Astrology in the Torah

ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ASTROLOGICAL THEMES IN THE HEBREW BIBLE AND BABYLONIAN TALMUD DAVID RUBIN Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of an M.A. in Cultural Astronomy and Astrology University of Wales Trinity Saint David January 2019 Master’s Degrees by Examination and Dissertation Declaration Form 1. This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Name ..David Clive Rubin…………………………………………………... Date ………………31st Jan 2019…………………………………………………... 2. This dissertation is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of …Cultural Astrology and Astronomy ..... Name …… David Clive Rubin ………………………………………………. Date …………31st Jan 2019…………………………………….…………..…………... 3. This dissertation is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Name … David Clive Rubin ………………………………….………………. Date: ……31st Jan 2019………………………………………...………………………. 4. I hereby give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be available for photo-copying, inter- library loan, and for deposit in the University’s digital repository Name … David Clive Rubin ………………………………………………………. Date …………31st Jan 2019………………………………….…………………………….. Supervisor’s Declaration. I am satisfied that this work is the result of the student’s own efforts. Signed: …………………………………………………………………………... Date: ………………………………………………………………………….. CONTENTS Abstract Acknowledgements INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………….1 • Cultural Considerations ……………………………………………………………..1 • Astrology and the Bible: Strange Bedfellows? ………………………… 3 • Challenges in Translation ………………………………………………………….4 • Definitions of Judaic Terms ……………………………………………..……….4 • Definition of Astrology ……………………………………………………………..9 • Definition of Divination ………………………………………………………….. 11 CHAPTER 1: REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK …………………………………... 13 SECTION I: ASTROLOGY IN THE BIBLE …………………………………….……. 13 • No Astrological Belief……………………………………………………………… 14 • Astral Worship and Astral Divination ………………………………….… 15 • Proto-Astrology ……………………………………………………………………... 16 • Astrological Worldview………………………………………………………..… 17 • The Pan-Astral School……………………………………………………………...17 • Summary………………………………………………………………………………..… 19 SECTION II: ASTROLOGY IN THE TALMUD ………………………………………… 19 • No Astrological Belief …………………………………………………………….…19 • Astrological Belief System……………………………………………………..… 20 • Rabbinic Ambivalence ……………………………………………………………… 20 • Association with Power …………………………………………………….………21 • Unified, Polarised, or ‘Soft’ Dichotomy ………………………………….. 21 • An Astrological Worldview……………………………………………….…….…23 • Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………2 4 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY …………………………………..………………. 25 CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ………………………………….….26 o INTRODUCTION ……………………..………………………….……… 26 SECTION I: ASTROLOGY IN THE BIBLE o ASTROLATRY AND ASTRAL DIVINITIES ………………………………….. 27 • Astral Cult-Worship …………………………………………….. 27 • Hosts of Heaven ………………………………………………… 28 o CELESTIAL DIVINATION …………………………………………………32 o ECLIPSES AS OMENS ……………………………………………………. 34 o MAZOL IN TANACH ……………………………………………….…..… 41 o RUDIMENTARY ASTROLOGY ………………………………………….…. 44 • Rulers of the Cosmos ………………………………………………….44 • Joseph’s Dream ………………………………………………………...46 SUMMARY …………………………………………………………..... 48 SECTION II: ASTROLOGY IN THE TALMUD o INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………... 50 o TERMS AND CONCEPTS • Mazol …………………………………………………………………… 50 • Ben Gilo ……………………………………………………………………….……..…. 51 • Summary ……………………………………………………………… …….….….…….52 o ECLIPSES ……………………………………………………………………. 53 o ASTROMETEOROLOGY ……………………………………………….…….……. 55 o MEDICAL ASTROLOGY …………………………………………………….….….. 55 o LITURGY ……………………………………………………………………….….… 58 o THE LOCUS CLASSICUS…………………………………………………………….……..59 SUMMARY ……………………………………………………………..……..…….. 61 CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION ……………………………………….…..…….….... 62 Bibliography ……………………………………………….…..... 64 Appendix I ………………………………………….………………………...69 Appendix II …………………………………………...………………………70 Appendix III …………………………………………..………………………76 ABSTRACT The Jewish Bible emerged against a backdrop of paganism and astrolatry, surrounded by the greatest civilizations of the ancient world. A millennium later, in enclaves of the Sasanian Empire of pre-Islamic Iran, a melting-pot of heterogeneous religious and ethnic communities dominated by Zoroastrian culture, the Babylonian Talmud, the culmination of generations of Rabbinic oral discussion of Torah law, was born. Divinatory practices prevalent in the pagan cultures of Classical Antiquity were seemingly reviled in both the Bible and the Talmud. Yet, beneath that apparent veneer, there was evidence of an attitude towards celestial phenomena that paralleled that of contemporaneous culture, the cognition of a relationship between the stars and the Earth that belied a wholesale rejection of astrological belief. Whilst spurning astral religion, both the Jewish Bible and the Talmud incorporated a cosmology and attitude that recognised the significance of the celestial bodies beyond the physical. This paper seeks to analyse the nature and extent of that attitude, comparing and contrasting the Bible and the Talmud’s conception of the heavenly bodies’ significance. It will also seek to clarify the relationship of the conceptual worlds of the Tanach’s authors and classical Rabbinic Judaism [Talmudic] to astrology (and its various categories), to determine whether or not the rabbis’ theological stance vis-à-vis astrology differs substantially from that of the Bible. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is my genuine pleasure to express gratitude to all the tutors of the Cultural Astronomy and Astrology MA, for their inspired dedication, teaching, support and guidance throughout the programme. In particular, I would like to thank Dr. Nicholas Campion, Associate Professor in Cosmology and Culture, director of this MA course, for his ready assistance, patience and excellent oversight at every stage of the course, and Dr. Bernadette Brady, the dissertation tutor, without whose help this dissertation would have remained in the ethereal realm of Platonic Forms. The research, formulation and development of this dissertation would not have been possible without the constant support, help and advice of my supervisor, learned scholar and kind friend, Seryddiaeth ac Astroleg Ddiwylliannol Tiwtor, Christopher Mitchell. I could not have had a better mentor. I would also like to acknowledge the kind communication, assistance and advice I received from the following distinguished professors and doctors (in alphabetical order): Daniel Boyarin, Dorian Gieseler Greenbaum, Helen R. Jacobus, Richard Kalmin, Uzzi Leibner, Tali Loewenthal, Laurence H. Schiffman, Malka Z. Simkovich and Kocku Von Stuckrad. My thanks to fellow-student, Nicole Montag-Keller, for her hours of help in translating German works, as well as to anyone else not mentioned here for their helpful comments and assistance. Additional thanks are due to the dedicated staff at Trinity Saint David University of Wales, especially those of the library department who have been most helpful, responding to requests for all manner of papers, manuscripts and books at impressive speed. Above all, I thank the Grand Choreographer, for orchestrating my steps and those of the players around. DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |1 INTRODUCTION The aim of this dissertation is to explore and contrast astrological concepts extant in the Hebrew Bible (Tanach) – the Jewish Canon, late second millennium BCE (earliest estimate of the Pentateuch) until late first millennium BCE – with those in the Babylonian Talmud, the main body of late antiquity (between 150– 750 CE) rabbinic writings.1 The study will analyse the extent and provenance of astrological notions as a cultural theme, a divinatory tool, an astral religion, and a cosmology, as well as the meaning of astrological terms, from a historical-philological and a sociological-anthropological perspective.2 This paper will also consider the theological stances portrayed in the Talmud vis-à-vis astrology, and its approaches to science, and whether those approaches differ to those of the Bible. The thesis begins with a brief introduction of the topic and a definition of terms. Chapter One will present a survey of the scholarship to-date (‘Section One’ on astrology in the Bible; ‘Section Two’ on astrology in the Talmud). After Chapter Two’s discussion of the methodology used in analysing primary sources, Chapter Three will present an analysis of astrological themes in the texts (Tanach in ‘Section One’; Talmud in ‘Section Two’). Chapter Four will present conclusions drawn. Cultural considerations Scholars have warned against the specious dismissal of scientific references in Biblical texts as being due to foreign influence.3 A. Thomas Kraabel (1934–2016) observed that prejudice and lack of historical evidence make it difficult to accurately ascertain what happened when one religious tradition or culture interacted with another.4 Whilst Annette Yoshiko Reed argued that foreign influence and cross-cultural pollination shaped sciences in any culture, other scholars underscored the ephemeral existence of ethno-linguistic, cultural borders and boundaries.5 Hence, this paper, though considering the intercultural exchange between Tanach, ‘Hebrew Bible’, and ‘Talmud’ are defined later in this section. Regarding the period of Late Antiquity, see Peter Robert Lamont Brown, The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150-750 (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971). 2 The terms ‘astrology’, ‘culture’, ‘paganism’, ‘science’, and ‘religion’ are defined later in this section. 3 A. Y. Reed, ‘Was there Science in Ancient Judaism? Historical and Cross-Cultural Reflections on “Religion” and “Science”’ Studies in Religion (vol. 36, 2007; pp. 461-495), p. 467. Also, Angel Manuel Rodr’iguez, ‘ANE Parallels to the Bible and the Question of Revelation and Inspiration’, Biblical Research Institute Journal of the Adventist Theological Society (vol. 12, Is. 1, 2001, pp. 43-64), p. 43. 4 A. T. Kraabel, ‘The Disappearance of the 'God-Fearers’, Numen, Vol. 28, Fasc. 2 (Brill, 1981), p. 113. 5 A. Y. Reed, ‘Was there Science in Ancient Judaism?’, p. 467; see e.g. David W. Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007). 1 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |2 contemporaneous, neighbouring cultures as the probable source of its astrological notions, will recognise that notions may have been subject to Jewish cultural interpretation, or indeed the result of internal Jewish tradition and investigation. Richard Kalmin observed that several scholarly discussions on astrology in Talmudic texts were marred by a lack of understanding of the texts at a basic level and by a limited knowledge of the latest methods of modern critique on rabbinic literature.6 A similar observation might be extended to various extant works on Biblical texts. This particular study has the advantage of an awareness of modern scholarship on the Talmud, as well as a familiarity with the Hebrew and Aramaic texts and their religious context. Hebrew and Aramaic sources are approached in the original language, translated by the author throughout, save where indicated. Moreover, this paper approaches astrology in the primary sources from an emic perspective of an orthodox Jew who has been studying astrology for several years, enabling a grasp of terms and implications an etic perspective might miss.7 It should, however, be noted that this dissertation does not involve itself with the veracity of astrology, merely with its presence and influence. All scholars bring biases to their work; declaring their agenda enables a retroactive review of their conclusions.8 My prolonged involvement with astrology and my own Jewish weltanschauung may influence my conclusions.9 Since this study will not directly address extracanonical writings or archaeological discoveries, it cannot present a complete textual or cultural analysis. Nonetheless, it will attempt to clarify the different influences on the respective textual sources, and illuminate any significant diversions in theological discourse. R. L. Kalmin, ‘Chapter 7: Astrology’, in Migrating Tales: The Talmud's Narratives and Their Historical Context (Oakland: University of California Press, 2014), pp. 175-6. 7 Regarding the etic/emic distinction (‘etic’ derived from the word, ‘phonetic’ (meaning a notation used to represent a sound), and ‘emic’, from ‘phonemic’ (a sound) (Russell T. McCutcheon, (ed.) The Insider/Outsider Problem in the Study of Religion, London: (A & C Black, London, N.Y. (1999), p. 15)), though there has been no precise, agreed definition, ‘emic’ is generally understood as an insider’s view and ‘etic’ an outsider’s (see: Marvin Harris, ‘Emics and Etics Revisited’, Frontiers of Anthropology (Sage, Newbury Park, 1990), p. 51; The Insider/Outsider Problem in the Study of Religion: a Reader, edited by Russell T. McCutcheon (London: Cassell, 1999), p. 17)). ‘Worldview’, is used here, as defined by Robert Redfield, to mean an ‘outlook upon the universe […] which allows us to describe a way of life and to compare ways of life with one another’ (Robert Redfield, ‘The Primitive World View’, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1952, Vol. 96), p. 30 8 Petr Slama, New Theologies of the Old Testament and History: The Function of History in Modern Biblical Scholarship (LIT Verlag Münster, 2017), p. 220. 9 ‘Weltanschauung’ is used here in the sense suggested by Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1922), p. 517: ‘the (native’s) outlook’, ‘a definite vision of the world’. 6 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |3 Astrology and the Bible: Strange bedfellows? The past century has seen mainstream academia change its perception of how ancient Judaism viewed astrology. Whilst the cultural influence of surrounding nations had been well documented (noted in this section and the ‘Review of Previous Work’, and discussed in ‘Findings and Discussion’), up to half a century ago, the majority of scholars denied the notion that the Jewish Bible or [rabbinic] Judaism of Late Antiquity bore any affinity with astrology or astral cults.10 In the late twentieth century, Judaism’s association with astrology was perceived as existing only from the late Second Temple period onwards (c. 200 BCE), a perception sparked by the discoveries of synagogue mosaic-floors featuring the zodiac.11 However, round the turn of this century, scholarship revealed that both the Jewish Bible and Talmud incorporated a cosmology and attitude that, whilst spurning astral religion, recognised the significance of the celestial bodies.12 This paper will address aspects of that cosmology, the degree of recognition, the Bible and the Rabbis’ (of Late Antiquity) attitude to astrologers and astrology, and the extent to which astrology was viewed as pagan or as part of the cosmos. In a related vein, this paper will explore the term mazol (generally translated as ‘constellation’) as it appeared in Tanach and Talmud, including whether or not the Talmud saw the concept of mazol as astrolatry or as part of the natural order, whether or not the Talmudic conception was coherent with Pentateuchal tradition, and the related Talmudic dictum, ein mazol le’Yisro’el – ‘there is no mazol for Israel’.13 Jacob J. Schacter, ‘Introduction’ Judaism's Encounter with Other Cultures: Rejection or Integration? ed. by J. Schacter (Jason Aronson, Incorp., 1997), p. x; James H. Charlesworth, ‘Jewish Interest in Astrology in the Hellenistic and Roman Period’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (Vol 2., no. 20.2 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1987), pp. 926-950), p. 927. L. Wachter, 'Astrologie und Schicksalsglaube im rabbinischen Judentum', Kairos (Vol. 11, 1969: pp. 181–200), quoted by Stuckrad, 'Jewish and Christian Astrology’, p. 23; Jacob Neusner, A History of the Jews in Babylonia (Leiden: Brill: 1965-70, Vol. 5), p. 192. There were exceptions, for example, Alfred Jeremias’ The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, transl. by C. L. Beaumont (Williams & Norgate, 1911), though its panbabylonistic approach resulted in its being rejected regardless of any otherwise significant contribution. 11 See, e.g., N. Avigad, ‘The Mosaic Pavement of the Beth-Alpha Synagogue and Its Place in the History of Jewish Art. The Beth-Shean Valley’, The Beth- Shean Valley. The 17th Archaeological Convention (Jerusalem: 1962), pp. 63–70; Charlesworth, 'Jewish Astrology in the Talmud, Pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls and Early Palestinian Synagogues', The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 70, No. 3/4 (Jul.–Oct., 1977), pp. 183–200; pp. 183–200; Kdumim-Ariel, ‘The Circle of the Zodiac and the Scientific Reasons for its use in the Ancient Synagogues in Israel’, Judea and Samaria research Studies. Proceedings of the 4rd Annual Meeting–1994, edited by Z. H. Erlich and Y. Eshel, pp. 179–188; Rachel Hachlili, ‘The Zodiac in Ancient Jewish Synagogue Art: A Review’ Jewish Studies Quarterly, Volume 9 (2002), pp. 219—258. 12 Charlesworth, ‘Jewish Astrology in the Talmud’, p. 200; Stuckrad, 'Jewish and Christian Astrology’, p. 33; Nicholas Campion, The History of Western Astrology, Volume 1: The Ancient World (Continuum, 2009), p. 256. 13 See Andrea D. Lobel, 'From Babylon to Jerusalem: The Roots of Jewish Astrological Symbolism', Sky and Symbol, ed. Nicholas Campion and Liz Greene (Sophia Centre Press, 2011, pp. 85–101), p. 91. 10 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |4 Challenges in Translation ‘One who translates a verse literally, is a liar. One who adds to it, is a blasphemer and libeller’.14 So declared the second-century Jewish sage, R. Yehudoh bar Ilai, highlighting the predicaments of translating and interpreting texts. When dealing with another era, culture or civilisation, challenges are greatly increased.15 As Kraabel cautioned, preconceptions may colour the scholar’s understanding.16 Since a society sees its environment through the eyes of its own culture, knowledge of that culture is essential to ensure a correct understanding of its terms. Understanding how it envisioned the heavens, requires an appreciation of its underlying worldview.17 Thus, to present an accurate reading of the texts and identify the role of astrology in the outlined periods, attention will be given to underlying ideologies.18 Translations will strive to express the text’s intention rather than imposing anachronistic meanings associated with the translator’s own viewpoint. That said, full analysis of all textual terms is beyond the scope of this paper. Where necessary, an approximate translation will be given, balancing paraphrasing with exactitude, with clarification in footnotes.19 Definitions JUDAIC TERMS Tanach (or Tanakh) – acronym of Torah, Nevi'im (Prophets), Kethuvim (Writings or Hagiographa) – the ‘Hebrew Bible’, comprises the three books of the Tosefta Megillah, 4:41; tB Qidushin 49a; ‫ר' יהודה אומר המתרגם פסוק כצורתו הרי זה בדאי והמוסיף עליו הרי זה‬ ‫מחרף ומגדף‬. 15 E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Theories of Primitive Religion (Oxford; Clarendon Press [New York: Oxford University Press], 1965), p. 13; Werner Cohn and Samuel Z. Klausner, ‘Is Religion Universal? Problems of Definition’, in Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (Vol. 2, No. 1, 1962, Wiley, on behalf of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, pp. 25–35), pp. 27–33. 16 A. T. Kraabel, ‘Disappearance of the 'God-Fearers’, pp. 113-126 (p. 113: ‘modern prejudices and presuppositions […] distort our perception of the ancient traditions […], (and) the effects of their meeting’). 17 Stanisław Iwaniszewski, ‘Rethinking Nahualac, Iztaccíhuatl, Mexico: Between Animism to Analogism in Mesoamerican Archaeoastronomy’, The Marriage of Astronomy and Culture: Theory and Method in the Study of Cultural Astronomy. A special issue of Culture and Cosmos (Culture and Cosmos: Sophia Centre Press, Vol. 21, no. 1, Spring/Summer 2017), p. 216. 18 See Eduardo Viveiros de Castro, ‘Perspectival Anthropology and the Method of Controlled Equivocation’, Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America (June, 2004), Volume 2, Issue 1, Article 1; Theodor Herzl Gaster, ‘Divine Kingship in the Ancient Near East: A Review Article’, Review of Religion, Issue 9 (1945), pp. 267-9. 19 Hebrew words will be transliterated in accordance with the traditional Ashkenazi pronunciation: ‘th’ indicating the soft or ‘fricative’ ‫ ת‬thof, (or sof – as opposed to the hard or ‘plosive’ tof), ‘q’ for letter ‫ ק‬quf, ‘k’ for the plosive ‫ כ‬kaf, and ‘hk’ for the soft ‫ כ‬khaf. Popular Hebrew names of the books of the Bible and personages will be transliterated according to their common usage. No accentual or diacritical marks have been used (in the Hebrew transliteration) since the current academic consensus reflects a reading that is foreign to the author. A short definition of terms will be given (in parenthesis) following the word. Where necessary, further explanation is provided in footnotes. 14 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |5 Jewish Canon, sealed in the latter half of the first millennium BCE: the Pentateuch (a Greek term for the Five Mosaic Books), Prophets and Writings.20 In Mishnaic literature (c. 10 CE–200 CE), ‘Torah’ (lit. law or teaching) meant the Pentateuch.21 Later, especially in the Judaic literature of the medieval period, ‘Torah’ referred to the Pentateuch, the whole Tanach, or to the entire corpus of traditional Jewish thought, depending on context. To avoid confusion, this paper will use ‘Torah’ as a generic term for the corpus of Judaic religious literature.22 Tano’im (sing. ‫ תנא‬taˈno), meaning ‘repeaters’ or ‘teachers’, was the name ascribed to Rabbinic sages of the Mishnaic (Tannaic) Period. Amoro’im (sing. ‫אמורא‬ amoro), ‘sayers’ or ‘reciters’, denoted sages of the Talmudic Period, c. 230 CE to c. 550 CE.23 Stamo’im (lit. ‘anonymous ones’) is a modern term referring to anonymous redactors of the Talmud, circa 550–700 CE.24 Whilst the Talmud’s redaction history may never be fully ascertained, they must be considered in analysing Talmudic material.25 For simplicity, the preface ‘R.’ will be used for all rabbis. ‘Canon’, is defined as ‘the definitive list of inspired, authoritative books which constitute the accepted body of sacred scripture of a major religious group, […] the result of inclusive and exclusive decisions after a serious deliberation", Eugene Ulrich, "The Notion and Definition of Canon", in The Canon Debate ed. by L. M. McDonald, J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson Publ., 2002), pp. 29, 34. Cf. Philip R. Davies, Scribes and Schools: The Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), Chs. 1, 2. The Masoretic Text can be found in Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Liber Gen, (H. Bardtke: Hendrickson Publishers Marketing, LLC; 2017), available online < https://www.academic-bible.com/en/online-bibles/biblia-hebraica-stuttgartensia-bhs/read-the-bible-text/> acc. 6th Dec. 2018. The twenty-four books are: five books of the Pentateuch – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; eight books of the Prophets (Nevi’im): Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the Twelve minor prophets; eleven books of the Writings (Khesuvim): Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra/Nehemiah, Chronicles. 21 George F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The Age of Tannaim (Hendrickson Publishers, 1997). In Deuteronomy and Joshua, ‘Torah’ refers specifically to all or parts of Deuteronomy: see Deut. 4.44, 27.3, Joshua 1.18, Bereishith Rabboh 6.9 (Theodor-Albeck edition), pp. 49-50. 22 George F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The Age of Tannaim (Hendrickson Publishers, 1997). In Deuteronomy and Joshua, ‘Torah’ refers specifically to all or parts of Deuteronomy: see Deut. 4.44, 27.3, Joshua 1.18, Bereishith Rabboh 6.9 (Theodor-Albeck edition), pp. 49-50. 23 Sol Scharfstein, Torah and Commentary: The Five Books of Moses (Ktav Publishing House, 2008), p. 523; H. L. Strack and G. Stemberger, Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash, trans. by M. Bockmuehl (Minneapolis, 1992), pp. 72-105. 24 Based on theories proposed independently by David Weiss Halivni, Mekorot u'Mesorot (N.Y.: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1982); idem., The Formation of the Babylonian Talmud, translated by Jeffrey L. Rubenstein (OUP); Shamma Friedman, Talmudic Studies: Investing the Sugya, Variant Readings and Aggada (New York/Jerusalem: JTS, 2010); cf. J. L. Rubenstein, The Culture of the Babylonian Talmud (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2005), though the period of the Stamo’im is a subject of academic debate (see Halivni, ibid and S. Friedman, ibid). These theories have been disputed, e.g., by Abraham Weiss (1895– 1970), Louis Jacobs (1920–2006) and more recently challenged, by Richard Lee Kalmin, The Redaction of the Babylonian Talmud: Amoraic or Saboraic (HUC, 1989) and Moulie Vidas, Tradition and the Formation of the Talmud (Princeton University Press, 2014). However, as this is the prevalent academic view, this paper will utilise these theories in analysing Talmudic text. 25 Concerning the challenge of interpreting the Bavli’s history, Kalmin wrote, ‘Due to their anonymous character, the chronology of these editors and the material they composed is difficult to assess. […] in my opinion, scholars too often base conclusions […] based on preconceived notions regarding the provenance of the anonymous material.’ (R. L. Kalmin, Migrating Tales, p. xi.) 20 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |6 The Talmud largely comprises sugyas (‘pericopes’) of exchange of reasonings, challenges and conclusions, tangentially based on the Mishnoh (main rabbinic document of the second century CE, the laws and traditions appertaining to both Biblical and rabbinic injunctions).26 There are two Talmuds: Babylonian (henceforth: BT or Bavli) and Jerusalem (henceforth: JT). 27 The BT, compiled by Sasanian Babylon amoro’im c. 230–550 CE, and subsequently edited and ‘sealed’ c. 550–750 CE, generally reflected the opinion of the Babylonian rabbinic authorities. The JT, a comparatively concise work, composed and ‘sealed’ in Palestine c. 400 CE, generally reflected the attitude of the rabbinic study-houses of late Roman-Palestine.28 Due to its different location and period, the JT’s views of astrology may have differed to that of the BT and thus warrant separate discussion. 29 This study concentrates on the Babylonian Talmud, as, primarily, its Biblical exegesis, assessment and transmission of the Oral Law and traditions, form the basis of subsequent Jewish law codes and rabbinic literature. References to the Talmud are to the Vilna edition (1835) of the Bavli text, unless otherwise indicated. Nonetheless, scholastic material of Palestinian provenance preserved in the BT, as, for example, passages of Midrash (a large and distinct body of exegesis literature based on the Tanach, evident in the pre-Tannaic period and transcribed between c. 2nd and 11th century CE), will be duly noted.30 The term ‘Jews’ (from the Hebrew, Yehudoh (Judah), plural: Yehudim (Judeans)) as a collective title for the Israelites, stems from post the Babylonian exile, whence the returning Jews were termed ‘Judeans’.31 In reference to the pre-exilic 26 Regarding the association of the Oral Law with ANE culture and law collections, see Samuel Greengus, ‘Filling Gaps: Laws found in Babylonia and in the Mishna but absent in the Hebrew Bible’, MAARAV, A Journal for the Study of the Northwest Semitic Languages and Literatures (vol. 7, pp. 149-71), pp. 170-1. 27 Although referred to as the Jerusalem Talmud (the literal translation of its Hebrew appellation, ‘Talmud Yerushalmi’), as Jews were forbidden to enter Jerusalem and it was mainly written in Tiberias, its more accurate title is Talmud Erets Yisro’el (Talmud of the Land of Israel); see Lawrence Schiffman, From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism (Ktav Publishing, 1991), p. 227. 28 R. Kalmin, The Sage in Jewish Society of Late Antiquity (Routledge: London, N.Y.; 1999), pp. 5-7. 29 See, e.g., Kimberly Stratton, ‘Imagining Power: Magic, Miracle, and the Social Context of Rabbinic SelfRepresentation’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, (Oxford University Press, Jun., 2005), Vol. 73, No. 2, pp. 361-393; R. Kalmin, The Sage in Jewish Society of Late Antiquity, pp. 5-7. 30 Kalmin, ‘Problems in the use of the Babylonian Talmud for the History of Late Roman-Palestine: The Example of Astrology’, Rabbinic Texts and the History of the Late Roman-Palestine: Proceedings of the British Academy, ed. by Philip S. Alexander and Martin Goodman (Oxford University Press for The British Academy, 2010; pp. 165-183), p. 166; Jacob Neusner, What is Midrash (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2014); Carol Bakhos, ‘Recent Trends in the Study of Midrash and Rabbinic Narrative’, Currents in Biblical Research (vol. 7, issue 2: 2009; pp. 272–293); Bakhos, ‘Midrash’, in Oxford Bibliographies available at http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199840731/obo-97801998407310045.xml#firstMatch acc. 19th Dec. 2018. 31 Before Jeremiah, Yehudi is only used in the sense of one who lived in the Judean part of Israel (e.g. II Kings 16.6). As most Israelites exiled to Babylon after the destruction of the First Temple (c. 586 BCE) DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |7 period (before the Assyrian conquest of the Northern kingdom of Ancient Israel), it is, at best, an anachronism.32 Equally, the term, ‘Judaism’, when referring to the pre-exilic era, may be considered chronologically inconsistent. 33 Correct nomenclature would seem to be ‘Israelites’ or ‘Hebrews’ in reference to the preexilic period and ‘Jews’ for the post-exilic period, and to differentiate between Judaic culture and early Israelite culture. However, in designating an era as ‘pre-exilic’ rather than ‘post-exilic’, Lester L. Grabbe detected a subtle value-judgement that the ‘post-exilic period represented a degeneration in the religious and national situation of Israel’.34 Though a distinction might be necessary in recognition of influences absorbed by Judaic culture in its initial exile in Babylonia (c. 588-518 BCE), Shemaryahu Talmon (1920-2010) criticised the ‘radical disjuncture’ inherent in distinguishing between ‘Biblical Israel’ and ‘Early Judaism’ ‘determined by subjective predilections’ and ‘based on theological notions or credal dispositions’ rather than an objective scholarly analysis. 35 Klaus Koch also argued that ‘the differentiation between (ancient) Israel and Judaism is a matter of convenience among historians’.36 Accordingly, this paper has opted to reflect recent academic opinion that the terms ‘Jew’, ‘Jewish People’, and ‘Judaism’ be extended to include the pre-exilic period [though, admittedly, the term ‘Judaism’ may be a modern misnomer], indicating continuity in tradition and practice.37 ‘Jew’ would thus be defined as a member, through descent or conversion, of a people who trace their origins to the Biblical ‘Children of Israel’ (Bnei Yisro’el) and whose endogenous religious culture is recognised today as Judaism.38 ‘Judaism’ is defined as a way of life that were from the tribe of Judah or had been under the Judaic king's rule, Israelites were subsequently called Yehudim, i.e. Judeans (see Jeremiah, 52; Esther, 2:5; Nehemiah passim; cf. Ezra 5.1, where it refers to those living in the Persian province of Yehud). Steve Mason argued that the term Judean ought to be used instead of Jew or Judaism (see S. Mason, ‘Jews, Judaeans, Judaizing, Judaism: Problems of Categorization in Ancient History’, Journal for the Study of Judaism (Brill: Vol. 38: 2007) pp. 457-512). 32 Steven D. Fraade, ‘Palestinian Judaism', Anchor Bible Dictionary ed. by David Noel Friedman (N.Y: Doubleday, 1992) vol. 3. Addendum, pp. 1054-5; cf. G. Harvey, The True Israel: Uses of the Names Jew, Hebrew and Israel in Ancient Jewish and Early Christian Literature (Leiden: Brill, 1996) pp. 11-103. 33 Fraade, ibid; Marc Zvi Brettler, ‘Judaism in the Hebrew Bible? The transition from ancient Israelite religion to Judaism’, The Catholic Biblical Quarterly (Washington: vol. 61, Is. 3; 1999: pp. 429-47), pp. 429-30; Shaye J.D. Cohen, ‘Religion, Ethnicity, and “Hellenism” in the Emergence of Jewish Identity in Maccabean Palestine’, Religion and Religious Practice in the Seleucid Kingdom, ed. by Per Bilde. Troels EngbergPederson, Lise Hannestad and Jan Stahle, (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1990), pp. 204-223. 34 Lester L. Grabbe, ‘The Jewish Theocracy from Cyrus to Titus: A Programmatic Essay’, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament (Vol. 12, Iss. 37: 1987), pp. 117, 122. 35 S. Talmon, ‘Between the Bible and the Mishna’, The World of Qumran from Within: Collected Studies (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, Hebrew University; Leiden: Brill, 1989), p. 22. 36 K. Koch, ‘Ezra and the Origins of Judaism’, Journal of Semitic Studies (Vol. 19, Is. 2; 1974), pp. 196-7. 37 Laurence Schiffman, From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism, (KTAV Publishing House, Inc., 1991) p. 1; Brettler, ‘Judaism in the Hebrew Bible?’, pp. 441-4, 445-6. 38 Oxford Dictionaries, https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/jew, acc. 1st May, 2018. See also, ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |8 incorporates a system of law, religion, ethics and morality, based upon and prescribed by the Torah.39 In this paper, the ‘Land of Israel’ prior to the Roman conquest will be referred to as ‘Ancient Israel’ and includes both the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah from c. 1200-586 BCE. The same region after the Roman defeat of Bar Kochba in 135 CE will be referred to as ‘Palestine’, reflecting the general consensus of historians. References to the ancient near east (ANE) are to the regions known today as the Middle East and Levant.40 ‘Culture’ is understood in its widest sense as a society’s ‘ideas, customs and social behaviour’ whose meaning lies ‘in the way the practices are interpreted by the insiders’.41 ‘Pagan’ and ‘paganism’ are used in their sense of Christian selfdefinition to mean a non-Abrahamic, polytheistic or pantheistic religion.42 As the definition of science, and its notion of knowledge, depends on its historic and social context, in this paper, ‘science’ is defined as ‘knowledge gained by observation of the natural world’, where that knowledge is understood by that society as indicative of regular natural laws.43 ‘Magic’ is defined as a system of Schiffman’s definition, From Text to Tradition, p. 1, ‘the collective religious, cultural and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people as developed and passed down from biblical times until today’. Cf. Daniel Boyarin (‘Introduction’, in A Radical Jew (Berkeley: University of California, 1997), pp. 2, 13-38. Bnei Yisro’el, transliteration of the Hebrew, ‫( בני ישראל‬lit. ‘Children of Israel’), is a term ascribed to the descendants of the major Biblical figure, Yisro’el (see e.g. Gen., 46.8), generally transliterated as ‘Israel’. 39 Jacob Neusner, ‘Rabbinic Judaism in Late Antiquity’, Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. by Thomson Gale (Macmillan Reference, 2005), p. 7583; Asher Maoz, subsection ‘Judaism’, in ‘The Impact of Jewish Law on Contemporary Systems with Special Reference to Human Rights’, Olir (2004), pp. 1-3. Cf. Boyarin, Judaism: The Genealogy of a Modern Notion (Rutgers University Press): ‘the distinction between religion and ethnicity is foreign to Judaism’; and Boyarin, ‘The Christian Invention of Judaism: The Theodosian Empire and the Rabbinic Refusal of Religion’, Representations (Vol. 85, Issue 1, 2004; pp. 21-57), p. 21, 48, ‘no word in premodern Jewish parlance means “Judaism”. When the term Ioudaismos appears […], it (means) […] the entire complex of loyalties and practices that mark off the people of Israel’; ‘Judaism both is and is not a “religion”, […] neither quite here nor quite there’. Similarly, Steve Mason contended ‘the Ioudaioi were understood not as a religiolicita’ but as an ethnic-political-ancestral culture (S. Mason, ‘Jews, Judaeans, Judaizing, Judaism’, p. 512). See though, Jan Assmann, ‘“Religion”, like “paganism”, is an invention of monotheism’ (Assmann, Of God and gods: Egypt, Israel and the Rise of Monotheism (University of Wisconsin Press, 2008), p. 10). 40 It thus includes the locations of the following [modern] states: Israel, Jordan, Lebanon (ancient Ugarit), Syria (related to ancient Assyria), Egypt, Iran (previously, Persia), Iraq (ancient Mesopotamia), Saudi Arabia, Greece and Turkey; see Amélie Kuhrt, The Ancient Near East, C. 3000-330 BC, Volume 1, (Psychology Press, 1995), p. 1. 41 (Oxford Dictionaries, <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/culture> [acc. 5th Nov. 2016]; J. Mulholland, The Language of Negotiation (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 8). 42 Owen Davies, Paganism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 2-7; also, Alan Cameron, The Last Pagans of Rome (OUP, 2013), p. 25 (responding to Garth Fowden’s objection to using the terms ‘pagan’ and ‘paganism’: Fowden, ‘Polytheist religion and philosophy’, The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol. 13, The Late Empire, AD 337–425, edited by Averil Cameron, Peter Garnsey (Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 538-560). 43 Philip S. Alexander, ‘Enoch and the Beginnings of Jewish Interest in Natural Science’, Ancient Jewish Sciences and the History of Knowledge in Second Temple Literature, edited by Jonathan Ben-Dov and Seth Sanders (NYU Press: 2014; pp. 25-50), pp. 26-27; David N. Livingstone, Putting Science in Its Place: Geographies of Scientific Knowledge (Univ. of Chicago Press, 2003); Mladen Popović, Reading the Human DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |9 interconnection between various levels of reality that forms the basis of a ritual.44 Regarding religion, Stewart E. Guthrie wrote, ‘scholars agree that no convincing general theory of religion exists’, whilst Edwin Judge asserted that when discussing ancient history, the term ‘religion’ is a particularly vexing misnomer. 45 However, for the purpose of this paper, religion is seen as ‘a system of beliefs and actions that stem from the recognition of a superior entity’.46 DEFINITION OF ASTROLOGY Whilst the etymological source of the term ‘astrology’, ἀστρολογία (astrologia) – from ἄστρον (astron) and λόγος (logos) – denotes ‘study’, ‘word’ or even ‘language’ of the stars, its different definitions offered by scholars reflect syntheses of various ideas and philosophies that were integrated into Western astrology.47 David Pingree’s definition, ‘the study of the celestial bodies’ impact […] upon the sublunar world’, reflecting Aristotelian causal philosophy, disregarded preHellenistic Babylonian horoscopic astrology. 48 Similarly, Gustav-Adolf Schoener’s idea of astrology, based on seeing the world as a living creature guided Body: Physiognomics and Astrology in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Hellenistic-Early Roman Period Judaism (Leiden: Brill, 2007), pp. 211–13; Eleanor Robson, ‘Empirical Scholarship in the Neo-Assyrian Court’, The Empirical Dimension of Ancient Near Eastern Studies / Die empirische Dimension altorientalischer Forschungen, ed. by G.J. Selz and K. Wagensonner (Vienna: Lit, 2011), pp. 603–29; Reed, ‘Was there Science in Ancient Judaism?’, p. 467; also, Geoffrey E. R. Lloyd, Disciplines in the Making (OUP, 2009), p. 155; New Catholic Encyclopedia (Thomson/Gale, 2003), Vol. 12, p. 799; Alastair Greig, Frank Lewins and Kevin White, Inequality in Australia (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003), p. 21. 44 Ann Jeffers, ‘Magic and Divination in Ancient Israel’, Religion Compass (Blackwell Publications Ltd: Vol. 1, Issue 6, 2007; pp. 628–642), p. 632; Von Stuckrad, ‘Astral Magic in Ancient Jewish Discourse: Adoption, Transformation, Differentiation’, Continuity and Innovation in the Magical Tradition, ed. by Gideon Bohak, Yuval Harari, Shaul Shaked (Brill, 2011, pp. 245-267), p. 250. Cf. James G. Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Comparative Religion (Macmillan, 1890), Vol. 1, pp. 52–54. 45 S. E Guthrie, 'Religion: What is it?', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, (1996: Vol. 35, no. 4), p. 412; Edwin Judge commented, ‘When one encounters the word “religion” in a translation of an ancient text: first, cross out the word […]. Next, find a copy of the text […] and see what word is being translated […]. Third, come up with a different translation. It almost doesn’t matter what. Anything but “religion”.’ (Communication cited in Brent Nongbri, Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale Univ. Press, 2013), p. 156. 46 Meir Bar-Ilan, ‘Review of Dov Schwartz, Astrology and Magic in Jewish Thought in the Middle Ages’, Kabbalah (Ramat-Gan, Is. 7), pp. 384-361, (‘ ‫דת היא מערכת האמונות והמעשים הנובעים מתוך הכרת האדם בישות‬ ‫ )’נעלה ממנו שאינה אנושית‬based upon Gerardus Van der Leeuw (1890-1950), Religion in Essence and Manifestation, trans. by J. E. Turner (NY and Evanston: Harper & Row Publishers, 1963), pp. 23, 670–671. (Hideo Kishimoto’s broader definition, 'an aspect of culture centred upon activities […] 'taken by those who participate in them to elucidate the ultimate meaning of life …’ (Kishimoto, 'An Operational Definition of Religion', Numen (Brill: 1961, Vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 236-240), p. 240 [see also, p. 238]), may be anachronistic when dealing with ancient cultures.) 47 Scott B. Noegel, ‘Sign, sign, everywhere a sign’, Divination and Interpretation of Signs in the Ancient World, ed. by Amur Annus (The University of Chicago, 2010: no. 6), p. 149; Wordsense Dictionary online at http://www.wordsense.eu accessed 5th November 2016; The Online Etymology Dictionary, online at https://www.etymonline.com/ accessed 5th Nov. 2016; 48 David Pingree, ‘Astrology’, Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. by Philip P. Weiner (Charles Scribner's Sons), Vol. 1, p 118 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |10 by external forces, ‘an invisible magic bond’ connecting its parts and events to one another and to its transcendent idea, was only compatible with a Platonic hierarchal worldview and Stoic concepts of sympatheia (the simultaneous effect on all parts as a consequence of a dynamic system of forces (heimarmene)).49 Other historians and scholars of astrology saw astrology as a form of divination. David Potter wrote: ‘Pride of place among the various forms of inductive divination available in the Roman world must go to astrology’.50 Geoffrey Cornelius declared contact with ‘a spirit-like reality’ to be at the heart of astrology.51 Patrick Curry, too, maintained that astrology was essentially divination, though part of a wider discourse ‘of relating the heavenly bodies to […] events on earth’.52 Likewise, Jeremy Black and Anthony Green described astrology as observing ‘the movements of astral bodies with a view to divination of the future thereby’.53 Whilst these latter definitions encompass the celestial divination practises of Ancient Mesopotamia and later astrological practices, they disregard the ‘cookbook’-like character of the Mesopotamian collection of celestial omens, as well as various almanacs of Ancient Antiquity, that provided exact apodoses for set instances, and methods developed for predicting astronomical events from which omens were forecasted, such as the astrological parapegmata, where predictions were based upon texts or apparatus rather than contact with a deity.54 Hence, for the purpose of this wide-ranging study that will address various periods and types of astrology, a broad definition that would encompass the various traditions of the periods and landscapes in question will be adopted. ‘Astrology’ is therefore defined, as delineated by Nicholas Campion, as ‘the assumption that stars and planets possess or impart [integral] meaning’.55 49 Gustav-Adolf Schoener, Astrology: Between Religion and the Empirical, translated by Shane Denson, < http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeIV/astrology.htm > acc. 31 st July 2015 (p. 30); Von Stuckrad, Western Esotericism: A Brief History of Secret Knowledge, transl. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 17. 50 David Potter, Prophets and Emperors: Human and Divine Authority from Augustus to Theodosius (Cambridge, MA; London, Harvard University Press, 1994), p. 17. 51 Geoffrey Cornelius, The Moment of Astrology: Origins in Divination (London: Arkana Penguin Books, 1994), p. xix; G. Cornelius, ‘Is Astrology Divination and Does it Matter?’, The Mountain Astrologer (Issue 81, 1998), available online at http://cura.free.fr/quinq/01gfcor.html, acc. 2nd November, 2018. 52 Patrick Curry, ‘Astrology’, The Encyclopaedia of Historians and Historical Writing, ed. by Kelly Boyd (London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999), (pp. 55–7), p. 55; also, ‘Introduction’ Prophecy and Power: Astrology in Early Modern England (Cambridge Polty Press, 1989), p. 4; Curry, ‘Divination, Enchantment and Platonism’, p. 6. 53 Jeremy Black and Anthony Green, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia (Austin: University of Texas Press: 1992), p. 36. 54 Daryn Lehoux, ‘Observation and prediction in ancient astrology’, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science (Part A, Volume 35, Issue 2, 2004, pp. 227-246), pp. 228, 230, 237. 55 Nicholas Campion, Astrology and Cosmology in the World’s Religions (NYU Press: 2012), pp. 11, 12. DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |11 Accordingly, this research will also reference astrolatry (the deification of celestial bodies) in its sphere of veneration of stars as representations or hypostases of particular deities (versus allusions to deities without reference to stars or planets) – particularly as it was integrated into Biblical or Talmudic (rabbinical) ideologies (as opposed to its mere mention in Biblical admonitions) – and celestial divination (perceiving celestial phenomena as signs to be read and interpreted), both involving the assignment of meaning to astral phenomena, as manifestations or as signs of a divine agency.56 Besides the fact that astrology and astronomy were inseparable in antiquity, the Bible and Talmud ascribed meaning to celestial order, manifestations of the luminaries (for example, the new moon) and various points of time.57 Thus, the calendar and related astronomical calculations could arguably be included within the afore-mentioned definition of astrology. However, due to this paper’s wide historical scope, its field of inquiry will ignore calendrical discourse, except when it related directly to astrological lore. Furthermore, this paper’s textual analysis will make the anachronistic distinction between astronomical and astrological allusions. DEFINITION OF DIVINATION Implicit in the etymological derivation of ‘divination’ (the Latin, divinatio, See also, Stuckrad, ‘Jewish and Christian astrology’, p. 6, and p. 33: ‘the relation between [the celestial bodies and] stars and [the] Earth’). Cf. Ioan Petru Culianu, ‘Astrology’ Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. by Mircea Eliade (NY: Macmillan, 1987), Vol. 1, pp. 473-4 (the superimposition of two systems: of the heavens and of human beings on earth; ‘Through observation of the heavens, these systems attempt to account for changes within the human system.’) 56 Manfred Hutter, ‘Astral Religion’, Religion Past and Present, ed. by Hans Dieter Betz (Brill, 2009) available online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1877-5888_rpp_SIM_01191 acc. on 25th December 2018; Jeffrey L. Cooley, ‘Astral Religion in Ugarit and Ancient Israel’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, (The University of Chicago Press, 2011: Vol. 70, No. 2, pp. 281-287), p. 281, fn. 1; Francesca Rochberg, ‘“The Stars and Their Likenesses”: Perspectives on the Relation between Celestial Bodies and Gods in Ancient Mesopotamia’, What is a god? Anthropomorphic and Nonanthropomorphic Aspects of Deity in Ancient Mesopotamia, ed. by Barbara N. Porter (Chebeague Island, Maine: Transactions of the Casco Bay Assyriological Institute I, 2000, pp. 41-91), pp. 65, 79, 83, 89, 90; Jeffrey L. Cooley, ‘Celestial Divination in Ugarit and Ancient Israel: Reassessment’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, (University of Chicago Press, Vol. 71, No. 1: 2012), pp. 21-30. 57 Erich Bischoff, Babylonisch-Astrales im Weltbilde des Thalmud und Midrasch (Lepizig: Hinrichs, 1907) p. 115 (‘Astrologie und Astronomie sind ursprünglich eins’); David Pingree, ‘Astrology and Astronomy in Iran’, Encyclopedia Iranica, (Iran: Routledge & Kegan Paul) vol. 2, pp. 858-870, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/astrology-and-astronomy-in-iran- acc. 14th Dec. 2018 (‘Astronomy and astrology, in the ancient Iranian view, together formed one science, which answered the questions: “How are the movements of the sun and moon and stars?” and “what is their work and function?”’); Henri Frankfort, Before Philosophy: The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man (Baltimore, MD: Penguin, 1949) p. 30; Campion, History of Western Astrology, 1, p. 114; Campion, Astrology, History and Apocalypse (Centre for Psychological Astrology Press: 2000), pp. 107-8; Stuckrad, 'Jewish and Christian Astrology’, pp. 14-15; Reed, ‘Was There Science in Ancient Judaism?’, p. 463. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |12 from divinus – ‘of a deity’) is belief in a divine being.58 Akkadian celestial omens of the second millennium BCE and the celestial divination recorded in the first millennium were based upon the notion that the gods expressed their will through the stars (amongst other things), such that the stars were referred to as šiṭir šamê, ‘the heavenly writing’, a view later reflected in Hellenistic astrology.59 Whether it was prevalent in the Babylonian Talmud will be explored in this paper. Accordingly, this paper adopts Carmen Blacker and Michael Loewe’s definition of divination as an ‘attempt to elicit, from a higher power or supernatural being, answers to questions beyond the range of ordinary human understanding’, a ‘diviner’ being one who practices such a method with intention to acquire such knowledge.60 The deity, divine or higher power is defined in this paper as anything perceived to possess potency; that is, a power capable of affecting others that cannot be ascribed to mere physical or mental prowess.61 The Biblical terms nāḥāš (‘divination’) and menāḥeš (‘one who divines’) likely had the same derivation as the Hebrew noun nāḥāš ‘snake’, namely: lḥš, ‘whisper’, possibly referring to the esoteric nature of divination. 62 As this paper is concerned exclusively with astrology, it will not attempt to analyse the various types of divination implicit in Lev. 19.26 and Deut. 18.10. https://www.etymonline.com/word/divination acc. 18th Oct. 18 (‘[…] from Latin divinationem (nominative divinatio) "the power of foreseeing, prediction," [...] from past-participle stem of divinare, literally "to be inspired by a god," from divinus "of a god," from divus "a god," related to deus "god, deity”’). 59 Francesca Rochberg, The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 1ff, fn. 1, quoting inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar from Stephen Langdon, Neubabylonischen Konigsinschriften ¨ VAB 4 (Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1912), p. 178; Jean Bottéro, ‘Symptômes, signes, écritures’ Divination et rationalité ed. by J.P. Vernant, L. Vandermeersch, J. Gernet, J. Bottéro, et al. (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1974), p. 160. Cf. Nicholas Campion, Astrology, History and Apocalypse (Centre for Psychological Astrology Press: London), p. 11; Dorian Gieseler Greenbaum, The Daimon in Hellenistic Astrology: Origins and Influence, (Brill, 2015), p. 31 ff; David Pingree, ‘Hellenophilia versus the History of Science’, Isis (Vol. 83, Issue 4: 1992; pp. 554-563), p. 560; Ulla Koch-Westenholz, Mesopotamian Astrology: An Introduction to Babylonian and Assyrian Celestial Divination (Thee Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern Studies Museum Tusculanum Press, University of Copenhagen, 1995), Foreword, p. 11. 60 C. Blacker and M. Loewe, Oracles and Divination (Boulder: Shambhala 1981), p. 1. This definition is not entirely uncontroversial. Both John Addey (1920-1982) and Angela Voss (in her study of the astrology of Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499)) have argued that divination in an astrological context does not necessitate recognition of a higher power (John M. Addey, ‘Astrology as Divination’, Astrology (56:2, 1982; pp. 3944), p. 39; Angela Voss, ‘The Astrology of Marsilio Ficino: Divination or Science?’ Culture and Cosmos (Sophia Centre Press Autumn/Winter, 2000, Vol. 4, Issue 2), pp. 29-45), p. 30). Addey argued that astrology entailed divination that was a form of intuition. Similarly, Voss saw Marsilio Ficino's understanding of astrology as moving ‘towards an understanding of symbol as a means by which’ one may look ‘inwardly, into the human psyche, as a mirror of the cosmos’. However, both these definitions may be considered eraspecific and are hardly applicable to the periods under discussion in this paper. 61 See Michael B. Hundley, ‘Here a god, there a god: An examination of the divine in Ancient Mesopotamia’, Altorientalische Forschungen (Akademie Verlag, 2014: Vol. 40, Issue 1, pp. 68-107), p. 77. 62 See Lev. 19.26; Num., 23.23; Jeffers, pp. 74-77; David Noel Freedman, The Anchor Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1996, c1992), 4:468. See also, Isa 3:3; 3:20; 26:16; Jer 8:17; Eccl 10:11. Cf. Sanhedrin 66a. 58 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |13 CHAPTER 1: REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK Whilst not exhaustive, the following review will aim to encompass academia’s main views on the subject. SECTION I: ASTROLOGY IN THE BIBLE Though both Franz Cumont (1868-1947) and Alfred Jeremias (1864-1935) referred to astrology as the cultural background to the Scriptures, until late twentieth century, historians were reluctant to see astrology as actually referenced in the Holy Writ, or as evident in ancient Judaic culture, due to the assumed Biblical injunctions against astrology (Lev. 19.26), and the apparent admonitions of the prophets against astral divination (Jer. 10.2; Isaiah 47.13).63 Robert Young concluded, ‘at the heart of its science, we find a culture's values’. 64 Interpretation of these texts and its blinkered outlook may have been coloured by forgone prejudices of a Christian ideology that tended to disapprove of astrology (and anything deemed ‘other’ or ‘pagan’), and thus refused to entertain the notion of hints of astrology in the Holy Writ. 65 Once astrology was perceived of as pagan, it was seen as rooted in ‘primitive, infantile or neurotic thinking’ (Cumont’s words), a throwback to James G. Frazer’s (1854-1941) theory of cultural evolution and magic that deeply impacted the subsequent modern academic approach to Biblical studies.66 63 Franz Cumont, Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans (Cosimo, New York, 2006), pp. xv-xvi; A. Jeremias, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East; Ida Zatelli, 'Astrology and the Worship of the Stars in the Bible' Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, (Vol. 103, Is. 1, 2009; pp. 86-9), p. 88, fn, 6. 64 Robert Young, Darwin’s Metaphor: Nature’s Place in Victorian Culture (Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 125, available online at <http://www.psychoanalysis-and-therapy.com/human_nature/darwinmet/chap4.html> [accessed 28th Oct. 2018]. See also, Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 110. ‘Science’ here is understood as ‘the orderly and systematic comprehension, description and/or explanation of natural phenomena’ (see Marshal Clagett, Greek Science in Antiquity (Courier Corporation, 2001 [London, 1957]), p. 4). 65 Though early Christian views were divided, the overriding Christian outlook towards astrology has been one of hostility, mainly due to Augustine’s condemnation (of astrology) in his City of God (Nicholas Campion, Astrology, History and Apocalypse (CPA, London, 2000), pp. 43-4). See also, Von Stuckrad, Das Ringen um die Astrologie: Jüdische und christliche Beiträge zum antiken Zeitverständnis (Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter 2000), pp. 767-800; Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture (Cambridge University Press: 2012), pp. 77 ff, 172. 66 Cumont, Astrology and Religion, p. xvii; Frazer, Golden Bough, vol. 1, p. 9ff; Jacob Pandian, ‘The Sacred Integration of the Cultural Self: An Anthropological Approach to the Study of Religion’ Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook, ed. by Stephen D. Glazier, (Praeger Publishers, Westport, 1999), p. 515; Islwyn Blythin, ‘Magic and Methodology’, Numen (Brill: 1970, Vol. 17, Fasc. 1; pp. 45-59), p. 53. See Frazer’s ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |14 So as to protect its self-notion as rational and enlightened, there was an unwitting reluctance to see astrology as an integral part of Western civilisation’s cultural history.67 In Francesca Rochberg words, ‘as long as the study of astrology was regarded as primitive, our ability to reconstruct astronomy’s history remained not only partial but plainly ethnocentric’.68 No Astrological Belief In his discussion of Biblical etymology, Thomas Witton Davies (1851-1923) opined that the Jews were ‘never in danger of believing in astrology’.69 Referring to the first millennium BCE until the Second Temple Era, Isaac Mendelsohn (1898–1965) declared that, judging from the Bible, ancient Israel knew nothing of astrology.70 With respect to the Second Temple period, David Flusser (1917– 2000) asserted that, after their exile to Babylon, the Jewish people ‘had become completely immune to the attraction of paganism’.71 Though somewhat tempered, this notion has persisted, perhaps because Christian theology has continued to affect scholarly opinion. 72 Regarding contemporary scholarship on astral religion’s impact on the Abrahamic religions, Mark S. Smith commented that though ‘West Semitic religion owes much to astral religion’, ‘most modern accounts take little note of it’. 73 Ida Zatelli noted that three stages in the human psyche’s development in Golden Bough, Ch. 5, online at https://www.bartleby.com/196/9.html, acc. 29th Nov. 2018. 67 F. Rochberg The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture, (Cambridge University Press: UK, 2004), p. 21; Stuckrad, ‘Astral Magic in Jewish Discourse’, p. 246. 68 Francesca Rochberg, ‘A consideration of Babylonian astronomy within the historiography of science’, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science (Vol. 33, Issue 4, 2002: pp. 661-684), p. 677. 69 Thomas Witton Davies, Magic, Divination and Demonology among the Hebrews and their Neighbours: including an examination of biblical references and of the biblical terms (London, James Clarke: 1898), p. 80. It should be noted that the referenced sources were to ‘rudimentary astrology’, not Hellenistic astrology. 70 Isaac Mendelsohn, ‘Astrology’, The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, edited by Keith R. Crim and George A. Buttrick (Abingdon Press, 1979), Vol. I, p. 304. In this context, ‘paganism’ includes astral worship and divination. 71 David Flusser, The Jewish People in the First Century, edited by Shemuel Safrai, et al. (Uitgeverij Van Gorcum, 1974), Volume 2, p. 1090. 72 For Christian beliefs affecting academia, see Jeffrey L. Rubenstein, ‘Sukkot, Eschatology and Zechariah 14’, Revue Biblique (vol. 103, Issue 2, 1996: pp. 161-195), pp. 163-5, on Konrad R. Schaefer, ‘The ending of the book of Zechariah; a commentary’, Revue Biblique (vol. 100, Is. 2, 1993); ‘Zechariah 14 and the composition of the book of Zechariah’, Revue Biblique (vol. 100, Is. 3, 1993), referencing Harald Riesenfeld, Jésus transfiguré: l'arrière-plan du récit évangélique de la transfiguration de Notre-Seigneur (12 Swedish crowns, Munksgaard, Copenhagen. 1947), and Jean Daniélou, ‘Le Symbolisme Eschatologique de la Fête des Tabernacles’, Irénikon (vol. 31, 1958; pp. 19-40). See also, Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 110; Andrea Nicolotti, ‘What Do We Know about the Scourging of Jesus?’, Bulletin of The American Schools of Oriental Research (American Schools of Oriental Research: Dec. 2018, vol. VI, no. 12), available online < http://www.asor.org/anetoday/2018/12/What-Do-We-Know-About-Scourging-Jesus > acc. 7th Dec. 2018. See also, Randall Styers, Making Magic: Religion, Magic, and Science in the Modern World (Oxford University Press, USA: 2004). 73 M. S. Smith, ‘Astral Religion and the Representation of Divinity: The Cases of Ugarit and Judah’, Prayer, DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |15 many academians see no possibility of Biblical astrological references.74 Alexander Altmann saw no explicit mention of astrology in the Pentateuch and only obscure references to Babylonian astrologers in the Prophets and Writings.75 James Charlesworth, who spearheaded a new approach in appreciating the presence of astrology in Talmudic writings, claimed the Bible contained no influence of astrological belief.76 Reed (quoting Meir Bar-Ilan) averred that interest in the study of the stars was ‘almost wholly absent from the Hebrew Bible’. 77 Frederick H. Cryer had no doubt that the Israelites of the Bible did not practice astrology.78 Astral Worship and Astral Divination Reimund Leicht was slightly more circumspect. Referring to the prophets’ polemics against undue preoccupation with the stars, he stated that belief in astrology left ‘dim echoes in biblical literature’, though claiming that it was unclear whether those rebukes concerned astral worship or divination.79 Besides the prophets’ remonstrations against astrolatry, however, Leicht saw no hint of astrological allusions in the Bible, concluding that only from the Hellenistic period onwards, do signs of Babylonian and Hellenistic astrology emerge within the texts. 80 Whereas Leicht saw an ambivalent attitude as appearing only in Rabbinic texts, Andrea D. Lobel detected ambivalence in late Biblical writings.81 In contrast to Leicht, John S. Holladay saw lunar and solar omina as deeply entrenched in the Israelite prophetic literature, such that there was no reason to deny the presence of astrology in Tanach.82 Similarly, Campion saw ‘the Israelite G-d, exactly like his Mesopotamian counterparts, [speaking] through omens’.83 Thus, Campion had difficulty explaining Jeremiah’s admonition to the Jews (Jer. Magic, and the Stars in the Ancient and Late Antique World, ed. by Scott Noegel and Joel Walker Walker (Penn State Press, 2010; pp. 187-206), p. 187. 74 Ida Zatelli, 'Astrology and the Worship of the Stars in the Bible', p. 88, fn. 6. 75 Alexander Altmann, ‘Astrology’, in Encyclopaedia Judaica (Jerusalem: Keter, 1973, Vol. 3, pp. 788– 795), p. 788. 76 Charlesworth, ‘Jewish Astrology in the Talmud’, p. 198. 77 A. Y. Reed, ‘Was There Science in Ancient Judaism?’, p. 469 [italics mine]. 78 Frederick H. Cryer, Divination in Ancient Israel and Its Near Eastern Environment: A Socio-Historical Investigation (JSOT Press, Sheffield, 1994), p. 321 79 Reimund Leicht, ‘Jewish Astrology’, in The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, ed. by Roger S. Bagnall, et al. (Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), p. 873. 80 Leicht, ‘Jewish Astrology’, p. 873. 81 Leicht, ‘Jewish Astrology’, p. 873; Andrea D. Lobel, ‘From Babylon to Jerusalem’, Sky and Symbol, ed. by Nicholas Campion and Liz Greene (Sophia Centre Press, pp. 85-101), pp. 93-4, 97-8. 82 John S. Holladay, Jr., ‘The Day(s) the Moon Stood Still’, Journal of Biblical Literature (The Society of Biblical Literature: Vol. 87, Issue 2, 1968: pp. 166-178), p. 173. 83 Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, pp. 115-6, 125. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |16 10.2-3) to ignore the signs of the heavens.84 As opposed to both John W. McKay and Morton Cogan, who argued that the Biblical prophets’ denouncements of astral religion reflected an indigenous traditional worship, Campion saw the prophets as forbidding both astral worship and divination in response to (the Jews) apparent ‘widespread adoption […] of Mesopotamian astrology and astral worship’ before the Babylonian conquest in the sixth century BCE 85 Campion acceded to several scholars’ suggestions of evidence of solar religious elements (sun-worship) in the Tanach. 86 Such assertions were challenged by Smith, contending that they had little scriptural support.87 Jeffrey L. Cooley described the academic arguments of textual references to celestial divination (as opposed to astral worship) within Judaic culture as profoundly speculative.88 In contradistinction to scholars who assume a symbiotic relationship between celestial divination and astral religion, Cooley asserted that, though astral religion was present, celestial divination was not a significant part of Israelite religious expression before their Babylonian exile.89 Proto-Astrology Recent academic studies have noted a ‘proto-astrology’ in the Bible.90 Besides belief in astral omens, Campion perceived ‘rudimentary astrology’ as appearing in most of the Prophets.91 In a similar manner, Bar-Ilan saw Balaam’s practices (Num. 22-23) as an example of ‘pre-astrological’ rituals.92 84 Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 120. J. W. McKay, Religion in Judah under the Assyrians 732-609 BC (London: S.C.M. Press, 1973) pp. 27, 38, 51, 71; M. Cogan, Imperialism and Religion: Assyria, Judah and Israel in the Eighth and Seventh Centuries B.C.E. (USA: Society of Biblical Literature, 1974), pp. 86-88. See also, Othmar Keel, Christoph Uehlinger, Gods, goddesses, and images of god (Bloomsbury Publishing, 1998), pp. 286, 318. Cf. M.S. Smith, ‘When the Heavens Darkened: The Divine Astral Family in Iron Age II Judah’, in Symbiosis, Symbolism, and the Power of the Past: Canaan, Ancient Israel, and their Neighbors from the Late Bronze Age through Roman Palaestina, ed. by William G. Dever and Seymour Gitin (Eisenbrauns, 2003), pp. 267-71; Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 110. 86 Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, pp. 116-9; Hans-Peter Stähli, Solare Elemente in Jahwe Glauben des alten Testaments (Universitätsverlag / Vandenhoeck & Ruprechtht, 1985), pp. 12-23. 87 Smith, ‘When the Heavens Darkened’, p. 266. 88 Cooley, ‘Celestial Divination in Ugarit and Ancient Israel: Reassessment’, pp. 26, 28; ‘Astral Religion in Ugarit and Ancient Israel’, pp. 281-2. He argued with Jonas C. Greenfield and Michael Sokoloff regarding Mesopotamian influence in Ugarit apropos celestial divination (see J. C. Greenfield and M. Sokoloff, ‘Astrological and Related Omen Texts in Jewish Palestinian Aramaic’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies (University of Chicago Press: Vol. 48, No. 3; 1989, pp. 201-214), maintaining that ‘the biblical text provides evidence only for foreign practice’ (‘Celestial Divination’, p. 28). 89 Cooley, ibid. 90 For ‘proto-astrology’, see Jim Tester, A History of Western Astrology (Boydell and Breuer, 1987), p. 13f. 91 Campion, The History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 115. 92 Meir Bar-Ilan, ‘Astrology in Ancient Judaism’, The Encyclopaedia of Judaism, Vol. V, Supplement II 85 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |17 Astrological Worldview Stuckrad proposed that the Bible’s criticism on astral beliefs was directed solely to astrolatry and deterministic worldviews but its underlying discourse entertained a relationship between the stars and earth, unrelated to cultic astrolatry.93 This opinion was shared by Jeffers who dubbed it a ‘semitic mentality’.94 It also related to Cryer’s claim that ‘ancient Israel was a magical society’.95 Likewise, Campion, quoting J. Edward Wright, saw recent scholarship as indicating that the ancient Israelites fully participated in the ancient Near East’s cultural milieu, the Bible transforming ‘inherited views of the universe’ from the ancient Canaanites to accord with its particular theologies.96 In a similar manner, although Ida Zatelli saw the Bible as condemning the astrologer, she perceived the Bible as harmonising or reinterpreting aspects of the foreign astral cults, such that, when the monotheistic principle is not threatened, ‘the “wisdom of the stars” regains its own cognitive value’.97 However, whereas both Zatelli and Campion (for different reasons) identified aspects of astrology (besides astrolatry) in the Bible, Wright detected traces only of cultural transmission of stellar religions from the background of its history.98 The Pan-Astral School On the extreme side of this spectrum were those who subscribed to the panastral school of history, detecting traces of astrology and astrolatry throughout the Biblical narrative. Whereas Stuckrad proclaimed the importance of steering clear from conclusions not solidly based on textual evidence, his postulations are often anachronistic, with flimsy textual basis. 99 Campion, though wary of (Leiden - Boston: Brill, 2004), ed. by J. Neusner, A. Avery-Peck and W. S. Green, p. 2031-2044, at https://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/articles/publications/publications0078.html acc. 31st Oct. 2018. 93 Stuckrad, ‘Jewish and Christian astrology’, p. 33. 94 Jeffers, Magic and Divination in Ancient Palestine and Syria, pp. 16, 251. See also, Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 256, that Biblical rulings targeted cultic star worship, ‘rather than astrology as an interpretative system’. 95 Cryer, Divination in Ancient Israel, p. 324. 96 Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 109-114; J. Edward Wright, The Early History of Heaven (Oxford University Press: 2002), pp. ix-x, 3, 185. (Wright, and possibly Campion too, is of the opinion that the Israelite religion was originally a Canaanite religion (p. 64).) 97 Zatelli, 'Astrology and the Worship of the Stars’, pp. 87, 88, 97; see also: Lobel, 'Babylon to Jerusalem', p. 87; Larry R. Helyer, Exploring Jewish Literature of the Second Temple Period: A Guide for New Testament Students, (InterVarsity Press, 2002), p. 83. 98 Ida Zatelli, 'Astrology and the Worship of the Stars in the Bible', p. 87; Campion, History of Western Astrology, 1, p. 109-114; Wright, Early History of Heaven, pp. ix-x, 3, 185. 99 For example, Kocku von Stuckrad, Frömmigkeit und Wissenschaft: Astrologie in Tanach, Qumran und frührabbinischer Literatur (Peter Lang: Frankfurt a. M.: 1996), p. 93. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |18 chronological inconsistencies, nonetheless advanced astrological allusions where written support was scant and contested; seeing the Israel tribes as alluding to the solar cycle, the First Temple built in response to an eclipse, and the Israelites involved in Saturn worship during their wilderness trek.100 Similarly, his suggestion that the prophets viewed G-d as ‘identical to the Egyptian god […] who was both supreme creator and represented by the sun-disc’, merely because he is described as shining like the sun, lacked scriptural support.101 Jeffers, too, saw astrological allusions in various Biblical texts based on textual proofs that were either negligible or non-existent; for instance, seeing Joshua 10.12, 13 as an ‘astrological prayer invoked to defeat Israel’s enemies’ and I Samuel 9.25 as ‘a possible allusion to divination through the heavenly phenomena’.102 An extreme example of this school was Joel C. Dobin (1926-2012), whose work, which, though directed at a lay audience, has been frequently referenced by scholars, suffered from exaggerated claims and suggestions that were often anachronistic.103 Similar to Jeremias’ panbabylonistic approach that used the precession of the equinoxes and the zodiac in the third millennium BCE to explain Biblical text, though neither concept existed at that time, Dobin posited the Bible as a template of Hellenistic astrology, including finding references therein to astrocartography (locational astrology), progressions and astrological houses.104 Ari Storch, a more recent example of this genre, saw entire Biblical narratives reflected in the constellations. 105 Following the lead of the 11th century late Midrash, Pesiqta Zutra, Storch read Hellenistic astrological characteristics of the twelve signs of the Zodiac into the Bible’s account of the twelve sons of Jacob.106 Indeed, both Dobin and Storch’s approach was comparable to that of the Midrash, 100 Von Stuckrad, Frömmigkeit und Wissenschaft Part II, Chap. 1:1, p. 88; Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, pp. 116, 117, 120. Even the apparent reference to Saturn worship in Amos 5.26 has been contested; see, e.g., R. Borger, ‘Amos 5,26, Apostelgeschichte 7,43 und Surpu II, 180’, Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, edited by Jürgen van Oorschot, Jan Christian Gertz, Sebastian Grätz, Uwe Becker(1988; vol. 100, issue 1), pp. 708-81, online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zatw.1988.100.1.70, [acc. 16th Dec. 2018]; cf. Gert J. Steyn, ‘Trajectories of Scripture Transmission: The case of Amos 5:25–27 in Acts 7:42–43’, HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies (Vol 69, No 1, 2013), pp. 1-9. 101 Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, pp. 116, 117, 120. 102 Jeffers, Magic, pp, 152-3. 103 Joel C. Dobin, The Astrological Secrets of the Hebrew Sages: To Rule Both Day and Night (Inner Traditions; First Paperback Printing edition, 1983), pp. 39-49. E.g., that Jacob’s sons correspond to the Zodiacal twelve signs with their associated Hellenistic character attributions: This is only an academic criticism; from a religious viewpoint, the Bible can hint at ideas voiced millennia subsequent to its canonisation. 104 Dobin, Astrological Secrets, pp. 121, 163; Jeremias, Old Testament in Light of the Ancient East, p. 28, quoted in Otto E. Neugebauer, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity (Dover Publicat. Inc.; 1969), pp.138-139. 105 Ari Storch, The Secrets of the Stars (Israel Bookshop Publications: 2011), pp. 31-43. 106 Storch, Secrets of the Stars, pp. 61-122; Tuviah ben Eli'ezer of Kastoria, Midrash Leqacḥ Ṭov (Pesiqta Zutra), edited by Solomon Buber (Vilna, 1884). DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |19 a form of rabbinic exegesis that often evoked contemporaneous astrological lore to interpret passages in the Pentateuch.107 Summary In summation, the following opinions were noted apropos astrology in the Bible: absence of astrological belief, belief in astral omens, rudimentary astrology, Biblical prohibitions against astral religion and astrological practice, aspects of astrology and/or astrolatry underlying Biblical discourse, and an astrological worldview. SECTION II: ASTROLOGY IN THE TALMUD No Astrological Belief In the academic world, the Talmud suffered a similar fate to the Bible, albeit not as drastic. The Christian hierarchy’s execration of astrology influenced its 16th century amendment of the Talmudic term avodah zoroh – lit. strange worship – to avodath kokhavim umazoloth – ‘worship of stars and constellations’ (to exclude the Christian religion from Talmudic allusions to idolatry), creating the illusion that the Talmud’s conception of foreign worship centred specifically on astrolatry, placing an unwarranted if subliminal emphasis on the undesirability of astrological pursuits.108 Although, according to Morton Smith (1915-1991), Hellenistic culture shaped the structure of much rabbinic thought, and Henry Fischel (1913-2008) reflected whimsically that ‘the Pharisees may have been the most Hellenized group in Judea’, regarding astrology in the Babylonian Jewish culture of Late Antiquity, Manfred R. Lehmann (1922–1997) wrote in 1975, ‘discussions in the Talmud (Bavli, Shabboth, 156b) notwithstanding’, ‘astrology never got a foothold in Judaism, since it was […] fraught with sectarian overtones’.109 This was typical of the twentieth century outlook, until 1977, when Charlesworth trailblazed a new 107 Midrash Rabboh (E. Hallevy: Tel Aviv; 1956-63). See, e.g., Bereishith Rabboh, iic.20 (p. 366), that saw a reference to the star Axilla of the Sagittarius constellation, with its Hellenistic attributes, in Gen. 49.24. 108 G. Prebor, ‘Sepher ha-ziquq’ by Domenico Yerushalmi (1555-1621) and its influence on Hebrew printing (PhD thesis: Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University, 2003), p. 287. 109 Morton Smith, ‘Palestinian Judaism in the First Century’, Israel: Its Role in Civilization, ed. by M. Davis (New York, 1956), p. 71; Henry A. Fischel, ‘Story and History: Observations in Greco-Roman Rhetoric and Pharisaism’, American Oriental Society, Middle West Branch, Semi-Centennial Volume (1969), ed. by D. Sinor, p. 82; Manfred R. Lehmann, 'New Light on Astrology in Qumran and the Talmud', Revue de Qumrân, Vol. 8, No. 4 (32) (December 1975, pp. 599–602), pp. 599, 602. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |20 perception in the Talmudic meta-dialogue.110 Both Charlesworth and Stuckrad saw the afore-mentioned consensus as an a priori assumption that led to ‘an astonishing disregard’ of relevant sources.111 In Jonathan Z. Smith’s (1938-2017) words, the periphery of a perceived centre was ‘seen as threatening, relative differences perceived as absolute “other”’, resulting in ‘exorcism or purgation, not scholarship’.112 Astrological Belief Modern scholarship was basically in agreement that the surrounding cultures’ astral belief system did impinge upon the Judaic literature of Late Antiquity. Writing in 2012, Jeffrey L. Rubenstein was able to comment that ‘[i]t has long been recognized that the rabbis in general, and the BT in particular, accept the fundamental veracity of astrology’. 113 Nevertheless, some scholars were still wary of seeing a strong influence of astrology in the Talmud, as will be seen in this section. The extent the Talmud subscribed to astrological beliefs, and whether there is an essential difference between the Tanach’s and the Talmud’s approach and the extent of that difference, has remained a subject of academic debate. Rabbinical Ambivalence According to Altmann, the majority of Talmudic sages believed in celestial influence but questioned astrology’s accuracy in predicting events.114 Both Leicht and Lobel understood rabbinic Late Antique Judaism as maintaining an ambivalent attitude toward astrology.115 This was reflected in Charlesworth on the one hand stating that ‘[a]strological beliefs are frequently rejected in rabbinic writings’ and on the other hand agreeing with Ephraim E. Urbach (1912-1991) that belief in the validity of astrology was ‘shared by Tannaim and Amoraim alike’.116 Jeffrey L. Rubenstein, ‘Talmudic Astrology: Bavli Šabbat 156a—b’, Hebrew Union College Annual (Hebrew Union College: Vol. 78; 2007: pp. 109-148) p. 109; Charlesworth, 'Jewish Astrology in the Talmud’. However, cf. Jacob Neusner, A History of the Jews in Babylonia (5 vols.; Leiden: Brill, 1965-70) vol. 2, pp. 85-87,140-43, vol. 4, pp. 190-94, vol. 5, pp. 330-34; Ephraim Urbach, The Sages: Their Concepts and Beliefs, translated by Israel Abrahams (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1979 [1969]) pp. 275-278. 111 Charlesworth, ‘Jewish Astrology in the Talmud’, pp. 183–200; Stuckrad, ‘Jewish and Christian Astrology in Late Antiquity’, p. 1. 112 Jonathan Z. Smith, Drudgery Divine. On the Comparison of Early Christianities and the Religions of Late Antiquity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), p. 143. In this case, the fact that astrology had been taken seriously by Judaism, threatened academia’s notion of Western civilisation. 113 J. L. Rubenstein, ‘Astrology and the Head of the Academy’, Shoshannat Yaakov: Jewish and Iranian Studies in Honor of Yaakov Elman ed. Shai Secunda, Steven Fine (Leiden: Brill, 2012: pp. 303-321) p. 312. 114 Altmann, ‘Astrology’, p. 789. 115 Leicht, ‘Jewish Astrology’, p. 873-4; Lobel, ‘From Babylon to Jerusalem', p. 91. 116 Charlesworth, 'Jewish Astrology in the Talmud’, pp. 185-188, 199; Ephraim Elimelech Urbach, The 110 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |21 Association with Power Rather than seeing acceptance of astrology as integral, innately bound with the Talmudic worldview, Jacob Neusner (1932-2016), Kimberly Stratton (separately) and latterly, Lobel, ascribed the apparent Phariseal embrace of astrological belief to its association with power and the ancient past, which provided ‘sufficient incentive to allow astrology to be integrated into Judaism’ despite the […] ambivalence surrounding its incorporation’. 117 This approach, however, appeared to be rejected by both Kalmin and Rubenstein, who maintained the rabbinic interest in astrology to have been an integral part of their (possibly religious) interest and association with the sciences.118 Unified, Polarised, or ‘Soft’ Dichotomy Whereas both Campion and Yuval Harari understood that, according to the Talmud, one would rise above planetary influence by following Torah law, and essentially, ‘according to Rabbi Yohanan, […] only G-d can directly determine the future of the Children of Israel’, Charlesworth, Altmann and Bar-Ilan (separately) saw Talmudic opinion as polarised, one school teaching that ‘Israel stands under astrological influence’, and the other that ‘Israel is immune from astrological influence’.119 This position was largely based upon their understandings of the locus classicus of astrology, tractate Shabboth f. 156f, in which the dictum ein mazol le’Yisro’el (lit. ‘there is no mazol for Israel’) chiefly appears. In contradistinction, Gregg Gardner, Rubenstein and Kalmin separately argued that the aforesaid sugya is unparalleled in the Talmud and of Palestinian provenance; thus, it cannot be viewed as indicative of the opinions of the Sasanian amoro’im.120 Conversely, Stuckrad ignored the sugya’s Palestinian provenance, Sages: Their Concepts and Belief (Magnes Press, Israel, 1975), p. 277. 117 Lobel, ‘Babylon to Jerusalem', p. 101; Lobel, Under a Censored Sky: Astronomy and Rabbinic Authority in the Talmud Bavli and Related Literature (PhD thesis; Concordia Univ. Montreal, Canada, 2015); Jacob Neusner, ‘Rabbi and Magus in Third-Century Sasanian Babylonia’, History of Religions, vol. 6, no. 2: 1966): p. 170; Kimberly Stratton, ‘Imagining Power: Magic, Miracle, and the Social Context of Rabbinic Self-Representation’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, vol. 73, no. 2 (2005): p. 366. 118 Kalmin, ‘Problems in the use of the Babylonian Talmud for the History of Late Roman-Palestine’, pp. 170, 179; Rubenstein, ‘Talmudic Astrology’, p. 110. 119 Campion, History of Western Astrology, 1, p. 125; Yuval Harari, ‘The Sages and the Occult’, The Literature of the Sages (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill: 2006), pp. 562-3; Charlesworth, 'Jewish Astrology in the Talmud’, pp. 185-188; Altmann, ‘Astrology’, p. 790; Meir Bar-Ilan, ‘Astrology in Ancient Judaism’. The Talmudic dictum, ‫ אין מזל לישראל‬- ein mazol le’Yisro’el – ‘there is no mazol for [the people of] Israel’, appears in the Talmud’s classicus locus of astrology – tB Shabbath f.156, and is discussed later. 120 Gardner, ‘Astrology in the Talmud’, pp. 325, 338; Kalmin, ‘Chapter 7: Astrology’ in Migrating Tales, p. 175-86; Rubenstein, ‘Talmudic Astrology’, pp. 119-20. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |22 maintaining that the Palestinian Jews were little affected by astrology.121 According to Gardner, with the exception of the apothegm ein mazol le’Yisro’el, which was (according to Gardner) an addition latterly incorporated by the redactors, the sugya overridingly accepted the veracity of astrology. 122 Similarly, Rubenstein was of the opinion that ein mazol le’Yisro’el was inserted later into the sugya by the redactors to present an anti-astrological message.123 Kalmin, on the other hand, opined that the notion ‘Israel has no mazol’ was a foreign concept adopted by the Talmud during the fourth century; the anonymous redactors then presented an anthology of diverse opinions in the form of tannaic legends, without offering a sustained opinion on astrology’s efficacy.124 Altmann, Campion, Gardner and Charlesworth’s (separate) simplistic reading of the dictum, ein mazol le’Yisro’el, that ‘Israel is immune from astrological influence’ providing they fulfil G-d's commandments, was challenged separately by Kalmin, Rubenstein and Stuckrad, who maintained that the dictum does not preclude astrological influence but merely alters its remediability.125 This opinion was echoed by Francis Schmidt who quoted Stuckrad.126 The apparent Talmudic dichotomy was further ameliorated in Stuckrad’s approach. Comparable to both Wright and Zatelli’s understanding that the Bible harmonises or reinterprets astral cultic ideas, Stuckrad saw the Jewish discourse of astral magic and astrology in Late Antiquity adopting and transforming magical theory and practice.127 This was part of the Talmud’s attempt to amalgamate religious tradition and ‘contemporary social, political, scientific and religious negotiations’, which resulted in a synthesis of astrology and monotheism.128 Stuckrad’s assessment echoed Charlesworth’s opinion that the Jewish sages of Late Antiquity borrowed and recast pagan ideas ‘in light of Jewish traditions’, ‘Die palästinischen Juden werden von der Astrologie wenig berührt; nur die Bekanntsschaft mit babylonien, dem 'Mutterland' der Sternkunst, hat ein Klima schaffen konnen, das zur Aufweichung der judischen Abgrenzung fuhrte’: Von Stuckrad, Das Ringen, p. 504. 122 Gardner, Ibid. 123 Rubenstein, ‘Talmudic Astrology’, pp. 119-20. 124 Kalmin, Migrating Tales, p. 182; Kalmin, e-mail message to author, 24th Dec. 2018. 125 Gardner, ‘Astrology in the Talmud’; Charlesworth, 'Jewish Astrology in the Talmud’, pp. 185-188; Campion, History of Western Astrology, 1, p. 125; Rubenstein, ‘Talmudic Astrology’, pp. 119-20; Von Stuckrad, Das Ringen, pp. 478-80; Kalmin, Migrating Tales, p. 182; Kalmin, ‘A Late Antique Babylonian Rabbinic Treatise on Astrology’, Shoshannat Yaakov: Jewish and Iranian Studies in Honor of Yaakov Elman, edited by Shai Secunda and Steven Fine (Brill, 2012), p. 177. 126 Francis Schmidt, ‘Horoscope, Predestination and Merit in Ancient Judaism’, Culture and Cosmos, (Sophia Centre Press: Vol. 11, nos. 1 and 2; 2007: pp. 27-41), pp. 34-5. 127 Zatelli, 'Astrology and the Worship of the Stars in the Bible', p. 87; Wright, The Early History of Heaven, pp. ix-x, 3, 185; Stuckrad, ‘Astral Magic in Ancient Jewish Discourse’, p. 248-51. 128 Stuckrad, ‘Astral Magic in Ancient Jewish Discourse’, p. 248-51. 121 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |23 though whereas Charlesworth saw this as happening towards the end of the first millennium BCE, Stuckrad claimed that this was a specific rabbinic structure of discourse that attained a hitherto unobtained level in the Babylonian Talmud.129 An Astrological Worldview Most importantly, rather than seeing astrology of the ancient world as a singular divinatory discipline, Stuckrad classified astrology as an ‘integral component of ancient culture’, a way of interpreting reality that embraced the ‘doctrine of correspondences’, ‘the backbone of esoteric tradition’. 130 According to Stuckrad, this world-view permeated rabbinic thinking to such an extent that it resulted in the study of astrological science being seen as a Biblical command.131 Similarly, Neusner advised, that ‘magic, astrology, and occult sciences […] were regarded as advanced sciences[;] to reject them, would have [been] to ignore the most sophisticated technological attainments of contemporary civilization’.132 Moreover, besides a legitimate science and a necessary discipline, the Talmud saw astrology as a tool of the Creator, its study fulfilment of one's religious duty to know G-d.133 Stuckrad further suggested that the Biblical and Talmudic criticism of astrolatry, ‘freed the way to engaging with astrology’: once there was a clear division between cult and astrology, rabbinic interest could ‘safely’ involve itself with star interpretation, without risk of it being confused with astrolatry.134 Campion reached a similar conclusion, namely that since ‘the link between astrology and astrolatry had been broken’, astrology was able to be integrated into rabbinic Judaism, such that it became ‘a normal part of the majority Charlesworth, ‘Jewish Interest in Astrology’, p. 927; Stuckrad, ‘Astral Magic in Ancient Jewish Discourse’, p. 248-51; Stuckrad, 'Jewish and Christian Astrology’, p. 7; Von Stuckrad, Das Ringen, p. 485: ‘Die Synthese von Astrologie und Monotheismus […] kann als spezifische rabbinische Diskursstruktur aufgefaßt warden, die ein bis dahin nicht erreichtes Reflexionsniveau im Bavli zu erkennen gibt.’ (The reference is my paraphrasing.) 130 Stuckrad, 'Jewish and Christian Astrology', pp. 1, 5, 6; ‘Astral Magic in Ancient Jewish Discourse’, pp. 248-51. 131 Stuckrad, Das Ringen, p. 487: ‘Die astrologische Wissenschaft wird als biblisches Gebot aufgefaßt’. 132 Jacob Neusner, ‘How Much Iranian in Jewish Babylonia?’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 95, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1975), pp. 189-190. 133 Jacob Neusner, ‘Rabbi and Magus in Third-Century Sasanian Babylonia’, History of Religions (Issue 6, no. 2: 1966), p. 171-2; Kimberly Stratton, ‘Imagining Power: Magic, Miracle, and the Social Context of Rabbinic Self-Representation’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion (Oxford University Press: Vol. 73, No. 2, 2005), pp. 361-393. 134 Stuckrad, Das Ringen, pp. 485, 503 (‘Man könnte sogar sagen, dass die Kritik an der Verehrung der Gestirne den Weg frei machte, sich umso intensiver mit der Astrologie befassen zu können …’; ‘Sobald diese gebannt schien, konnte sich auch das rabbinische Interesse wieder der Sterndeutung zuwenden’); ‘Jewish and Christian Astrology in Late Antiquity’, p. 14. 129 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |24 worldview’. 135 Accordingly, even the Talmudic debate concerning astrology’s validity is discussed within a wholly-accepted framework of Aristotelian cosmology that assumes celestial influence of the sublunar sphere.136 Summary In conclusion, academia was divided as to how the Talmud viewed astrology. Opinions included: ambivalence, polarised positions, a soft dichotomy, an overriding acceptance of astrology, and a cultural worldview that embraces essential doctrines common to the astrology of that era. This study’s textual analysis will explore the relevance and veracity of these opinions. 135 136 Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, pp. 124-5. Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 125. DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |25 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY This thesis is based upon a close textual analysis of primary texts combined with a literary research of secondary sources. Initial research will involve a lexical investigation into the more significant passages in the Tanach and Talmud that indicated astral or astrological terminologies or content, analysing their meaning, nature, provenance and predominance. Allusions to astrology, terms with a possible astral connection or provenance, will be investigated, philologically and sociologically. The philological analysis will be in its largest sense, taking into account their literary history and linking their meaning to their cultural context, whilst the sociological viewpoint will consider the practitioners and surrounding cultures and religions. 137 Where possible, meanings and nuances will be probed by comparing language and terminology with similar examples in contemporaneous sources of culture: for Biblical literature, Ugarit, Syrian, and Mesopotamian texts of the late 2nd millennium to late 1st millennium BCE, and for Talmudic literature, texts of Sasanian culture (224–651 CE), as well as sources of Hellenistic and Babylonian influence. Literary analysis of Talmudic texts will include source criticism, assuming the editorial polish of the Talmudic text to reflect the culture and concerns of the stamo’im.138 Noel K. Weeks cautioned that in comparing texts from adjacent cultures, one be cognisant that similarities between cultures may be superficial and might not imply a sharing of ideologies. 139 Terms in one culture may not necessarily reflect those same terms’ meanings in a neighbouring culture. Thus, in considering astrological references, care will be taken to distinguish between unambiguous astrological terms or worldviews common to astrology (or astrolatry) on the one hand, and presupposed ideologies or vague hints that lack adequate textual basis or are anachronistically inferred. Apparent allusions to astrology or astrolatry, even when advocated by several scholars, will be approached with scepticism. Calvert Watkins, ‘What Is Philology?’, Comparative Literature Studies (Penn State University Press: 1990; Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 21-25), pp. 21-22. 138 See Gregg Gardner, ‘Astrology in the Talmud: An Analysis of Bavli Shabbat 156’, Heresy and Identity in Late Antiquity, ed. by Eduard Iricinschi and Holger M. Zellentin (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008; pp. 314–38)’, p. 316. 139 Noel Weeks, ‘The Ambiguity of Biblical “Background”’, The Westminster Theological Journal (Vol. 72, Issue 2: 2010, pp. 219-236), pp. 225-9. See also, Jeffrey L. Cooley, Poetic Astronomy in the Ancient Near East: The Reflexes of Celestial Science in the Literature of Ancient Mesopotamia, Ugarit and Israel, (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns; 2013) Chapter 1. 137 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |26 CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Introduction The instances, categories and degrees of astrological import and nuance noted in the Review will be discoursed, based upon contextual and intertextual analyses of Biblical and Talmudic texts. Rather than an exhaustive systematic examination of all the evidence, this study will present a close reading of selected, relevant texts, to enable a nuanced understanding of the nature of astrology in the Tanach and Talmud. Though this section will debate opinions regarding the presence of astrological terms and concepts, it will not address highly speculative suggestions that lack textual basis. After analysing their texts, the astrological content and outlook of the Tanach and Talmud will be compared and contrasted, to determine, if and how the astrological content and acceptance of astrological belief differs, with special attention to any theological adjustment possibly due to the cultural milieu. Based upon those findings, suggestions will be advanced, vis-a-vis the diachronic development of Judaic culture and theology. DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |27 SECTION I: ASTROLOGY IN THE BIBLE Astrolatry and astral divinities This section will investigate allusions to astral divinities, as well as the possible integration of aspects of astrolatry into a monolatrist (or monotheist) ideology. ASTRAL CULT-WORSHIP Astral cult worship was evident throughout Tanach. In II Kings (21.3-5), Menasheh, King of Israel, was described as worshiping ‘all the hosts of heaven’.140 Ezekiel (8.16) denounced the solar cult-worship that was being practiced in secret. Its veneration was further evinced in Job (31.26-28), as he spoke of being ‘secretly enticed’ to an iniquitous adulation of the luminaries.141 Star-worship amongst the Jewish People was mentioned in Jeremiah (7.18 and 44.17-19, 25), where women were described as baking kavonim – star-shaped cakes (or a type of sweetened cake, a loanword from the Akkadian kammanu), pouring libations and burning incense for m’lecheth hashomayim ‘the queen of heaven’. 142 The title ‘queen of heaven’ and star-shaped cakes suggested an association with the Sumerian goddess, Inanna (etymologically interpreted as nin.an.a(k), literally ‘Lady of the heavens’), and her Eastern Semitic counterpart, Ishtar, who, in their astral aspect, were connected with the planet Venus and represented by an six or eight-pointed star.143 Paul Haupt (1858-1926) and later scholars claimed evidence of Saturn worship amongst the Israelites, identifying sikuth and kiyun, in the verse (Amos 5.26) ‘And you shall carry sikuth, your king, and kiyun, your molten images, the star of your gods that you have made for yourselves’, as Akkadian terms for Saturn, ‫לְ כָל־צְ ָבָ֣א הַ שָ ָ ָ֑מ ִים‬ ‫ אֵ ל ִממָ עַל‬-‫גַם הּוא עָֹ‍ון פְ לִ ילִ י כִ י כִ חַ ְש ִתי ָל‬28( ‫( ַו ִיפְ ְת בַ סֵ תֶ ר לִ בִ י ו ִַתשַ ק י ִָדי לְ פִ י‬27( .‫( ִאם אֶ ְראֶ ה אֹ‍ור כִ י יָהֵ ל וְ י ֵָרחַ יָקָ ר הֹ לְֵך‬26) 142 Jer. 7.18: ‫וְ הַ נ ִָשים ָלשֹ‍ות בָ צֵ ק ַל ֲעׂשֹ‍ות ַכ ָּונִים לִ ְמ ֶלכֶת הַ שָ מַ יִם‬. 44.19: ‫ ָע ִׂשינּו לָּה ַכּוָנִ ים לְ הַ עֲצִ בָ ה‬. 44.25: ‫לְ קַ טֵ ר לִ ְמ ֶלכֶת הַ שָ מַ ִים‬ (See Paul Haupt, ‘Some Assyrian Etymologies’, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, (Vol. 26, No. 1: University of Chicago:1909; pp. 1-26), p. 15.) Paul V. Mankowski, Akkadian Loanwords in Biblical Hebrew (Winona Lake, Eisenbrauns, 2000), p. 62. 143 Gebhard J. Selz, ‘Five divine ladies: Thoughts on Inana(k), Ištar, In(n)in(a), Annunītum, and Anta, and the origin of the title “Queen of Heaven”’, Nin (Styx Publications, Is. 1: 2000), pp. 29-62; C. E. Barret, ‘Was dust their food and clay their bread? Grave goods, the Mesopotamian afterlife, and the liminal role of Inana/Ištar’, Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions (Brill: 2007: p. 7-65), p. 7; D. Brown, Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology (Cuneiform Monographs, 18), (Groningen, 2000), p. 67; Richard L. Litke, 1998, A reconstruction of the Assyro-Babylonian god-lists, AN:dA-nu-um and AN:Anu ŝá amēli (New Haven: Yale Babylonian Collection, 1998), p. 161; G. Kurtik, A. Militarev (Moscow) ‘Once more on the origin of Semitic and Greek star names: an astronomicetymological approach updated’, Culture and Cosmos, (2005 Issue 1, Volume: 9, pp. 3-43), p. 11; Black and Green, Gods, Demons and Symbols, pp. 169170. See also, J. Cooley, ‘Inana and Šukaletuda: A Sumerian Astral Myth’, Kaskal (Volume 5: 2008), pp. 161-72; Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, pp. 161-66. 140 141 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY dSAG.KUD |28 (read: Sakkud) and Kayyamanu, the latter from the root KWN (meaning ‘stable’), one of the names for Saturn.144 However, Rykle Borger refuted the sikuth-dSAG.KUD correlation by demonstrating that the reading dSAG.KUD in the Akkadian incantation series was erroneous. 145 Instead, sikuth has been linked to sukkoth benoth of II Kings 7.30, a Babylonian deity.146 Whatever the meaning of these terms, scholars were unanimous that they were Akkadian loanwords, indicating that these deities were not indigenous. HOSTS OF HEAVEN In Michoyehu’s vision (I Kings 22.18 and II Chronicles, 18.18), the term ‘heavenly hosts’ referred to angelic beings. Yet, in Genesis 2.1, ‫( צבא‬ts’voh ‘hosts’) was used in conjunction with the heavens and earth, referencing the stars and planets’ physical entities, together with the earthly hosts of insects, fish, beasts and birds. Similarly, in its employment in Jer. 33.22, there was no hint to angelic beings. In Deut. 4.19, the sun, moon, stars, all ‘the host of heaven’, were described as having been apportioned to the [other] nations to worship. 147 Arguably, the Pentateuch was not disputing their being deities or powers. Similarly, in Deut. 17.3, a person found guilty of worshiping idolatry was described as turning to the astral bodies ‘that I did not command’, implying that worship of heavenly hosts could possibly be mistaken as legitimate worship of G-d, at least, circuitously.148 In both instances, sun and moon were grouped together with ‫( צבא השמים‬ts’voh hashomayim ‘the heavenly hosts’) as deities. It appeared that the Tanach identified two types of heavenly hosts and, possibly, two types of heaven, albeit connected: angelic or deistic, and the skies’ ‫ּונְׂשָ אתֶ ם אֵ ת ִסכּות מַ לְ כְ כֶם וְ אֵ ת כִ יּון צַ לְ מֵ יכֶם כֹ‍וכַב אֱֹלהֵ יכֶם אֲשֶ ר ע ֲִׂשיתֶ ם ָלכֶם‬ Paul Haupt, ‘Über den Halbvocal u̯ im Assyrischen’, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, ed. by Walther Sallaberger (vol. 2, 1887), p. 266; Haupt, ‘Some Assyrian Etymologies’, p. 17, 18; see also, Stanley Gervirtz, ‘A New Look at an Old Crux: Amos 5:26’, Journal of Biblical Literature (University of Chicago: Vol. 87, No. 3: 1968; pp. 267-276), p. 272; Mankowski, Akkadian Loanwords, p. 63-5; Oswald Loretz, ‘Die babylonischen Gottesnamen Sakkut und Kajjan Amos 5,26: Ein Betrag zur judische Astrologie’, ZAW 101 (1989), pp. 286-9; M. Stohl, s.v. ‘kaiwan’ and ‘sakkuth’, Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, ed. by Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst (William B. Eerdman's Publishing Company; Grand Rapids, Michigan: 1999 - second ed.), pp. 478, 7223; Campion, Dawn of Astrology: The Ancient and Classical Worlds (Continuum, 2008), p. 117. See also, Jeffers, ‘Magic and Divination in Ancient Israel’, p. 638. 145 Rykle Borger, ‘Amos 5,26, Apostelgeschichte 7,43 und Surpu II, 180’, Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, (vol. 100, Issue 1, pp. 70-81 :1988), p. 75. 146 Jason Radine, The Book of Amos in Emergent Judah, (Mohr Siebeck: Germany, 2010) p. 61. 147 ‫ּופֶׁן ִתשָּ א עֵינֶׁיָך הַ שָּ מַ יְמָּ ה וְ ָּר ִאיתָּ אֶׁ ת הַ שֶׁ מֶׁ ש וְ אֶׁ ת הַ י ֵָּרחַ וְ אֶׁ ת הַ ּכֹוכָּבִ ים ּכֹּ ל צְ בָּ א הַ שָּ מַ יִם וְ נִדַ חְ תָּ וְ הִ ְשתַ חֲוִ יתָּ לָּהֶׁ ם ַועֲבַ ְדתָּ ם אֲשֶׁ ר חָּ לַק‬ ‫ֹלהֶׁ יָך אֹּ תָּ ם לְ כֹּ ל הָּ ע ִַמים תַ חַ ת ּכָּל הַ שָּ מָּ ִים‬-‫ד' א‬ 148 ‫יתי‬ ִ ִ‫ ַו ֵילְֶׁך ַו ַיעֲבֹּ ד אֱֹלהִ ים אֲחֵ ִרים ַוי ְִשתַ חּו לָּהֶׁ ם וְ לַשֶׁ מֶׁ ש ׀ אֹו ַלי ֵָּרחַ אֹו לְ כָּל־צְ בָּ א הַ שָּ מַ ִים אֲשֶׁ ר ל ֹּא־צִ ּו‬- ‘and he went and worshiped other powers and bowed down to them, to the sun or to the moon or to any of the heavenly host, that I never commanded’ 144 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |29 starry host, both referenced in Psalms 148.1-4.149 In Psalms 89, the boundary between these two categories, the physical and the transcendent, was blurred. In verses 2-5, in reference to a Divine promise concerning the Davidic line, the psalmist alluded to the everlasting quality of the heavens, implying their spiritual agency: ‘For I said, “Forever will it be established [with] kindness, [as] the heavens you establish your faithfulness with them”’ (89.3).150 Subsequently (89.6-9), he referenced G-d’s entourage, divine entities that comprise an assembly of holy beings.151 The juxtaposition of the angelic hosts with ‘heavens’ underlined the latter’s deistic quality. Whilst 89.10-14 referenced the physical world, including the heavens, verses 15-19 referenced G-d’s righteousness and might. Describing G-d’s protection of King David and his line (89.20-38), was another reference to the heavens’ enduring quality: ‘“I will make his seed endure forever, his throne as the days of heaven”’(89.30).152 In verses 37 and 38, the heavens’ transcendence and perfection included the luminaries: ‘“his throne is like the sun before Me. Like the moon, established forever, an enduring witness in the sky”’.153 The everlastingness of the heavens was also noted in Deut. 11.21: ‘In order that your days may increase […] as the days of heaven upon the earth’. 154 However, though the psalmist saw the celestial bodies as enduring forever, even epitomising perfection, there is no clear deification. Further fusion of the two types of celestial hosts was seen in Job 38.7. Here the morning stars were described as singing at the genesis of creation, together with the bnei elohim’s roaring.155 Whether bnei elohim is interpreted as divine angelic beings, or as sons of G-d, the interpretation of the morning stars as sentient beings with agency, possibly on a par with the supernal angelic beings, cannot be avoided.156 This is particularly germane in view of the opening chapters 149 See Edward Walter Maunder, The Astronomy of the Bible: An Elementary Commentary on the Astronomical References in the Holy Scripture, (New York: Mitchell Kennerly (1908): reprinted 2018 by Read Book Ltd.), Chapter V. 150 ‫( כִ י אָ מַ ְר ִתי עֹ‍ולָם חֶ סֶ ד יִבָ נֶה שָ מַ יִם תָ כִ ן אֱמּונ ְָתָך בָ הֶ ם‬3) 151 ‫( וְ יֹ‍ודּו שָ מַ יִם פִ לְ ֲאָך ד' אַ ף אֱמּונ ְָתָך בִ קְ הַ ל קְ דֹ ִשים‬6) ‫( כִ י ִמי בַ שַ חַ ק ַיעֲרֹ ְך ַלד' י ְִדמֶ ה ַלד' בִ בְ נֵי אֵ לִ ים‬7) ‫ל ַנע ֲָרץ בְ סֹ‍וד קְ דֹ ִשים ַרבָ ה וְ נֹ‍ו ָרא עַ ל כָל ְסבִ יבָ יו‬-‫( א‬8) ‫ת ִמי ָכמֹ‍וָך ח ֲִסין ָי' וֶאֱ מּונ ְָתָך ְסבִ יבֹ‍ותֶ יָך‬-‫ֹלהֵ י צְ בָ אֹ‍ו‬-‫( ד' א‬9) 152 ‫( וְ ׂשַ ְמ ִתי ָלעַד ז ְַרעֹ‍ו וְ כִ ְסאֹ‍ו כִ ימֵ י שָ מָ יִם‬30) 153 ‫( ז ְַרעֹ‍ו לְ עֹ‍ולָם יִהְ יֶה וְ כִ ְסאֹ‍ו כַשֶ מֶ ש נֶגְ ִדי‬37) ‫( כְ י ֵָרחַ ִיכֹ‍ון עֹ‍ולָם וְ עֵד בַ שַ חַ ק ֶנאֱמָ ן סֶ לָה‬38) 154 ‫] כִ ימֵ י הַ שָ מַ יִ ם עַל הָ אָ ֶרץ‬...[ ‫לְ מַ עַן י ְִרבּו יְמֵ יכֶם וִ ימֵ י בְ נֵיכֶם‬ 155 ‫בְ ָרן ַיחַ ד כֹ‍וכְ בֵ י בֹ קֶ ר ַוי ִָריעּו כָל בְ נֵי אֱ ֹלהִ ים‬ 156 See also, Wright, Early History of Heaven, p. 59. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |30 of Job (Job 1.6 and 2.1), where the bnei elohim are depicted as angels of G-d. A similar amalgam was in Isaiah 14.13, the prophet describing the Babylonian king saying, ‘“I will ascend to the heavens, above the divine stars (lit. stars of El) will I raise up my throne”’. 157 Although the passage has been explained as a satirical reference to a Canaanite or Ugaritic tradition, the term ‫ל‬-‫( כוכבי א‬koch’vei el) could be a poetic description of the stars (‘stars of G-d’), without the author implying any deistic allusion.158 The verse in Judges 5.20, ‘From heaven they fought: the stars, from their courses, fought against Sisera’, was an apparent overt astrological reference, at the very least, implying an astrologic worldview. 159 However, the type of astrology suggested was questionable. The term ‘from heaven’, as opposed to ‘in heaven’, underscored a lowering of agency from the higher realm; the first phrase, ‘from heaven they fought’, implying a heavenly battle with a view to affect the lower realms. The second phrase, ‘the stars, from their courses, fought against Sisera’, implied the stars’ active participation ‘from their courses’, an effect initiated from above, to influence the battle below, but without leaving their courses. ‘The stars fought’ implied agency. Verse 5.23, in the next stanza, quoting the angel of G-d cursing the residents of Meroz, presented the possibility that the stars were seen as angelic agents of the Deity, not as deities in their own right.160 However, the verses may have presented a bipartite scenario: ‘From heaven they fought’ referred to a higher, angelic realm, echoed in verse 5.23, and the latter clause, ‘the stars, from their courses, fought against Sisera’, referred to a lower corresponding realm. This is borne out by the two contrasting halves in the poetic prose repeating the theme of a fighting battle, the former by the transcendent realms of heaven, and the latter in the lower realms of heaven, by the stars. ‘From their courses’ described the stars having fixed courses, as the term ‫מסילה‬ (mesiloh ‘course’) indicated a straight, pre-planned path. 161 Clearly, in this instance, those stars did not depart from those courses but fought with Sisera from their celestial abodes. This particular conclusion is in contrast with Cooley who understood that the stars departed from their normal celestial positions and ‫ ל אָ ִרים כִ ְס ִאי‬- ֵ‫] הַ שָ מַ יִם אֶ ֱעלֶה ִממַ עַל לְ כֹ‍וכְ בֵ י א‬...[ Bernard J. Bamberger, Fallen Angels, (The Jewish Publication Society: Philadelphia; 2006), pp. 9-10; R. Mark Shipp, Of Dead Kings and Dirges: Myth and Meaning in Isaiah 14:4b-21 (Academia Biblica 11, Leiden: Brill, 2002), pp. 1-31. 159 ‫יס ָרא‬ ְ ‫ִמן שָ מַ יִם נִלְ חָ מּו הַ כֹ‍וכָבִ ים ִמ ְמ ִסּלֹ‍ותָ ם נִלְ ֲחמּו עִ ם ִס‬ 160 ‫אֹ‍ורּו מֵ רֹ‍וז אָ מַ ר מַ לְ אַ ְך ד' אֹ רּו אָ רֹ‍ור יֹ ְשבֶ יהָ כִ י ל ֹא בָ אּו לְ ֶעז ְַרת ד' לְ ֶעז ְַרת ד' בַ גִ ב ִֹ‍ורים‬ 161 Joseph C. Wertheimer, Bi’ur Sheimoth Hanirdofim: ‫ נביאים וכתובים‬,‫כתב־יד ( ביאור שמות הנרדפים של תורה‬ ‫ מכון לעריכת והוצאת ספרים וכתבי־יד עתיקים‬,‫וספר‬, 1984), p. 114. 157 158 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |31 paths to take part in the battle.162 Thus, presented here is the classic ancient Near East understanding of transcendent deities influencing the lower realms through the manifestation of their agencies in the celestial bodies.163 Here, however, the deities are presented as angels, a theme repeated throughout the Bible.164 In conclusion, it was clear from the Tanach that, during the First Temple era (c. 10th cent. – 587 BCE), elements amongst the people practiced astrolatry, which was firmly denounced by the prophets. However, their idolatrous practices were not indigenous. Agency was implicit in some of the Tanach’s references of the heavens and the celestial bodies therein, but there was no clear suggestion of their being deities. 162 Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, p. 301. Manfred Hutter, ‘Astral Religion’, Religion Past and Present; Rochberg, ‘“The Stars and Their Likenesses”, pp. 65, 79, 83, 89, 90; E. Frahm, ‘Reading the Tablet, the Exta, and the Body, pp. 93-141. 164 See, e.g., Lowell K. Handy, ‘Dissenting deities or obedient angels: divine hierarchies in Ugarit and the Bible’, Biblical Research (vol. 35: 1990; pp. 18-35), pp. 26-30; also, Sang Youl Cho, Lesser Deities in the Ugaritic Texts and the Hebrew Bible: A Comparative Study of Their Nature and Roles, (Gorgias Press, 200); Mark S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts, (Oxford University Press, USA, 2003); Lowell K. Handy, Among the Host of Heaven: The Syro-Palestinian Pantheon as Bureaucracy (Eisenbrauns, 1994). 163 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |32 Celestial Divination A possible reference to celestial divination can be seen in Jer. 8.2, where the people are described as having ‘loved […] worshipped […] followed, […] sought out and [..] bowed down’ to the sun, moon and stars.165 The expression d’roshum, ‘sought them out’, appeared to indicate divination, as in Gen. 25.22 (‘and she went to seek of the L-rd’) and Kings II.166 Cooley argued that Israel did not possess an indigenous form of celestial divination and that there was no textual evidence of its practice, particularly as there was no explicit Pentateuchal admonition against celestial divination.167 However, it was clear from the Bible that worship of deities included seeking signs, and that oracles and omen-seeking was a part of religious life.168 That there was no specific Pentateuchal admonition may be indicative of its having been completely bound up with astral cult-worship. Moreover, the admonitions in Lev. 19.26 and Deut. 18.10 arguably encompassed all types of divination, the term nāḥāš (‘divination’), probably a derivation of lḥš, ‘whisper’, referring to any type of unclear or intuitive prediction based on external events, including star-divination.169 Though BT interpreted ‫ מעונן‬me’onain and ‫ לא תעוננו‬lo the’onainu of the Deuteronomy (18.10) and Leviticus (19.26) admonitions as a divinatory practice of ‘observing the times’, that appeared to be an anachronism.170 The practice of calculating days and hours according to a predetermined astrological order, noted in Aratus (c. 315-245 B. C.) and in Vettius Valens’ (120 – c. 170) anthology, was, according to Robert Hand, a Hellenistic innovation.171 Familiarity with the various types of celestial divination employed by the Babylonian court was expressed in Isaiah 47.13: You have become weary through all your advisors. Let them stand up and help you, the (hovrei shomayim) celestial diviners, who gaze at the stars, ‫אֲשֶ ר אֲהֵ בּום ַואֲשֶ ר עֲבָ דּום ַואֲשֶ ר הָ לְ כּו אַ ח ֲֵריהֶ ם ַו ֲאשֶ ר ְד ָרשּום ַואֲשֶ ר הִ ְשתַ חֲוּו לָהֶ ם‬ '‫ותלך לדרוש את ד‬ 167 Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, pp. 22-260. 168 See, for example, Deut. 13.2,3. 169 See Lev. 19.26; Numbers, 23.23; Jeffers, pp. 74-77; David Noel Freedman, The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 4:468. See also, Isa 3:3; 3:20; 26:16; Jer 8:17; Eccl 10:11. Cf. Sanhedrin 66a. 170 Sanhedrin 35b. 171 Ernest Maass, Commentariorum in Aratum Reliquiae (Aratus, Scholia), chap. 455, p. 427; Vettius Valens, Vettii Valentis Anthologiarum libri (Weidmann, 1973) Anthology I, p. 11; Robert Hand, ‘Introduction’ in Vettius Valens Anthology II, (Berkeley Springs, WV: The Golden Hind Press, 1994), pp. v-vii. See also, Eviatar Zerubavel, The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week, University of Chicago Press, 1989 [1985], p. 14. 165 166 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |33 [those] who inform according to the new moons what will come upon you.172 E. Henderson (1784-1858) identified ‫( הוברי שמים‬hovrei shomayim) as deriving from the Arabic word ‫( هبر‬habara), thus meaning ‘dividers of heaven’.173 In contradistinction, the Targum (c. 2nd cent. CE Aramaic translation), Septuagint, KJV, and Jewish medieval commentators, understood hovrei as an agentive noun deriving from the root ‫( הבר‬HBR ‘to clean’ or ‘clear’), rendering hovrei as ‘those who see clearly’. 174 Hence, there were three descriptions of astrologers in the text. However, the Masoretic tradition preserved a qere/kethiv: read as hovrei (‫)הוברי‬, the written word was habaru (‫)הברו‬.175 Evidently, the author’s intention was to bārû, an Akkadian term for ‘diviners’. Instead of the letter ‫ ה‬as part of the participle (hovrei, ‘those who see clearly’), the ‫ ה‬is the definite article of the noun bārû – ‘diviners’, subsequently described as chozim bakochovim.176 The term chozim bakochovim, ‘stargazers’ implied prolonged gazing at the stars, as the noun ‫ חוזים‬chozim related to the verb ‘to hold’, as in ‫ אוחזה‬ochazoh ‘I will take hold of’ (Songs 7.9), or ‫ אֶ ֱחזֶה‬echezeh ‘I will gaze’ (Psalms 17.15) implying holding and focusing of attention.177. The next phrase, modi’im lechodoshim (‘[those] who inform according to the new moons’), implied divination through knowledge of omina of the new moon. Thus, the former suggested an active, prolonged gazing at the heavens, whilst the latter indicated expertise in lunar omina. Reiner referred to copious evidence proving the presence and importance of diviners and astronomers at the Neo-Assyrian Empire’s royal court who regularly conveyed to the king prognostications and reports such as the monthly sighting of the new moon.178 Whilst castigating Babylon for their reliance on star-gazers, ‫ֹ‍ושיעְֻך הברו [הֹ בְ ֵרי] שָ מַ יִם הַ חֹ זִים בַ כֹ‍וכָבִ ים מ ִֹ‍ודיעִ ם ֶלחֳדָ ִשים מֵ אֲשֶ ר יָבֹ אּו ָע ָל ִיְך‬ ִ ‫נִלְ אֵ ית בְ רֹ ב עֲצָ תָ ִיְך ַיע ְַמדּו נָא וְ י‬ E. Henderson, The Book of the Prophet Isaiah, translated from the Original Hebrew; with a Commentary; To which is Prefixed, an Introductory Dissertation on the Life and Times of the Prophet, pp. 551-352; see also, Dobin, The Astrological Secrets, p. 120. 174 J. F. Stenning, ed. The Targum of Isaiah, (Oxford: Clarendon,1949); regarding the date of Targum, see http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-97801953933610187.xml [acc. 31st Jan. 2019]; cf. Samson H. Levey, ‘The Date of Targum Jonathan to the Prophets’, Vetus Testamentum, (Brill: Vol. 21, Fasc. 2 1971, pp. 186-196), pp. 194-5; See Rashi, Metsudath Dovid, Kimchi (Redaq) ad loc; Septuagint online at https://en.katabiblon.com/us/index.php?text=LXX&book=Is&ch=47 [acc. 29th Jan, 2019]; KJV Bible online at https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Isaiah-Chapter-1/ [acc. 29th Jan, 2019]. See also, Isaiah 52.11; Jer. 51.11, for similar terms. 175 Isaiah 47.13. 176 Regarding the word bārû, see Reiner, Astral Magic, p. 63. 177 Song of Songs 7.9: ‫ ;אֹ ֲחזָה בְ סַ נ ְִסנָיו‬Psalms 17.15: ‫אֶ ֱחזֶה ָפנֶיָך‬. 178 Reiner, Astral Magic, p. 63. 172 173 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |34 the prophet demonstrated his detailed knowledge of the processes involved; thus, the text preserved intimate knowledge of technical terms and the on-goings of the diviners at the Babylonian court. Further allusions to the Babylonian court diviners can be found in Daniel 2.27, 4.4 and 5.11 where mention is made of kasdoy, lit. Chaldeans, viz. ‘astrologers’, and gezorin ‘diviners’. As Adolfo explained, the term ‘Chaldean’ became a generic reference for astrologers, regardless of their provenance.179 Though a canonical book, its compilation (c. 5th-3rd cent. BCE) reflected late Babylonian culture as opposed to the Israelite culture indicated in the earlier books.180 To summarise, an indigenous tradition of celestial divination cannot be derived from these sources. The infiltration of Babylonian celestial divination practices to the Land of Israel appeared most likely.181 Eclipses as Omens The use of the term ‫( אתת‬othoth ‘signs’, sing. ‫ אות‬oth ‘sign’) in the verse (Genesis 1.14), ‘Let there be luminaries […]; they shall be for signs, and for appointed times, and for days and years’, is possibly the first astrological reference in the Pentateuch.182 The word oth bears a familial resemblance to its Akkadian equivalent ittu (‘sign’, or, as translated by Rochberg, ‘the ominous sign’) and the Ugaritic at (‘sign’), the term used by the ancient Mesopotamians to imply signs ‘brought about through divine agency’ as ‘a manifestation of the gods' concern for human beings’, as evident throughout the Babylonian diviner’s manual.183 Indeed, the Midrash and the medieval commentators assumed this verse’s use of the term Adolfo D. Roitman, ‘This People are Descendants of Chaldeans’ (Judith 5:6): Its Literary Form and Historical Setting’, Journal of Biblical Literature 113, No. 2 (1994): pp. 255–56ff.33 Ibid., p. 256 180 See, for example, The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception, Volume 2, ed. by John Joseph Collins, Peter W. Flint and Cameron Van Epps (BRILL, 2002), PP. 325-326. 181 Cf. Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, pp. 257-258; Jeffers, ‘Magic and Divination in Ancient Israel’, p. 154. 182 .‫] יְהִ י ְמאֹ רֹ ת בִ ְרקִ י ַע הַ שָ מַ יִ ם לְ הַ ְב ִדיל בֵ ין הַ יֹ‍ום ּובֵ ין הַ ָּל ְילָה וְ הָ יּו לְ אֹ תֹ ת ּולְ מֹ‍וע ֲִדים ּולְ י ִָמים וְ שָ ִנים‬...[ . See Gerhard von Rad, Genesis – a commentary, transl. by John H. Marks (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1973), p. 56. Gen. 1.14: ‘[…] “Let there be luminaries in the expanse of the heavens to divide the day from the night, and they shall be for signs, and for appointed times, and for days and years”.’ 183 F. Rochberg, The Heavenly Writing, pp. 36, 206. See also: Ignace J. Gelb, Benno Landsberger, A. Leo Oppenheim, The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of Chicago (Oriental Institute, Chicago, Illinois, 1960), Vol. 7, pp. 304-10; Oppenheim, ‘A Babylonian Diviner's Manual’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies (Vol. 33, No. 2, 1974, pp. 197-220), p. 207; F. Rochberg-Halton, ‘Elements of the Babylonian Contribution to Hellenistic Astrology’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, (AOS: Vol. 108, Issue 1: 1988, pp. 51-62), p. 52; Hermann Hunger and David Edwin Pingree, Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia (Brill, 1999), p. 6; Amar Annus, ‘On the Beginnings and Continuities of Omen Sciences in the Ancient World’, Divination and the Interpretation of Signs, ed. by A. Annus (Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2010), p. 13; Gregorio del Olmo Lete, Joaquín Sanmartín, A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition ed. and transl. by Wilfred G. E. Watson (Brill, 2015, Vol. 1), p. 117. 179 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |35 ‘signs’ to refer to solar and lunar eclipses, omens that were alleged to presage an approaching tragedy. 184 Thus, the Sifre (early Midrash) on Deut. 13.2,3, interpreted the ‫( אות‬oth ‘sign’) given by the false prophet to validate his prophecy, as referring to a predictive and informative sign in the heavens, cross-referencing to the above verse in Genesis 1.14.185 Perhaps a parallel to this verse can be seen in the Sumerian introduction to the canonical version of Enuma Anu Enlil (circa late 2nd millennium BCE), where ‘sign’ is likewise mentioned in connection with the mythical creation of the moon: When An, Enlil and Enki, the great gods, through their immutable council, had established the great ordinances of heaven and earth and the boat Suen, (and) stared at the constantly shining crescent, the birth of the month, and the signs of heaven and earth.186 As the Enuma Anu Enlil is ancient Mesopotamia’s definitive collection of celestial omens, it is likely that its reference to the ‘signs of heaven and earth’ apropos the moon is indeed referring to the moon’s omina.187 However, to interpret the term ‫( אתת‬othoth) in Genesis 1.14 as referring to celestial omens is problematic, as all the other articles listed in that section of the verse refer either to moments or units of time. ‘Days’ and ‘years’ are both units of time, and the noun ‫מועדים‬ (mo’adim, ‘fixed’ or ‘appointed times’) refers to calendrical instances, as, for example, Genesis 18.14: ‫‘ – למועד אשוב אליך‬At this fixed time I will return to you’.188 Moreover, throughout the Bible, the luminaries are referred to by their names, usually shemesh (‘sun’) and yorai’ach (‘moon’). Genesis 1.14-17 is unique in that it does not name the luminaries but calls them by a descriptive noun, me’oroth (‘luminaries’) or me’or (‘luminary’). Indeed, the term me’oroth, or me’or, in 184 Midrash Aggadah (Buber, Vienna, 1894), 1.14. Sifre Deut. 83.4, available online at https://he.wikisource.org/wiki/‫ספרי_על_דברים‬, acc. 31st Dec. 2018. 186 ‘u4 an d en-1i1-1a den-ki dingir gal-gal-la galga-ne-ne-ta me gal-gal-la anki-a ma-gur8 dzuen-na mu-ungi-ne-eš u4-sar mû-mû-da iti ù-tu-ud-da ù giskim an-ki-a mu-un-gi-ne-d and gur8 an-na im-pa-è aka-a-dè šà anna igi-bar-ra-ta è’; Charles Virolleaud, L'Astrologie chaldéenne: le livre intitulé "Enuma (Anu ilu) Bel", (P. Geuthner, 1912) Vol. 4, Prts. 1-2, also, Leonard W. King, Enuma Elish: The Seven Tablets of Creation; The Babylonian and Assyrian legends concerning the creation of the world and of mankind, Vol. 2, (Cosimo 207), pl. xlix 1-14, quoted by Koch-Westenholz, Mesopotamian Astrology, p. 77, with the following translation: ‘When An, Enlil and Enki, the great gods, by their decision established the eternal order of heaven and earth and the boat of Suen, the new moon to wax, to give birth to the month and the sign of heaven and earth’. Translation in paper from J. L. Cooley, Ch. 3, ‘Celestial Science in Mesopotamian Literature’, Poetic Astronomy, p. 113. Regarding the period of the tablets, see Koch, Mesopotamian Astrology, p. 42; Afterword to Mesopotamian Astrology (2010), p. 2. 187 Wright, Early History of Heaven, p. 39. 188 Cf. Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, p. 315. 185 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |36 reference to the luminaries is a hapax legomenon. As the Bible’s common names for the sun and moon, shemesh and yorai’ach, correspond to the names of the Canaanite sun and moon deities (shamash and yorich), by not using these names, the text reveals conscious avoidance of any implication of astral worship.189 Furthermore, in contrast to the Mesopotamian creation myth of the Enûma Eliš (c. late second millennium BCE) where Anu is described as the deistic personification of the skies, there is no indication, here or in the entire Genesis creation story, that the skies were perceived as deistic, considered as the realm of the Deity, or even that signs therein were to represent the ontological subordination and subjugation of the celestial powers to the will of G-d.190 Far from a theogony (a mythical account of the creation of gods), the celestial bodies are neither gods nor manifestations thereof nor even celestial manifestations of the Supreme G-d; they are physical bodies, G-d’s creation under His control.191 John Currid reached a similar conclusion, seeing this deliberate break from a theogonic tradition as indicative of a ‘conscious polemic against other ANE cultures’.192 Since the word ‫( אות‬oth ‘sign’) can refer to a visual marker, as in Joshua 4.10, Isaiah 5.9, 20.2, and Ezekiel 39.15, this paper suggests that, rather than divine signs, the verse’s syntax and context dictate that othoth was a reference to astronomical events, the luminaries’ observable periodic movements and positions to be used as visual markers of time. 193 This conclusion was also reached by Richard Averbeck [in] ‘A Literary Day: Intertextual and Contextual Reading of Genesis 1-2’, Reading Genesis 1–2: An Evangelical Conversation ed. by J. Daryl Charles, (Peabody, Mass: Hendrickson, 2013, pp. 7-34), p. 23. See also, E. Lipinski, ‘Shemesh’, Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, p. 966, Regarding the names of the Canaanite gods, see K. L. Noll, Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction, (The Biblical Seminar. London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2004), p. 245; Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), p. 418; Nick Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit: The Words of Ilimilku and His Colleagues, (Sheffield Academic Press: 1998), p. 336; Alexander Heidel, The Babylonian Genesis: The Story of Creation, (University of Chicago Press, 1951), p. 117. 190 L. W. King, Enuma Elish: Volume 1: The Seven Tablets of Creation, Tablet 1, line 9 (also, p. LXXII); John H Rogers, (1998), ‘Origins of the Ancient Astronomical Constellations: I: The Mesopotamian Traditions’, Journal of the British Astronomical Association, (London, England: The British Astronomical Association, Vol. 108, Is. 1; pp. 9–28), p. 13; Heidel, Babylonian Genesis, pp. 13-14; Edwin Oliver James, The Worship of the Sky-god: A Comparative Study in Semitic and Indo-European Religion, (Athlone Press, 1963), p. 23; W. G. Lambert, ‘The Cosmology of Sumer and Babylon’, Ancient Cosmologies, ed. by C. Blacker and M. Loewe (London: Allen and Unwin, 1975), pp. 51–54; Francesca Rochberg, ‘“The Stars and their Likenesses”’, p. 83. See also, Black and Green, Gods, Demons and Symbols, p. 94. 191 See Heidel, Babylonian Genesis, p. 97; cf. Zatelli, ‘Astrology and the Worship of the Stars’, p. 88. 192 John D. Currid, Against the gods: The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament (Crossway, 2013), pp. 45-46. See also: Peter Enns, Inspiration and Incarnation: Evangelicals and the Problems of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2005), p. 27; Bruce K. Waltke, An Old Testament Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007), pp. 197-203. 193 See Robert Cantor, ‘On the concept of “sign” in the Hebrew Bible’, Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies (Semiotica, Vol. 2018, Issue 221, pp. 105–121), pp. 113-119; J. S. Wright, ‘Astrology’, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, ed. by Geoffrey William Bromiley; associate eds., Everett F. Harrison, Roland K. Harrison, (Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Ferdmans, 1979; pp. 342-343), 189 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |37 Though Campion claimed that there was textual evidence that G-d was expected to announce the oncoming of events through celestial omens such as eclipses, there is little indication (exceptions will be discussed below) that the prophets actually foretold eclipses, or referred to unusual astral occurrences as omens. 194 Jeremiah seemingly did not interpret eclipses as omens, as he told the Jewish people (Jer. 10.2, 3) that they should take no heed of othoth ha-shomayim (‘signs of the heavens’) as they count for nothing.195 Moreover, as Cooley argued, the context and grammar of these verses indicated that celestial divination was alien to the Israelites; rather than ‘a polemical characterization of a rejected native Canaano-Israelite tradition’, it was ‘a rejection of a truly foreign practice’.196 However, it is difficult to interpret othoth hashomayim as a reference to mere physical phenomena. If, as McKay has suggested, the prophet was merely referring to extraordinary natural phenomena without reference to their inauspicious nature, then the term othoth (‘signs’) in that context has no clear meaning.197 The concept of ‘sign’ denotes an object whose externality points to another unexpressed significance. 198 It is clear the author was not referring to visual markers of time. Thus, this verse presented a paradox. On the one hand, it ostensibly dismissed the validity of celestial omens. On the other hand, Jeremiah was unambiguously calling those phenomena ‘omens’ – possibly the only occasion in Tanach where othoth (‘signs’) must have meant omens. Cooley pointed out that othoth ha-shomayim (‘signs of the heavens’) was an imported concept, evidence of the infiltration of foreign ideas and nomenclature.199 However, there was a suggestive ambivalence inherent in Jeremiah’s use of the term. This may have been the seed that allowed later rabbinical exegesis to attach importance to celestial phenomena, as stated by Lobel.200 Another instance where a prophet seemingly referred to the unusual move- p. 342; Michael Fishbane, ‘The Biblical 'Ot’, Shnaton HaMiqra [‫שנתון המקרא‬: 1976, pp. 213-233), p. 213, fn. 1; Zatelli, 'Astrology and the Worship of the Stars in the Bible', p. 88; cf. Nahum Sarna, JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis (The Jewish Publication Society: 2001), p. 9; August Dillmann, Genesis critically and exegetically expounded, (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark; 1897), p. 72. 194 Campion, The History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 116. 195 Jer. 10.2,3: ‫ ּכִ י־חֻּקֹות הָּ ע ִַמים הֶׁ בֶׁ ל הּוא‬...‫ל־תלְ מָּ דּו ּומֵ אֹּ תֹות הַ שָּ מַ ִים אַ ל־תֵ חָּ תּו‬ ִ ַ‫‘ – אֶׁ ל־דֶׁ ֶׁרְך הַ ּגֹויִם א‬From the ways of the nations do not learn and from the signs of the heavens be not dismayed … For the habits of the peoples are emptiness’. 196 Cooley, ‘Celestial Divination’, p. 27; Wright, Early History of Heaven, pp. ix-x, 3, 185. 197 Cf. J. W. McKay, Religion in Judah under the Assyrians, p. 58. 198 See Cantor, ‘On the concept of “sign”’, pp. 106-110. 199 Cooley, ‘Celestial Divination’, p. 27. 200 Lobel, ‘From Babylon to Jerusalem’, pp. 93-4, 97-8. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |38 ment of a celestial body as an oth (‘sign’) is in II Kings, 20.9. 201 (The story is repeated with some notable differences in Isaiah 38.21-22.)202 Here, however, it was not the sun being referenced but a resultant shadow on the steps. 203 Moreover, Isaiah was clearly referring to a visual sign as there was no prediction.204 The prophet prayed to G-d that He indicate the acceptance of King Hezekiah’s prayer through the shadow’s unusual movement.205 Thus, this cannot be presented as an instance of celestial divination.206 Amos’ description of the ‘day of G-d’ as ‘darkness and not light’ (Am. 5.18, 20), or Isaiah’s reference to the darkening of the sun (Is. 13.10), need not be interpreted, as suggested by both Campion and William E. Burns, as referring to eclipses and, hence, astral omens, but rather as a metaphor for despair.207 Indeed, as Isaiah (13.10) also referred to the stars as not shining, it is unlikely he was foretelling an eclipse.208 Johannes Koch suggested that koch’vei hashomayim (‘the stars of heaven’) in Isaiah 13.10 referred to planets, and k’silayhem (‘their k’sils’ – generally translated as ‘their constellations’) referred to a Babylonian constellation, mul- KAK.SI.SA, both of which (the planets and the constellation) were invisible during the solar and lunar eclipses of February 561 BCE.209 However, the verse’s general reference to ‘the stars of heaven’, as opposed to simply ‫הכוכבים‬ (hakochovim ‘the stars’) which might have implied specific stars, the plural form of k’silayhem, and the suffix, ‘their k’sils’ indicating that k’sil directly informed on ‫‘ ַוי ֹּאמֶׁ ר יְשַ עְ יָּהּו זֶׁה־לְ ָך הָּ אֹות מֵ אֵ ת ד' כי יעשה ד' אֶׁ ת־הַ דָּ בָּ ר אֲשֶׁ ר ִדבֵ ר הָּ ַַ֚לְך הַ צֵ ל עֶׁשֶׁ ר מַ עֲלֹות ִאם־יָּשּוב עֶׁשֶׁ ר מַ עֲלֹות‬And Isaiah said, "This is the sign for you from G-d, that G-d will do as He spoke: should the shadow advance ten steps or return ten steps?”’. 202 For an analysis of those differences, see Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, pp. 309-312. 203 II Kings, 20.9; cf. Isaiah 38.21. 204 See Fishbane, ‘The Biblical “Ot”’, pp. 216-217. 205 II Kings 20.11. 206 A similar conclusion was reached by Cooley; see Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, p. 309-312. 207 Amos 5.18, 20: ‫ֹא־אֹ‍ור‬ ֽ ‫) ֹ֥הֹ‍וי הַ ִמ ְתאַ ִ ִּּ֖וים אֶ ת־יָ֣ ֹ‍ום ד' לָמָ ה־זֶ ֹ֥ה לָכֶ ֶ֛ם יֹ֥ ֹ‍ום ד' הּוא־חֹֹ֥ שֶ ְך וְ ל‬18( Ah, you who wish for the day of G-d! Why should you want the day of G-d? It [shall be] darkness, not light! Campion, The History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 116; William E. Burns, Astrology through History: Interpreting the Stars from Ancient Mesopotamia to the Present (ABC-CLIO, 2018), p. 25. ‫ֹא־נ ַגּֽה לֽ ֹ‍ו׃‬ ֹ ֹ֥ ‫ֹא־אֹ‍ור וְ אָ פֵ ִּ֖ל וְ ל‬ ָ֑ ‫) ֲהל ֹא־חֶֹ֛ שֶ ְך יֹ֥ ֹ‍ום ד' וְ ל‬20( Surely the day of G-d shall be not light but darkness; blackest night without a glimmer. (Translation from www.sefaria.org [acc. 19 th Jan. 2019].) Isaiah 13.10: ‫כי כוכבי‬ ‫‘ –השמים וכסיליהם לא יהלו אורם חשך השמש בצאתו וירח לא יגיה אורו‬For the stars of heaven and ksileyhem (their constellations?) shall not shine their light; The sun shall be dark as it exits (i.e. rises), and the moon shall not diffuse its glow.’ 208 Cf. Ezekiel 32.7: ‫יהָ֑ם שֶֶׁ֚ מֶ ש בֶ עָנָ ָָ֣֣ן ֲאכ ֶּ֔ ֶַסנּו וְ י ֵ ִָּ֖רחַ ל ֹא־י ִ ָֹ֥איר א ֹֽ‍ורֹ‍ו׃‬ ֶ ֵ‫ת־ככְ ב‬ ֹ ֽ ֶ‫ֹ‍ותָךָ֙ שָ ֶּ֔ ַמיִם וְ הִ קְ דַ ְר ִ ִּ֖תי א‬ ְ ‫יתי בְ כ ַֽב‬ ִ֤ ִ ֵ‫( וְ כִ ס‬7) I will cover the heavens with your smoke, and I will darken their stars; I will cover the sun with a cloud and the moon will not shine its light. '‫ירם עָלֶ ָ֑יָך וְ נ ַ ִָ֤ת ִתי חֹֹ֙ שֶ ְךָ֙ ַ ֽעל־אַ ְרצְ ֶָּ֔ך נְאֻ ִּ֖ ם ד' א‬ ִּ֖ ֵ ‫ָל־מ ִ֤א ֵֹ‍ורי אֹ‍ורָ֙ בַ שָ ֶּ֔ ַמיִם אַ קְ ִד‬ ְ ‫( כ‬8) All the shining lights in the sky I will darken over you; and I will bring darkness upon your land, declares the L-rd G-d. (My translation adapted from www.Chabad.org and www.sefaria.org [acc. 19th Jan. 2019].) 209 Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, pp. 230-231, fn. 16. 201 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |39 the afore-mentioned stars, makes Koch’s reconstruction unlikely.210 Although Amos 8.9, in his eschatological prophecy, foretold that G-d will make the sun set at noon, its context indicates that portrayal as allegorical. 211 Furthermore, to interpret the image of the sun setting at noon as an eclipse is highly questionable, as a total eclipse lasts little longer than a few minutes.212 In addition, as this is described as taking place in midday, the observer, of whatever culture or period, would scarcely confuse that with the setting of the sun. Rather than translating Amos 4.13 (‫ )עֹּ שֵ ה שַ חַ ר עֵיפָּה‬as ‘He Who makes the dawn into darkness’, as rendered in the KJV, since the rest of the verse describes daily natural phenomena, both context and syntax suggest it be translated, ‘He who makes darkness into light’, or ‘the [darkness of] dawn into glimmering light’.213 Instead of implying an eclipse, the verse referred to night turning into day (‫שַ חַ ר‬ shachar meaning here ‘darkness’: see Lev. 13.31; Isa. 23.3; Job 2.2; ‫ עֵיפָּה‬eiphoh meaning ‘glimmering light’: see Job 3.9; 11.17).214 A similar theme appeared later in Amos 5.8, ‘and turns to daylight [lit. morning] deep darkness’.215 Admittedly though, Joel 3.4 may have been referring to an eclipse. 216 Indeed, the imagery of the sun turning into darkness, and his subsequent portrayal of a blood-moon in the same verse, indicated that the author was describing eclipses.217 However, there is a vast difference between the astral omens of ancient Mesopotamia, where celestial phenomena were observed – or predicted – and apodoses given, to the Biblical predictions of phenomena as signs of Divine revelation.218 The ancient Mesopotamians saw the planetary bodies as manifestations 210 For further arguments against this reconstruction, see ibid., ad loc. ‫ והיה ביום ההוא נאם ד' א' והבאתי השמש בצהרים והחשכתי לארץ ביום אור‬- ‘On that day, says the L-rd G-d, I will make the sun set at noon and will darken the land on a day of light’. See Rashi, Metzudath Dovid, Redaq, Malbim, ad loc., s.v. ‫והבאתי השמש בצהרים‬. 212 J. Meeus, ‘The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse’, Journal of the British Astronomical Association (Vol. 113, Issue 6: 2003, pp. 343–48), p. 343, available online at http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2003JBAA..113..343M [acc. 18 th Jan. 2019]. 213 Shalom M. Paul, Amos: A Commentary on the Book of Amos (Fortress Press, Minneapolis: 1991) p. 155 (Paul suggested the verse might have intended a double entendre). 214 Ibid., p. 155. 215 ‫וְ הֹּ ֵפְך לַבֹּ קֶׁ ר צַ לְ מָּ וֶׁת‬ 216 Joel 3.4: ‫( הַ שֶ מֶ ש יֵהָ ֵפְך לְ חֹ שֶ ְך וְ הַ י ֵָרחַ לְ דָ ם לִ פְ נֵי בֹ‍וא יֹ‍ום ה' הַ ָגדֹ‍ול וְ הַ נ ָֹ‍ורא׃‬4) ‘The sun shall turn into darkness and the moon into blood before the arrival of the great and awesome day of G-d’. 217 Ibid. 218 See A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 1964), p. 211, quoted in Annus, ‘On the Beginnings and Continuities of Omen Sciences’, pp. 3,4; Koch-Westenholz, Mesopotamian Astrology, pp. 14, 19; Uri Gabbay, ‘Akkadian Commentaries from Ancient Mesopotamia and Their Relation to Early Hebrew Exegesis’, Dead Sea Discoveries (The Rise of Commentary: Commentary Texts in Ancient Near Eastern, Greek, Roman and Jewish Cultures: Vol. 19, Issue 3, 2012; Brill: pp. 267-312), p. 273. 211 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |40 or agents of the deities’ presence.219 To the Mesopotamian mind, the phenomena were thus cryptic messages of the divine made manifest through their agents. 220 In contrast, Joel was not assigning meaning to the celestial bodies. To use Rochberg’s phraseology, there was no ‘if P, then Q’. 221 The darkening of the sun foretold in Joel was the result of an oncoming revelation, not a harbinger or omen thereof. It was a visual marker, not a portent. In addition, though the various references to the sun darkening and the moon turning to blood can be interpreted metaphorically, the poetic imagery employed by the prophets, Joel, Amos and Isaiah, may conceivably have been drawn from their own experiences of solar and lunar eclipses, as a total solar eclipse, known as the Assyrian Eclipse, occurred over the Middle East, in the first half of the eighth century.222 In summary, the Pentateuch made absolutely no reference to an eclipse as an omen from G-d, and almost all allusions to eclipses in the rest of the Tanach are likely allegorical references to difficult times that were not related to celestial divination. The extensive use of astral symbolism may have merely reflected the impression caused by the constant exposure of the Biblical authors and their audiences to the natural environment and its phenomena. Hence, it is improbable that the term othoth (‘signs’) in Gen. 1.14 was a reference to such celestial omens. That said, it is noteworthy that the term othoth (‘signs’) was used in connection with physical phenomena of the celestial bodies, as, in the ANE, all appearances, movements and positions of natural phenomena were regarded as deistic signs, and, as observed above, were invariably described as ittu.223 (This reflection may also apply also to all Deistic usage of the term oth, especially but not exclusively apropos natural phenomena; for example, the sign of the rainbow in Gen. 9.12, 13, the covenantal sign of circumcision in Gen. 17.11, and the sign of the Sabbath in Ex. 31.13, 17.) Although this paper argues that its interpretation E. Frahm, ‘Reading the Tablet, the Exta, and the Body: The Hermeneutics of Cuneiform Signs in Babylonian and Assyrian Text Commentaries and Divinatory Texts’, Divination and the Interpretation of Signs, ed. by A. Annus (2010), pp. 93-141. 220 Gabbay, ‘Akkadian Commentaries’, pp. 274-5. 221 F. Rochberg, ‘“If P, Then Q”: Form and Reasoning in Babylonian Divination’, Divination and the Interpretation of Signs, pp. 19ff. 222 Recorded in the Assyrian Eponym List, online at http://www.livius.org/articles/concept/limmu/limmulist-858-699-bce/ [accessed 14th Jan. 2019]. See Tzvi Pittinsky, comment on ‘Solar Eclipses and Other Natural Phenomena in Tanach’, in the Tanach Rav Blog, posted on 13th Aug. 2017, tanachrav.blogspot.com/2017/08/solar-eclipses-and-other-natural.html [acc. 14th Jan. 2019]. 223 Koch-Westenholz, Mesopotamian Astrology, p. 21; F. Rochberg, ‘Conceiving the History of Science’, The Frontiers of Ancient Science: Essays in Honor of Heinrich von Staden, ed. by Brooke Holmes, KlausDietrich Fischer (De Gruyter, Berlin, 2015), p. 520; Noegel, ‘Sign, sign, everywhere a sign’, p. 149. 219 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |41 appears to be astronomical, it may nonetheless unwittingly retain echoes of the Assyro-Babylonian conception of those natural phenomena. This brings to mind Wright’s assertion, echoed by both Zatelli and Campion and others (cited above, in the previous chapter), that the Biblical text reinterpreted aspects of its astrolatrous milieu to conform with its monotheistic message.224 Alternatively, it might be argued that the text specifically integrated such terminology to heighten the contrast between it and the creation myths of other cultures of the ANE.225 Mazol in Tanach Due to its extensive use in the Talmud as an astrological term, it is important to clarify the Biblical meaning of mazol (pl. mazoloth). Appearing only once in Tanach, in II Kings 23.5, it was another example of a Biblical hapax legomenon: ‘He suppressed the idolatrous priests whom the Judaic kings had appointed and who had burnt incense […], and those who burnt incense to Ba’al, to the sun and to the moon and to the mazoloth, and to the entire host of heaven’.226 A similar term, mazoroth, was in Job 38.32: 31. Can you tie the chains of the Pleiades [Kim’oh] or loosen the straps of Orion [K’sil]? 32. Can you take out mazoroth in its time, or lead the Bear [Ayish] with her children?227 Whilst the Septuagint equated mazoloth and mazoroth, rendering both μαζουρωθ, a Greek transliteration of mazoroth, the Vulgate differentiated between them, interpreting the former as duodecim signis, lit. ‘twelve signs’, a reference to the twelve signs of the zodiac, and the latter as luciferum, lit. the light-bringing or morning star.228 224 Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 109-114; Wright, Early History of Heaven (Oxford University Press: 2002), pp. ix-x, 3, 185; Zatelli, ‘Astrology and the Worship of the Stars’, pp. 87, 88, 97; Helyer, Exploring Jewish Literature of the Second Temple Period, p. 83. 225 See Currid, Against the gods, pp. 45-46 226 ‫] וְ אֶ ת הַ ְמקַ ְט ִרים לַבַ עַל לַשֶ מֶ ש וְ ַלי ֵָרחַ וְ לַמַ ָזלֹ‍ות ּולְ כֹ ל צְ בָ א הַ שָ מָ ִים‬...[ ‫וְ הִ ְשבִ ית אֶ ת הַ כְ מָ ִרים אֲשֶ ר נ ְָתנּו מַ לְ כֵי יְהּודָ ה וַיְ קַ טֵ ר‬ 227 . ַ‫] הַ ְתקַ שֵ ר מַ עֲדַ נֹ‍ות כִ ימָ ה אֹ‍ו מֹ ְשכֹ‍ות כְ ִסיל ְת ַפתֵ ח‬31[ ‫] הֲתֹ ִ ָ֣ציא מַ ָז ָ֣רֹ‍ות בְ עִ ָ֑תֹ‍ו ְְ֜ו ַַ֗עיִש עַל־בָ נֶ ֹ֥יהָ תַ נ ֵ ְֽחם‬32[ Translation adapted from www.chabad.org, and www.sefariah.org, acc. 27 th Jan. 2019. 228 The Septuagint [LXX], available online at https://www.blueletterbible.org/lxx acc. 27 th Jan. 2019; ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |42 Due to its juxtaposition to referenced stars and the singular construction of ‫ בעתו‬be’itho – ‘[mazoroth] in its time’ rather than ‘in their time’, mazoroth seemed to refer to a specific star or constellation, rather than a series of constellations, an astronomical rather than an astrological term.229 As stated in the introduction, this paper does not intend to focus on astronomical textual terms. Conversely, due to it appearing in reference to astral worship, mazoloth had a probable astrological connotation. Situated between sun, moon and ‘the entire host of heaven’ (‫)כֹ ל צְ בָ א הַ שָ מָ ִים‬, the context suggested mazoloth to be a generic term for planets in their sphere as deistic hypostases, or for particular groups of stars (constellations). Whilst the Vulgate’s interpretation, duodecim signis, must be designated anachronistic, since the twelve zodiacal constellations appeared to be a Hellenistic innovation,230 the astronomical division of the sky into twelve sections found its first known expression in Mesopotamia, as evidenced by a tablet dated to 475 BCE. 231 Hence, the term mazoloth might have alluded to twelve stations of the sun, the moon, or the planets, in their transit through the sky.232 Indeed, Marcus Jastrow (1829-1903) identified mazol as related to the Arabic manzil – meaning ‘location’ or ‘station of the stars’, with Paul Mankowski following his lead by identifying mazol as a loanword from the Akkadian manzaltu or mazoltu, denoting the location of celestial bodies.233 To argue, though, that II Kings 23.5 referenced the worship of astral stations is hardly tenable. The ANE’s astrolatry was directed to the personification of the deities through the celestial bodies, not their positions. 234 Furthermore, Cooley argued that manzaltu in its Akkadian usage never referred to the constellations per se. 235 Thus it would not be feasible to suggest that the author was referencing Vulgate, available online at https://www.biblestudytools.com/vul, acc. 27 th Jan. 2019. 229 Zatelli, ‘Astrology and the Worship of the Stars’, p. 95; Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, pp. 234-235. 230 Rochberg-Halton, ‘New Evidence for the History of Astrology’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, (University of Chicago Press) Vol. 43, No. 2 (1984), pp. 121-3; Nicholas Campion, ‘More on the Transmission of the Babylonian Zodiac to Greece: The Case of the Nativity Omens and their Modern Legacy’, ARAM Journal (Aram Periodical, Vol 24: Neo-Aramaic Dialects & Astrology in the Ancient Near East: Peeters, 2014, pp. 193-201), p. 196. 231 Campion, ‘More on the Transmission of the Babylonian Zodiac to Greece’, p. 196; Bartel van der Waerden, 'History of the Zodiac', Bulletin fur Orientforschung, (1952: Vol. 16, Issue 3, pp. 216-30). See also: Rochberg, Babylonian Horoscopes, (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1998), pp. 51-6; Rochberg-Halton, ‘New Evidence for the History of Astrology’, pp. 121-3 232 Cf. Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, p. 232; Zatelli, ‘Astrology and the Worship of the Stars’, p. 95. 233 Marcus Jastrow, ‘‫ ’מזל‬in Dictionary of Targumim, Talmud and Midrashic Literature (1972), p. 755. See also, R. A. Torrey, Treasury of Scripture Knowledge (Revell, 1993). Paul V. Mankowski, Akkadian loanwords in Biblical Hebrew (Harvard Semitic Studies, vol. 47. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2000), pp. 86-7. Also, T. K. Cheyne, Job and Solomon (London, K. Paul, Trench & co., 1887). 234 Rochberg, Babylonian Astral Science in the Hellenistic World: Reception and Transmission (Center for Advanced Studies: Berkeley Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; Issue 4, 2010), pp. 9-10. 235 Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, p. 274. DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |43 the seventeen constellations of the ecliptical path of the moon, mentioned in the MUL.APIN, used before the development of the twelve zodiacal constellations.236 However, according to Hermann Spieckermann’s assertion that stars were seen to be the locations, [sic] ‘manzaltu’, of the celestial deities, it is feasible that the term mazoloth was referencing the planets or stars in their role as locations of the hypostases of the astral deities.237 Further insight into the term mazoloth may be gained by attending to the verse’s cantillation notes, which reflect the Masoretic tradition of Late Antiquity. 238 Though not conclusive, as the cantillation marks are at times punctuated in order to accentuate points of rabbinical exegesis, in this instance, the notes merely underscore that which is already inherent in a close reading of the text.239 According to Masoretic tradition, the notes imply that the phrase ‘the sun and the moon and the mazoloth’ is a subclause relating to the previous clause, ‘the Ba’al’. Without embarking on an in-depth investigation into the worship of the Ba’al deity as expressed in the Bible, the verse thus implied that the Ba’al was not only worshipped through the sun, but also through the moon, and possibly the sun’s [or moon’s] various positions in the sky. The view that Ba’al worship involved more than one planet or star, and was viewed as distributing its agency into diverse celestial bodies, is borne out by some thirteen passages in the Bible where Ba’al is referred to in the plural (Ba’alim). 240 This understanding of Ba’al worship was also mentioned by the medieval scholar, R. Menachem Tsiyoni (1340-1410), who argued that though mainly a solar cult, Ba’al was worshiped through other celestial bodies as well.241 Moreover, Lisbrack Bernsen and Herman Hunger concluded that the Babylonian astrologers identified the directions to sunrise of certain auspicious days with special positions in the zodiac.242 If that was seen to be extended to positions of the moon, the term mazoloth as positions, apropos the sun and moon 236 Hermann Hunger, David Pingree, MUL.APIN: An Astronomical Compendium in Cuneiform (F. Berger, 1989), pp. 11-12, 31-39, 139-152; Rochberg-Halton, ‘New Evidence’, p. 122. 237 H. Spieckermann, Juda unter Assur in der Sargonidenzeit, (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 1982), p. 259. 238 See Aron Dotan, ‘The Relative Chronology of Hebrew Vocalization and Accentuation’, Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, Vol. 48 (1981), pp. 87-99, pp. 97-98. 239 See the introductory discussion in, Simcha Kogot, Correlations Between Biblical Accentuation and Traditional Jewish Exegesis: Linguistic and Contextual Studies, (Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2010). 240 Judges 2.11, 3.7, 8.33, 10.6, 10.10; I Samuel 7.4, 12.10; I Kings 18.18; Jer. 2.23, 9.13; Hosea 2.15, 2.19; II Chronicles 34.4. 241 Menachem Tsiyoni, Tsiyoni, (Lemberg, 1882) p. 49b. 242 Lisbrack Bernsen and Herman Hunger, ‘The Babylonian Zodiac: Speculations on its invention and significance’, Centaurus (Munksgaard: 1999; pp. 280-292), pp. 289-290. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |44 (and Ba’al worship), takes on even greater significance. In summation, the term mazoloth appeared to refer to the locations and manifestations of celestial deities, possibly as parts of a composite deity called Ba’al. Rudimentary Astrology RULERS OF THE COSMOS According to Stuckrad, another instance of astrological significance is in Gen. 1.16 and 18, where the luminaries were described as governing the day and night: 16. G-d made the two great luminaries – the great luminary for governing of the day and the smaller luminary for governing of the night – and the stars. 18. And to govern the day and the night …243 Similar phraseology was observed in Psalms 136.8,9. In describing the luminaries as governing, Stuckrad saw evidence of personification of the luminaries, comparable to the personifications of the stars and planets in the Mesopotamian idea of divinity, where the celestial bodies were seen as representatives of the deities.244 Hence, he explained, the verse advisedly used the term ‫( משל‬MSHL, ‘govern’), as opposed to the verb MLCH (‘rule’, from the noun melech ‘king’), since the stars were seen as subsidiary to the deities, not the deities themselves.245 However, both Erica Reiner and Rochberg have shown that for the Mesopotamians, the stars and planets were not merely representations of the deities but, in some instances, actual deities.246 Not only does this philosophy run contrary to the import of these verses (as demonstrated earlier in this section), it severely undermines Stuckrad’s reasoning that these verses indicated an outlook that was analogous to the Mesopotamian worldview. Dobin, too, argued that the word MSHL is indicative of ‘a conscious and intelligent’ astrological rulership.247 However, his argument was chronologically inconsistent. Astrological rulership of houses was a later development, of Hellenis243 .‫להִ ים אֶ ת ְשנֵי הַ ְמ אֹ רֹ ת הַ גְ דֹ לִ ים אֶ ת הַ מָ אֹ‍ור הַ גָדֹ ל לְ מֶ ְמשֶ לֶת הַ יֹ‍ום וְ אֶ ת הַ מָ אֹ‍ור הַ קָ טֹ ן לְ מֶ ְמשֶ לֶת הַ ַּל ְילָה וְ אֵ ת הַ כֹ‍ו ָכבִ ים‬-‫ ַו ַיעַש ֱא‬.16 ]...[ ‫ וְ לִ ְמשֹ ל בַ יֹ‍ום ּובַ ַּל ְילָה‬.18; Stuckrad, Frömmigkeit und Wissenschaft, pp. 89, 90. 244 Stuckrad, Frömmigkeit und Wissenschaft, pp. 89, 90. 245 Ibid, p. 90. 246 Erica Reiner, Astral Magic in Babylonia, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 85, Part 4, (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1995), p. 73; Rochberg, ‘“The Stars and Their Likenesses”’, pp. 46-48, 65-75; Rochberg, Babylonian Astral Science, pp. 8-9. 247 Dobin, Astrological Secrets of the Hebrew Sages, pp. 87-90. DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |45 tic provenance.248 Rochberg wrote, ‘the direct […] influence of the motions of the celestial bodies upon the earth is […] a Greek, or Hellenistic, concept’, with ‘no parallel in Babylonian omen texts’.249 Since even the most radical of Bible critics concur that the main body of the book of Genesis was composed prior to the fourth century BCE, Dobin’s assertion was anachronistic.250 As Cooley advised, ‘especially when taking into account the necessity for the zodiac tradition to leap over the hurdles of esotericism, as well as linguistic, cultural and geographical barriers’, the origin of the zodiac, even in Late Babylonian Mesopotamia, would have been too late to have exerted any influence of the Bible. 251 Furthermore, both Dobin and Stuckrad overlooked the grammatical composition of the particular clauses in question. First, if verse 1.16 was referring to deistic or astrological influences, it should, arguably, have placed the stars together with the moon as governors of the night, instead of them being introduced, as it were, parenthetically, at the end of the verse, referring back to the clause at the start of the verse, ‘G-d made’. Second, the clause ‫‘( לְ מֶ ְמשֶ לֶת הַ יֹ‍ום‬for [the] governing of the day’ – Gen. 1.16) is a genitive phrase: ‫( לְ מֶ ְמשֶ לֶת‬lememsheleth ‘for [the] governing of’) is a construct state of the noun ‫( מֶ ְמשלה‬memsholoh ‘government’), adjoined to the absolute noun ‫הַ יֹ‍ום‬ (hayom ‘the day’).252 In other words, ‘for [the] governing of the day’ is referring to the ‘government’ of daytime, in as much as light ‘governs’ the day (in concurrence with the Genesis narrative of 1.3-5 that light had already been created on the first day and called ‘day’), but not in a deistic or astrological sense, which might have been implied by the phrase ‫‘( לִ ְמשֹ ל הַּיֹ‍ום‬to govern the day’). This grammatical analysis addresses the clause concerning the sun and daytime but is equally pertinent to the parallel phrase regarding the moon and night. Verse 18, ‫‘ וְ לִ ְמשֹ ל בַ יֹ‍ום ּובַ ַּל ְילָה‬to govern the day and the night’, referred to both the sun and moon (as evinced from verse, 1.17, ‘and He placed them in the spread of the heavens’) and alluded to the astronomical qualities described in Job 38.33, ‘Do you know the laws of heaven, or can you impose its authority upon the Rochberg-Halton, ‘New Evidence for the History of Astrology’, p. 117. Rochberg-Halton, ‘Elements of the Babylonian Contribution to Hellenistic Astrology’, p. 52. 250 See Ephraim Avigdor Speiser, ‘Introduction’, Anchor Bible edition of Genesis (Doubleday, 1964); Dr. Malka Z. Simkovich, e-mail message to author, 24th Jan. 2019. 251 Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, p. 254, n. 91. 252 For grammatical rules, see Wilhelm Gesenius, ‘§89. The Genitive and the Construct State’, Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar (OUP:1909) ed. by Emil Kautzsch, transl. by Arthur Ernest Cowley, available online at https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Gesenius%27_Hebrew_Grammar/89._The_Genitive_and_the_Construct_S tate [acc. 17th Jan. 2019]. 248 249 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |46 earth?’.253 As was evident in Job 38.31-35, the ordinances and dominion refer to the natural phenomena resulting from its physical presence and characteristics. Notwithstanding that the pericope does not appear to suggest either a deistic or an astrological approach apropos the luminaries or stars, the use of the unusual term MSHL (‘govern’) may indicate cross-cultural influence from the surrounding milieu. Alternatively, as reasoned above, the text may have been using the terminology of its ANE culture and antecedents, to give its own monotheistic message that was antithetical to astrolatry, as a form of satirical rhetoric. JOSEPH’S DREAM Various scholars have pointed to Joseph’s dream of the sun, moon and eleven stars prostrating before him (Gen. 37.9) as an example of astrology in the Bible.254 Both Dobin and Stuckrad saw the association of the sun and moon to the father and mother as a clear and direct astrological reference (Dobin called it an ‘astrological figure of speech’), whilst Campion described the dream as an example of ‘the representation of Hebrew society as a manifestation of the solar cycle’.255 However, with regards to Dobin and Stuckrad’s observation, the verses’ association of the sun with the father does not concur with ancient Canaanite culture, since to the ancient Canaanites, the sun deity was a goddess; its representative, the sun, a female entity.256 Conversely, the moon god was a masculine deity.257 Though the verses do not clearly expressly commit to that correlation – the moon might possibly represent the father – the order of the respective clauses of 37.9, 10, the precedence of sun before moon in 37.9, and the father before the mother in 37.10, indicates that interpretation to be the most probable. Although the Mesopotamian pantheon reversed that order, the ancient Mesopotamians and Canaanites still both believed that the planets represented a revelation of the gods or their signs for potential knowledge of future events.258 Therefore, it would have been inconceivable for the ANE mindset to view (or dream of) the icons of their gods’ hypostases as bowing down before the native, Gen. 1.17: ‫ ֹלהִ ים בִ ְרקִ י ַע הַ שָ מָ יִם לְ הָ ִאיר עַל הָ אָ ֶרץ‬-‫ ; ַו ִיתֵ ן אֹ תָ ם ֱא‬Job 38.33: ‫ ֲהיָדַ עְ תָ ֻחקֹ‍ות שָ מָ יִם ִאם תָ ִׂשים ִמ ְשטָ רֹ‍ו בָ אָ ֶרץ‬. Dobin, Astrological Secrets of the Hebrew Sages, pp. 110-112; Stuckrad, Frömmigkeit und Wissenschaft, pp. 93-4; Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 116. 255 Dobin, Astrological Secrets of the Hebrew Sages, p. 111; Stuckrad, Frömmigkeit und Wissenschaft, pp. 93-4. Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 116; see also, Yalkut Shim’oni (Leviticus 418). 256 Nick Wyatt, There's Such Divinity Doth Hedge a King, (Ashgate: 2005), p. 104; Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World, p. 418. 257 Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, p. 336. 258 Rochberg, ‘“The Stars and Their Likenesses”’, pp. 75ff, 83, 89, 90; Rochberg, Heavenly Writing, p. 36. 253 254 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |47 or to associate those hallowed representations with one’s siblings. Furthermore, to the ancient Mesopotamian astrologer, there was no microcosm-macrocosm analogy, no Stoic concept of heimarmene or sympatheia. 259 Thus, whilst Hellenistic astrologers, such as Claudius Ptolemy and Vettius Valens, saw the sun as father and the moon as mother, and other planets as relating to other siblings, this view was not shared by their ANE predecessors.260 Moreover, Rochberg has noted that, as distinct from the later development of astrology and horoscopic astrology (from c. 500 BCE), which attached significance to the relationship between the luminaries and the planetary positions and their movements with respect with one another, Babylonian celestial divination separated the various celestial phenomena and their portents into separate units.261 Clearly then, an augury deriving from the astrological relationship of the sun, moon and eleven stars to one another and to the native, and where the lunar omen is combined with the solar and stellar signs, would have been most unusual as a Babylonian apodosis to a celestial omen. Besides the chronological inconsistency, it is also untenable to argue in support of Biblical evidence of cultural transmission of the stellar religions from its Canaanite or Ugaritic background history (as indeed Stuckrad does), whilst using the same text (the Pentateuch) to vindicate a proto Hellenistic astrology that has an entirely different viewpoint.262 Nevertheless, the fact that the text saw Joseph’s parents as symbolised by the luminaries is noteworthy. There is no evidence that the Canaanites, Ugarites or Babylonians would have seen the same father/mother symbolism, as they associated the luminaries with father and mother god figures. Yet, far from regarding the astral bodies as deities, Jacob is recorded (in his interpretation of Joseph’s dream) as seeing them as corresponding to human beings, demonstrating that the Biblical celestial observation and speculation was quite unlike that of the ancient Mesopotamians as chronicled in the Enuma Anu Enlil. For Campion to assert that Joseph’s dream of the stars was part of a broader Biblical theme that saw the Jewish people as a ‘manifestation of the solar cycle’, Rochberg-Halton, ‘New Evidence for the History of Astrology’, p. 117, n. 12; Von Stuckrad, Western Esotericism: A Brief History of Secret Knowledge, transl. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 17. For definitions of heimarmene and sympatheia, see above, p. 12. 260 See Claudius Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos, translated by F. E. Robbins, (Loeb Classical Library 435. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1940), Book III; Vettius Valens, Anthologies, Book I, p. 1. 261 Ibid. p. 118. 262 Stuckrad, Frömmigkeit und Wissenschaft, pp. 93-95. 259 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |48 he had to assume that Joseph saw himself as the twelfth star.263 However, this assumption was contrary to the text. In contradistinction to Gen. 37.7, where Joseph saw his eleven brothers’ sheaves bowing down specifically to his sheaf, in Gen. 37.9 the stars were described as bowing down to him, not to his star. 264 Though it may be argued that, much as the ancient Mesopotamians blurred the distinction between the gods and their icons, Joseph (according to the Bible) associated himself in his dream with his star, such a notion (a type of unio mystica) would have been inconsistent with the mindset and astral ideology of the ANE, as demonstrated above.265 Furthermore, Cooley noted that, in the Biblical milieu, the seventeen stars in the path of the moon as detailed in the MUL.APIN would have been a much more significant and meaningful system than the number twelve in its association with the dividing of the sky. 266 In summation, therefore, it appeared highly questionable that there was any astrological significance in Joseph’s dream. Summary This analysis of possible astrological terms and nuances in the Bible has demonstrated that the Bible may conceivably have retained elements of the Canaanite or Assyro-Babylonian conception of natural phenomena, as noted by Zatelli. 267 In this respect, the analysis agreed with the separate findings of Stuckrad, Jeffers and Cryer, that the Tanach implied a ‘magical’ worldview.268 Influence of astrological belief was observed, in contrast to Leicht.269 However, as opposed to Campion, no clear textual evidence of belief in astral omens was found, though a certain ambivalence was detected in this regard, in line with Lobel’s conclusions.270 Possible implications that celestial divination was practiced were deduced. 263 Campion, History of Western Astrology, Vol. 1, p. 116. .‫ והנה אנחנו מאלמים אלמים בתוך השדה והנה קמה אלמתי וגם נצבה והנה תסבינה אלמתיכם ותשתחוין לאלמתי‬.7 .‫ ויחלם עוד חלום אחר ויספר אתו לאחיו ויאמר הנה חלמתי חלום עוד והנה השמש והירח ואחד עשר כוכבים משתחוים לי‬.9 7. ‘Lo, we were binding sheaves in the midst of the field, and behold, my sheaf arose and also stood upright, and behold, your sheaves encircled [it] and they prostrated themselves to my sheaf.’ 9. ‘He dreamed again another dream and told it to his brothers. He said, "Behold, I dreamed another dream, and lo, the sun and the moon and eleven stars were prostrating themselves to me.’ 265 Rochberg, ‘“The Stars and Their Likenesses”’, pp. 65, 79, 83, 89, 90. 266 Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, p. 254, n. 91. 267 Zatelli, 'Astrology and the Worship of the Stars’, pp. 87, 88, 97. 268 Stuckrad, ‘Jewish and Christian astrology’, p. 33; Jeffers, Magic and Divination in Ancient Palestine and Syria, pp. 16, 251; Cryer, Divination in Ancient Israel, p. 324. 269 Leicht, ‘Jewish Astrology’, p. 873. 270 Campion, History of Western Astrology, p. 109-114; Lobel, ‘Babylon to Jerusalem’, pp. 93-94, 97-98. 264 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |49 This was not only in contrast to Cooley, who disavowed a connection between celestial divination and astral worship, but also in contrast to Jeffers, who saw celestial divination as a prime factor in astrological belief evident in Tanach.271 It was also found that the Tanach may reflect its milieu’s terminology without necessarily retaining its philosophy. It was suggested that elements of the surrounding milieu infiltrated and influenced Jewish culture and language. It was noted that astrolatry was present amongst the people as a foreign worship (not indigenous, in contrast to both McKay and Cogan’s assumptions), though castigated by the prophets.272 Indeed, the term mazol appeared in Tanach to refer to the positions of manifested agencies of celestial deities, possibly parts of a composite deity called Ba’al. Similarly, there appeared evidence in the Biblical texts of the ANE’s conception of transcendent deities manifesting their agencies in the celestial bodies, the deities construed as angels of G-d. Though the Bible rejected the notion of deification of the celestial bodies, it nonetheless regarded them as having agency, albeit subject to the ordinances of G-d. Themes suggested by other scholars to be indicative of astrological nuance were discussed. The overall conclusion was that the astrological meaning had been widely inferred and not implied by the texts. In that respect, this analysis concurred with Smith and Cooley’s findings.273 Cooley, ‘Celestial Divination in Ugarit and Ancient Israel: Reassessment’, pp. 26, 28; Jeffers, ‘Magic and Divination in Ancient Israel’, p. 154. 272 J. W. McKay, Religion in Judah, pp. 27, 38, 51, 71; M. Cogan, Imperialism and Religion, pp. 86-88. 273 Smith, ‘When the Heavens Darkened’, p. 266; Cooley, Poetic Astronomy, p. 254, n. 91. 271 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |50 SECTION II: ASTROLOGY IN THE TALMUD INTRODUCTION The objective of this study is to analyse aspects of astrology that appeared in the Talmud. It will not focus on a sugya as a literary creation, though it may attend to the sugya’s component parts, in considering the intention of the amoro’im, vis-à-vis its thrust as a unit as presented by the anonymous redactor. TERMS AND CONCEPTS Mazol In the previous section, it was determined that the term mazoloth in Tanach was likely connected with the location of deistic agency. This term (mazol) will now be further explored apropos its Talmudic usage. Mazol was employed in a variety of contexts throughout the Talmud, not all apparently related to astrology. Indeed, besides ‘planet, constellation; luck’, Jastrow defined mazol, in its Talmudic usage, as ‘guardian angel’. 274 Similarly Michael Sokoloff explained it as ‘zodiacal station, planet, fortune, guardianangel’.275 However, as will be seen in this study, in the majority of cases, mazol was synonymous with astrological influence; it thus appears probable that those other instances clarify further the Talmudic perception of astrological influence. In Megilloh 3a, the Talmud explained that the reason the prophet Daniel’s friends became startled (Dan. 10.7) even though they did not see the angel, was because their mazol saw the angel.276 Here, mazol was understood as a spiritual entity connected to and affecting the person’s psyche. In Ta’anith 29b, Jewish persons were advised by R. Popo’ to have their courtcases in the month of Adar, when the Jewish People’s mazol was healthy, as opposed to the month of Ov, when it was seen to be harmed.277 In this instance, a person’s individual mazol was understood to be subservient to the national mazol that was affected by national events: the Adar Purim miracle caused it to be strong, whereas the destruction of both Temples in Ov caused it weakness. 274 Jastrow, Dictionary of Targumim, Talmud and Midrashic Literature, p. 755. Michael Sokoloff, Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods (Ramat-Gan and Baltimore, 2002), pp. 653-4. 276 ‫ אמר רבינא שמע מינה האי מאן‬,‫ מזלייהו חזו‬,‫ אף על גב דאינהו לא חזו‬,)‫ מאי טעמא איבעיתו (נבהלו‬,‫וכי מאחר דלא חזו‬ .‫ מזליה חזי‬,‫ אף על גב דאיהו לא חזי‬,‫דמיבעית‬ 277 .‫ הלכך בר ישראל דאית ליה דינא בהדי נכרי לישתמיט מיניה באב דריע מזליה ולימצי נפשיה באדר דבריא מזליה‬:‫אמר רב פפא‬ 275 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |51 That individual mazol may be affected by personal mishap was evinced in Chagigoh 5a: a woman was scalded, which caused her mazol to become weaker, which enabled an agent of the angel of death to take her life, before her time.278 An analogous theme appeared in Horayoth 12a. In Shabboth 53b, the Talmud asked how it was possible for the identical amulet to be efficacious for a person but not for an animal. The answer: a person has a mazol that helps him; an animal does not. 279 Here, mazol was seen as a spiritual entity, specific to people, that protected a person and could be influenced. The same concept appeared in Bovo Qamo 2b. Joint mazol, where persons work together, was described in Bovo Metsioh 105a as possibly having increased efficaciousness. In Mo’ed Qoton 28a, Rovo avowed that health, [bearing living] children and livelihood are dependent upon one’s mazol, an idea repeated in Shabboth 156a, indicating that a person can have either a good or a bad mazol.280 The idea of bad mazol was shown in Yevomoth 64b, where a spouse’s mazol was seen as the cause of the death of its spouses (if married three times and all the spouses died), and again in Bovo Bathro 98a where the mazol of a person was seen as responsible for turning wine to vinegar. In Chagigoh 12b, mazoloth were described as being located in the firmament together with the sun, moon and stars. Here, mazol appeared to have an astronomical identity, probably a constellation. Evidence of this was demonstrated in the tannaic (R. Yehoshua son of Levi and R. Yochonon) statements that a person capable of reckoning the cycles of the mazoloth is Biblically obligated to do so.281 That mazol is responsible for the character of a person was amply demonstrated in Shabboth 156a/b. The idea that mazol influenced thinkingprocesses was suggested in Bovo Bathro 12a, where it was argued that two persons of the same mazol could arrive at the same conclusion. Ben Gilo The Talmudic term ‫( בן גילו‬ben gilo) appeared to have a similar denotation to mazol. In Bovo Metsioh 27b, Rovo suggested that physical defects were likely to ‫קדחה (נשרפה) ואיתרע מזלא ואייתיתה‬ ‫ מסייע ליה‬,‫ אדם דאית ליה מזלא‬,‫ומי איכא (קמיע) מומחה לאדם ואינו מומחה לבהמה? אין‬ .‫ לא מסייע לה‬,‫בהמה דלית לה מזלא‬ 280 ...‫ אלא במזלא תליא מילתא‬,‫אמר רבא חיי בני ומזוני לא בזכותא תליא מילתא‬ 281 Shabboth 75a. 278 279 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |52 be repeated in a person that was ben gilo of another.282 Megilloh 11a a person who was ben gilo of another would have the same leanings (though, significantly, they were not impelled to act upon them). Nedorim 33a related that a person could relieve a sixtieth of a sick person’s illness, if he was ben gilo. Both R. Yitschoq of Troyes and R. Nissim of Gerona (1040-1105) explained ben gilo denoted a person of the same mazol.283 According to Jastrow, ben gilo related to the word galgal, ‘circle’, hence, ben gilo - ‘son of his circle’, implying a possible zodiacal connection, the circle referring to the zodiacal position at the individual’s birth. 284 Summary According to the Talmud, mazol was associated with an astronomical entity, probably a constellation. It clearly meant more than the star under which someone was born or fate or destiny, the allotment given from the day and time of birth. Not only was it seen as responsible for the person’s character and cognisance, it constituted an agency that protected the individual, yet could be affected by external events. The mazol could be either malefic or benefic, both for the owner of that mazol or for his associates. The Talmudic notion of mazol appeared to draw on various sources, including Akkadian, Roman and Greek. Tamysn Barton asserted that the idea that each individual has their own star was widespread in the Roman Empire.285 Pliny the Elder (1st cent. CE) wrote of a person’s star rising at his birth and falling at his death, varying in brightness according to a person’s fate. 286 Just as mazol appeared to be affected by extraneous circumstance, the Sacred Book Addressed to Asclepius had recipes to strengthen certain daemons responsible for disease.287 The concept of mazol being affected or weakened may have its antecedents in Mesopotamian notions, wherein the gods responsible for fate and destiny were not immune from human conditions and necessities.288 Its being a spiritual entity ‫אמר רבא דכ"ע סימנין דאורייתא והכא בשומא מצויה בבן גילו קמיפלגי מר סבר שומא מצויה בבן גילו ומ"ס שומא אינה מצויה‬ ‫בבן גילו‬ 283 Bovo Metisoh 27b, s.v. ben gilo. 284 Rashi, s.v. ‫ ;בבן גילו‬Ran, Nedorim 33a, s.v. ‫ ;ובבן גילו‬M. Jastrow, ‘‫ גיל‬II’, in A Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Babli, Talmud Yerushalmi and Midrashic Literature (1972), p. 238. 285 Tamysn Barton, Ancient Astrology (Routledge, 2002), p. 113. 286 Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 2.5.23, available online at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+toc acc. 31 st Jan. 2019. 287 Tamysn Barton, Ancient Astrology, pp. 190-191. 288 Jack Newton Lawson, The Concept of Fate in Ancient Mesopotamia of the First Millennium: Toward an Understanding of Šīmtu, (Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1994), p. 33. 282 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |53 or guardian appeared to integrate Greek concepts of a personal daimon, especially as expressed by Porphyry of Tyre (c. 234 – c. 305) who stated that a person’s daimon serves ‘as a guard and watcher’ over the person.289 Moreover, in accord with Porphyry, whilst the daimon might be responsible for impulses and character, the individual has the capacity for self-determination.290 This concept resonated throughout the Talmud and specifically in Shabboth 156. Yaakov Elman (1943-2018) observed that Rovo’s statements concerning mazol influencing life, livelihood and children concurred with the dualism within Zoroastrian thought. 291 Moreover, the benefic and malefic characteristics inherent in mazol were congruent with the concepts of Manichaeism (a Gnostic sect), where light battles dark.292 Contrary to both Leicht and Lobel who detected ambivalence in the Talmudic astrological worldview, there were scarcely any dissenting voices against the notion of mazol.293 This deduction concurred with Urbach’s view that astrology was accepted throughout the Talmud.294 The concept of mazol was seen as part of the cosmic order. Any disagreement was in degree, not in essence. Rather than a display of astrological knowledge, the Talmudic cases merely indicated widespread acceptance to its viability; thus, contrary to the separate opinions of Neusner, Stratton, and Lobel, there was no connection with power.295 Eclipses In Sukkoh 29a, the Talmud recounted a tannaic discussion regarding eclipses. In the first discussion, the rabbis stated that a solar eclipse is ‘a bad omen for the entire world’, comparing it to a king’s servant who, on the king’s instructions, removes the lantern for the guests.296 This was followed by an opposing opinion. Astrolaters, who use a solar calenPorphyry, ‘On What is in Our Power’, translated by James Wilberding (Bloomsbury, London: 2011), p. 143. 290 Ibid. p. 143 291 Y. Elman, "Righteousness as its own Reward: An Inquiry into the Theologies of the Stam", Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research 57 (1991, pp. 35-67), p. 180. 292 S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth, eds, Oxford Classical Dictionary, (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), s.v. Manichaeism, 917; Dorian Gieseler Greenbaum, The Daimon in Hellenistic Astrology: Origins and Influence (BRILL, 13 Nov 2015), p. 163. 293 Leicht, ‘Jewish Astrology’, p. 873-4; Lobel, ‘From Babylon to Jerusalem', p. 91. 294 Urbach, The Sages, p. 277. 295 Lobel, ‘Babylon to Jerusalem', p. 101; Neusner, ‘Rabbi and Magus, p. 170; Kimberly Stratton, ‘Imagining Power: Magic, Miracle, and the Social Context of Rabbinic Self-Representation’, p. 366. 296 ‫ת"ר בזמן שהחמה לוקה סימן רע לכל העולם כולו משל למה הדבר דומה למלך בשר ודם שעשה סעודה לעבדיו והניח פנס‬ ‫לפניהם כעס עליהם ואמר לעבדו טול פנס מפניהם והושיבם בחושך‬ 289 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |54 dar, should be wary of a solar eclipse; Jewish people, who use a lunar calendar, should be wary of a lunar eclipse.297 The Talmud then posited, Eclipsed in the east, an evil sign for those in the east; in the west, for those in the west. In the middle of the sky, an evil sign for the entire world.298 Its (the sun’s) visage is like blood, sword is coming […]; like (goat-hair) sackcloth, hunger-arrows are coming […]; like this and that, sword and hunger-arrows are coming […]. Eclipsed upon its entry, calamity is tarrying. Upon its departure, calamity is hastening.299 This description bore great affinity to Mesopotamian Akkadian lunar omina, which referenced the colour of the luminaries and regent of the eclipse, such as ‘a black eclipse beginning in the south’.300 The next Talmudic account listing reasons for solar eclipses bore further evidence of Mesopotamian attribution, with a rabbinic twist. The Sages learnt: because of four matters the sun is smitten: because of a president of the court who dies and is not eulogized appropriately; because of a betrothed young woman [who was raped] who screamed in the city and there was no-one to rescue her; because of homosexuality; and because of two brothers murdered together. 301 Instead of the signs in the sky warning of approaching misfortune, misdeeds below became the cause of the eclipse, the misdemeanours associated in some way with the sun. 302 The rape of a betrothed young woman in a city reflected badly on the entire city, causing a solar eclipse. A slight on the legal-court’s pres‫תנו רבנן בזמן שהחמה לוקה סימן רע לעובדי כוכבים לבנה לוקה סימן רע לשונאיהם של ישראל מפני שישראל מונין ללבנה‬ ‫ועובדי כוכבים לחמה‬ 298 ‫לוקה במזרח סימן רע ליושבי מזרח במערב סימן רע ליושבי מערב באמצע הרקיע סימן רע לכל העולם כולו‬ 299 ‫פניו דומין לדם חרב בא לעולם לשק חיצי רעב באין לעולם לזו ולזו חרב וחיצי רעב באין לעולם לקה בכניסתו פורענות שוהה‬ ‫לבא ביציאתו ממהרת לבא‬ 300 Riekele Borger, ‘Keilschrifttexte verschiedenen Inhalts’ in Symbolae biblicae et Mesopotamicae Francisco Mario Theodoro de Liagre Bohl decicatae, eds. Martinus Beek, Arie Kampman, Cornelis Nijland and Jaques Ryckmans (Leiden Brill, 1973), p. 40 – cited from Rochberg-Halton, Aspects of Babylonian Divination the Lunar Eclipse: Tablets of Enūma Anu Enlil, (Verlag F. Berger, 1988), p. 57, n. 118. ‫ ועל נערה המאורסה שצעקה בעיר ואין מושיע‬,‫ על אב בית דין שמת ואינו נספד כהלכה‬:‫ ת"ר בשביל ארבעה דברים חמה לוקה‬301 .‫ ועל שני אחין שנשפך דמן כאחד‬,‫ ועל משכב זכור‬,‫לה‬ 302 A. Leo Oppenheim, ‘A Babylonian Diviner's Manual’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies (Vol. 33, No. 2 (University of Chicago Press: 1974), pp. 197-220), p. 203; The Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia, ed. by Hermann Hunger, David Edwin Pingree, Chap. 1, p. 5; F. Rochberg-Halton, ‘Elements of the Babylonian Contribution to Hellenistic Astrology’ in Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 108, No. 1 (American Oriental Society, Jan. - Mar., 1988), pp. 51-62 (p. 52).. 297 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |55 ident’s honour became a slight on the sun (the sun associated with the president instead of the king).303 Homosexuality was seen as an aberration of the natural giving quality of the male, hence the cause of a solar eclipse.304 As regards Jeremiah’s advising that G-d says not to worry about ‘signs of the heaven’ (Jer. 10:2), the Talmud opined that that was dependant on the Jewish people performing God’s will.305 This was reiterated in Shabboth 156. Clearly, as both Neusner and Stuckrad noted, the rabbinic world had integrated the astrological or magical worldview.306 Astrometeorology In Brochoth 58b, on account of an apparent contradiction between Job 9.9 and Amos 5.8 with regard to constellations, Shmuel declared, ‘Were it not for Orion’s heat, the universe could not exist because of the cold of Pleiades; and [conversely], were it not for the cold of Pleiades, the universe could not exist due to the heat of Orion’.307 Further, the Talmud related that to bring the flood, G-d took two stars from Pleiades. To end the flood, he replaced them with two stars from Ursa Major.308 A similar discussion appeared in Rosh HaShonoh 11a. In Eiruvin 56a, Shmuel presented an astrometeorological statement that depended on the Chaldean hour system.309 Medical Astrology In Shabboth 129b, Shmuel said that one should not let blood on Tuesday, ‫משום‬ ‫ דקיימא ליה מאדים בזווי‬mishum deqaymo lay ma’adim bezuvvei, generally translated as, ‘since Mars is situated in the even [hour]’.310 Shmuel said: [Times for b]lood[letting are] the first of the week, the fourth and Shabboth eve (Friday). However, not the second and fifth, as Sir said: 303 Koch-Westenholz, Mesopotamian Astrology, p. 85. See Olympiodorus, Commentary on Plato’s Gorgias, 47.4, trans. Jackson et al, p. 299; Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos, Book III; Vettius Valens, Anthologies, Book I, p. 1. 305 ‫ובזמן שישראל עושין רצונו של מקום אין מתיראין מכל אלו‬ 306 Stuckrad, Das Ringen, p. 487; Jacob Neusner, ‘How Much Iranian in Jewish Babylonia?’, pp. 189-190. 307 ‫– אלמלא חמה של כסיל לא נתקיים עולם מפני צינה של כימה ואלמלא צינה של כימה לא נתקיים עולם מפני חמה של כסיל‬ translation from www.sefaria.org [acc. 31 st Jan. 2019]. 308 TB Brochoth 58b. 309 ‫ואמר שמואל אין לך תקופת ניסן שנופלת בצדק שאינה משברת את האילנות ואין לך תקופת טבת שנופלת בצדק שאינה מייבשת‬ ‫את הזרעים והוא דאיתליד לבנה או בלבנה או בצדק‬ 310 Rashi ad loc.; Tosfoth ad loc.; Sefer Ho’Oruch; RaN ad loc.; RaSHBA ad loc.; Rabeinu Chana’el ad loc. 304 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |56 [Only] someone who has ancestral merit should let blood on the second and the fifth, as the heavenly and mundane courts (lit. of above and of below) are as one (convene together). On the third day of the week, what is the reason [one should] not [let blood]? Because Mars is bezuvvei. On Shabboth eve, Mars is also bezuvvei (so one ought not let blood on Friday)? Since the multitudes have normalised it, ‘The L-rd protects the simplehearted’ (Psalms 116.6).311 This reading refers to a tradition recorded in Tractate Pesochim 110b that pairs are subject to demonic influence: thus, since even-numbered hours were the second of a pair, they were considered potentially hazardous. According to the Chaldean planetary hour system, Mars prevails in the eighth hour on Tuesdays (see figure 1); hence, the danger in bloodletting on that day.312 This explanation had various difficulties. As can be observed (figure 1), Mars rules an even-numbered hour every day, except for Sunday. Yet the Talmud singled out Tuesdays (and Fridays), ignored Wednesdays, and gave a different reason for abstaining from bloodletting on Mondays and Thursdays.313 The Pesochim pericope regarded anything in pairs to be liable to demonic influence. Mars ruling an even hour is surely not the same as a pair of a certain item. According to the above interpretation, bloodletting ought not be done on a day that had an even-numbered hour ruled by Mars. It appears unlikely that since Mars ruled a certain hour, one was to abstain from bloodletting the entire day.314 Though a prominent teacher, halakhist, doctor and astrologer, the Talmud does not record Shmuel ever having concerned himself with demonic influences, nor was he quoted in Pesochim in connection with the danger of pairs.315 The term used in Pesochim 110b was ‫ זווגות‬zuggoth (‘pairs’). That is not the same as the word ‫ זווי‬zuvei used here. Moreover, there is no record of the Talmud using zuvvei to signify ‘pairs’. In all the instances listed by the lexiconist R. Nothon ben Yechiel of Rome (c. 1035 – 1106) to show that zuvvei meant ‘pairs’, ‫ואמר שמואל פורסא דדמא חד בשבתא ארבעה ומעלי שבתא אבל שני וחמישי לא דאמר מר מי שיש לו זכות אבות יקיז דם‬ ‫בשני ובחמיש י שבית דין של מעלה ושל מטה שוין כאחד בתלתא בשבתא מאי טעמא לא משום דקיימא ליה מאדים בזווי מעלי שבתא‬ ‫נמי קיימא בזווי כיון דדשו ביה רבים שומר פתאים ה׳‬ 312 Rashi, s.v. ‫ ;דקיימא ליה מאדים בזווי‬Tosfos, s.v. ‫דקיימא ליה מאדים בזווי‬. 313 This difficulty was left unresolved by R. Nissim of Gerona (1320 – 1376) in his commentary, RaN, ad loc. Regarding Wednesday, see Tosfoth ibid. 314 A similar objection was noted by R. Shlomo (ben Avrohom) ibn Aderet (1235–1310) in his commentary, RaSHBA, ad loc. 315 See Brochoth 52b; Bovo Metsioh 85a, 107b; Chagigoh 15b; Niddoh 35b; 311 DAY NIGHT DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |57 SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY 1 VENUS JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN MOON MARS 2 MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN 3 SATURN SUN MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS 4 JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN MOON MARS MERCURY 5 MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN MOON 6 SUN MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN 7 VENUS SATURN SUN MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER 8 MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN MOON MARS 9 MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN 10 SATURN SUN MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS 11 JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN MOON MARS MERCURY 12 MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN MOON 1 SUN MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN 2 VENUS SATURN SUN MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER 3 MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN MOON MARS 4 MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN 5 SATURN SUN MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS 6 JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN MOON MARS MERCURY 7 MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN MOON 8 SUN MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN 9 VENUS SATURN SUN MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER 10 MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN MOON MARS 11 MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS SATURN SUN 12 SATURN SUN MOON MARS MERCURY JUPITER VENUS Figure 1. CHALDEAN PLANETARY HOURS Even-numbered hours ruled by Mars are shaded yellow. Midheaven hours ruled by Mars are shaded orange. Ascendant hours ruled by Mars are shaded green. the accepted Talmudic text reads ‫ זוגי‬zuggei.316 On account of these objections, this paper suggests that ‫ זווי‬zuvvei be interpreted as ‘corners’, related to the oft-used Talmudic Aramaic term, ‫ זוית‬zuvvith, Nothon ben Yechiel, s.v. ‘zuvvei’, Aruch Completum ['Arukh ha-Shalem The Complete Arukh], (ViennaNew York: Georg Brog, 1878-1892); cf. Tosfoth s.v. read zuggei in this text of Shabboth 129b. 316 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |58 ‘corner’, rather than ‘pairs’. Indeed, in Ezekiel 43.20, the construct term ‫פנות‬ pinoth, rendered in the Septuagint as γωνίας gonias (‘corners of’), was translated in the Aramaic Targum as ‫ זיות‬zivvath. Accordingly, the term refers both to the ascendant and midheaven, the ‘corners’ or angular positions of the skies. This approach was advocated by Maimonides.317 Fig. 2. THE FOUR ANGLES Midheaven 5 6 7 8 9 4 10 3 DAY 2 11 1 12 12 1 Ascendant 11 Descendant 2 NIGHT 10 3 9 4 8 7 6 5 Imum Coeli (‘bottom of the sky’) In Babylonian astrology, stars and planets at the ascendant and midheaven were seen as especially important. 318 Similarly, in Hellenistic astrology, points formed by the east-west axis and midheaven axis (see fig. 2), referred to by Ptolemy as gonia, the Greek term for ‘corner’ or ‘angle’, were deemed particularly influential planetary positions.319 As the Chaldean system sees Mars ruling Tuesday’s first diurnal hour, the ascendant angle, Shmuel understood this to affect the entire day. When the Talmud asked regarding Friday, it understood that Mars’ ruling Friday’s diurnal sixth hour, at the Midheaven, would likewise have significant influence. Thus, this Talmudic passage demonstrated a sublime combination of Chaldean, Babylonian and Roman-Hellenistic astrological tradition. Liturgy Though much of the main prayer liturgy was compiled by tanno’im and amoro’im and contained astrological content or nuance, only one prayer, the benediction over the new moon, was clearly specified in the Talmud.320 In that 317 Ritvo quoting Responsa of the Rambam. See pp.141-142 of MUL.APIN. 319 Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos, translated by Frank Egleston Robbins (Loeb Classical Library: Harvard University Press,1940)) 1:10 (pp. 61-3). 320 Sanhedrin 42a. 318 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |59 prayer, R. Yehuda spoke of the stars and planets: […] He set for them a law and a time, that they should not deviate from their task. They are joyous and eager to perform the will of their Owner. They are workers of truth whose work is truth […]321 The prayer clearly saw the stars as sentient beings with agency. This view was also implied in Brochoth 10a, where the stars and mazoloth are described with reference to Psalms 103.20, as ‘His angels, mighty of strength, creatures who do His bidding, ever attendant to the voice of His word’.322 The Locus Classicus The Talmudic locus classicus of astrology was the sugya in Shabboth 156a/b, consisting of predictions of a person’s personality based on the day or hour they were born, an apparent dispute between Palestinian amoro’im whether or not mazol affected Jewish people, and various legends of astrological prognoses that were avoided through prayer or good deeds presented to prove that Jewish people were above astrological influence.323 Genethlialogical prognostications similar to those given by R. Yehoshua b. Levi and R. Chanino (see Appendix II, sections A and B) were widely disseminated in Late Antiquity (for example, the c. 7th century Mandean Syriac Book of Medicines (see Appendix I) and c. 7-8th century Xiuyao jing), and drew widely on Babylonian, Iranian and Hellenistic-Roman sources.324 Gardner, Shamma Friedman, Rubenstein and Kalmin each analysed the sugya, revealing strata of the original statements of the tanno’im and amoro’im, and those of the redactors.325 According to Gardner and Rubenstein, the redactors altered the main meaning of the pericope; for example, by inserting reasons for each of R. Yehoshua ben Levi’s astrological statements linking them to the creation narrative (see Appendix II, section A) and, especially, by introducing a ‫צבאם חוק וזמן נתן להם שלא ישנו את תפקידם ששים ושמחים לעשות רצון קונם פועלי אמת שפעולתן אמת‬ ‫מלאכיו גבורי כח עושי דברו לשמוע בקול דברו‬ 323 Rubenstein, ‘Talmudic Astrology: Bavli Šabbat 156a—b’, p. 109. See Appendix II. 324 Book of the Zodiac (tr. E. S. Drower, London, 1949); 足智, 端正, 美貌, 孝順, 短命. Sukuyō-kyō shukusatsu, (Typeset Edition of Sūtra of Nakṣatras and Planets). 2 vols. Ed. by Wakita Bunshō, Nagoya: 1897.) vol. 1, p. 30. (Translated by Mrs. Zang.) 325 Gardner, ‘Astrology in the Talmud’, pp. 325, 338; Shamma Yehudah Friedman, ‫ענף נוסח חדש במסכת שבת‬ ‫ בתלמוד הבבלי‬- ‫ עיון במלאכת היצירה ובמסורות הנוסח‬:‫ אוקימתא שלושה חכמים ומעשיהם‬vol. 1 (2013), pp. 193-133 ; Kalmin, ‘Problems in the use of the Babylonian Talmud for the History of Late Roman-Palestine’, pp. 165183; Rubenstein, ‘Talmudic Astrology: Bavli Šabbat 156a—b’, pp. 109-148. 321 322 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |60 new catch-phrase, ‘ein mazol beYisro’el’ – there is no mazol in Israel (see Appendix II, sections C-G), they blunted the astrological thrust, possibly indicating, as Rubenstein claimed, that they purposely rearranged the sugya to present an argument against the use of astrology.326 However, that very statement inserted by the stamo’im, that the Jewish people were not subject to mazol, was disproved by the legends in the sugya (see Appendix II, sections D-G): each story confirmed astrological influence. If one succumbed to passion, an unfortunate fate was the result. Through propitiation or good deeds one could be saved – a concept that already appeared in the Mesopotamian šimtu – demonstrating that ‘the fault dear Brutus is in ourselves, not in our stars’; in the words of the pseudo-Ptolemian work, Centiloquium, ‘One skilful in this Science may evade many effects of the Stars, when he knows their Natures, and diligently prepares himself to receive their effects’.327 Jonathan Ben-Dov claim that ‘the earlier amoro’im were more knowledgeable about the celestial sciences’, becomes more likely when considering the stamo’im’s insertion of R. Yochonon’s statement to the effect that the Jewish People need not fear celestial omina was lifted from the sugya in Sukkoh 129.328 Both that sugya and the verse quoted from Jeremiah (10.2) refer to celestial signs, as opposed to the astrological data of Shabboth 156.329 As noted above (p. 49), Tanach appeared to differentiate between celestial divination and an astrological worldview. Similarly, the Talmud distinguished between the interpretation of omens and influence of the stars; accordingly, Sanhedrin 66a grouped staraugury together with other types of forbidden divination.330 As R. Yosef Ibn Ḥabib (c. 1300-1400) noted, though the Talmud forbad using stars as omens, it saw knowledge of the stars’ influences and pathways as an empirical and logical science, far removed from divination.331 Contrary to Gardner, this paper concludes that the stamo’im did not deny the Gardner, ‘Astrology in the Talmud’, pp. 325, 338; Rubenstein, ‘Talmudic Astrology’, pp. 119-20. F. Rochberg, ‘Fate and Divination in Mesopotamia’, AfO (Beiheft 19: 1982), pp. 363-71; Jack N. Lawson, The Concept of Fate in Mesopotamia of the First Millennium: Toward an Understanding of Šimtu (OBC 7: Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz Verlag, 1994); William Shakespeare Julius Caesar (I, ii, 140-141); 'Centiloquium', para 5, in John Partridge, Mikropanastron, (London, 1679). 328 See also Mechiltoh deRabi Yismo’el, Pischoh 1.1, p. 7. 329 Jonathan Ben-Dov, ‘Neo-Assyrian Astronomical Terminology in the Babylonian Talmud’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 130, issue 2; (2010) pp. 267-270. See Gardner, ‘Astrology’, p. 327; Rubenstein, ‘Talmudic Astrology’, pp. 129. 330 [...] ‫] אלו המנחשים בחולדה ובעופות (ובדגים) [ס"א] ובכוכבים‬...[ ‫“‘ – לא תנחשו‬You shall not practice divination [..] (Lev. 19:26)” – this refers to those who practice augury with a weasel, with birds and with stars.’ 331 R. Yosef Ibn Ḥabib, Nimuqei Yosef, Sanhedrin Alfasi (Rif), 16b. 326 327 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |61 efficacy of astrology over Jewish People; they merely mitigated its reliability.332 Summary This analysis has demonstrated that astrology was widespread throughout the Talmud, adopting Chaldean, Babylonian and Roman-Hellenistic ideas. There was a scientific veracity in the celestial influences, a causality that had become one with the religious cosmological worldview. Thus, the amoro’im wholeheartedly embraced the concept of mazol and viewed astrology as apart from divination. The idea of agency in stars, and its relation to a personal mazol, was unchallenged. The stamo’im’s presence in the Talmud was observed as they introduced the phrase ‘there is no mazol for Israel’, steering away from the astrological mindset of their predecessors. It was unlikely that this was done purely in order to present an outlook that was in harmony with their notion of Pentateuchal cosmology, as the stamo’im were strictly faithful to their traditions.333 This paper suggests that the ethos of the newly born Islamic religion that surrounded the Sasanian stamo’im impacted on their oral astrological heritage bequeathed them by their illustrious forebearers, evident in a millennium of rabbinic writings steeped in zodiacal lore, the pressure of the emerging culture inducing them to subvert, knowingly or unwittingly, their rabbis’ teachings. Jewish culture is one of adaptation and synthesis.334 Rabbinic law and lore provide a window into those processes.335 The legends and legal cases recorded in the Talmud revealed a Near-Eastern culture that incorporated many Babylonian components, with astrology very much a part of the rabbis’ and Jewish people’s lives. Garner, ‘Astrology’, p. 338. See Haym Soloveitchik, ‘’, Collected Essays: Volume II, Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, p. . 334 See, for example, Robert Setzer, ‘What is modern about Reform Judaism’, in A Life of Meaning: Embracing Reform Judaism's Sacred Path, ed. by Dana Evan Kaplan (CCAR Press, 2017), Ch. 15. 335 Louis Jacobs, ‘Jewish Cosmology’, Ancient Cosmologies, ed. by Carmen Blacker & Michael Loewe (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1975, pp. 66-86), p. 66; Gerald L. Blidstein, ‘Rabbinic Judaism and General Culture: Normative Discussion and Attitudes’, Judaism's Encounter with Other Cultures, p.4, p. 6, fn. 6. 332 333 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |62 CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION Analysis of the primary texts revealed stark differences between astrology evident in the Bible to that in the Talmud. In the former, besides astrolatry references, allusions to astrology was sparse. In contradistinction, in the Talmud, astrology, even aspects of celestial divination, was widespread, integrated into all walks of life. Though celestial divination and astrolatry appeared to have been practiced during the First Temple era, it was not indigenous, and was constantly denounced by the prophets. Clearly, the surrounding milieu influenced native Jewish culture. In comparison, elements of astrology were well integrated into Talmudic rabbinic theology and touched upon all aspects of Sasanian life. However, the Tanach itself bespoke a ‘magical worldview’ (as defined by Von Stuckrad), seeing agency in the heavens and their celestial bodies, as well as a tendency towards astrological belief.336 It was essentially this worldview and idea of agency in the stars that metamorphosed into the philosophies evident in the Talmud, aided by the absorption of Roman-Hellenistic ideas, as well as crosscultural pollination from Zoroastian and Manichaeistic belief-systems. In the Bible, gods of the planets and stars, deities of other nations, became angels, servants of G-d. In the Talmud, that agency developed into a system of national and individual daemons. Thus, mazol evolved from an astral element to be spurned, to a notion that appeared almost religious in its application to every sphere of life, religious, secular, communal and private. In the words of the Talmud, ‘people only see that which was previously in their mind’. 337 Or as Vico observed, people only accept ideas for which their previous development has prepared their minds. 338 The mindset necessary for the acceptance of astrological notions, portrayed in the Talmud, was palpable in the Biblical astrological worldview.339 However, in contrast to the outlook of the Tanach prophets, the Talmud Stuckrad, ‘Jewish and Christian astrology’, p. 33; Jeffers, Magic and Divination in Ancient Palestine and Syria, pp. 16, 251; Cryer, Divination in Ancient Israel, p. 324. 337 See e.g. Shovu’oth 42a. 338 E. Elias Joseph Bickerman, The Jews in the Greek Age (Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1988), pp. 298-305, paraphrasing the Italian philosopher of history, Giovanni Battista Vico (1668–1744). 339 Stuckrad, 'Jewish and Christian Astrology', pp. 1, 5, 6; Stuckrad, ‘Astral Magic in Ancient Jewish Discourse’, pp. 248-51. 336 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |63 retained old Mesopotamian traditions of celestial omens. The reason for this may have been twofold. Astral determinism of Biblical times had progressed into a system that was in concordance with freewill. 340 Man was not ruled by the stars. Furthermore, by providing set interpretations, astrology was removed from the realm of divination, rendering it a science, G-d’s wisdom, a part of the Torah. Celestial omina and their interpretations were seen as a corpus of knowledge distinct from astrolatry. Separated from astrolatry, astrology was seen as an integral part of the Divine cosmos.341 The gods were dead. The signs were signs of G-d. 340 341 Jim Tester, A History of Western Astrology, p. 2. See Stuckrad, ‘Astral Magic in Ancient Jewish Discourse’, p. 248-51. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |64 Bibliography Primary Sources Babylonian Talmud (Vilna Talmud, 1835) Cairo, Josef, Shulchan Aruch, (Venice, 1565) Keter Crown Bible (Horev Publishing House) Midrash Rabba (New York, 1960) Secondary Sources Avigad, N., ‘The Mosaic Pavement of the Beth-Alpha Synagogue and Its Place in the History of Jewish Art. The Beth-Shean Valley’, The Beth- Shean Valley. The 17th Archaeological Convention (Jerusalem: 1962). Borger, R., 1988, ‘Amos 5, 26, Apostelgeschichte 7, 43 und Šurpu II, 180’, Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 100, (pp. 70–81). Breuer, Mordechai, Limud Ha-Torah Be-Shitat Ha-Behinot (Jerusalem, 2005) Brown, Peter Robert Lamont, The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150-750 (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971). Campion, Nicholas, The History of Western Astrology, Volume 1: The Ancient World (Continuum, 2009) Charlesworth, James H., ‘Jewish Interest in Astrology in the Hellenistic and Roman Period’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (Vol 2., no. 20.2 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1987), pp. 926-950) Charlesworth, 'Jewish Astrology in the Talmud, Pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls and Early Palestinian Synagogues', The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 70, No. 3/4 (Jul.–Oct., 1977) pp. 183–200. Cohn, Werner and Samuel Z. Klausner, ‘Is Religion Universal? Problems of Definition’, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (Vol. 2, No. 1, 1962, Wiley, on behalf of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, pp. 25–35). Ulrich, Eugene, "The Notion and Definition of Canon", The Canon Debate ed. by L. M. McDonald, J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson Publ., 2002). Evans-Pritchard, E. E., Theories of Primitive Religion (Oxford; Clarendon Press [New York: Oxford University Press], 1965). Flusser, David, The Jewish People in the First Century, ed. by Shemuel Safrai, M. DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |65 Stern, David Flusser and W.C. Unnik (Uitgeverij Van Gorcum, 1974). Gaster, Theodor Herzl, ‘Divine Kingship in the Ancient Near East: A Review Article’, Review of Religion, Issue 9 (1945). Goodricke-Clarke, Nicholas, Western Esotericism: A Brief History of Secret Knowledge. Hachlili, Rachel, ‘The Zodiac in Ancient Jewish Synagogue Art: A Review’ Jewish Studies Quarterly, Volume 9 (2002), pp. 219—258. Harrelson, W. J., ‘Law in the OT’, Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, ed. by George Arthur Buttrick (Nashville: Abingdon, 1962) Harris, Marvin, ‘Emics and Etics Revisited’, Frontiers of Anthropology (Sage, Newbury Park, 1990). Iwaniszewski, Stanisław, ‘Rethinking Nahualac, Iztaccíhuatl, Mexico: Between Animism to Analogism in Mesoamerican Archaeoastronomy’, The Marriage of Astronomy and Culture: Theory and Method in the Study of Cultural Astronomy. A special issue of Culture and Cosmos (Culture and Cosmos: Sophia Centre Press, Vol. 21, no. 1, Spring/Summer 2017). Jeremias, Alfred, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, transl. by C. L. Beaumont (Williams & Norgate, 1911). Kalmin, R. L., Migrating Tales: The Talmud's Narratives and Their Historical Context (Oakland: University of California Press, 2014). Kdumim-Ariel, ‘The Circle of the Zodiac and the Scientific Reasons for its use in the Ancient Synagogues in Israel’, Judea and Samaria research Studies. Proceedings of the 4rd Annual Meeting–1994, edited by Z. H. Erlich and Y. Eshel, pp. 179–188. Kitchen, K. A., Ancient Orient and the Old Testament (Chicago: InterVarsity, 1966. Kraabel, T., ‘The Disappearance of the 'God-Fearers’, Numen, Vol. 28, Fasc. 2 (Brill, 1981). Leicht, Reimund, ‘Jewish Astrology’, in The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, ed. by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine, Sabine R. Huebner (Wiley-Blackwell, 2012) Lobel, Andrea D., 'From Babylon to Jerusalem: The Roots of Jewish Astrological Symbolism', Sky and Symbol, ed. Nicholas Campion and Liz Greene (Sophia Centre Press, 2011, pp. 85–101 ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |66 Malinowski, Bronislaw, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1922). McCutcheon, Russell T., (ed.) The Insider/Outsider Problem in the Study of Religion, London: (A & C Black, London, N.Y. (1999). Moore, George F., Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The Age of Tannaim (Hendrickson Publishers, 1997). Neusner, Jacob, A History of the Jews in Babylonia (Leiden: Brill: 1965-70, Vol. 5), p. 192. Nineham, Dennis, The Use and Abuse of the Bible: A Study of the Bible in an Age of Rapid Cultural Change (London. Macmillan, 1976). Redfield, Robert, ‘The Primitive World View’, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (1952, Vol. 96). Reed, A. Y., ‘Was there Science in Ancient Judaism? Historical and Cross-Cultural Reflections on “Religion” and “Science”’ Studies in Religion (vol. 36, 2007; pp. 461-495). Rodr’iguez, Angel Manuel, ‘Ancient Near Eastern Parallels to the Bible and the Question of Revelation and Inspiration’, Biblical Research Institute Journal of the Adventist Theological Society (vol. 12, Is. 1, 2001, pp. 43-64). Ross, Tamar, Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism (Waltham, 2004). Schacter, Jacob J., ‘Introduction’ Judaism's Encounter with Other Cultures: Rejection or Integration? ed. by J. Schacter (Jason Aronson, Incorp., 1997). Slama, Petr, New Theologies of the Old Testament and History: The Function of History in Modern Biblical Scholarship (LIT Verlag Münster, 2017), p. 220. Viveiros de Castro, Eduardo, ‘Perspectival Anthropology and the Method of Controlled Equivocation’, Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America (June, 2004), Volume 2, Issue 1, Article 1Von Stuckrad. Kocku, ‘Jewish and Christian astrology in Late Antiquity: A New Approach', Numen (Vol. 47, No. 1, 2000, pp. 1–40). Wachter, L., 'Astrologie und Schicksalsglaube im rabbinischen Judentum', Kairos (Vol. 11, 1969: pp. 181–200). Samuel Greengus, ‘Filling Gaps: Laws found in Babylonia and in the Mishna but absent in the Hebrew Bible’, MAARAV, A Journal for the Study of the Northwest Semitic Languages and Literatures (vol. 7, pp. 149-71) DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |67 Syrian anatomy, pathology, and therapeutics; or, "The Book of Medicines", the Syriac text; edited from a rare manuscript with an English translation, etc by Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis), 1913 London, Oxford University Press. Sukuyō-kyō shukusatsu 宿曜經縮刷 (Typeset Edition of Sūtra of Nakṣatras and Planets). 2 vols. Ed. Wakita Bunshō 脇田文紹. Nagoya: Wakita Bunshō, 1897. Tertiary Sources: Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary (Random House Reference, 1997) ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |68 APPENDIX I Syriac Book of Medicines – p. 615: The day of the first day of the week: The sun ruleth it and it is good for everything. He who is born thereon will become a prince. The day of the second day of the week The Moon ruleth it …. It is good for ... sowing seed and sexual intercourse. He who is born thereon will suffer from many sicknesses. The day of the third Aris ruleth it… A man must beware of quarrels therein. And he who is born thereon will become a physician. The day of the fourth Hermes ruleth it… He who is born thereon will become a man of knowledge [cf. night of first day – a wise man]. The day of the fifth Zeus ruleth it. It is good for buying and selling .... night of second ... he who is born thereon will become a man of peace. The day of the eve of the sabbath Aphrodite ruleth it. It is good for buying and selling ... he who is born therein will become beautiful. The day of the Sabbath. Kronoth ruleth it. It is good for the man who is completing a piece of work, but not for one who is beginning a task. He who is born therein will live a long time. p. 515 He who is born under the moon will be a son of guile and wickedness... his exterior will be better than his interior. He who is born under Aris will be a lover of war and blood. He who is born under Hermes will be dark … but will have knowledge and understanding. DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |69 APPENDIX II The text below of BT Shabboth 156 follows MS Oxford 366, with glosses of the stamo’im in smaller font, according to Rubenstein’s analysis.342 Underlined clauses are additions or alternative texts from the Vilna edition. 156a ‫מאי [ולא‬ ‫כתיב אפינקסיה דרבי יהושע בן לוי האי מאן דבחד בשבתא יהא גיברא ולא חדא ביה‬ ‫חדא ביה] אילימא ולא חדא ביה לטיבו והא אמר רב אשי אנא בחד בשבא הואי אלא לא חדא לבישו והאמר רב‬ ‫אלא אי כוליה לטיבו אי‬ ‫אשי אנא ודימי בר קקוזיתא הווינא בחד בשבא אנא מלכי ואיהו ריש גנבי‬ ‫כוליה לבישו מאי טעמא דאיברו ביה אור וחושך‬ A: It was written in the notebook of R. Yehoshua b. Levi: He who (was born) on the first of the week will be strong, and not have one thing in him. What is the meaning of ‘not have one thing in him’. If I say ‘not have one good thing in him’, but Rav Ashi said, ‘I was born on the first of the week’. Rather it means not have one bad thing in him. But Rav Ashi said, ‘I and Dimi son of Qaqozita were born on the first of the week. I rule and he is a chief of thieves’. Rather, (it means) completely good or completely bad. What is the reason? Because light and darkness were created on it [on the first day of Creation]. ‫מאי טעמא משום דביה דאיפליגו מיא‬ ‫האי מאן דבתרי בשבא יהא גבר רגזן‬ One who was born on the second day of the week, will be an angry person. What is the reason? Because on it [that day], the waters were divided. ‫מאי טעמא משום דאיברו ביה עשבים‬ ‫האי מאן דבתלתא בשבא יהא גבר עתיר וזנאי‬ One who was born on the third day of the week will be rich and promiscuous. What is the reason? Because vegetation was created on it. ‫מאי טעמא משום דאיתלו ביה מאורות‬ ‫האי מאן דבארבעה בשבא גבר נהיר וחכים‬ One who was born on the fourth day of the week will be bright and wise. What is the reason? Because on it the luminaries were hung. ‫מאי טעמא משום דאיברו ביה דגים ועופות‬ 342 Rubenstein, ‘Talmudic Astrology’, pp. 112-114. ‫האי מאן דבחמשה בשבא יהי גבר גומל חסדים‬ ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |70 One who was born on the fifth day of the week will be a person who performs acts of kindness. What is the reason? Because on it fish and fowl were created. ‫האי מאן דבמעלי שבתא יהא גבר חזרן אמר רב נחמן בר יצחק חזרן במצות‬ One who was born on the sixth day of the week will be a seeker. Rav Naḥman bar Yitzḥak said, one who seeks out mitsvoth. ‫האי מאן דבשבתא יהא בשבתא ימות על דאחילו עלוהי יומא רבא דשבתא אמר רבה בר רב שילא וקדישא‬ ‫רבא יתקרי‬ One who was born on Shabbath, will die on Shabboth, because they desecrated the great day of Shabboth on his behalf. Raba son of Rav Sheila said: And he will be called a person of great holiness. ‫אמר להו רבי חנינא פוקו ואמרו ליה לבר ליואי לא מזל יום גורם אלא מזל שעה גורם‬ ‫האי מאן דבחמה יהא גבר זיותאן אכיל מדיליה ושתי מדיליה ורזוהי גליין ואי גניב לא מצלח‬ ]‫מאי טעמא משום דאיברו ביה מאורות [דאיתיליד ביה נורא‬ ‫מ"ט משום דספרא דחמה הוי‬ ‫האי מאן דבכוכב נוגה יהי גבר עתיר וזנאי‬ ‫האי מאן דבכוכב חמה יהא גבר נהיר וחכים‬ ‫האי מאן דבלבנה יהא גבר סביל מרעין יהא בנאי וסתיר סתיר ובנאי אכיל דלא דיליה ושתי‬ ‫דלא דיליה ורזוהי מיכסין ואי גנב מצלח‬ ‫האי מאן דבשבתאי יהא גבר דמחשבוהי בטלין ואית דאמרי כל דמחשבין עליה בטל‬ ‫האי מאן דבצדק יהא גבר צדקן אמר רב נחמן בר יצחק וצדקן במצות‬ ‫האי מאן דבמאדים יהא גבר אשיד דם‬ ‫אמר רב אשי או גנבא או אומנא או טבחא או מוהלא אמר רבה אנא במאדים הואי אמר אביי‬ ‫מר נמי עניש וקטיל‬ B: Rabbi Chanino said to his students: Go and tell the son of Leiva’i, it is not the mazol of the day of the week that determines; rather, it is the mazol of the hour that determines. One who was born under [the influence of] the sun will be a proud person; he will eat from his own and drink from his own, and his secrets will be exposed. If he steals, he will not succeed. DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |71 One who was born under Venus will be rich and promiscuous. What is the reason? Because the luminaries were created on it [fire was born in it]. One who was born under Mercury will be a bright and wise man. What is the reason? Because it is the sun’s scribe. One who was born under the influence of the moon will be a man who suffers illnesses, he will build and destroy, destroy and build. He will eat from what is not his and drink from what is not his, and his secrets will be hidden. If he steals, he will succeed. One who was born under Saturn will be a man whose plans are for naught. And some say, whatever is planned against him is for naught. One who was born under Jupiter will be a charitable person. Rav Naḥman bar Yitzḥak said: Charitable in [doing] mitsvoth. One who was born under Mars will be one who spills blood. Rav Ashi said: He will be either a thief, or a bloodletter, or a slaughterer, or a circumciser. Rava said: I was born under Mars. Abaye said: My Master also punishes and kills. ‫איתמר רבי חנינא אומר מזל מחכים מזל מעשיר ויש מזל לישראל רבי יוחנן אמר אין מזל לישראל ואזדא רבי יוחנן לטעמיה דאמר‬ ‫רבי יוחנן מניין שאין מזל לישראל שנאמר כה אמר ה׳ אל דרך הגוים אל תלמדו ומאותות השמים אל‬ ‫ גוים יחתו ישראל לא יחתו‬- ‫תחתו כי יחתו הגוים מהמה‬ C: It was said: Rabbi Chanino says: Mazol makes one wise. Mazol makes one wealthy, and there is a mazol for the Jewish people. Rabbi Yocḥanon said: There is no mazol for the Jewish people. And Rabbi Yoḥanan follows his own reasoning, as Rabbi Yocḥanon said: From where [do we know] there is no mazol for the Jewish people? For it says: ‘Thus said G-d: Do not learn (to) the way of the nations, and be not dismayed from signs of heaven, that the nations are dismayed from them” (Jer. 10:2). The nations will be dismayed; the Jewish people will not be dismayed. ‫ואף רב סבר אין מזל לישראל דאמר רב יהודה אמר רב מניין שאין מזל לישראל שנאמר ויוצא אותו החוצה ויאמר‬ ‫הבט נא השמימה אמר אברהם לפני הקדוש ברוך הוא רבונו של עולם בן ביתי יורש אותי אמר‬ ‫לו לאו כי אם אשר יצא ממעיך אמר לפניו רבונו של עולם נסתכלתי באיצטגנינות שלי ואיני‬ ‫ראוי להוליד בן אמר ליה צא מאיצטגנינות שלך שאין מזל לישראל מאי דעתיך‬ D: And Rav also holds there is no mazol for the Jewish people, as Rav Yehuda said that Rav said: From where is it derived that there is no constellation for the Jewish people? As it is stated: ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |72 ‘And He brought him outside, and said: Look towards the heavens’ (Gen. 15:5). Abraham said before the Holy One, blessed be He: ‘Master of the Universe, one born in my house is to be my heir’ (Gen. 15:3). He said to him: ‘No; rather, one that will come forth from your own innards’ (Gen. 15:4). He said before Him, ‘Master of the Universe, I looked at my astrological sign, and I am not fit to have a son’. He said to him, ‘Go away from your astrology, since there is no mazol for Israel. What do you think? 156b ‫דקאי צדק (במזרח) במערב מהדרנא ומוקמינא ליה (במערב) במזרח והיינו דכתיב מי העיר‬ ‫ממזרח צדק יקראהו לרגלו‬ ‘Because Jupiter is situated in the (east) west? I will reverse it and establish it in the (west) east’. And that is what is written: ‘Who has raised up from the east tsedek [Jupiter] he will call because of him (lit. to his steps)’ (Isaiah 41:2). ‫ומדשמואל נמי אין מזל לישראל דשמואל ואבלט כי הוו יתבי ואזלי הנך אינשי לאגמא אמר ליה אבלט‬ ‫לשמואל האי גברא אזיל ולא אתי וטריק ליה חיויא ומאית אמר ליה שמואל אי בר ישראל הוא‬ ‫אזיל ואתי אדיתבי אזיל ואתי קם אבלט שדיה לטוניה אשכח ביה חיויא דפסיק ושדי בתרתי‬ ‫גובי אמר ליה שמואל מאי עבדת אמר ליה כל יומא הוה מרמינן ריפתא בהדי הדדי ואכלינן‬ ‫האידנא הוה איכא חד מינן דלא הוה ליה ריפתא הוה קא מיכסף אמינא להו אנא קאימנא‬ ‫וארמינא כי מטאי לגביה שואי נפשאי כמאן דשקילי מיניה כי היכי דלא ליכסיף אמר ליה מצוה‬ ‫עבדת נפק שמואל ודרש וצדקה תציל ממות ולא ממיתה משונה אלא ממיתה עצמה‬ E: And from that [which transpired to] Shmuel, [one can] also [conclude] there is no constellation for the Jewish people. For Shmuel and Ablet, when they were sitting, and these people were going to the lake, Ablet said to Shmuel, ‘This person will go and will not return, and a snake will bite him and he will die’. Shmuel said to him, ‘If he is a Jew, he will go and come back’. As they were sitting, the person went away and returned. Ablet stood up, threw down the person’s burden, and found a snake cut and cast in two pieces. Shmuel said to him, ‘What did you do?’ He answered him, ‘Every day we take bread together and eat. Today, there was one of us who did not have bread. He was embarrassed. I said to the others, ‘I will go and take (the bread)’. When I came to him, I made as if I was taking from him so that he would not be embarrassed.’ Shmuel said to him, ‘You performed a mitsvoh.’ Shmuel went out and taught: ‘“And charity will save from death” (Prov. 10:2): not only from an unusual death but even from death itself.’ DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |73 ‫ומדרבי עקיבא נמי אין מזל לישראל דרבי עקיבא הויא ליה ברתא אמרי ליה כלדאי ההוא יומא‬ ‫דעיילה לבי גננא טריק לה חיויא ומיתא הוה דאיגא אמילתא טובא ההוא יומא שקלתה למכבנתא‬ ‫דצתא בגודא איתרמי איתיב בעיניה דחיויא לצפרא כי קא שקלה לה הוה קא סריך ואתי חיויא‬ ‫בתרה אמר לה אבוה מאי עבדת אמרה ליה בפניא אתא עניא קרא אבבא והוו טרידי כולי עלמא‬ ‫בסעודתא וליכא דשמעיה קאימנא שקלתי לריסתנאי דיהבית לי יהבתיה ניהליה אמר לה מצוה‬ ‫עבדת נפק רבי עקיבא ודרש וצדקה תציל ממות ולא ממיתה משונה אלא ממיתה עצמה‬ F: And from that which transpired to Rabbi Akiva as well it can be derived that there is no mazol for the Jewish people, as Rabbi Akiva had a daughter, and Chaldean astrologers told him that on the same day that she enters the wedding canopy, a snake will bite her and she will die. She was very worried about this. On that day, her wedding day, she took the ornamental pin from her hair and stuck it into a hole in the wall for safekeeping, and it happened that it entered directly into the eye of the snake. In the morning, when she took the pin, the snake was pulled and came out with it. Her father said to her: What did you do? She told him: In the evening a poor person came and knocked on the door, and everyone was preoccupied with the feast and nobody heard him. I stood and took the portion that you had given me and gave it to him. Rabbi Akiva said to her: You performed a mitsvoh. Rabbi Akiva went out and taught: “And charity will save from death” (Prov. 10:2), not only from an unusual death, but even from death itself. ‫ומדרב נחמן בר יצחק נמי אין מזל לישראל דאימיה דרב נחמן בר יצחק אמרי לה כלדאי בריך גנבא הוה לא‬ ‫שבקתיה גלויי רישיה אמרה ליה כסי רישיך כי היכי דתיהוו עלך אימתא דשמיא ובעי רחמי לא‬ ‫הוה ידע אמאי קאמרה ליה יומא חד יתיב קא גריס תותי דיקלא נפל גלימא מעילויה רישיה דלי‬ ‫עיניה חזא לדיקלא אלמיה יצריה סליק פסקיה לקיבורא בשיניה‬ G: And from that which transpired to Rav Naḥman bar Yitzḥak as well it can be derived that there is no mazol for the Jewish people, As Chaldean astrologers told Rav Naḥman bar Yitzḥak’s mother: Your son will be a thief. She did not allow him to uncover his head. She said to her son, ‘Cover your head so that the fear of Heaven will be upon you, and pray for Divine mercy’. He did not know why she said this to him. One day he was sitting and studying beneath a palm tree. The cloak fell from upon his head. He lifted his eyes and saw the palm tree. He was overcome by impulse. He climbed up, detached a bunch of dates with his teeth. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |74 APPENDIX III: Research Proposal Form Faculty of Humanities MA Dissertation Approval Form. Student Name Degree Scheme David Rubin MA CULTURAL ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY Module code AHAN 7025 Start date August 2016 Completion Date January 2017 I have completed Part 1 of my degree. Title of Dissertation: A Critical Analysis of Astrology in the Bible and Talmud, with reference to surrounding cultures Aims: To analyse and compare Biblical and Rabbinic [i.e. Talmudic and Midrashic] astrology and consider how each era reacts to the culture [and philosophy] around them. Academic Rational In the Hebrew Bible (viz. Pentateuch, Prophets and Writings), a cosmology is discernible that recognises the influence of the celestial bodies, though spurning astral religion. As Ida Zatelli writes, 'when the monotheistic principle in Israel appears no longer threatened, the "wisdom of the stars" regains its own cognitive value'.343 However, whereas Zatelli [and others…] sees the Bible as condemning the astrologer, this is far from clear.344 There is an ambivalence in the Bible, as Andrea Lobel has noted, that laid the grounds for later astrological discussion [c. 300-500 AD] within the Talmudic halachic framework. 345 This cosmology and ambivalence needs to be explored with reference to the surrounding culture. A similar comparative study is called for on the Mishnaic and Talmudic era, with particular reference to the evolution of thought and culture. Although Lobel has echoed both Jacob Neusner and Kimberly Stratton in ascribing the acceptance of Babylonian and Greek astrological elements to 'their association with power' (Lobel's italics), further research might suggest otherwise, as astrology was not 343 Ida Zatelli, 'Astrology and the Worship of the Stars in the Bible' in [?], p. 87. Zatelli, 'Astrology and the Worship of the Stars in the Bible' in [?], p. 97. 345 Andrea Lobel, 'From Babylon to Jerusalem: The Roots of Jewish Astrological Symbolism', in Sky and Symbol edited by Nicholas Campion and Liz Greene (Sophia Centre Press, 2011, pp. 85-101), p. 87. 344 DAVID RUBIN: 1403590 |75 only seen as a legitimate science by the Talmudic authors, and as such, a necessary discipline for study but as a tool of the Creator precipitating its study as part of a religious duty to know the Creator.346 Moreover, it can be shown that the structural parallels inherent in the Talmud's terminology imply an outlook coherent with Mosaic tradition. This paper will thus also debate whether, as Lobel has proposed, the Talmud treats mazol (literally, ‘constellation’) as tantamount to avodah zoroh (lit. 'foreign worship', i.e. idolatry), or whether it is viewed as a natural and necessary phenomenon.347 To which module/s of the MA does your topic relate? • AHAN7002 Introduction to Cultural Astronomy and Astrology. • AHAN7023 Astral Religion • AHAN7011 Cosmology, Magic and Divination • AHAN7003 History of Astrology • AHAN7006 Sacred Geography, • Possibly: AHAN7035 Researching Contemporary Cosmologies, AHAN7022 Sky and Psyche What papers have you completed in the MA which are relevant to this dissertation topic? List the module and the title of the paper/s. • AHAN7002 Module title: Introduction to Cultural Astronomy and Astrology: Title of Paper: Is Astrology a Divinatory System? • AHAN7023 Module title: Astral Religion: Title of Paper: In what sense are astrology’s origins religious? • AHAN7003 Module title: History of Astrology: Title of Paper: Did the Greeks invent astrology? • AHAN7006 Module title: Sacred Geography: Title of Paper: Compare and critically contrast Mircea Eliade and Émile Durkheim’s views of sacred space. Methodology. The methodology used will be predominantly a literary-based historical and cultural enquiry, including sociology and comparative religion. Short Introductory Bibliography: 1. Secondary Sources (Scholarly Works) Bar-Ilan, Meir, Astronomy and Astrology Among the Jews in Antiquity, Charlesworth, James H., Jewish Astrology in the Talmud, Pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Early Palestinian Cooley, Jeffrey l., Astral Religion in Ugarit and Ancient Israel, Davies, Charlotte Aull, Reflexive ethnography: A guide to Researching Selves and Others, (Routledge, London and New York, 1999) Gardner, Greg, 'Astrology in the Talmud' in Heresy and Identity in Late Antiquity edit. by Eduard Iricinschi, Holger M. Zellentin (Mohr Siebeck, 2008), pp. 314-338 346 Lobel, 'From Babylon to Jerusalem', p. 101; Jacob Neusner, ‘Rabbi and Magus in Third-Century Sasanian Babylonia’, History of Religions 6, no. 2 (1966): p. 170; Kimberly Stratton, Imagining Power: Magic, Miracle, and the Social Context of Rabbinic Self-Representation. 347 Lobel, 'From Babylon to Jerusalem', p. 91. This is also sometimes referred to as avodat ha-kokhavim umazolot— the worship of the stars and constellations. ASTROLOGY IN THE TORAH: A COMPARATIVE STUDY |76 Greenfield, J. C. and M. Sokolof, Astrological and Related Omen Texts in Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Hennink, Monique, Inge Hutter and Ajay Bailey, Qualitative Research Methods, (Los Angeles; London: Sage, 2011) Jacobs, Louis, ‘Jewish Cosmology’, in ‘Ancient cosmologies’, ed. by Carmen Blacker & Michael Loewe, (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1975, pp. 66-86). Rochberg, Francesca (Berkeley), Babylonian Astral Science in the Hellenistic World: Reception and Transmission Kalmin, Richard, 'A Late Antique Babylonian Rabbinic Treatise on Astrology', in Shoshannat Yaakov by Shai Secunda, Steven Fine, (BRILL, 3 Sep 2012) pp. 165-184. Lobel, Andrea, From Babylon to Jerusalem: The Roots of Jewish Astrological Symbolism, Reiner, Erica, Astral Magic in Babylonia, Stratton, Kimberly, Imagining Power: Magic, Miracle, and the Social Context of Rabbinic Self-Representation, Veltri, Giuseppe, The Rabbis and Pliny the Elder: Jewish and Greco-Roman Attitudes toward Magic and Empirical Knowledge. von Stuckrad, Kocku, Jewish and Christian Astrology in Late Antiquity: A New Approach, Zatelli, Ida, Astrology and the Worship of the Stars in the Bible, Short Introductory Bibliography: 2 Primary Sources (Original Works/ Documents) Babylonian Talmud (Vilna Talmud, 1835) Cairo, Josef, Shulchan Aruch, (Venice, 1565) Keter Crown Bible (Horev Publishing House) Midrash Rabba (New York, 1960) Time Schedule: An outline of a likely timetable to completion. Proposed Supervisor: Dr. Nick Campion Please indicate whether ethical approval for project is needed – YES/NO (This will only be relevant if you are undertaking qualitative research) Please indicate whether sufficient resources are available for the project – YES/NO The above topic, proposal, and supervisor have been agreed: Signed : ……………………………………………………..Programme Coordinator Date:……………………………………………………