TEXAS CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY
Black Liberation
Hermeneutics:
A Postcoloinal Perspective
Written by Richard A.Thomas
As part of coursework for
HEBI 75970 The Bible and Empire
Dr. R.S. Sugirtharaja
Abstract
A major emphasis for the field of postcolonial studies is to respond to discursive
literature centered on European colonization efforts in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, the Pacific
and throughout the world. Many postcolonial scholars have engaged in relocating both their
space and place as an answer to the suppression of colonial voices by the dominant colonizer.
One way that imperial forces subjugated the colonized is through the use of biblical literature.
This sentiment holds true for the experience of African Americans in the United States. The
African slaves were stripped of their home with respect to geographic location as well as their
religious identity
Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Scriptural Imperialism ................................................................................................................................... 1
Inculcation by the Society ............................................................................................................................. 2
Textualization by the Society ........................................................................................................................ 2
Displacement by the Society ......................................................................................................................... 3
Inculcation of African Slaves ......................................................................................................................... 3
Textualization by the Slaveholders ............................................................................................................... 4
Displacement of the African Slaves .............................................................................................................. 4
Theologies of Liberation ............................................................................................................................... 5
A Postcolonial Perspective ............................................................................................................................ 6
Liberation Hermeneutic from Hinduism ....................................................................................................... 6
Mohandas Gandhi: Jivanmukta .................................................................................................................... 6
Black Liberation Hermeneutic....................................................................................................................... 7
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Introduction
Both liberation and postcolonial theologies have added a new dynamic to the discourse of
biblical hermeneutics. They have both acknowledged the presence of the multiplicity of voices within
the biblical discourse, namely that of the poor. For African Americans in the United States poverty
encapsulates sociopolitical, pecuniary, psychological, and spiritual forms. Any form of biblical
hermeneutic must be able to address those forms. Liberation theology has been used by African
American to include their experience of colonization through slavery as part of biblical hermeneutics. A
postcolonial perspective on biblical hermeneutics allows African Americans to expand the context of
liberation so that it fits multivalent appropriations.
The effects of imperial powers extend far beyond the immediate period of colonization. This
truth is most evident when exploring the relationship between colonization and biblical hermeneutics.
The British and Foreign Bible Society diffusion of scriptural imperialism in India mirrored the efforts of
the slaveholders in America to appropriate the Bible for slaves. To reclaim the biblical text both Indians
and African Americans can reinterpret the biblical text using liberation theologies. Liberation theologies
interpret the Bible so that it is life affirming for groups who are impoverished through colonial
hermeneutics. The Hindu concept of the jivanmukta can be used by African Americans so that it
expands the scope liberation to be more inclusive. One of the pivotal moments that marked the
formation of the British scriptural imperial efforts in India was the formation of the British and Foreign
Bible society.1
British and Foreign Bible Society
The stated purpose of the society was to disseminate the Bible all across the world. According to
John Owen, the society’s first general secretary it purpose was:
The sole object shall be to encourage a wider dispersion of the Holy Scriptures. This society shall add
its endeavors to those employed by other societies for circulation Scripture through the British
dominions, and shall also according to its ability, extend its influence to other countries, whether
Christian Mahomedan, or Pagan.2
However, through the Society’s efforts to spread the gospel they engaged in the practice of scriptural
imperialism. Their use of biblical scripture served as a tool to impose their worldview on a population
they believe to be pagan. It is also allowed them to devalue, dehumanize, and marginalize Hindus living
in India.3 The British and Foreign Bible Society questioned the ability of the Hindu people to even
receive divine revelation.
Scriptural Imperialism
The British and Foreign Bible Society monopolized the translation of the biblical text for the
Hindu people. They used their English language as the basis for all translation. The imperialist message
that the Society imposed on India was rooted in its millennialist beliefs.4 They believed themselves to be
God’s chosen agents to transmit the Holy Word of God to the pagans. God first chose the Jews, followed
by Romans, and finally the British to deliver the word of truth. The Society otherized the Hindu people,
1
R.S. Sugirtharaja, The Bible and the Third World, (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2001) p. 45
2
George Browne, The History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, (London; Bagster and Sons, 1859) p.10
Ibid., p.10
4
R.S. Sugirtharaja, The Bible and the Third World, (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2001) p. 56
3
1
believing them to be incapable of comprehending the lofty truths held within the biblical text in their
native language without prior preparation from the missionaries. Translators used the fact that they
could not find the vocabulary in the language of the indigenous population as proof of the inadequacy of
Hindus to express the Christian message.5 One translator noted the lack of Christian vocabulary present
in indigenous cultures by stating: “Not only the heathen, but the speech of the heathen must be
Christianized. Their language itself needs to be born again.” 6
The British and Foreign Bible society colonization efforts also included creating a biblical hermeneutic
involving inculcation, textualization, and displacement.
Inculcation by the Society
The British colonialist used biblical scripture to inculcate European manners to the native people.
The local customs were considered barbaric when compared to the civilized British ones. The Bible was
believed to add progress to the native Indians and their religion. Missionary literature continuously
proclaimed the cultural advancements brought to the natives through biblical scripture.7 They would use
the passages in Luke 8:26-39 to describe the superiority of Christian civilization as opposed to the native
culture. The Lukan passage provides a moral imperative to treat others with dignity and respect. Verses
27 and 28 state:
“Love your enemies do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who
mistreat you.”(KJV)
Christian principle of forgiving and blessing ones enemies was portrayed by the missionaries as counter
the barbaric culture of the Indians whom they believed modeled their culture on the principle of
retribution. The native culture was portrayed as primitive because the Indian natives were believed to
repay violent actions with more violent actions. From the eyes of the British colonist this message was
inferior to the biblical message that teaches kindness to one’s enemies.8 Thus inculcation served as an
effective way for the Society to use the Bible as a way to devalue native culture while justifying imperial
efforts to civilize.
Textualization by the Society
The Society also created a colonial hermeneutic through what is known as textualization. They
privileged the written biblical text as the best way to tell the stories in the Bible over oral tradition. The
missionaries believed that no religious teaching had any value if it was not written. This meant that the
Word of God could only be transmitted to those who could read and translate it.9 The printed word was
the only avenue by which the natives could discern or experience God’s revelation. The missionaries’
privileging of the written Word of God was based on their assumption that the oral culture of the native
people was empty and need to be filled with riches of the written text.10 Those who could not read or
interpret the Bible in were considered the illiterate of the society. Thus the missionaries’ ability to teach
the native people to read the biblical text allowed them to serve as the primary transmitters of divine
revelation. This tactic countered the tradition found in India which depended on orality as the major
5
Ibid., p.46
The Book Above Every Book, (London, The Bible House, 1910) p. 22
7
R.S. Sugirtharaja, The Bible and the Third World, (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2001) p. 63
6
8
Ibid., p. 64
Ibid., p. 68
10
Ibid., p. 68
9
2
form to transmit a text. Hermeneutics in India were a public activity performed by story-tellers.11
Through the use of textualization the missionaries from the Society were able to privilege their culture
while serving as the sole transmitter of religious truth to the native Indians.
Displacement by the Society
One of the most effective ways that missionaries colonized the natives was through the use of
displacement. The missionaries embarked upon displacing all of the marks of the local culture that they
viewed would be a threat to their efforts to Christianize. They believed that the progressive nature of the
Christian gospel had to take precedence over the local values and culture. 12 The Society wanted to
counter any native customs and values that they thought undermined the viability of Christian virtues.
Thus attributes of Hindu culture that focused on egalitarian values were a threat to the authoritative
nature of biblical scripture. For example the Hindu concept of moksha as liberation or salvation was a
much more egalitarian concept than the Christian virtue of salvation. Moksha in Hinduism is not
achieved from one person, but rather through realizing the Divine reality through the yogas. The four
yogas used to recognize the divine reality are they way of devotion (bhakti), the way of action (karma),
the way of knowledge (jnana), and the eightfold path (raja). 13 Cultural values that encompassed this
understanding of salvations posed a serious threat to the missionaries’ message of Christ as the only
form of salvation. To counter this cultural understanding of salvation the missionaries would use text
such as John 14:6.
“6 Jesus saith unto him, I am the way, the truth, and the life: no man cometh unto the Father, but by me.”
(KJV)
This text proved to the natives that there was only route to salvation, through Jesus Christ. A
group that acted similar to the British and Foreign Bible Society were the slaveholders in America. Their
treatment of Africans slaves was comparable to the treatment of the native population in India. The
empire that the slaveholders were trying to uphold was the slavocracy that dominated Southern culture.
Slaveholders were the equivalent of missionaries and they used the biblical text in a way similar to the
missionaries from the British and Foreign Bible Society.
Inculcation of African Slaves
Slavery by the middle of the 18th century had been solidified as an economic staple the Southern
culture of the United States. It became a social, economic, moral and ethical imperative to continue the
African slave trade. It was from these concerns that the debate over the humanity of slavery ensued.
Slaveholders used the biblical text to justify the subjugation of African slaves on the premise of
civilizing and Christianizing them. The enslaved Africans were seen a people from a primitive culture
with a heathen religion.14 African culture was demeaned as tribal and the Africans were believed to be
cannibals who followed polytheistic pagan religions. The Southern slaveholders believed that slavery in
the United States combined with the gentle teachings of Christianity would be enough to civilize the
Africans. The slaveholders desired to destroy all connections the African slaves had with their former
home. The Africans were given names that the English speaking slaveholder thought were more
11
Ibid., p. 69
Ibid., p. 66
13
Stanley Samartah, The Hindu Response to the Unbond Christ Madras, Christian Literature for the Christian Institute for the
Study of Religion and Society, 1974
14
Richard Fuller; Francis Wayland, Domestic Slavery As A Scriptural Insitution, (New York; Harvard College, 1860) p. 71
12
3
appropriate to designate them as property. The slaves were also severely punished for practicing any
religious traditions from their home culture. The slaveholders believed that by inculcating Christian
teachings to the slaves it would make them more docile. They would slowly but steadily inculcate the
African slaves with Christian doctrines. They intentionally taught the African slaves only portions of
biblical passages. Many of those passages dealt with the subordination of the slaves to their master.15
Slaveholders would justify this form of inculcation to both the slaves and others using passages such as
John 16:12 that states:
“I have yet many things to say to you, but ye cannot bear them now” (KJV).
The American slaveholders were firm in their belief of the African slave’s inability to
comprehend the entire message of the biblical revelation. This stance mirrored the British and Foreign
Bible Society’s view of the native people in India. Inculcating Christian doctrines upon the African
slaves was reinforced through the use of textualization.
Textualization by the Slaveholders
Perhaps the most effective way the slaveholders monopolized use of the biblical text was through
textualization. Textualization allowed the slaveholders to be the primary transmitter of divine revelation
for the African slaves. To solidify the grasp the slaveholders had on interpreting the biblical text they
banned the slaves from educating themselves. Albert Raboteau notes that one of the penalties for
learning was that the slave master would cut off one of the slaves’ finger every time they were caught
trying to read.16 The slaveholders tried to annihilate all threats to the authority of their interpretation of
biblical text by taking conscious measure to insure that there were no other interpretations available for
the African slaves to use. The slave masters used biblical verses such as Ephesians 6:5 as a way to assert
their authority and the authority of the written biblical text over the African slaves. Ephesians 6:5 states:
“Slaves, obey your Earthly masters with fear and trembling, with a sincere heart, as you would
Christ.”(KJV)
This verse was continuously read to the slaves to make them docile and less likely to revolt. The
verse gave a biblical imperative for slaves to be obedient to their masters. Privileging this written text
reinforced the importance of the written Word of God spoken by the slave masters as well as the
importance of the slaves to earnestly submit to their masters. The reliance on the written text was
counter to the oral culture that African slaves were used to in their homeland.17 Thus by denying the
African slaves a way to interpret the written text the slaveholders inadvertently allowed the slaves to
develop another way to interpret the Bible through the oral tradition. African slaves would begin to rely
on their own experience to understand the text and rearticulate it in the form of Spirituals.18
Displacement of the African Slaves
It must be noted that the displacement of the African slaves took several forms. Slaves were
physically displaced from their homeland and home culture and brought to America. The slave owners
used a variety of different methods to displace the African culture. As captives the slaves were given
new names and forcibly taught to abandon every aspect of their former lives. Their cultural values that
often times centered on the oral tradition were replaced with rule by the written text. Slaveholders
15
Ibid., p. 73
Albert Raboteau, Slave Religion: the Invisible Institution in the Antebellum South, (New York; Oxford University Press,
2004) p. 207
17
Ibid., p. 209
18
Ibid., p. 210
16
4
controlled all the rights to the written text and controlled the tools to create what would become African
slave culture Cultural displacement in many instance led to cultural annihilation. Slaveholders
appropriated the biblical text as a tool to aid in the displacement and annihilation of African culture.19
Slaves were forbidden from all forms of public worship. The services they were allowed to attend were
conducted by slave ministers who were supervised by the overseers. The overseers made sure the
message the slaves heard was the rhetoric the slave masters would preach to them.20 Slaveholders used
African slave preachers to create a new culture for the slave based on subservient Christian values.
Frank Roberson, a slave preacher, subjected the slaves to a sermon discussing the role of the slave:
“You slaves will go to heaven if you are good, but don’t ever think that you will be close to your
mistress and master. No! No! There will be a wall between you; but there will be holes in it that will
permit you to look out and see your mistress when she passes by. If you want to sit behind this wall, you
must do the language of the text obey your masters.”21
Sermons such as this created a new culture for the slave to live by. The African slave was given
the imperative to not lie or steal from the master and to always be a good slave through obedience.22
Furthermore, the African slaves were taught that they could not reach heaven nor could they ever be
equal with their masters. However, if they observed the biblical teaching found in Ephesians 6:5 and
Colossians 3:22 to “obey their master,” they could reach heaven.23 By effectively displacing and in
many instances annihilating African values and culture, the slaveholders were able to eliminate those
attributes they thought were a threat to the slaveholder’s and Christianity’s rule over the African slaves.
Theologies of Liberation
The domination of the biblical text by both the British Foreign and Bible Society in India as well
as the slaveholders in America necessitated the formation of a new biblical hermeneutic. Liberation
theology serves as one method by which marginalized groups such as the Hindu Indians and the African
could read the text and privilege their concerns. Liberation hermeneutic offer several key attributes that
can be utilized by marginalized groups affected by colonial interpretations of the biblical text. It offers
commitment to eradicate poverty followed by critical reflection upon the biblical text. It also affirms
that liberation is an all encompassing phenomenon tied to a unified history.24 This would mean that there
is no separation between the history colonized and the history of colonizer. Liberation hermeneutic also
believes in the privileging of the poor as a hermeneutical category and the absence of a neutral reading
of text. Both of these attributes counter the colonial hermeneutics that ignores the concerns of the poor
and advocates a monolithic reading of the biblical text.25 Due to the pervasive nature of the Society’s
and the slaveholder’s efforts to subjugate their respective group poverty took on a more complex
meaning. Poverty for these groups included economic, education, social, political, and cultural forms of
poverty. Thus any theology of liberation for these groups has to account for the multivalent
appropriations of poverty.
19
M. Shawn Copeland, Enfleshing Freedom, (Mineapolis; Fortress Press, 2010) p. 38
Ibid., p. 41
21
Albert Raboteau, Slave Religion: the Invisible Institution in the Antebellum South, (New York; Oxford University Press,
2004) p. 213
20
22
Ibid., p. 212
Ibid., p. 213
24
R.S. Sugirtharaja, The Bible and the Third World, (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2001) p. 205
25
Ibid., p. 206
23
5
A Postcolonial Perspective
One of the aims of postcolonial theologies is to implore the multiplicity of voices in the
discourse of liberation hermeneutics. A postcolonial perspective provides a more nuanced articulation of
the meaning of liberation for marginalized groups. Marginalization no longer becomes exclusive to
socio-economic categories, race, or cultural appropriation of difference. The disenfranchisement of other
groups has in many ways been a result of colonization. Imperial forces have not only subjugated
individuals physically, but perhaps more ominous intellectually. The totalizing effect of both the
physical and the intellectual colonization has necessitated a liberation hermeneutic that accounts for
these facets. Liberation theology through a postcolonial perspective has provided an apparatus for such a
task, starting with redefining the meaning of poverty in the midst imperial forces.
Liberation Hermeneutic from Hinduism
A postcolonial perspective of liberation theology allows for an account of the variations in what
it means to be impoverished in the aftermath of colonial rule. This task requires that liberation must be
understood as encompassing every aspect of one’s life. The Hindu concept of the jivanmukta adequately
addresses this concern. The terms moksha/mukti are used to describe liberation from life. The nineteenth
century Brahmin Shankara describes moksha as: “The moment ignorance is dispelled through
knowledge, the Self stand self-revealed. It is this that is called moksha.”26 The Self was later
rearticulated as the Divine truth. The person who realizes the Divine truth is the jivanmukta. Shaiva
Siddhanta added further understanding to the concepts of both moksha and the jivanmukta. He believed
that liberation had two distinctive aspects. It is first the freeing of the soul from the life cycle through the
realization of Divine truth. However, the other aspect of liberation is union with the Lord. 27 The
jivanmukta find liberation in this life and help others toward reaching that liberation with the end goal as
unification with the Lord. This understanding of liberation parallels the way Paul understands Christ in
Galatians.
“It is no longer I who live, but Christ who lives in me.” (Galatians 2:20 NRSV)
F. Valialveetil describes the jivanmukta as the person who lives their life with the realization that
it is not he who lives and acts but the Lord who lives and acts in him.28 Siddhanta also describes three
attributes of the jivanmukta. They are liberated from selfishness, they are infused with the presence of
the Lord, and they dedicate their life to the love and service of others.29 The jivanmukta has been used as
a way to counter the colonialist and the colonialist hermeneutic in India. Mohandas Gandhi serves as an
example of a jivanmukta who countered colonialist ideologies.
Mohandas Gandhi: Jivanmukta
Mohandas Gandhi was given the honorific title of Mahatama, meaning great soul, as a testament
to his Earthly liberation and willingness to serve others.30 Equally befitting Gandhi would be the title
jivanmukta. There is not one form of religious teaching that summed up the totality of Gandhi’s beliefs.
He blended religious principles from Jainism, Buddhism, Vaisnavism, the Vedantan philosophies, and
Chacko Valiaveetil, “Liberated Life: Ideal of Jivanmukti in Indian Religions Specifically in Saiva Siddhanta Madurai,”
Arul Anandar College, 1980
27
Ibid.
28
Ibid.
29
Ibid.
30
Stanley Samartah, “The Hindu Response to the Unbond Christ Madras,” Christian Literature for the Christian Institute for
the Study of Religion and Society, 1974
26
6
Islam. He strongly believed that through Jesus Christ humanity finds the greatest source of spiritual
strength. For Gandhi, Jesus also served as the greatest example of a person who gave everything without
asking for anything in return.31 As an example of this Gandhi would cite Bible verse such as Matthew
20:26-28
“It shall not be so among you. But whoever would be great among you must be your servant, and
whoevers would be first among you must be your slave, even as the Son of Man came not to be served
but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.” (ESV)
Gandhi understood this verse as Jesus referencing himself and his place on Earth. Thus Jesus
exemplifies in this verse one who knows the Divine truth and lives to serve others. Jesus went beyond
the jivanmukta by selflessly sacrificing his life for the well-being of humanity32. Following this precept
became a lifelong journey for Gandhi. He gave of himself a countless number of times to serve others. It
was through serving others that he was inspired to fight against the British colonial rule. Liberation
theology’s idea of unified history as well as a unified destiny is also present in Gandhi’s thought. He
was quoted as stating: “I believe that if one man gains spirituality, the whole world gains with him, and
if one man falls, the whole world fall to that extent.”33
Liberation for Gandhi entailed the total liberation of all people. All people share a common
destiny in the human experience. This creates an ethical imperative to fight for justice for all people.
Justice for all people is continuously fighting for social and economic changes for all groups who are
marginalized. For Gandhi God-realization could only be achieved through service to afflicted
humanity.34 Although Gandhi never claimed be a jivanmukta he embodied all the essential feature of a
jivanmukta through the way he lived his life. He found inspiration to combat imperialism through the
liberative power he discovered in Jesus from the biblical text. The Mahatma served as an inspiration to
African American leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr., Ralph Abernathy, and SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) and their struggles against imperialism.
Black Liberation Hermeneutic
The lasting effects of the slavocracy were that the slaveholders not only tried to enslave the
physical bodies of the slaves but their minds as well.35 As noted earlier, one method of controlling the
minds of the slave was through the use of the biblical text. The slaveholders were not completely
successful in their attempt to control the slaves through the Bible. Enslaved people understood God as
both the creator and their source for freedom. Liberation for the slave resembled moksha in Hinduism.
Slaves had to discern for themselves the reality of Divine truth apart from what they had been taught by
the slave masters. This discernment process has continued to present day for African Americans.
Although they no longer face subjugation from slavery they face what Arundhati Roy observes as the
“New Imperialism,” under the contemporary context. She states: “Even in its battered economic state,
the United States continues to cling to hegemonic power- exercising preeminence in nuclear power,
asserting its will in global policies, influencing both global culture and cultural products, advancing
putatively humanitarian initiatives.”36A key tool for the slaves to combat the oppressive forces of the
slaveholders was a firm belief in Jesus as the liberator.
31
Ibid.
Ibid.
33
Norman Thomas, “Liberation for Life: A Hindu Liberation Philosophy,” American Society of Missiology vol. 16 issue.
149, (1988) p. 158
34
Ibid., p.158
35
M. Shawn Copeland, Enfleshing Freedom, (Mineapolis; Fortress Press, 2010) p. 41
36
Arundhati Roy, A Ordi ary Perso ’s Guide to E pire, (Cambridge; South End, 2004) p. 84
32
7
In the same sense that slaves viewed Jesus as the liberator in past, African Americans today can
create a liberation hermeneutic using Jesus as the ultimate example of the jivanmukta. If Jesus is the
ultimate jivanmukta then those who want to truly follow in his path must act similarly. The jivanmukta is
liberated from selfishness, permeated with the presence of the Lord and, spends their life both loving
and serving others. All of these features were attributes of Jesus found within the biblical text. The
description of Jesus in Matthews 20:26-28 fulfills the description of Jesus as the ultimate jivanmukta.
Furthermore, liberation hermeneutic gives humankind the imperative to imitate Jesus as the jivanmukta.
Paul writes in the book of Galatians:
“ For you were called to freedom, brothers. Only do not use your freedom as an opportunity for the
flesh, but through love serve one another.” (Galatians 5:13 NRSV)
This verse encompasses all of the attributes of the jivanmukta. Humanity is free because of the
realization of the Divine truth through knowing Jesus Christ. The recognition of the Divine truth allows
humanity to serve one another through love. It is this biblical virtue that counters the threat of the “New
Imperialism” faced in society today. A practical application for this virtue in America is the continued
fight for both social and economic justice. African American continue in the struggle for justice whether
it be for the hate crimes perpetuated against Emmitt Till in 1955 or the murder of Trayvon Martin in
2013. Liberation hermeneutics allows one to realize their connection to the pain and suffering caused
from these tragedies. Gandhi proclaimed: “If one [man] falls we all fall to that extent.”37 Thus it
becomes important for African Americans to work towards the alleviation of suffering of all God’s
creatures. A practical approach to this is to work towards ending the social structures that caused the
deaths of Emmitt Till and Trayvon Martin. Namely, those structures are racial discord, poverty, and
oppressive power structures. This requires the love and service towards others found within both the
biblical text and through the jivanmukta.
Conclusion
The biblical text has always been used as a tool to manipulate disenfranchised groups. Groups
such as the British and Foreign Bible Society in India and slaveholders in the United States have tried in
vain to be the sole proprietors of biblical hermeneutics for their respective groups. However, the Divine
truth exist a part from any monolithic interpretation of the text. It is through finding meaning in the work
and ministry of Jesus that marginalized groups such as Indians and African Americans can reappropriate
biblical hermeneutics so that it is more life affirming.
Nor a Tho as, Liberation for Life: A Hindu Liberation Philosophy, A erica “ociety of Missiology vol. 16 issue. 149,
(1988) p. 158
37
8
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Copeland, M. Shawn. Enfleshing Freedom. Mineapolis; Fortress Press. 2010.
Fuller, Richard; Wayland, Francis. Domestic Slavery As A Scriptural Insitution. New York; Harvard
College. 1860.
Raboteau, Albert. Slave Religion: the Invisible Institution in the Antebellum South. New York; Oxford
University Press. 2004.
Roy, Arundhati. An Ordinary Person’s Guide to Empire. Cambridge; South End. 2004.
Samartah, Stanley. “The Hindu Response to the Unbond Christ Madras.” Christian Literature for the
Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society. 1974.
Sugirtharaja, R. S. The Bible and the Third World. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press. 2001.
The Book Above Every Book. London, The Bible House. 1910.
Thomas, Norman. “Liberation for Life: A Hindu Liberation Philosophy.” American Society of
Missiology. vol. 16 issue. 149. 1988.
Valiaveetil, Chacko. “Liberated Life: Ideal of Jivanmukti in Indian Religions Specifically in Saiva
Siddhanta Madurai.” Arul Anandar College. 1980.
9