the biblical text for the Hindu people. They used their English language as the basis for all translation. The imperialist message that the Society imposed on India was rooted in its millennialist beliefs.4 They believed themselves to be God’s chosen agents to transmit the Holy Word of God to the pagans. God first chose the Jews, followed by Romans, and finally the British to deliver the word of truth. The Society otherized the Hindu people, 1 R.S. Sugirtharaja, The Bible and the Third World, (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2001) p. 45 2 George Browne, The History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, (London; Bagster and Sons, 1859) p.10 Ibid., p.10 4 R.S. Sugirtharaja, The Bible and the Third World, (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2001) p. 56 3 1 believing them to be incapable of comprehending the lofty truths held within the biblical text in their native language without prior preparation from the missionaries. Translators used the fact that they could not find the vocabulary in the language of the indigenous population as proof of the inadequacy of Hindus to express the Christian message.5 One translator noted the lack of Christian vocabulary present in indigenous cultures by stating: “Not only the heathen, but the speech of the heathen must be Christianized. Their language itself needs to be born again.” 6 The British and Foreign Bible society colonization efforts also included creating a biblical hermeneutic involving inculcation, textualization, and displacement. Inculcation by the Society The British colonialist used biblical scripture to inculcate European manners to the native people. The local customs were considered barbaric when compared to the civilized British ones. The Bible was believed to add progress to the native Indians and their religion. Missionary literature continuously proclaimed the cultural advancements brought to the natives through biblical scripture.7 They would use the passages in Luke 8:26-39 to describe the superiority of Christian civilization as opposed to the native culture. The Lukan passage provides a moral imperative to treat others with dignity and respect. Verses 27 and 28 state: “Love your enemies do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who mistreat you.”(KJV) Christian principle of forgiving and blessing ones enemies was portrayed by the missionaries as counter the barbaric culture of the Indians whom they believed modeled their culture on the principle of retribution. The native culture was portrayed as primitive because the Indian natives were believed to repay violent actions with more violent actions. From the eyes of the British colonist this message was inferior to the biblical message that teaches kindness to one’s enemies.8 Thus inculcation served as an effective way for the Society to use the Bible as a way to devalue native culture while justifying imperial efforts to civilize. Textualization by the Society The Society also created a colonial hermeneutic through what is known as textualization. They privileged the written biblical text as the best way to tell the stories in the Bible over oral tradition. The missionaries believed that no religious teaching had any value if it was not written. This meant that the Word of God could only be transmitted to those who could read and translate it.9 The printed word was the only avenue by which the natives could discern or experience God’s revelation. The missionaries’ privileging of the written Word of God was based on their assumption that the oral culture of the native people was empty and need to be filled with riches of the written text.10 Those who could not read or interpret the Bible in were considered the illiterate of the society. Thus the missionaries’ ability to teach the native people to read the biblical text allowed them to serve as the primary transmitters of divine revelation. This tactic countered the tradition found in India which depended on orality as the major 5 Ibid., p.46 The Book Above Every Book, (London, The Bible House, 1910) p. 22 7 R.S. Sugirtharaja, The Bible and the Third World, (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2001) p. 63 6 8 Ibid., p. 64 Ibid., p. 68 10 Ibid., p. 68 9 2 form to transmit a text. Hermeneutics in India were a public activity performed by story-tellers.11 Through the use of textualization the missionaries from the Society were able to privilege their culture while serving as the sole transmitter of religious truth to the native Indians. Displacement by the Society One of the most effective ways that missionaries colonized the natives was through the use of displacement. The missionaries embarked upon displacing all of the marks of the local culture that they viewed would be a threat to their efforts to Christianize. They believed that the progressive nature of the Christian gospel had to take precedence over the local values and culture. 12 The Society wanted to counter any native customs and values that they thought undermined the viability of Christian virtues. Thus attributes of Hindu culture that focused on egalitarian values were a threat to the authoritative nature of biblical scripture. For example the Hindu concept of moksha as liberation or salvation was a much more egalitarian concept than the Christian virtue of salvation. Moksha in Hinduism is not achieved from one person, but rather through realizing the Divine reality through the yogas. The four yogas used to recognize the divine reality are they way of devotion (bhakti), the way of action (karma), the way of knowledge (jnana), and the eightfold path (raja). 13 Cultural values that encompassed this understanding of salvations posed a serious threat to the missionaries’ message of Christ as the only form of salvation. To counter this cultural understanding of salvation the missionaries would use text such as John 14:6. “6 Jesus saith unto him, I am the way, the truth, and the life: no man cometh unto the Father, but by me.” (KJV) This text proved to the natives that there was only route to salvation, through Jesus Christ. A group that acted similar to the British and Foreign Bible Society were the slaveholders in America. Their treatment of Africans slaves was comparable to the treatment of the native population in India. The empire that the slaveholders were trying to uphold was the slavocracy that dominated Southern culture. Slaveholders were the equivalent of missionaries and they used the biblical text in a way similar to the missionaries from the British and Foreign Bible Society. Inculcation of African Slaves Slavery by the middle of the 18th century had been solidified as an economic staple the Southern culture of the United States. It became a social, economic, moral and ethical imperative to continue the African slave trade. It was from these concerns that the debate over the humanity of slavery ensued. Slaveholders used the biblical text to justify the subjugation of African slaves on the premise of civilizing and Christianizing them. The enslaved Africans were seen a people from a primitive culture with a heathen religion.14 African culture was demeaned as tribal and the Africans were believed to be cannibals who followed polytheistic pagan religions. The Southern slaveholders believed that slavery in the United States combined with the gentle teachings of Christianity would be enough to civilize the Africans. The slaveholders desired to destroy all connections the African slaves had with their former home. The Africans were given names that the English speaking slaveholder thought were more 11 Ibid., p. 69 Ibid., p. 66 13 Stanley Samartah, The Hindu Response to the Unbond Christ Madras, Christian Literature for the Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 1974 14 Richard Fuller; Francis Wayland, Domestic Slavery As A Scriptural Insitution, (New York; Harvard College, 1860) p. 71 12 3 appropriate to designate them as property. The slaves were also severely punished for practicing any religious traditions from their home culture. The slaveholders believed that by inculcating Christian teachings to the slaves it would make them more docile. They would slowly but steadily inculcate the African slaves with Christian doctrines. They intentionally taught the African slaves only portions of biblical passages. Many of those passages dealt with the subordination of the slaves to their master.15 Slaveholders would justify this form of inculcation to both the slaves and others using passages such as John 16:12 that states: “I have yet many things to say to you, but ye cannot bear them now” (KJV). The American slaveholders were firm in their belief of the African slave’s inability to comprehend the entire message of the biblical revelation. This stance mirrored the British and Foreign Bible Society’s view of the native people in India. Inculcating Christian doctrines upon the African slaves was reinforced through the use of textualization. Textualization by the Slaveholders Perhaps the most effective way the slaveholders monopolized use of the biblical text was through textualization. Textualization allowed the slaveholders to be the primary transmitter of divine revelation for the African slaves. To solidify the grasp the slaveholders had on interpreting the biblical text they banned the slaves from educating themselves. Albert Raboteau notes that one of the penalties for learning was that the slave master would cut off one of the slaves’ finger every time they were caught trying to read.16 The slaveholders tried to annihilate all threats to the authority of their interpretation of biblical text by taking conscious measure to insure that there were no other interpretations available for the African slaves to use. The slave masters used biblical verses such as Ephesians 6:5 as a way to assert their authority and the authority of the written biblical text over the African slaves. Ephesians 6:5 states: “Slaves, obey your Earthly masters with fear and trembling, with a sincere heart, as you would Christ.”(KJV) This verse was continuously read to the slaves to make them docile and less likely to revolt. The verse gave a biblical imperative for slaves to be obedient to their masters. Privileging this written text reinforced the importance of the written Word of God spoken by the slave masters as well as the importance of the slaves to earnestly submit to their masters. The reliance on the written text was counter to the oral culture that African slaves were used to in their homeland.17 Thus by denying the African slaves a way to interpret the written text the slaveholders inadvertently allowed the slaves to develop another way to interpret the Bible through the oral tradition. African slaves would begin to rely on their own experience to understand the text and rearticulate it in the form of Spirituals.18 Displacement of the African Slaves It must be noted that the displacement of the African slaves took several forms. Slaves were physically displaced from their homeland and home culture and brought to America. The slave owners used a variety of different methods to displace the African culture. As captives the slaves were given new names and forcibly taught to abandon every aspect of their former lives. Their cultural values that often times centered on the oral tradition were replaced with rule by the written text. Slaveholders 15 Ibid., p. 73 Albert Raboteau, Slave Religion: the Invisible Institution in the Antebellum South, (New York; Oxford University Press, 2004) p. 207 17 Ibid., p. 209 18 Ibid., p. 210 16 4 controlled all the rights to the written text and controlled the tools to create what would become African slave culture Cultural displacement in many instance led to cultural annihilation. Slaveholders appropriated the biblical text as a tool to aid in the displacement and annihilation of African culture.19 Slaves were forbidden from all forms of public worship. The services they were allowed to attend were conducted by slave ministers who were supervised by the overseers. The overseers made sure the message the slaves heard was the rhetoric the slave masters would preach to them.20 Slaveholders used African slave preachers to create a new culture for the slave based on subservient Christian values. Frank Roberson, a slave preacher, subjected the slaves to a sermon discussing the role of the slave: “You slaves will go to heaven if you are good, but don’t ever think that you will be close to your mistress and master. No! No! There will be a wall between you; but there will be holes in it that will permit you to look out and see your mistress when she passes by. If you want to sit behind this wall, you must do the language of the text obey your masters.”21 Sermons such as this created a new culture for the slave to live by. The African slave was given the imperative to not lie or steal from the master and to always be a good slave through obedience.22 Furthermore, the African slaves were taught that they could not reach heaven nor could they ever be equal with their masters. However, if they observed the biblical teaching found in Ephesians 6:5 and Colossians 3:22 to “obey their master,” they could reach heaven.23 By effectively displacing and in many instances annihilating African values and culture, the slaveholders were able to eliminate those attributes they thought were a threat to the slaveholder’s and Christianity’s rule over the African slaves. Theologies of Liberation The domination of the biblical text by both the British Foreign and Bible Society in India as well as the slaveholders in America necessitated the formation of a new biblical hermeneutic. Liberation theology serves as one method by which marginalized groups such as the Hindu Indians and the African could read the text and privilege their concerns. Liberation hermeneutic offer several key attributes that can be utilized by marginalized groups affected by colonial interpretations of the biblical text. It offers commitment to eradicate poverty followed by critical reflection upon the biblical text. It also affirms that liberation is an all encompassing phenomenon tied to a unified history.24 This would mean that there is no separation between the history colonized and the history of colonizer. Liberation hermeneutic also believes in the privileging of the poor as a hermeneutical category and the absence of a neutral reading of text. Both of these attributes counter the colonial hermeneutics that ignores the concerns of the poor and advocates a monolithic reading of the biblical text.25 Due to the pervasive nature of the Society’s and the slaveholder’s efforts to subjugate their respective group poverty took on a more complex meaning. Poverty for these groups included economic, education, social, political, and cultural forms of poverty. Thus any theology of liberation for these groups has to account for the multivalent appropriations of poverty. 19 M. Shawn Copeland, Enfleshing Freedom, (Mineapolis; Fortress Press, 2010) p. 38 Ibid., p. 41 21 Albert Raboteau, Slave Religion: the Invisible Institution in the Antebellum South, (New York; Oxford University Press, 2004) p. 213 20 22 Ibid., p. 212 Ibid., p. 213 24 R.S. Sugirtharaja, The Bible and the Third World, (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2001) p. 205 25 Ibid., p. 206 23 5 A Postcolonial Perspective One of the aims of postcolonial theologies is to implore the multiplicity of voices in the discourse of liberation hermeneutics. A postcolonial perspective provides a more nuanced articulation of the meaning of liberation for marginalized groups. Marginalization no longer becomes exclusive to socio-economic categories, race, or cultural appropriation of difference. The disenfranchisement of other groups has in many ways been a result of colonization. Imperial forces have not only subjugated individuals physically, but perhaps more ominous intellectually. The totalizing effect of both the physical and the intellectual colonization has necessitated a liberation hermeneutic that accounts for these facets. Liberation theology through a postcolonial perspective has provided an apparatus for such a task, starting with redefining the meaning of poverty in the midst imperial forces. Liberation Hermeneutic from Hinduism A postcolonial perspective of liberation theology allows for an account of the variations in what it means to be impoverished in the aftermath of colonial rule. This task requires that liberation must be understood as encompassing every aspect of one’s life. The Hindu concept of the jivanmukta adequately addresses this concern. The terms moksha/mukti are used to describe liberation from life. The nineteenth century Brahmin Shankara describes moksha as: “The moment ignorance is dispelled through knowledge, the Self stand self-revealed. It is this that is called moksha.”26 The Self was later rearticulated as the Divine truth. The person who realizes the Divine truth is the jivanmukta. Shaiva Siddhanta added further understanding to the concepts of both moksha and the jivanmukta. He believed that liberation had two distinctive aspects. It is first the freeing of the soul from the life cycle through the realization of Divine truth. However, the other aspect of liberation is union with the Lord. 27 The jivanmukta find liberation in this life and help others toward reaching that liberation with the end goal as unification with the Lord. This understanding of liberation parallels the way Paul understands Christ in Galatians. “It is no longer I who live, but Christ who lives in me.” (Galatians 2:20 NRSV) F. Valialveetil describes the jivanmukta as the person who lives their life with the realization that it is not he who lives and acts but the Lord who lives and acts in him.28 Siddhanta also describes three attributes of the jivanmukta. They are liberated from selfishness, they are infused with the presence of the Lord, and they dedicate their life to the love and service of others.29 The jivanmukta has been used as a way to counter the colonialist and the colonialist hermeneutic in India. Mohandas Gandhi serves as an example of a jivanmukta who countered colonialist ideologies. Mohandas Gandhi: Jivanmukta Mohandas Gandhi was given the honorific title of Mahatama, meaning great soul, as a testament to his Earthly liberation and willingness to serve others.30 Equally befitting Gandhi would be the title jivanmukta. There is not one form of religious teaching that summed up the totality of Gandhi’s beliefs. He blended religious principles from Jainism, Buddhism, Vaisnavism, the Vedantan philosophies, and Chacko Valiaveetil, “Liberated Life: Ideal of Jivanmukti in Indian Religions Specifically in Saiva Siddhanta Madurai,” Arul Anandar College, 1980 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid. 30 Stanley Samartah, “The Hindu Response to the Unbond Christ Madras,” Christian Literature for the Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 1974 26 6 Islam. He strongly believed that through Jesus Christ humanity finds the greatest source of spiritual strength. For Gandhi, Jesus also served as the greatest example of a person who gave everything without asking for anything in return.31 As an example of this Gandhi would cite Bible verse such as Matthew 20:26-28 “It shall not be so among you. But whoever would be great among you must be your servant, and whoevers would be first among you must be your slave, even as the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.” (ESV) Gandhi understood this verse as Jesus referencing himself and his place on Earth. Thus Jesus exemplifies in this verse one who knows the Divine truth and lives to serve others. Jesus went beyond the jivanmukta by selflessly sacrificing his life for the well-being of humanity32. Following this precept became a lifelong journey for Gandhi. He gave of himself a countless number of times to serve others. It was through serving others that he was inspired to fight against the British colonial rule. Liberation theology’s idea of unified history as well as a unified destiny is also present in Gandhi’s thought. He was quoted as stating: “I believe that if one man gains spirituality, the whole world gains with him, and if one man falls, the whole world fall to that extent.”33 Liberation for Gandhi entailed the total liberation of all people. All people share a common destiny in the human experience. This creates an ethical imperative to fight for justice for all people. Justice for all people is continuously fighting for social and economic changes for all groups who are marginalized. For Gandhi God-realization could only be achieved through service to afflicted humanity.34 Although Gandhi never claimed be a jivanmukta he embodied all the essential feature of a jivanmukta through the way he lived his life. He found inspiration to combat imperialism through the liberative power he discovered in Jesus from the biblical text. The Mahatma served as an inspiration to African American leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr., Ralph Abernathy, and SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) and their struggles against imperialism. Black Liberation Hermeneutic The lasting effects of the slavocracy were that the slaveholders not only tried to enslave the physical bodies of the slaves but their minds as well.35 As noted earlier, one method of controlling the minds of the slave was through the use of the biblical text. The slaveholders were not completely successful in their attempt to control the slaves through the Bible. Enslaved people understood God as both the creator and their source for freedom. Liberation for the slave resembled moksha in Hinduism. Slaves had to discern for themselves the reality of Divine truth apart from what they had been taught by the slave masters. This discernment process has continued to present day for African Americans. Although they no longer face subjugation from slavery they face what Arundhati Roy observes as the “New Imperialism,” under the contemporary context. She states: “Even in its battered economic state, the United States continues to cling to hegemonic power- exercising preeminence in nuclear power, asserting its will in global policies, influencing both global culture and cultural products, advancing putatively humanitarian initiatives.”36A key tool for the slaves to combat the oppressive forces of the slaveholders was a firm belief in Jesus as the liberator. 31 Ibid. Ibid. 33 Norman Thomas, “Liberation for Life: A Hindu Liberation Philosophy,” American Society of Missiology vol. 16 issue. 149, (1988) p. 158 34 Ibid., p.158 35 M. Shawn Copeland, Enfleshing Freedom, (Mineapolis; Fortress Press, 2010) p. 41 36 Arundhati Roy, A Ordi ary Perso ’s Guide to E pire, (Cambridge; South End, 2004) p. 84 32 7 In the same sense that slaves viewed Jesus as the liberator in past, African Americans today can create a liberation hermeneutic using Jesus as the ultimate example of the jivanmukta. If Jesus is the ultimate jivanmukta then those who want to truly follow in his path must act similarly. The jivanmukta is liberated from selfishness, permeated with the presence of the Lord and, spends their life both loving and serving others. All of these features were attributes of Jesus found within the biblical text. The description of Jesus in Matthews 20:26-28 fulfills the description of Jesus as the ultimate jivanmukta. Furthermore, liberation hermeneutic gives humankind the imperative to imitate Jesus as the jivanmukta. Paul writes in the book of Galatians: “ For you were called to freedom, brothers. Only do not use your freedom as an opportunity for the flesh, but through love serve one another.” (Galatians 5:13 NRSV) This verse encompasses all of the attributes of the jivanmukta. Humanity is free because of the realization of the Divine truth through knowing Jesus Christ. The recognition of the Divine truth allows humanity to serve one another through love. It is this biblical virtue that counters the threat of the “New Imperialism” faced in society today. A practical application for this virtue in America is the continued fight for both social and economic justice. African American continue in the struggle for justice whether it be for the hate crimes perpetuated against Emmitt Till in 1955 or the murder of Trayvon Martin in 2013. Liberation hermeneutics allows one to realize their connection to the pain and suffering caused from these tragedies. Gandhi proclaimed: “If one [man] falls we all fall to that extent.”37 Thus it becomes important for African Americans to work towards the alleviation of suffering of all God’s creatures. A practical approach to this is to work towards ending the social structures that caused the deaths of Emmitt Till and Trayvon Martin. Namely, those structures are racial discord, poverty, and oppressive power structures. This requires the love and service towards others found within both the biblical text and through the jivanmukta. Conclusion The biblical text has always been used as a tool to manipulate disenfranchised groups. Groups such as the British and Foreign Bible Society in India and slaveholders in the United States have tried in vain to be the sole proprietors of biblical hermeneutics for their respective groups. However, the Divine truth exist a part from any monolithic interpretation of the text. It is through finding meaning in the work and ministry of Jesus that marginalized groups such as Indians and African Americans can reappropriate biblical hermeneutics so that it is more life affirming. Nor a Tho as, Liberation for Life: A Hindu Liberation Philosophy, A erica “ociety of Missiology vol. 16 issue. 149, (1988) p. 158 37 8 Bibliography Browne, George. The History of the British and Foreign Bible Society. London; Bagster and Sons. 1860. Copeland, M. Shawn. Enfleshing Freedom. Mineapolis; Fortress Press. 2010. Fuller, Richard; Wayland, Francis. Domestic Slavery As A Scriptural Insitution. New York; Harvard College. 1860. Raboteau, Albert. Slave Religion: the Invisible Institution in the Antebellum South. New York; Oxford University Press. 2004. Roy, Arundhati. An Ordinary Person’s Guide to Empire. Cambridge; South End. 2004. Samartah, Stanley. “The Hindu Response to the Unbond Christ Madras.” Christian Literature for the Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society. 1974. Sugirtharaja, R. S. The Bible and the Third World. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press. 2001. The Book Above Every Book. London, The Bible House. 1910. Thomas, Norman. “Liberation for Life: A Hindu Liberation Philosophy.” American Society of Missiology. vol. 16 issue. 149. 1988. Valiaveetil, Chacko. “Liberated Life: Ideal of Jivanmukti in Indian Religions Specifically in Saiva Siddhanta Madurai.” Arul Anandar College. 1980. 9