Managing Migration in the Philippines: Lessons for India

1 Working Paper 393 MANAGING MIGRATION IN THE PHILIPPINES: LESSONS FOR INDIA S.Irudaya Rajan U.S. Mishra November 2007 2 Working Papers published since August 1997 (WP 279 onwards) can be downloaded from the Centre’s website (www.cds.edu) 3 MANAGING MIGRATION IN THE PHILIPPINES: LESSONS FOR INDIA S. Irudaya Rajan U.S.Mishra November 2007 This piece of research is financed by the Ministry of Indian Overseas Affairs, Government. of India and executed on behalf of the Research Unit on International Migration at the Centre for Development Studies. A preliminary version of this paper was presented at an Open Seminar on 20 April, 2007 at CDS on the occasion of the third advisory committee meeting of the Migration Unit, chaired by Mr AA Chalai, Deputy Secretary, Ministry of Indian Overseas Affairs, Government of India. The discussant of the paper was Mr. T.P. Sreenivasan, former Ambassador whose comments were useful in its revision. Comments received from the participants of the seminar are also gratefully acknowledged. The researchers were hosted by the Scalabrini Migration Center in Manila, Philippines where Fr. Fabio Baggio and Ms. Maruja M.B.Asis facilitated the study in terms of identifying of, and introducing to, the agencies associated with managing international migration. We greatly benefited from the interaction with them on the subject. The following is the list of organisations which contributed to this research in terms of sharing their views and perceptions on the issue: Scalabrini Migration Center – (www.smc.org.ph) OWWA (Overseas Workers Welfare Agency) – www.owwa.gov.ph POEA (Philippines Overseas Employment Administration) – www.poea.gov.ph DAWN ( Development Action for Women Network)- www.dawnphil.org Scalabrini Centre for People on the MOVE - www.scalabrini.asn.au/ philscpm.htm Apostleship of the Sea – Manila - www.scalabrini.asn.au/philaos.htm Commission on Filipinos Overseas – www.cfo.gov.ph 4 ABSTRACT This paper highlights the significance of international migration in the Philippines economy and society, discusses the supportive and regulatory role that the government of the Philippines plays in promoting it and draws the lessons that India might learn from the Philippines experience. Temporary labour migration to foreign countries is a policy priority of the Government of the Philippines which restricts official access to markets through recruitment by licensed agencies or the government itself. The Government retains a regulatory role, though most of the responsibility for recruiting workers is entrusted with the private sector with a view to protecting workers from abuse and discouraging illegal recruitment. International migrants receive several benefits- pre migration training, life insurance, pensions and loan facilities. Remittances are encouraged and investment programmes are offered. Filipinos abroad are given psychological counselling to maintain Filipino values and offered rights to vote in national elections. The Philippines government also lends its support to return migrants through tax-free shopping facilities, investment loans and subsidised scholarships. The efforts of the government have yielded substantial results even though short comings and failures do remain. The gains of government policies however far outweigh their inadequencies. India has several lessons to draw from the Philippines experiment in order to organise systematic flows of emigrants from India, namely, to take care of their working and living conditions abroad, to channel emigrants' savings into productive uses, to promote welfare funds of emigrant workers, to protect the interests of workers abroad during their sojourn and after return, to offer intending emigrants pre-departure orientation courses, to prevent all practices of breach of contract on the part of recruitment agencies and foreign employers and to increase the investment of Indian embassies in the affairs of Indian emigrants. Key words: Migration, Remittances, Employment, The Philippines JEL Classification: J21, J23 5 Few countries have as many of their citizens living abroad as the Republic of the Philippines, or depend so greatly on migration for their economic vitality. According to the government, more than 7.3 million Filipinos, or eight percent of the country’s population, currently reside abroad. From 1990 to 2001, official recorded remittances alone averaged 20.3 percent of the country’s export earnings and 5.2 percent of GNP, providing a lifeline for many families in a poor country that saw little economic growth in several of those years. With those impressive figures, it understates the role that migration plays in Filipino national culture and public policy. For more than 25 years, export of temporary labour has been an explicit response to doubledigit unemployment rates. The government has developed a sophisticated policy regime to promote and regulate labour emigration. Migrants, and migration, are valued: Each year, the president celebrates Migrant Workers Day by awarding the “Baygong Bayani” (modern-day hero) award to 20 outstanding migrant workers who have demonstrated moral fortitude, hard work, and a track record of sending money home. Recent History Although Filipinos have a longstanding tradition of migration to the United States and elsewhere, government activism to promote labour migration from the Philippines began in the mid-1970s, when rising oil prices caused a boom in contract migrant labour in the Middle East. The dictator government headed by Ferdinand Marcos, from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s, saw an opportunity to export young men left 6 unemployed by the stagnant economy and established a system to regulate and encourage labour outflows. This system, which continues today, has both a private and a public component. On the private side, licences were issued to Philippinesbased agencies to recruit labour for employers in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other destinations. On the public side, the government established the agency that would later become the Philippines Overseas Employment Administration (POEA), in order to provide contract labour directly to foreign employers, maritime agencies, and governments. The changes had the effect of bringing the work of Filipinos abroad under the authority of the Philippine government. Whether recruited privately or by the government agency, workers and recruiters enter into a contract that is enforceable under the Philippine law. The establishment of democracy in 1986 reversed neither the Philippines’ poor economic fortunes nor its outflow of migrants. Public policy towards migration changed only incrementally, despite increasing criticism from civil society and the Roman Catholic Church. In 1987, the government directed the POEA to be more active in the protection of migrant workers’ rights and welfare. In 1995, the trial and execution of Filipina migrant worker Flor Contemplacion in Singapore turned the protection of migrants’ rights into a burning political issue. The incident prompted the government to temporarily withdraw its ambassador to Singapore, to hasten its ratification of the UN convention of the rights of migrant workers, and to reiterate the POEA’s mandate to focus on migrant welfare and rights — measures that failed to satisfy many of the government’s critics in civil society. The changes enacted in 1995 also expanded the POEA’s mission to include the promotion of return and reintegration of migrants. However, this emphasis on return never dismantled the overall strategy of 7 facilitating labor migration. As recently as 2001 the national Economic Development Plan stated that overseas employment is a “legitimate option for the country’s workforce” and outlined a four-point strategy for promoting the employment of Filipinos abroad. Meanwhile, the character of the labour migration has changed. Male migrants have been joined and are now almost outnumbered by women. The “tiger economies” of Asia now rival the Middle East as the major destination for temporary workers, while migrants who go to North America and Oceania are most likely to stay on as permanent immigrants. The occupations of migrants have diversified to include professionals, factory workers, and domestic workers, while the tradition of Filipino construction workers, sailors, and nurses remains strong. Government Policy The Philippine government’s goals have been remarkably clear and consistent: Migration should be promoted, but only for temporary work via regulated channels. The results have been mixed. The Philippines supplies an enormous amount of labour through regulated channels: 2.9 million “Overseas Foreign Workers” were abroad under official arrangements in 2000. However, these official, temporary flows coexist with other types of migration: The government estimated that another 1.8 million Filipinos were abroad irregularly in 2000 and that 2.5 million of its citizens had left for permanent residency elsewhere. In theory, labour migration from the Philippines should be a smooth process, with the government playing a supportive and regulatory role throughout. The process begins with securing access to foreign labour markets. The government makes temporary labour migration a foreign policy priority in both bilateral and regional trade negotiations. This is an employment-driven strategy—securing the rights of its citizens to settle permanently abroad has never been a priority for the Philippine government. Host countries that have specific labour shortages but that 8 discourage permanent immigration, such as many Middle Eastern countries, have been particularly good partners in this strategy. At the same time that the government seeks to open official access to foreign labor markets, it also tries to prevent its citizens from using unregulated channels to migrate. In order to leave the country to work, Filipinos must be recruited by either a licensed recruiter or a government agency, or must have their contract approved by the POEA and enrol in the official benefits programme. In 2000, 25,062 workers went abroad on these “independent” contracts. The government prohibits its citizens from overstaying a visa in a host country and maintains a list of workers banned from future contracts, in part to support its efforts to market Filipinos abroad as a high-quality “brand name” of migrant labour. Protection of Migrants Although the Philippine government has turned over most of the responsibility for recruiting workers to the private sector, it retains a regulatory role, with the stated purpose of protecting workers from abuse and discouraging illegal recruitment. In order to be licensed, a recruitment agency must be Filipino-owned, meet capitalization and bonding requirements, and not charge workers more than one month’s salary as placement fee. A Philippine consulate verifies the terms of each worker’s contract with the foreign employers concerned. Should the employer violate the terms of the contract, the Philippines-based recruiter is held responsible through an adjudication process after the return of the migrant. Outside of the contractual relationship, the government has attempted to hold entire countries responsible for the protection of its workers. In 2003, for example, the Philippines, along with Indonesia, temporarily suspended new deployments of domestic workers to Hong Kong after repeated cases of abuse. The Philippine government eventually resumed sending workers, but continued to support lawsuits brought by migrants in Hong Kong’s courts. 9 Support to Migrants With time, the government has discovered that carrot is more effective than stick as a device for encouraging migrants to use official migration channels, to send money home, and to eventually return at the end of their contract. By migrating officially, migrants receive a number of subsidized benefits: pre-migration training on social and work conditions abroad, life insurance and pension plans, medical insurance and tuition assistance for the migrants and their families, and eligibility for pre-departure and emergency loans. Registration for these benefits, which are administered by the Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA), is compulsory and costs less than $200 per year. This is paid by the recruitment agency, presumably out of the worker’s wages, or directly by the migrant, in the case of independent migrants and those whose contracts are administered by the POEA. Remittances are a critical source of foreign exchange, and the government actively encourages migrants to send money home. For example, the OWWA issues an identification card each to all official workers with also a Visa card that can be linked to dollar or pesodenominated savings accounts in a consortium of banks. The card enables remittances to be sent at $3 or less per transaction. Innovations such as the Visa card are the product of a slow learning process on remittances—as late as 1985, the government, desperate for foreign exchange, was attempting to force workers to send remittances via a mandatory remittance quota. The Philippines’ history of overvalued exchange rates had created serious deterrents to remittances through official channels and the quota failed miserably. Since then, the government’s policies have been more reasonable: it has maintained a market-based exchange rate, worked to make remittances via private banks cheap and easy, and even offered tax-free investment programmes aimed at overseas workers. 10 Many of the support services of the government are also intended to promote continued ties of migrants with the homeland. The government sponsors tours of Philippine entertainers and supports schools overseas in areas of high concentrations of migrants. Psychological counselling services that emphasize maintenance of “Filipino values” are offered through a network of offices abroad. Recently, the government decided to allow overseas workers to vote in national elections, with voting theoretically conditional upon return within two years, and committed a significant amount of money to overseas balloting. Since 1995, the government has also made support of the return of migrant workers part of its policy priorities. Recognizing the propensity for migrants to return with substantial amounts of foreign goods, the government started profitable duty-free shops for returned migrants. Other privileges granted to returning migrants include tax-free shopping for one year, loans for business capital at preferential rates, and eligibility for subsidized scholarships. Assessing Success From a human and social rights perspective, it is difficult to say whether the Philippine government’s policies have accomplished their goals of protecting workers’ rights, encouraging return migration, and stimulating economic growth. Compared to other nations in the region that export labour on a large scale, such as Indonesia, the Philippines has produced an orderly and well-protected flow of migrants, and overseas employment has undeniably raised the incomes of many Filipinos. Advocates for migrants accuse that the government’s efforts to protect official migrants have been inadequate and that the government has ignored the abuse and trafficking of irregular migrants. Further, some social commentators charge that the government’s activist stance on migration has not converted irregular migration into regular migration, 11 but rather increased migration of both the types. Even by official estimates, undocumented workers constitute a large percentage of Filipinos abroad and most of them work in extremely vulnerable sectors, such as domestic work. A significant number of female migrants become victims of traffickers and are forced into the sex industry, a testament to the human rights problems that Filipino migrants continue to face. Critics also charge that the economic benefits offered by overseas work have not brought about sustainable change and come with grave social costs. They lament the growth of a culture in which work abroad is viewed as the only way up, and they worry that the best-educated young Filipinos are often found working abroad. Equally seriously, critics claim that the extended absence of migrant parents has deprived Filipino children of parental support and guidance. Also, although temporary emigration has increased more quickly than permanent emigration, many returned migrants do not put their skills to work at home, but merely bide their time for re-deployment abroad. The poorest Filipinos are rarely able to migrate and studies show that migration aggravates income inequality in the Philippines. Migration has raised the incomes of some, say critics, but done little to create jobs at home. Migration and remittances are, however, powerful economic forces in the Philippines that cannot be easily dismissed. Migration has unambiguously raised the income of millions of Filipino workers and their families. It has encouraged investment in education and training in a country where per capita gross national income was a meager $1,030 in 2001 and unemployment rates are high for both skilled and unskilled workers alike. Filipinos overseas sent home more than six billion dollars, or about 8.4 percent of the national GDP, via formal channels in 2001. Migration makes a critical difference for many families: According to household surveys, about 17 percent of Filipino households receive remittances from workers abroad and these recipient households represent 25 percent of the total household spending, figures that would rise if 12 remittances from those who have emigrated permanently were also included. As more and more countries look to migration and remittances to drive their economic development, they will likely examine the Philippines’ longstanding strategy of encouraging temporary labour migration as a potential model. The clearest lesson of the Filipino experience might be drawn from observing its evolution, centered on the need for realism and flexibility in migration policy. The Philippine government has been unable to eliminate unwanted forms of emigration and its coercive policies toward migrants, have by and large failed. Where it has understood the behaviour of migrants, worked with that behaviour, and given them positive incentives and support, its policies have fared much better. Philippines Overseas Employment Administration POEA is an agency setting regulatory requirements governing overseas employment. It is claimed to be a ‘globally-sensitive and customer-driven organization and an advocate of excellence in governance’. POEA primarily facilitates the generation of, and the preservation of decent and quality overseas employment for, Filipinos in partnership with all stakeholders. POEA connects itself to the world and in, partnership with all stakeholders, creates and provides annually a million decent jobs overseas and helps transform the Filipino worker as world number ‘1’. They have nine priority programmes to fulfill this strategic intent. Market Development and Management Programme This programme is designed to strengthen POEA’s foothold on friendly markets and tap new ones that will provide decent and productive jobs to Overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) for the next three years. 13 Agency Education Programme This programme aims to establish a venue for discussion of policies, programmes, and recruitment procedures on overseas employment as well as conduct training programmes designed to improve licensed recruitment agencies’ technical capability to manage and operate the recruitment business and ensure the deployment of the secured and the gainfully employed OFWs. Agency Performance Evaluation Programme This programme aims to develop in partnership with the recruitment industry, standards and instruments that measure individual performance which result in enhanced professionalism in the overseas recruitment industry. Comprehensive case management programme This programme covers the systematic handling of OFW cases brought to POEA involving recruitment violation and disciplinary matters, appeals, requests for conciliation, and repatriations and enforcement of decisions, applying time-management principles. Management and staff development programme This involves holistic human resource development from a clear understanding and efficient application of POEA programmes for building and enhancing the capability of both the management and the staff to meet challenges in pursuance of the direction during the next ten years. Performance Management and reward System As strategic learning process, this programme aims to develop the full potential of the employees to reach high levels of productivity and quality performance. It includes also the development and application of an appropriate performance instrument that will monitor, and evaluate in consonance with POEA’s strategic and organizational framework. 14 Technology-based interactive service delivery The programme aims to promote e-governance by developing and enhancing an efficient and convenient technology-based and interactive service delivery system to overseas Filipino workers, recruitment agencies, foreign employers, POEA regional offices, Philippine Overseas labour offices, embassies and other stakeholders. Global OFW Mapping and Profiling This programme aims at providing data on OFW global presence by destination countries, profiles by skills, gender, age and education attainment of local labour supply chains to serve as vital inputs to the development and implementation of the Agency’s comprehensive marketing plans. These nine priority programmes are designed to foster and sustain the overseas employment initiative in which POEA plays a vital role. There exist a variety of areas on which POEA focuses, namely, Employment facilitation, promotion, marketing strategy, licensing and regulation services, adjudication services, workers assistance, support services, etc. Employment facilitation is a prime concern of POEA, which becomes easy due to its regulatory role in providing clearance to each emigrant worker. Promotion and facilitation of employment is the principal task of the pre-employment service office (PSO), the office entrusted with the task to under take the formulation of comprehensive market programmes, industry service projects, continuous market research and development of overseas standards in order to generate overseas employment opportunities and improve the condition of employment of Overseas Filipino workers. It provides accreditation and processing services to facilitate the documentation of qualified Filipino workers hired through private agencies/entities and workers returning to worksites resume contractual employment with foreign employers. 15 The licensing and regulation office has the responsibility of developing and maintaining a licensing and supervision system for participants in the overseas employment programme from the private sector and of developing policies and programmes to enhance its capability as service providers of overseas jobs. The Adjudication Office advises top management on legal matters affecting the administration, interpretation and enforcement of rules and regulation affecting Filipinos who work, or desire to work overseas. Specifically, it hears, arbitrates and adjudicates cases or complaints for disciplinary action, as well as cases involving recruitment violations, dockets and records cases filed with the administration and serves notices and orders to the concerned parties. The Welfare and employment office (WEO) develops and implements policies and programmes of the administration to promote the interest and welfare of Overseas Filipino workers and their families. Specifically, WEO is responsible for the maintenance of the registry of workers for placement purposes; it develops and signs recruitment agreements with foreign govts./employers and their instrumentalities; provides comprehensive facilities for handling all phases of recruitment of Filipino workers hired on Govt-to-Govt arrangements; and develops and implements preemployment orientation programmes to inform applicant workers on migration realities and employment conditions in host countries. The general administrative and support services (GASS) assists the administration in the formulation and implementation of the policies, programmes and functions of the agency in the areas of policy development, planning, finance, general administration of human resource development and management information. It provides efficient and responsive support services to the operating units of administration. The regional and overseas coordinating office (ROCO) has the task of coordinating the operation and activities of the POEA regional 16 centres and units and satellite offices and attends to the requirements of the Philippine Overseas Labor Offices (POLOs) for Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECs). Commission on Filipino Overseas (CFO) The Government of Philippines has multiple agencies catering to the Filipino migrants. These agencies have several divisions in terms of their attending to the need of a variety of migrants. The department of foreign affairs has the obligation to engage in addressing the issues of all Filipino migrants. However the migrants broadly divided in terms of Overseas Filipino workers and Emigrants are attended to both by the POEA and OWWA and the Commission on Filipinos Overseas respectively. The CFO is an agency directly under the aegis of the President’s office, which attends to the affairs of Emigrants. This particular agency came into force with legislations of 1980 along with its strengthening and widening of roles in 1981, 1996 and 2004. CFO focuses on different category of emigrants. The first among them is the Filipino emigrants and permanent residents abroad. The other groups include Filipino nationals who leave the country as spouses or other partners of foreign nationals, Filipino overseas who have become citizens of other countries, descendants of Filipinos overseas, Filipino youths abroad as well as exchange visitor programme participants. It manages four programmes: (i) Migrant Social and Economic Integration As regard social and economic integration, the commission ensures that all Filipinos migrating to other countries are adequately prepared to meet the practical and psychological challenges relating to international migration. Filipino emigrants around the world are distributed with a substantial domination in the United States of America (68.83 per cent) followed by Canada, Australia, United Kingdom, Japan and Germany. The activities undertaken to ensure their social and economic integration include pre-departure orientation seminars for emigrants the relevance of which is noted with the registered figure of 82,968 registration during 17 the year 2006 amounting to 333 registration a day for such seminars. Along with this peer counselling is also done with an average of 34 candidates a day, which amounted to 8623 peer counselees in 2006. The other programme like guidance and counselling for spouses and other partners of foreign nationals is also carried out by the CFO. Apart form these activities of promotion of social and economic integration of emigrants, public information and community education, and assistanceto-national activities, also form part of their activities. As regards public information and community education, programmes are held in cooperation with schools, NGOs, national and local govt agencies as well as churchbased organizations. Similarly support is rendered to inter-marriage and family-related cases such as abandonment or request for support, domestic violence, trafficking in the guise of marriage, irregularities in requisites of marriage, and death by undetermined causes as well as location of whereabouts. The two broad categories of cases that receive support are immigration-related cases as well as labour/employment-related ones. Such assistance is provided to Filipino nationals who face llegal recruitment, fraudulent documentation, misrepresentation, illegal entry/stay etc. The labour-employment-related cases that receive attention are employment contract violation/substitution, maltreatment by foreign employers as well as discrimination in the work place. (ii) Filipino Education and Heritage One measure adopted towards this initiative is in terms of promoting Filipino education programmes overseas, and providing younger generations of overseas Filipinos with opportunities to learn the Philippines history, culture, language and institutions. As part of this initiative, 20,000 school children are enrolled in 41 Philippine schools overseas. Three of these schools are accredited in 9 countries. Also, annual conferences are held for teachers and administrators of these schools regarding their management and operation to foster this initiative. Apart from having schools, there exist study visit programmes for second- 18 generation Filipino immigrants, with focus on the Philippines culture, history and language. (iii) Filipino Unity and National Development Attempts are made at fostering cohesion and sense of purpose among various overseas Filipino organizations for the promotion of their own interests within a broader community of Filipinos. Apart from a steady increase in remittances from Filipinos overseas through formal banking channels, substantial donations and assistance for development are also provided by them. During the period 1990-2006 2.04 billion pesos were received as assistance, which benefited about 14.13 million native Filipinos. The sectoral distribution of these donations and assistance reveals that a major chunk (i.e. 70 percent) was for health related/medical missions followed by relief/calamity assistance, which accounted for about 14 per cent of the total. Besides, this fund also gets used for small-scale infrastructure, livelihood programmes as well as education/scholarships. Such encouraging involvement of Filipinos in their national development is rewarded with national recognition such as the presidential awards for persons and institutions who contribute to national development; till date such award has been conferred on 235 Filipinos and private organizations in 36 countries. (iv) Policy Development and Data Banking Significant emphasis is laid on reviewing the economic, social, legal and administrative environment that has bearing on the status of Overseas Filipinos. As regard policy development, a crisis management and security manual has been prepared. Several acts like the Joint Capacity Role in Development of Migrant Workers Act of 1995, Antitrafficking in Person’s Act of 2003, Overseas Absentee voting Act of 2003, Citizenship Retention and Reacquisition Act of 2003 and Magna Carta for Seafarers, assume prominence. As regard data banking, annual stock estimation of Filipinos overseas are made along with maintenance of data bases of Filipino 19 emigrants, spouses/other partners of foreign nationals, Filipino organisations and other support networks overseas. Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA) The Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA), an attached agency of the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE), is the lead government agency entrusted with the task of protecting and promoting the welfare and the well-being of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) and their dependents. OWWA Mandate The agency has a two-fold mandate: delivery of welfare services and benefits and ensuring of capital build-up and fund viability. Objectives : a. Protect the interest and promote the welfare of OFWs in recognition of their valuable contribution to the overall development effort; b. Facilitate the implementation of the provisions of the Labor Code concerning the responsibility of the government to promote the well-being of OFWs; c. Provide social and welfare services to OFWs, including insurance, social work assistance, legal assistance, cultural services, and remittance services; d. Ensure the efficiency of collection and the viability and sustainability of the fund through sound and judicious investment and fund management policies; and e. Undertake studies and researches for the enhancement of their social, economic and cultural well-being. 20 Fund Source OWWA fund is a single trust fund pooled from the US$25.00 membership contributions of foreign employers, land-based and seabased workers, investment and interest income, and income from other sources Programme Areas Major Accomplishments Revenues/Cost Incurred & Pax Revenue Generation • 994,191 OFWs enrolled as • Php 1,258,010,854.00 members Insurance Benefits • 1,122 claims paid for Life • Php 154,600,000.00 Insurance and Burial benefits • 395 claims paid for Disability • Php 9,053,500.00 & Dismemberment Loans •137 Pre-Departure Loan • Php 4,934,768.00 (PDL) applications approved • 543 Family Assistance Loan (FAL) Applications approved • Php 25,383,000.00 Education & Training: • 269 scholars for 4-5 years • Php 16,140,000.00 a) Scholarship college program maintained Programme: • 999 scholars for 1-year • Php 1,485,097.00 technical course program availed b) Pre-Departure Orientation Seminar (PDOS) • 982 scholars for 6-months. • Php 1,555,086.00 Vocational course programme availed • 2,177 scholarship grant for • Php 19,071,630.00 Seafarers’ Upgrading Course availed 21 Programme Areas Major Accomplishments Revenues/Cost Incurred & Pax • 1,240 sessions provided • 30,458 participants under Pre-Departure Orientation Seminar (PDOS) • Inauguration of the Blas F. • November 24, 2006 Ople Development Centre1 for the PDOS Language Training & Culture Familiarization SocialServices/ Family Welfare I. Reintegration: a) Loan Facilities • 261 OFW Grocerias • Php 10,500,000.00 established by OFCs/OFW Orgs • Php 34,102,000.00 b) Social Preparations • 198 projects released under OWWA-NLSF • 3,730 participants • 14,261 participants c) Advocacy & • 1,524 EDT training sessions Reintegration conducted nationwide • 7 awardees and Preparedness On-site 1,500 participants • 970 Batches of EDT training Sessions nationwide • 219 participants • GoNegosyo Forum (Awarding of Outstanding OFW Entrepreneurs) • 300 participants • Business Forum in Taiwan • 21,080 participants (Taipei&Taichung) • Aqua-Culture Invesment Opportunities in Al Khobar & Riyadh • 219 Skills Training classes at worksite abroad 22 Programme Areas Major Accomplishments Revenues/Cost Incurred & Pax Social Services/ FamilyWelfare • 1,030 OFCs/OFW Organizations • 25,233 total active formed as of Dec. 2006 members as of Dec. 2006 II. Family Welfare: a) Community Organizing Program: b) Family Social Activities: • Celebration of OFW Family Day (Dec) • 19,908 participants nationwide • Pamaskong Handog cum Presidential Salubong for vacationing OFWs (Dec) • 3,285 participants • OWWAish Ko Lang (Dec) • 17 awardees + 467 participants • National Seafarers Day (Sept) • 1,129 participants • Migrant Workers Day (June) • 2,268 participants Workers Assistance • Various Assistance at the 24/7 Operations Center both Local & Overseas • 614,697 were provided with various assistance • Airport Assistance at the NAIA • 11,759 OFWs were accorded with airport assistance • 10,834 were repatriated • Php 169,628,508.00 cost of airfares incurred in the repatriation 23 Performance Highlights for 10 years (1995-2005) For the period 1995-2005, OWWA extended its programmes, benefits and services to a total of 24.2 million OFWs and their dependents through its regional and overseas field operations. These programme expenses amounted to 3.04 billion pesos. Programme Expenses and Availments For CY 1995-2005 Year Expenses per year No. of Availees 1995 97,905,938.12 1,444,803 1996 111,502,880.86 1,530,869 1997 127,950,049.15 1,751,043 1998 135,562,541.61 1,924,962 1999 216,750,500.34 2,284,361 2000 267,363,563.61 2,160,964 2001 346,997,801.79 2,984,929 2002 446,436,205.06 3,543,904 2003 477,902,882.20 1,999,844 2004 535,528,719.80 1,563,547 2005 272,461,820.99 2,982,013 TOTAL 3,036,362,903.53 24,171,239 Financial Highlights Since 1995, OWWA’s resources steadily grew, from P 2.188 B to P 8.567 B in 2005. The Fund grew by more than 4 times in a period of 11 years. 24 Fund Balances (in Pesos) For CY 1995-2005 Year Total 1995 2,188,304,580.00 1996 2,188,304,580.00 1997 3,055,767,581.00 1998 3,709,806,600.00 1999 4,304,794,719.00 2000 4,774,103,390.00 2001 5,408,982,846.00 2002 6,471,947,491.00 2003 7,337,865,404.00 2004 8,063,073,949.00 2005 8,566,919,809.00 Vision and Mission OWWA develops and implements responsive programmes and services while ensuring fund viability towards the protection of the interest and promotion of the welfare of its member-OFWs. OWWA is the lead membership welfare institution that serves the interest and welfare of member-Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs). OWWA commits to a fund stewardship that is transparent, judicious, and responsive to the requirements of the member-OFWs. LESSONS FOR INDIA 1. Data base for non-resident Indians is virtually non-existent in India though all emigrants have to fill the departure and arrival card at all airports in India. It can be made possible by the Bureau of Emigration in close consultation with the Ministry of Indian 25 Overseas Affairs, Government of India and Centre for Development Studies, to organize and systematize the flow of emigrants from India to various destinations by sex and reason for emigration. This could facilitate generating regular information on employment emigration from India according to destination and type of employment categories. This is the first lesson India should learn from the Philippines as regard planning for the welfare of the emigrants 2. Though India has set eight Protector of Emigrants (POE) in various parts of the country with the Protector General of India (PGI) at the Ministry of Indian Overseas Affairs, to address the welfare of emigrants, at the ground level in the destination countries, the interests and the welfare of Indian emigrants are hardly being addressed. It would be apt to locate these organizations in destination countries or a restructuring of the same to take care of the working and living conditions of Indian emigrants. 3. Though India has reached the status of the number one country in the world in terms of the volume of remittances received from abroad, no incentive mechanisms are in place to convert remittances to productive investments. By introducing tax-free investment incentives along with additional loan facilities for business with preferential interest rates for returned emigrants or their families, emigrants’ savings could be successfully channeled to productive use rather than allowing to lie as idle bank deposits or to get spent on unproductive consumer uses. 4. India has so far designed no policy for rehabilitation of return emigrants. Insurance is made compulsory for emigrant workers who go abroad through Protector of Emigrants’ office; but none of them lay any claim on insurance benefits from this scheme. Instead of levying an insurance premium, it may be desirable for the government to create an welfare fund based on contribution 26 by all emigrants and compulsory contribution by recruitment agencies to such fund before departure from India for employment abroad with designs of stable insurance protection to them during their sojourn abroad and payment of the insurance amount or regular pension on return to India, if they are willing to contribute to the fund during their stay abroad. 5. India has been following a policy of neutrality towards emigration for temporary employment abroad. It is only very recently that the embassy has taken some steps towards ensuring protection of the legitimate requirements of the Indian overseas workers in their destination countries. The country lacks even today policies to reinstate and rehabilitate return emigrants. It would be in the country’s interest to take a proactive stance to explicitly promote emigration of Indian workers to countries abroad and to protect their interests during their sojourn abroad and after their return to India. 6. Emigrants from India go to different parts of the world to take temporary employment particularly in Arab countries of the Middle East and the Far East in Asia. Most of them are unskilled or semiskilled workers with hardly any information on the geographical, historical, socio-political and economic conditions of their destination countries. It is therefore urgent that the prospective migrants are given adequate pre-departure orientation courses on these matters, on the lines of the Philippines experiment. 7. There exist numerous cases of cheating of emigrants by recruiting agents and foreign employers in matters of job status, employment conditions, remuneration and living conditions. Instances abound in which recruitments are made for non-existing jobs and fictitious employers, by recruitment agencies in India. In the destination countries, workers are put to miserable conditions of work and living in contravention of the provisions in the work contracts agreed upon. There exists also the practice of taking away from 27 the emigrants, their passports, work visas and other essential documents, forcibly by their employers in order to deny them their rights of movement and legitimate chances to raise complaints or move the courts. It is therefore essential that all work agreements entered upon by prospective emigrants with foreign employers or their agencies, are properly scrutinized and endorsed by officials authorized for the purposes by MOIA of the government of India. The government should also ensure, through bilateral agreements with destination countries that on no account the foreign employers or their henchmen take away the travel and employment documents of Indian overseas workers. 8. The role of the Indian embassy in countries of employment of Indian workers is alleged to be minimal and inefficient as regard the protection of the rights and responsibilities of Indians. In this, the Philippines practice provides ample evidence to show that with greater vigil on the part of the Indian embassies, the travails of Indian workers abroad could be effectively safeguarded. It is high time that India took necessary remedial measures in this regard. 9 Currenty, three ministries in India are looking after emigrationrelated issues: the Ministry of External Affairs is responsible for issuance of passports for Indian citizens to travel abroad for any purpose; the Ministry of Home Affairs, through its Bureau of Emigration, maintains data sets on all persons leaving and entering India through legal channels. On the other hand, the Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs aims to provide protection and welfare for emigrants through helping unskilled and semi-skilled workers for getting emigration clearance for foreign employment. Again, the Ministry of External Affairs, through its Embassies in the countries of destination helps and protects migrant’s needs abroad. Unless, the three ministries coordinate their activities, it would be impossible to generate reliable data on emigrants from India. 28 Sources Comments of the Honorable Patricia Santo Tomas, Secretary of Labor and Employment, Republic of the Philippines, at the “Conference on Migration, Development, and Public Policy,” Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Nov. 31-Oct. 1, 2003. Philippine Migrants Rights Watch, http://www.pmrw.org S. Irudaya Rajan is Professor at the Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram. Currently he is Chair Professor, Research Unit on International Migration, set up by the Ministry of Indian Overseas Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi. His main areas of research interests are Aging, Migration and Kerala Studies. email:[email protected] U. S. Mishra is Associate Professor at the Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram. His main areas of research interests are Population Policies and Programme Evaluation, Gender and Reproductive Health, Analytical and Measurement Issues in Health. email:[email protected] 29 Table 1. Annual Deployment of Filipino Workers, 1975-2004* Year Land-based Sea-based Total 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 12,501 19,221 36,676 50,961 92,519 157,394 210,936 250,115 380,263 300,378 320,494 323,517 382,229 385,117 355,346 334,883 489,260 549,655 550,872 564,031 488,173 484,653 559,227 638,343 640,331 643,304 23,534 28,614 33,699 37,280 44,818 57,196 55,307 64,169 53,594 50,604 52,290 54,697 67,042 85,913 103,280 111,212 125,759 136,806 145,758 154,376 165,401 175,469 188,469 193,300 196,689 198,324 36,035 47,835 70,375 88,241 137,337 214,590 266,243 314,284 434,207 350,982 372,784 378,214 449,271 471,030 458,626 446,095 615,019 686,461 696,030 718,407 653,574 660,122 747,696 831,643 837,020 841,628 2001 2002 2003 2004 662,648 682,315 651,938 704,586 204,951 209,593 216,031 229,002 867,599 891,908 867,969 933,588 30 Table 2. Regional Distribution of Land-based Overseas Filipino Workers, 2004 Region Numbers Percent Asia 266,609 37.84 Middle East 352,314 50.00 Europe 55,116 7.82 Americas 11,692 1.66 Africa 8,485 1.20 Trust Territories 7,177 1.02 Oceania 3,023 0.43 170 0.02 704,586 100.00 Others Total 31 Table 3. Overseas Filipino Workers’ Remittances, 1975-2004 Year Amount 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 103.00 111.00 213.00 290.85 364.74 421.30 545.87 810.48 944.45 658.89 687.20 680.44 791.91 856.81 973.02 1181.07 1500.29 2202.38 2229.58 2630.11 4877.51 4306.64 5741.84 7367.99 6794.55 6050.45 2001 2002 2003 2004 6031.27 6886.16 7578.46 8550.37 32 CENTRE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES LIST OF WORKING PAPERS [New Series] The Working Paper Series was initiated in 1971. A new series was started in 1996 from WP. 270 onwards. Working papers beginning from 279 can be downloaded from the Centre's website (www.cds.edu) W.P. 392 K.N. NAIR, R. RAMAKUMAR , Agrarian Distress and Rural Livelihoods, a Study in Upputhara Panchayat Idukki District, Kerala. November 2007. W.P. 391 PULAPRE BALAKRISHNAN, Visible hand: Public policy and economic growth in the Nehru era. November 2007. W.P. 390 SUNIL MANI, The Growth Performance of India’s Telecommunications Services Industry, 1991-2006 Can it Lead to the Emergence of a Domestic Manufacturing Hub? September 2007. W.P. 389 K. J. JOSEPH, VINOJ ABRAHAM, Information Technology and Productivity: Evidence from India's Manufacturing Sector. September 2007 W.P. 388 HRUSHIKESH MALLICK, Does Energy Consumption Fuel Economic Growth In India? September 2007 W.P. 387 D. SHYJAN,Public Investment and Agricultural Productivity: A State-wise Analysis of Foodgrains in India. July 2007 W.P. 386 J. DEVIKA, 'A People United in Development': Developmentalism in Modern Malayalee Identity. June 2007. W.P. 385 M. PARAMESWARAN, International Trade, R&D Spillovers and Productivity: Evidence from Indian Manufacturing Industry. June 2007. W.P. 384 K. C. ZACHARIAH, S. IRUDAYA RAJAN Economic and Social Dynamics of Migration in Kerala, 1999-2004 Analysis of Panel Data. May 2007. W.P. 383 SAIKAT SINHA ROY Demand and Supply Factors in the Determination or India's Disaggregated Manufactured Exports : A Simultaneous Error-Correction Approach. May 2007 W.P. 382 SUNIL MANI The Sectoral System of Innovation of Indian pharmaceutical industry. September 2006 33 W.P. 381 K. J. JOSEPH, GOVINDAN PARAYIL Trade Liberalization and Digital Divide: An Analysis of the Information Technology Agreement of WTO. July 2006. W.P. 380 RUDRA NARAYAN MISHRA Dynamics of Caste-based Deprivation in Child Under-nutrition in India. July 2006. W.P. 379 P.L.BEENA, Limits to Universal Trade Liberalisation: The Contemporary Scenario for Textiles & Clothing Sector in South Asia. March 2006. W.P. 378 K.N. NAIR, VINEETHA MENON, Lease Farming in Kerala: Findings from Micro Level Studies. November 2005. W.P. 377 NANDANA BARUAH, Anti Dumping Duty as a Measure of Contingent Protection: An Analysis of Indian Experience. October 2005. W.P. 376 P. MOHANAN PILLAI, N. SHANTA Long Term Trends in the Growth and Structure of the Net State Domestic Product in Kerala. October 2005. W.P. 375 R. MOHAN, D. SHYJAN Taxing Powers and Developmental Role of the Indian States: A Study with reference to Kerala. August 2005. W.P. 374 K. C. ZACHARIAH, S. IRUDAYA RAJAN. Unemployment in Kerala at the Turn of the Century: Insights from CDS Gulf Migration Studies. August 2005. W.P. 373 SUNIL MANI, The Dragon vs. The Elephant Comparative Analysis of Innovation Capability in the Telecommunications Equipment Industry in China and India. July 2005 W.P. 372 MOTKURI VENKATANARAYANA On The Non-Random Distribution of Educational Deprivation of Children in India. July 2005 W.P. 371 DIBYENDU S. MAITI Organisational Morphology of Rural Industries in Liberalised India: A Study of West Bengal. June 2005 W.P. 370 SUNIL MANI, Keeping Pace with Globalisation Innovation Capability in Korea’s Telecommunications Equipment Industry. March 2005. W.P. 369 V.R. PRABHAKARAN NAIR, Determinants of Fixed Investment: A Study of Indian Private Corporate Manufacturing Sector. March 2005. 34 W.P. 368 J. DEVIKA, Modernity with Democracy? : Gender and Governance in the People’s Planning Campaign, Keralam. February 2005 W.P. 367 VINEETHA MENON, ANTONYTO PAUL, K N NAIR Dynamics of Irrigation Institutions: Case study of a Village Panchayat in Kerala. February 2005 W.P. 366 VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI N. Causality and Error Correction in Markov Chain: Inflation in India Revisited. December 2004. W.P. 365 R. MOHAN. Central Finances in India - Alternative to Procrustean Fiscal Correction. November 2004. W.P. 364 SUNIL MANI. Coping with Globalisation Public R&D Projects in Telecommunications Technologies in Developing Countries. November 2004. W.P. 363 K C ZACHARIAH, S IRUDAYA RAJAN. Gulf Revisited Economic Consequences of Emigration From Kerala, Emigration and Unemployment. September 2004. W.P. 362 M. VENKATANARAYANA. Educational Deprivation of Children in Andhra Pradesh, Levels and Trends, Disparities and Associative Factors. August 2004. W.P. 361 K. P. KANNAN, VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI N. Development as a Right to Freedom: An Interpretation of the Kerala Model. August 2004. W.P. 360 VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI N. CES Function, Generalised Mean and Human Poverty Index: Exploring Some Links. July 2004. W.P. 359 PRAVEENA KODOTH, Shifting the Ground of Fatherhood: Matriliny, Men and Marriage in Early Twentieth Century Malabar. May 2004. W.P. 358 MRIDUL EAPEN. Women and Work Mobility: Some Disquieting Evidences from the Indian Data. May 2004. W.P. 357 K. RAVI RAMAN. The Asian Development Bank Loan for Kerala (India): The Adverse Implications and Search for Alternatives, March 2004. W.P. 356 VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI N. Liberalisation of Rural Poverty: The Indian Experience, March 2004. 35 W.P. 355 P.L.BEENA Towards Understanding the Merger-Wave in the Indian Corporate Sector: A Comparative Perspective, January 2004. W.P. 354 K.P. KANNAN AND R. MOHAN India’s Twelfth Finance Commission A View from Kerala, December 2003. W.P. 353 K.N. HARILAL AND P.L. BEENA The WTO Agreement on Rules of Origin Implications for South Asia, December 2003. W.P. 352 K. PUSHPANGADAN Drinking Water and Well-being In India: Data Envelopment Analysis, October 2003. W.P. 351 INDRANI CHAKRABORTY Liberalization of Capital Inflows and the Real Exchange Rate in India : A VAR Analysis, September 2003. W.P. 350 M.KABIR Beyond Philanthropy: The Rockefeller Foundation’s Public Health Intervention in Thiruvithamkoor, 1929-1939, September 2003. W.P. 349 JOHN KURIEN The Blessing of the Commons : Small-Scale Fisheries, Community Property Rights, and Coastal Natural Assets, August 2003. W.P. 348 MRIDUL EAPEN, Rural Industrialisation in Kerala: ReExamining the Issue of Rural Growth Linkages, July 2003. W.P. 347 RAKHE PB, Estimation of Tax Leakage and its Impact on Fiscal Health in Kerala, July 2003. W.P. 346 VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI N, A contribution to Peak load pricing theory and Application. April 2003. W.P. 345 V.K. RAMACHANDRAN, MADHURA SWAMINATHAN, VIKAS RAWAL Barriers to Expansion of Mass Literacy and Primary Schooling in West Bengal: Study Based on Primary Data from Selected Villages. April 2003. W.P. 344 PRADEEP KUMAR PANDA Rights-Based Strategies in the Prevention of Domestic Violence, March 2003. W.P. 343 K. PUSHPANGADAN Remittances, Consumption and Economic growth in Kerala: 1980-2000, March 2003. W.P. 342 D NARAYANA Why is the Credit-deposit Ratio Low in Kerala? January 2003. W.P. 341 MRIDUL EAPEN, PRAVEENA KODOTH Family Structure, Women’s Education and Work: Re-examining the High Status of Women in Kerala. November 2002. W.P. 340 J. DEVIKA, Domesticating Malayalees: Family Planning, the Nation and Home-Centered Anxieties in Mid- 20th Century Keralam. October, 2002. 36 W.P. 339 M PARAMESWARAN, Economic Reforms and Technical Efficiency: Firm Level Evidence from Selected Industries in India. October, 2002. W.P. 338 PRAVEENA KODOTH , Framing Custom, Directing Practices: Authority, Property and Matriliny under Colonial Law in Nineteenth Century Malabar, October 2002. W.P. 337 K.NAVANEETHAM, Age Structural Transition and Economic Growth: Evidence From South and Southeast Asia, August 2002. W.P. 336 PULAPRE BALAKRISHNAN, K. PUSHPANGADAN, M. SURESH BABU, Trade Liberalisation, Market Power and Scale Efficiency in Indian Industry, August 2002. W.P. 335 J. DEVIKA, Family Planning as ‘Liberation’: The Ambiguities of ‘Emancipation from Biology’ in Keralam July 2002. W.P. 334 E. ABDUL AZEEZ, Economic Reforms and Industrial W.P. 333 W.P. 332 W.P. 331 W.P. 330 Performance an Analysis of Capacity Utilisation in Indian Manufacturing, June 2002. K. PUSHPANGADAN Social Returns from Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Education: A Case Study of Two Coastal Villages in Kerala, May 2002. K. P. KANNAN, The Welfare Fund Model of Social Security for Informal Sector Workers: The Kerala Experience. April 2002. SURESH BABU, Economic Reforms and Entry Barriers in Indian Manufacturing. April 2002. ACHIN CHAKRABORTY, The Rhetoric of Disagreement in Reform Debates April 2002. W.P. 329 J. DEVIKA, Imagining Women's Social Space in Early Modern Keralam. April 2002. W.P. 328 K. P. KANNAN, K. S. HARI, Kerala's Gulf Connection Emigration, Remittances and their Macroeconomic Impact 19722000. March 2002. W.P. 327 K. RAVI RAMAN, Bondage in Freedom, Colonial Plantations in Southern India c. 1797-1947. March 2002. W.P. 326 K.C. ZACHARIAH, B.A. PRAKASH, S. IRUDAYA RAJAN, Gulf Migration Study : Employment, Wages and Working Conditions of Kerala Emigrants in the United Arab Emirates. March 2002. 37 W.P. 325 N. VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI, Reliability and Rationing cost in a Power System. March 2002. W.P. 324 K. P. KANNAN, N. VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI, The Aetiology of the Inefficiency Syndrome in the Indian Power Sector Main Issues and Conclusions of a Study. March 2002. W.P. 323 V. K. RAMACHANDRAN, MADHURA SWAMINATHAN, VIKAS RAWAL, How have Hired Workers Fared? A Case Study of Women Workers from an Indian Village, 1977 to 1999. December 2001. W.P. 322 K. C. ZACHARIAH, The Syrian Christians of Kerala: Demographic and Socioeconomic Transition in the Twentieth Century, November 2001. W.P. 321 VEERAMANI C. Analysing Trade Flows and Industrial Structure of India: The Question of Data Harmonisation, November 2001. W.P. 320 N. VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI, K. P. KANNAN, Time and Cost Over-runs of the Power Projects in Kerala, November 2001. W.P. 319 K. C. ZACHARIAH, P. R. GOPINATHAN NAIR, S. IRUDAYARAJAN Return Emigrants in Kerala: Rehabilitation Problems and Development Potential. October 2001 W.P. 318 JOHN KURIEN, ANTONYTO PAUL Social Security Nets for Marine Fisheries-The growth and Changing Composition of Social Security Programmes in the Fisheries Sector of Kerala State, India. September 2001. W.P. 317 K. J. JOSEPH, K. N. HARILAL India's IT Export Boom: Challenges Ahead. July 2001. W.P. 316 K. P. KANNAN, N. VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI The Political Economy of Public Utilities: A Study of the Indian Power Sector, June 2001. W.P. 315 ACHIN CHAKRABORTY The Concept and Measurement of Group Inequality, May 2001. W.P. 314 U.S.MISHRA, MALA RAMANATHAN Delivery Compli-cations and Determinants of Caesarean Section Rates in India - An Analysis of National Family Health Surveys, 1992-93, March 2001. W.P. 313 VEERAMANI. C India's Intra-Industry Trade Under Economic Liberalization: Trends and Country Specific Factors, March 2001 W.P. 312 N. VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI Electricity Demand Analysis and Forecasting –The Tradition is Questioned, February 2001 38 W.P. 311 INDRANI CHAKRABORTY Economic Reforms, Capital Inflows and Macro Economic Impact in India, January 2001 W.P. 310 K. K. SUBRAHMANIAN. E. ABDUL AZEEZ, Industrial Growth In Kerala: Trends And Explanations November 2000 W.P. 309 V. SANTHAKUMAR, ACHIN CHAKRABORTY, Environmental Valuation and its Implications on the Costs and Benefits of a Hydroelectric Project in Kerala, India, November 2000. W.P. 308 K. P. KANNAN, N . VIJAYAMOHANAN PILLAI, Plight of the Power Sector in India : SEBs and their Saga of Inefficiency November 2000. W.P. 307 K. NAVANEETHAM, A. DHARMALINGAM, Utilization of Maternal Health Care Services in South India, October 2000. W.P. 306 S. IRUDAYA RAJAN, Home Away From Home: A Survey of Oldage Homes and inmates in Kerala, August 2000. W.P. 305 K. N. HARILAL, K.J. JOSEPH, Stagnation and Revival of Kerala Economy: An Open Economy Perspective, August 2000. W.P. 304 K. P. KANNAN, Food Security in a Regional Perspective; A View from 'Food Deficit' Kerala, July 2000. W.P. 303 K. C. ZACHARIAH, E. T. MATHEW, S. IRUDAYA RAJAN , Socio-Economic and Demographic Consequenes of Migration in Kerala, May 2000. W.P. 302 K. PUSHPANGADAN, G. MURUGAN, Gender Bias in a Marginalised Community: A Study of Fisherfolk in Coastal Kerala, May 2000. W.P. 301 P. L. BEENA An Analysis of Mergers in the Private Corporate Sector in India, March, 2000. W.P. 300 D. NARAYANA Banking Sector Reforms and the Emerging Inequalities in Commercial Credit Deployment in India, March, 2000. W.P. 299 JOHN KURIEN Factoring Social and Cultural Dimensions into Food and Livelihood Security Issues of Marine Fisheries; A Case Study of Kerala State, India, February, 2000. W.P. 298 D. NARAYANA, K. K. HARI KURUP, Decentralisation of the Health Care Sector in Kerala : Some Issues, January, 2000. W.P. 297 K.C. ZACHARIAH, E. T. MATHEW, S. IRUDAYA RAJAN Impact of Migration on Kerala's Economy and Society, July, 1999. W.P. 296 P.K. MICHAEL THARAKAN , K. NAVANEETHAM Population Projection and Policy Implications for Education:A Discussion with Reference to Kerala, July, 1999. 39 W.P. 295 N. SHANTA, J. DENNIS RAJA KUMAR Corporate Statistics: The Missing Numbers, May, 1999. W.P. 294 K. P. KANNAN Poverty Alleviation as Advancing Basic Human Capabilities: Kerala's Achievements Compared, May, 1999. W.P. 293 MRIDUL EAPEN Economic Diversification In Kerala : A Spatial Analysis, April, 1999. W.P. 292 PRADEEP KUMAR PANDA Poverty and young Women's Employment: Linkages in Kerala, February, 1999. W.P. 291 P. K. MICHAEL THARAKAN Coffee, Tea or Pepper? Factors Affecting Choice of Crops by Agro-Entrepreneurs in Nineteenth Century South-West India, November 1998. W.P. 290 CHRISTOPHE Z. GUILMOTO, S. IRUDAYA RAJAN Regional Heterogeneity and Fertility Behaviour in India, November 1998. W.P. 289 JOHN KURIEN Small Scale Fisheries in the Context of Globalisation, October 1998. W.P. 288 S. SUDHA, S. IRUDAYA RAJAN Intensifying Masculinity of Sex Ratios in India : New Evidence 1981-1991, May 1998. W.P. 287 K. PUSHPANGADAN, G. MURUGAN Pricing with Changing Welfare Criterion: An Application of Ramsey- Wilson Model to Urban Water Supply, March 1998. W.P. 286 ACHIN CHAKRABORTY The Irrelevance of Methodology and the Art of the Possible : Reading Sen and Hirschman, February 1998. W.P. 285 V. SANTHAKUMAR Inefficiency and Institutional Issues in the Provision of Merit Goods, February 1998. W.P. 284 K. P. KANNAN Political Economy of Labour and Development in Kerala, January 1998. W.P. 283 INDRANI CHAKRABORTY Living Standard and Economic Growth: A fresh Look at the Relationship Through the Non- Parametric Approach, October 1997. W.P. 282 S. IRUDAYA RAJAN, K. C. ZACHARIAH Long Term Implications of Low Fertility in Kerala, October 1997. W.P. 281 SUNIL MANI Government Intervention in Industrial R & D, Some Lessons from the International Experience for India, August 1997. W.P. 280 PRADEEP KUMAR PANDA Female Headship, Poverty and Child Welfare : A Study of Rural Orissa, India, August 1997. W.P. 279 U.S. MISRA, MALA RAMANATHAN, S. IRUDAYA RAJAN Induced Abortion Potential Among Indian Women, August 1997. 40 W. P. 278 PRADEEP KUMAR PANDA The Effects of Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation on Diarrhoeal Diseases Among Children in Rural Orissa, May 1997. W. P. 277 PRADEEP KUMAR PANDA Living Arrangements of the Elderly in Rural Orissa, May 1997. W. P. 276 V. SANTHAKUMAR Institutional Lock-in in Natural Resource Management: The Case of Water Resources in Kerala, April 1997. W.P. 275 G. OMKARNATH Capabilities and the process of Development March 1997. W.P. 274 K. PUSHPANGADAN, G. MURUGAN User Financing & Collective action: Relevance sustainable Rural water supply in India. March 1997. W.P. 273 ROBERT E. EVENSON, K.J. JOSEPH Foreign Technology Licensing in Indian Industry : An econometric analysis of the choice of partners, terms of contract and the effect on licensees’ performance March 1997. W.P. 272 SUNIL MANI Divestment and Public Sector Enterprise Reforms, Indian Experience Since 1991 February 1997. W.P. 271 SRIJIT MISHRA Production and Grain Drain in two inland Regions of Orissa December 1996. W.P. 270 ACHIN CHAKRABORTY On the Possibility of a Weighting System for Functionings December 1996. 41 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY THE CDS Biodiversity, Sustainable Development and Economic Analysis J. Hans B. Opschoor CDS, 2004, Rs. 100/$11 Plight of the Power Sector in India: Inefficiency, Reform and Political Economy K.P. Kannan and N. Vijayamohanan Pillai CDS, 2002, Rs. 400/$40 Kerala’s Gulf Connection: CDS Studies on International Labour Migration from Kerala State in India K.C. Zachariah, K. P. Kannan, S. 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