Prelude: ‘Animating’ the Narrative in Abstract Comics

CHAPTER 2 Prelude: ‘Animating’ the Narrative in Abstract Comics INTRODUCTION This preliminary chapter will approach the question of comics as meaning-making by exploring comics that challenge the notion of meaning itself: the recently affirmed subgenre of abstract comics. In the absence of the representational function—a component of Halliday’s ideational metafunction—what is revealed about how we read comics? What do we find ourselves doing when we attempt to make sense of a text that not only does not offer us words as a framework, but apparently offers no mimetic content at all? What survives of comics form under these conditions? This exploration will lead to the groundwork for a pragmatics of comics and will raise issues about the nature of reading and the reader’s active approach to creating meanings from comics texts, as well as the nature of abstraction, and how it is realised in the comics text, ready for later chapters which will return to its function. Abstract comics present challenges for traditional definitions and accounts of graphic narrative, identifying areas in existing theory that a functional model of comics meaning-making may illuminate. © The Author(s) 2019 P. F. Davies, Comics as Communication, Palgrave Studies in Comics and Graphic Novels, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29722-0_2 33 34 P. F. DAVIES COMICS AND ABSTRACTION In Comics and Narration (2013, originally appearing as Bande dessinée et narration: Systeme de la bande dessinée 2), Thierry Groensteen alludes to the ‘test’ that abstraction offers to comics, especially in defining the form: ‘It is in the nature of experimental works that they shift the boundaries or contest the usual definition of the medium to which they belong. This general rule is particularly applicable to comics’ (Groensteen 2013, 9). Groensteen’s chapter on abstract comics opens the book, perhaps surprisingly, given the relative rarity and obscurity of these works, collected for the first time in Andrei Molotiu’s (2009) ‘inaugural’ compilation. The justification is that they present a test case of the nature of comics that helps to identify issues at the core of comics textuality and readership. I follow Groensteen in this theoretical approach here. Abstract comics have certainly proved challenging for commentators so far. For Neil Cohn (2009), abstract comics simply cannot happen; lacking the features of the ‘visual language’, he has identified in other comics texts, they fall outside his formal definition of ‘comics’. To Jan Baetens (2011), abstract comics lose their identity in the face of narrative; it is an either/or relationship between abstraction and the ability to be a storytelling medium, the two functions effacing each other. Even for Molotiu, who compiled the collection of abstract comics under discussion here, there is a similar tension in abstract comics between the ‘dynamism’ of the reading of narrative and the ‘iconostasis’ of contemplation of the pictorial, abstract features of a comics page (Molotiu 2011). Abstract comics tend to be discussed in terms of what they are not, even what they cannot be. What has not yet been articulated in relation to this form is a fuller account of the positive features of the ‘readerliness’ of abstract comics: a focus on what affordances their existence as book-like texts gives to an onlooker who makes a choice to read them, to reify them as narratives, and what actions on the part of the reader could constitute bringing them into being as a unified text that is both abstract and narrative at the same time. Indeed, at the end of his chapter, Groensteen does draw attention to the ‘interpretive work’, the ‘initiative’ and the presumptions that a reader brings to the texts (Groensteen 2013, 18–19). My aim here is to elaborate a model of some of that interpretive work and those presumptions. The term ‘abstract comics’ would certainly appear at first glance to be a contradiction in terms. One might expect from a ‘comic’ a narrative, 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 35 a term which itself implies characters, settings and action. ‘Abstract’, on the other hand, implies an absence of representation (see below for a fuller discussion of this). How do viewers make sense of an abstract image formed of squiggles, brushstrokes or blocks of colour when presented in a book as a reading text? In what ways can it be said to be a ‘narrative’ or even a ‘comic’? How can a static image be ‘animate’, and how can an ‘abstract’ image tell a story? These questions present four terms that need discussion: comics, abstract, animate and narrative. I will take each in turn and in this way build towards a model of abstract comics readership that stresses the role of the reader in bringing to life the narrative potential in the abstract comics form. This will lay down the pragmatic communicative basis for much of the work in this book. ‘Comics’ First, let us cautiously adopt a starting definition of ‘comics’, with the recognition that such definitions are always problematic and disputable. Scott McCloud’s widely cited definition from his Understanding Comics is ‘juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence’ (McCloud 1993, 9). He takes Will Eisner’s seminal coinage ‘sequential art’ from the 1985 book (Eisner 2008a is a reprint) introducing that term and explores and refines it to allow for the incorporation of words as well as pictures, and to avoid ‘accidental’ sequencing of images being included as comics. McCloud explores some competing definitions and makes efforts to square the demands of an unseen audience with each other: the need, for example, to make space for the possibility of using words in comics, whilst avoiding the requirement to include them, as proposed by, for example, R.C. Harvey (1996). Later writers, notably Thierry Groensteen, have offered other frameworks for understanding comics, but McCloud’s text, being widely available in English (Groensteen’s focus in The System of Comics is on bande dessinée, and it originated in French in 1999, only appearing in English translation in 2007), and produced in comic book format, has become a dominant body of theory for creators, readers and academics alike. Andrei Molotiu, compiler of abstract comics in his blog and in the 2009 collection discussed below, embraces this definition as admitting of the possibility of abstraction in comics (in Smith and Duncan 2011, 86–87). 36 P. F. DAVIES McCloud, then, proposes that comics images communicate by means of the juxtaposition of images in sequence and that these can be organised into a taxonomy of ‘transitions’, as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Moment-to-moment Action-to-action Subject-to-subject Scene-to-scene Aspect-to-aspect Non-sequitur. Each ‘transition’ type here is predicated on the narrative content of the pair of enclosed images, or ‘panels’, either side of a juxtaposing gap, or ‘gutter’. McCloud claims that these represent the core way in which comics communicate: by psychological ‘closure’, the ‘filling in’ of the gaps created in the gutter between these juxtaposed images. They appear here in order according to the ‘amount of closure’ needed to make sense of the narrative: for ‘Moment-to-Moment’, it is a minimal recognition that the same image has moved, transformed or shifted slightly, whereas ‘Action-to-Action’ requires readers to ‘fill in’ a more substantial portion of action. Other transitions expect other work on the part of the reader than the mental completion of motion of the depicted entities: ‘Subject-to-Subject’ and ‘Scene-to-Scene’ require an understanding that the onlooker’s viewpoint has shifted, and perhaps that time has moved on more substantially. This time shift is not the case with ‘Aspect-to-Aspect’ transitions, however, where different elements depicted in consecutive panels are to be seen as elements of the same scene, and the implication is that time stands still. (This seems to be less mental work than required by the previous transition types, but perhaps McCloud’s motivation in placing them later on his ‘continuum’ is that for Western readers, this transition type is less familiar, as will be commented on below.) Finally, the ‘Non-Sequitur’ transition leaves it entirely open to the reader whether any ‘logical’ sense can be made between the panel pairs (McCloud 1993, 70–72). In relation to this transition type, McCloud speaks of an ‘alchemy’ of comics (1993, 73), whereby any two panels, regardless of their content, will be related or combined by the reader. Abel and Madden (2008) extend McCloud’s taxonomy here to incorporate the ‘symbolic’ transition which implies a metaphorical reading, noting that McCloud’s ‘non-sequitur’ tends to regress to this. It seems 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 37 that some work is being done by the reader in this transition: a reading is being made from panel pairings, which must be generated by some set of principles. One of my aims in this work is to push beyond what McCloud here calls ‘alchemy’, to approach a firmer description of what work a reader might be doing in drawing connections and inferences between images. McCloud uses this set of transitions to characterise approaches to graphic narrative creation in different cultures. He surveys a range of comics from different traditions, classifying the transitions used in them according to his taxonomy and presenting the data in graphs to reveal some interesting differences between storytelling approaches. He finds that Japanese manga, for example, tend to use more aspect-toaspect transitions to establish space and mood, illustrating static images of segments of a kitchen, for example, so that a reader may construct the scene metonymically; whereas Western Anglophone comics are action-toaction oriented, featuring as they have done heroes and slapstick characters involved in sequences of physical interaction and muscular, material processes (McCloud 1993, 75–80). ‘Abstract’ But what about ‘abstract’ comics? Artist and academic Andrei Molotiu has been working on the possibility of abstract comics since the 1990s. He created the collection Abstract Comics in 2009 as a first attempt to compile works of graphic narrative that operate solely by abstraction and ‘to establish, largely post facto, a tradition for this genre’.1 The dates of his texts range from 1967 (R. Crumb’s ‘Abstract Expressionist Ultra Super Modernistic Comics’ at the start of the collection) to the time of publication, though in his Introduction, he traces some roots of abstract comics in the Bauhaus art of the 1920s and 1930s, Abstract Expressionists in the 1950s and 1960s and dream or fantasy sequences from mainstream comics tradition back as far as the first decade of the twentieth century, with ‘Little Nemo in Slumberland’. 1 A note on page numbering: Molotiu uses a set of symbols to stand in for numbers, which can be translated to page references, but are opaque without a key. Chapter titles, author names and titles of pieces have been supplied here for preference. Dates for the pieces are not always supplied or traceable, but I have given them where they are offered in the artists’ bios, or where they can be tracked via separate publication. 38 P. F. DAVIES As Molotiu notes, the comics in the collection fall broadly into two types. The first is the type used by Crumb, wherein recognisable mimetic images (a cityscape, a woman’s body, albeit distorted, a tank, eyeballs, and so on) are combined in ways McCloud’s system would classify as ‘non-sequitur’, following a meandering thread of associations that do not add up to a narrative: there are not consistent characters, little or no causal relationships between images, no apparent ‘act structure’. Writing is used, but it is empty syllables or numerals, and some ‘asemic’ script (writing-like but meaningless). Some others in the collection follow this pattern, notably Jeff Zenick’s 1992 work ‘Because’ (in Molotiu 2009). Most of the collection, however, follow a second pattern: where the images themselves are abstract, which is to say that they do not mimetically represent recognisable real-world images (see below for a fuller interrogation of this concept). Identifying the transitions between them represents a challenge to McCloud’s system. If McCloud’s transitions are adequate to explain the functioning of comics, it should be possible to use them to explain the way a reader might attempt to make sense of the abstract comics in Molotiu’s collection, and perhaps the range of panel transition types that prove useful to do so might reveal something about the nature of this genre of comics production, as they proved useful for McCloud in exploring differing national traditions and practices. Let us attempt such an application with a selection of these works. Greg Shaw’s contribution to the collection (Fig. 2.1) shows apparently contentless coloured squares. At the upper half of the page, it is unclear whether the two blue and green sections are separate panels or not. But looking below (and one needs to know by convention the order of ‘reading’—for instance that the two smaller panels lower left are to be read in order top-to-bottom before the tall panel on the lower right), we can make out some patterns. A red-brown dappled box is depicted in the green-yellow patterned area in panel two. This occludes the barrier between green and blue in panel three, implying that they are not to be read as panel transitions, and the area is larger than it was in the previous panel. Perhaps this may be read as a moment-to-moment transition, then, McCloud’s category one. To do so is to interpret the green and blue patches as a continuous, persistent ‘ground’ and the brown patch as a ‘figure’, persistent in colour but changing in shape. Under this interpretation, in panel four it has ‘grown’ tall and can be read as ‘emerging’ from the green patch. 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS Fig. 2.1 From ‘Parcours Pictural’ (2005) by Greg Shaw (in Molotiu 2009) 39 40 P. F. DAVIES But perhaps it is disingenuous to discuss ‘patches’. What manner of abstraction is this? Might we not rapidly come to read these coloured areas as ‘grassy ground’ and ‘clear blue sky’, the brown areas as ‘growing trees’, and interpret away the abstract nature of the image? Also, these all appear to be ‘moment-to-moment’ transitions, or perhaps, if we interpret them, ‘action-to-action’ and rely on this ‘minimal closure’ for onlookers to perceive a persistent object across the panels in the first place. Perhaps nothing more sophisticated can be attempted in ‘abstract’ narrative without recourse to imposed representation and doubtful or ambiguous readings, or to the tracking of shifting objects as if reading the storyboard for an abstract animation—comics as reading each frame of an animated short. Indeed, McCloud (1993, 8) describes film as akin to a ‘very slow comic’ before it is projected. Jan Baetens, in his 2011 article ‘Abstraction in Comics’, proposes that abstraction stands in opposition to narrative, and that the two are in tension against each other—abstraction ‘dissolving’ when narrative is read in. Perhaps momentto-moment ‘shifting’ is all that can be achieved in abstract comics, and narrative is beyond their means? Bill Shut’s entry (excerpted in Fig. 2.2) problematises this simple moment-to-moment panel reading and points to the possibility in abstract comics of a more sophisticated and complicated management of the panels. It is not entirely clear how to go about reading tier one, the first three panels. Are those two panels at the top left, one inset inside the other? Or is this a window onto another world, which the viewer ‘approaches’ since the pattern ‘grows’ bigger in the middle panel of tier one? That would be a moment-to-moment transition, but the content of the inset panels changes in a more radical way, apparently subject-tosubject. (Note that the only way to establish that this is not merely ‘non-sequitur’ is in arrears, by looking ahead at the repetition of the images in panels elsewhere on the page.) Inset panels create something of a challenge for reading order in any case, and between which two panels are one to note a ‘transition’—between the inset panel and the enclosing panel or between consecutive inset panels within a larger panel that holds several insets? On the second tier, the yellow and red shape appears to grow (or perhaps the viewer moves closer) and one looks more closely at the blackand-white shape (or perhaps it grows). It is possible to trace overlapping patterns of moment-to-moment growth and movement by assuming an identity between the similarly coloured and similarly shaped depictions 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS Fig. 2.2 From ‘Time Lapse Growth’ (1973) by Bill Shut (in Molotiu 2009) 41 42 P. F. DAVIES and to interpret the comic as a parallel moment-to-moment telling, alternating subject-to-subject. This is only manageable after recognising the whole-page array of patterns and making the interpretive decision to treat some elements as representing a persistent entity that exists through time, represented from panel-to-panel. (McCloud’s ‘moment-to-moment’ nomenclature presupposes a reading of panels as representing different moments in time rather than as a polyptych of similar-looking figures adjacent in space.) What is happening in panel six, the last on tier two? It is ambiguous between one large, irregularly shaped panel, and a smaller panel overlapping a large trapezoid one dominating tier three, between which an implicit panel border is to be understood. Since the overlapping panels are to be read in sequence anyway, perhaps this distinction does not matter. But if not, this presents a challenge to McCloud’s ‘gaps and transitions’ theory. It is unclear how one could count such a transition in order to create the charts of transitions (in Western versus manga culture) McCloud offers. The transition taxonomy has proven fruitful and shown some explanatory power so far, but difficulties in applying it have appeared, and it suggests that there is more to a successful model of how comics function than juxtaposed discrete panels. It is possible to pursue the model still: the three horizontal panels at the bottom half of the page appear to be aspect-to-aspect transitions, travelling downwards across the landscape (moment-to-moment?), though the panels can also be seen as an occluding barrier through which is revealed a continuous landscape in space. A straight mapping of the gaps between juxtaposed panels and the ‘transition type’ that is represented—the sort of work that McCloud suggests is possible when he creates charts of the proportions of transitions used in a range of comics genres (McCloud 1993, 75–80)—is challenged by abstract comics (at least): it is unclear which transition is occurring. In suggesting the word ‘landscape’ above to describe the depictions here, it seems that this excerpt has not escaped representation either. Can ‘abstract’ be defined as the absence of representation? It will require a brief aside to explore this question. I will turn initially to a starting definition of ‘abstract’ from the Oxford English Dictionary to attempt a first pass at addressing this element of ‘abstract comics’. This will beg a more detailed discussion of the tradition of abstraction, but will offer at least a beginning way in for now. 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 43 Definitions of Abstraction It is only the 6th definition from the OED that addresses the specific application of the word ‘abstract’ to the field of art: 6. a. Fine Art. Designating art which is not founded on an attempt to represent external reality, but rather seeks to achieve an effect on the viewer purely by the use of shape, colour, and texture; of or relating to art of this kind. Also (of an artist, esp. a painter): producing art with these characteristics. b. Designating music, dance, film, etc., which rejects representation of or reference to external reality, esp. in dispensing with narrative:2 (originally) spec. designating instrumental music which is not intended to be illustrative or representational in any way. (My emphasis) Here, it is indeed defined as not seeking to represent—at least, not seeking to represent an ‘external reality’. So if a reader or viewer can perceive ‘landscape’ and ‘sky’, by this definition these works should not be included as strictly abstract. (It is worth noting that comics are not mentioned in this definition, falling at best under the rubric ‘etc’.) Scott McCloud’s account of abstraction opposes it to ‘representational’ along a continuum between ‘reality’ and ‘meaning’, which appears to map to the semiotic distinction between the ‘iconic’ sign and the ‘symbolic’ sign, but also opposes it to meaning, showing that images approach abstraction at the apex of a triangular map of comics images which he terms ‘the picture plane’ (McCloud 1993, 46–53). At the peak, ‘shapes, lines and colours can be themselves and not pretend otherwise’ (51). By this account then, abstraction carries no meaning at all. This is the position Neil Cohn takes in his blog post on the subject of abstract comics (Cohn 2009). Rudolf Arnheim’s account of abstraction from 1969s Visual Thinking (2004) separates abstraction in the image from abstraction in experience. 2 Interestingly, and perhaps disconcertingly, definition 6b here, into which graphic narrative might fit (under the rubric, ‘etc.’), even explicitly mentions ‘dispensing narrative’—but perhaps the modifier ‘especially’ does not imply ‘necessarily’. Jan Baetens asserts this opposition frequently in ‘Abstraction in Comics’ (Baetens 2011). 44 P. F. DAVIES (See Fig. 5.1 in Chapter 5). A high level of abstraction in the image is represented by ‘non-mimetic’ forms, low abstraction by replicas. Abstraction in experience is increasingly general, rising from the low-abstraction specifics to increasingly generalised concepts, via ‘symbolism’ (in the sense of specific emblems which imply general concepts or notions, as when a given rose may stand for the broader concept ‘love’, or a skull appear as a memento mori), to ‘forces’ or ‘ideas’ (Arnheim 2004, 151). This certainly preserves the meaningful, and Arnheim argues that abstract drawings can be a way of thinking, and can represent emotions, relationships and concepts (see his chapter ‘Concepts Take Shape’, 116–134); and this brings us back to the sorts of functions comics are expected to pursue. Thus we might summarise accounts of abstraction by what abstraction is opposed to, as follows: • Non-signifying: thing-in-itself • Non-mimetic: not resembling, operating symbolically or indexically • Non-specific: categorical, descriptive of connections or general properties • Non-concrete, non-visible: conceptual (in the signified). The objection to abstract comics being narrative would appear to fall out of the first two oppositions here, which focus on the signifier. However, possibilities open up for contentful abstraction with the second two, which focus on abstraction in what is signified. I will return to this account of dimensions of abstraction in Chapter 5 on interpersonal uses of the abstract. With that discussion in mind, let us assume with Arnheim the possibility that abstract images may have some meaning, but preserve the requirement that abstraction be non-mimetic, and turn to other examples from Molotiu’s collection to seek a piece which evades recognisable elements such as ‘landscape’, ‘tree’, ‘sky’ and so on. Work by Andy Bleck seems to qualify as avoiding representation of ‘external reality’. One cannot identify his colourful, organic shapes as belonging to a real world; any mimesis is a mutual resemblance of one image to another. It is indeed the ‘ink on paper’ that comprises 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 45 the materiality of these images.3 (What stops his sequences from being ‘non-sequitur’ is the continuity of colour and shape we can match between panels; these appear to be moment-to-moment or action-toaction transitions once again.) Perhaps the reader will imagine them as being very small, or existing some time long ago, floating in an ocean and appearing as amoebas? The ‘oceans’ are not consistently blue to support such a reading, and the colours and shapes of the foreground objects do not seem to match an identifiable organism. So perhaps Bleck’s work evades the accusation of being covertly mimetic, as was suggested of Shut’s piece above. But when reading these panels, do readers not interpret them as engaging in recognisable, human-like or creature-like behaviours rather than just growth, change or neutral movement? (Bill Shut’s title was ‘Time Lapse Growth’.) One might want to describe Bleck’s shapes as seeing and fleeing, reaching and attacking, stalking and dancing. The verbs are hard to avoid when describing the image. Jan Baetens argues that to do this is an imposition of narrative on abstract comics, acting in opposition to their abstract nature, and thereby depleting it (Baetens 2011, 100–1). ‘Animate’ Verbs are at the heart of the clause, representing processes in its ‘constellation’ of meaning, and the clause is at the heart of discourse (Halliday 2005, 203). What we perceive as being the ‘verb’ at work in a comics drawing, the process that appears most salient to us as readers, is central to how we interpret the text. Is the application of verbs of animacy and agency to the changing relationships of the images in Bleck’s work an unfair over-interpretation, an imposition of unwarranted categories of intentional action onto the text? Perhaps those categories are an inevitable or natural outcome of language, thought and perception. 3 See McCloud (1993: 50) for this phrasing. Shaun Tan, in conversation with Paul Gravett for the Comica Festival in August 2012, commented that ‘the character is those lines’ with which the artists draws. Nelson Goodman, in Languages of Art (1976), comments that depictions of fictional beings are ‘non-mimetic’ in that they do not represent a thing (it does not exist) but bring it into being; so, a picture ‘of a unicorn’ is rather to be thought of as a ‘unicorn-picture’, escaping the assumption of reproduction. (See the section ‘Fictions’, 21.) 46 P. F. DAVIES Fig. 2.3 Heider and Simmel’s animation represented in Scholl and Tremoulet. Reprinted from Scholl and Tremoulet (2000), ‘Perceptual Causality and Animacy’, Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (8): 299–309, with permission from Elsevier In 1944, psychologists Heider and Simmel showed a short film of moving shapes to a number of observers and asked them to describe what they saw, in an effort to see under what conditions naïve observers might be inclined to use such verbs of intention and agency. Figure 2.3 gives a representation of the film shown; the original film can also be viewed online (e.g. Kenjirou 2010). Overwhelmingly, the respondents described the relative motions of the shapes in terms of desires, goals, internal states, beliefs and other ‘animate’ concepts: for example, chasing, bullying, fleeing and cowering. This was true regardless of the instruction given, the demographic of the onlookers and even (with differing details) when the film was shown backwards. Observers seemed to be strongly inclined to view certain types of movement by continuous shapes in space as purposive and seemed unusually ready to perceive another mind in the motions of bodies in space. Heider and Simmel proposed 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 47 that this was a hard-wired tendency, exposed through language, and adaptive in that this perception more readily enabled prediction about the behaviours of entities human beings were likely to encounter in their environment. So readers’ tendencies to interpret images in this way, reading intention into the behaviours represented, are unsurprising even in sequences that purport to present ‘abstract’ action. To preview the argument pursued below, readers come inclined to seek out characters, actants and motivated action in what they see. This is not an additional interpretation imposed by a readership used to, expecting and insisting upon narrative content, but a basic way in which human beings perceive the world. In terms of philosopher Daniel Dennett, people took the ‘Intentional stance’ in order most effectively to explain what was happening. Dennett (1989) outlines three stances towards explanations of the world: the physical stance, which uses concepts from basic physics (e.g. ‘the water boiled because the temperature reached 100°’), the design stance, which explains things in terms of functions (e.g. ‘the lever clicked up to stop the heating element from overheating the water’), and the Intentional stance, which attributes internal states, desires and goals to things (e.g. ‘the computer’s got confused because it wants to print but can’t communicate with the network’). Dennett uses this to account for our willingness to perceive other minds and to predict that sufficiently advanced artificial machines will quite naturally be accepted by human beings as being invested with ‘minds’, even before it is clear whether they ‘actually’ have them, and even making moot the debate about what it is to have an ‘actual’ mind or not. If ‘mind’ is in the perceptions of an onlooker in this way, then similarly, character, action and motivation might be in the power of readers to supply, as a matter of course, to figures placed in front of them, and in this way, to enable the possibility of image sequences that are both narrative and abstract. The imputation of cause to sequence of images, the assumption that changes in what is perceived will be due to causation rather than mere transformation, lies at the heart of investing animacy, even humanity, as well as narrative meaning, into visual discourse. Perhaps this use of ‘animate’ description is just a shorthand, an intelligent interpretation of otherwise hard-to-explain phenomena practised by philosophers and bright people. To what extent is this avoidable, and what kinds of action mark the limits of what onlookers perceive as motivated behaviour? In ‘The perception of causality’ (Michotte 1963), 48 P. F. DAVIES experimental psychologist Albert Michotte reports his 1944 explorations of more low-level perceptual effects, using a sequence of simpler animations than the complex string of events Heider and Simmel used, to test the perception of basic causality. Some of Michotte’s test animations are represented in Fig. 2.4. Michotte found that showing a ball moving to touch another, followed by that ball proceeding immediately at the same speed and produced an interpretation in the viewer of ‘launching’. Objects were also perceived to ‘follow’, to be ‘triggered’ to self-power away, and other effects. Changing the time delay in example (c) in Fig. 2.4 had the effect of undoing the perceived causality beyond a certain limit. Interestingly, onlookers instead attributed self-caused motion to the second (green) ball, indicating that it had ‘chosen’ to leave. It seemed that causation, agency and motivation were basic conceptual categories that onlookers used to make sense of the world. Other researchers followed up Michotte’s experiments. White and Milne (1997, 1999) showed ‘dragging’, ‘scattering’ and ‘exploding’. Other researchers, such as Leslie (e.g., 1984), tested with infants to find that perception of this level of causality appeared to be innate or at least very early acquired. There is debate still about to what extent exactly these effects should be seen as purely perceptual, and to what extent they are interpretive, but for the purposes of the reading of abstract comics, this is moot, since we are expecting reading to be an interpretive act, and to take place at a slower speed and with more reflection than in the animations shown by these researchers. (Images and discussion from Scholl and Tremoulet 2000.) To return to Heider and Simmel, then, it seems that it is irresistible (without deliberate guidance or decision to avoid it) for observers to understand these sequences as intentional behaviours and to interpret these objects as displaying these motions due to desires, beliefs and emotional or dispositional states. As observers, as readers of the image, we ‘invest them with animacy’, triggered by the animations to adopt the Intentional stance, and read them as narrative actants. This is a basic metaphor we bring to our understanding of experiences. But something has not been mentioned in these psychological reports of these experiments. Figure 2.3 is a comic, by intuition and according to McCloud’s (1993) definition. So were the image sequences in Fig. 2.4. It is beneath notice for Scholl and Tremoulet that they, in common with more or less all writers about these phenomena, expect the sequence 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 49 Fig. 2.4 Michotte’s demonstrations of perceptual causality. Reprinted from Scholl and Tremoulet (2000), ‘Perceptual Causality and Animacy’, Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (8): 299–309, with permission from Elsevier shown to be read as presenting motion of continuous, identifiable ‘characters’ moving around a continuous, persistent ‘setting’, in a way that other image groups are not expected to be thus ‘readable’. (They are ‘generic’ rather than specific characters, so sustain their abstraction 50 P. F. DAVIES in that sense, and do not represent ‘real-world’ figures mimetically, but they are engaged in a narrative which it takes effort to avoid seeing rather than one that is imposed by a wilful reader.) Molotiu mentions Kandinsky’s Thirty (1937) in his Introduction as an example of one of the roots of abstract comics (Molotiu 2009). But Thirty is hard to attempt to ‘read’. There are not enough similarities across the panels to put together the elements of narrative in that way. There appears to be little if anything to track from panel to panel and impute intentionality to. (The evenness and adjacency of the frames even leave you in doubt, should you attempt it, as to which way to read it: left-to-right first, then top-to-bottom or vice versa? Or some other way?) In contrast, works such as Shut’s and Bleck’s offer a reader (re)recognisable objects, in relation to other objects, to which he or she can take the Intentional stance and read as ‘characters’ with desires, goals and dispositions, pursued through their transformations. We should note here, then, a second essential in the ‘readership’ of comics: that one must be able to track the identity of represented participants, so that this search for causality may apply to them. ‘Narrative’ So far, then, the argument has been that each (re)identifiable figure arrayed across the space of a page can be seen as a single persistent entity moving and transforming through time. (This seems true regardless of explicitly rendered panelisation—the enclosure of these entities in framing borders—as long as the image can be ‘tracked’.) Once an entity is perceived as in motion in this way, onlookers bring to bear their understanding of the meanings of motions in the world to impute to the object intentionality, motivations and desires, and this ability and willingness to read images in this way is based on quite low-level perceptual systems as explored by Michotte and Heider and Simmel, among others. Even when the apprehension of movement is slowed down with the intervening action of the reader ‘piecing together’ movement across the static images of a comics page, shifting the interpretation of movement away from the immediacy of perception, this way of grasping the world seems to work. (Indeed, it is assumed to do so by the writers of psychology papers if their readers are to understand the nature of the motion images they are representing.) 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 51 Let us turn now to how far we might have proceeded towards an argument for ‘narrative’ in abstract comics. Is the representation of motivated ‘characters’ across limited (moment-to-moment or action-toaction) panel transitions the only element of narrative abstract comics can manage? A brief round-up of elements of narrative commonly covered by narratologists might include these characters or ‘actants’, defined by their actions, functions in the plot, and attributes given in description; events that occur in the story and form the elements of its plot; the viewpoint from which the story is told (many narratologists, such as Genette, Bal and Rimmon-Kenan below, prefer the term focalization—defined by the character or characters who govern the perspective from which we perceive the narrative); the dialogue through which the story is told, which may in turn contain nested narratives or ‘metalepses’, and the order or sequence in which the writer has arranged the events, giving rise to flashbacks or ‘analepses’, and foreshadowings or ‘prolepses’. Mieke Bal’s (2009) discussion of the elements of narrative (first published 1985), Shlomith RimmonKenan’s (2002) division of the subject (proposed in 1983), and overlap between a range of theorists’ approaches to the subject, all converge on these elements (among other particular specialisms). The terminology varies from writer to writer—‘actant’ is derived from Greimas (1983) and Propp (1968), the -lepses from Gerard Genette’s seminal 1980 study of narrative management of time (appearing in English 1983)—but the concepts are similar. For the purposes of simply establishing some legitimacy for applying the term ‘narrative’ to a sequence of abstract images at all, I will gloss over most of the interesting and important distinctions to be made among these approaches here and focus on these areas of broad agreement for now. I will briefly explore a few possibilities for the employment of these notions in abstract comics below, taking an example of an abstract comic from Molotiu’s collection to explore the application of each of these narrative elements in turn. In this way, I aim to demonstrate that abstract comics are capable of tackling all the elements here outlined. It is hard to see any persistent ‘character’ represented in Québecois artist Benoit Joly’s piece in Molotiu’s collection. There are patterns of patches, especially paired sets appearing in panels 3, 4 and 6 on the top tier, and a sequence of smears dominating the third grouping at the bottom. A single centred dot turns up several times, conspicuously in most panels of the first and last tier of the second grouping on this page. But the smears come and go, and the dot does not transform much or change orientation (Fig. 2.5). 52 P. F. DAVIES Fig. 2.5 ‘Parcours’ (1987) by Benoit Joly (in Molotiu 2009) 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 53 When the reader notices that name for this piece is Parcours, a way of reading it presents itself. The images could be read as ‘representing’ footsteps, leaps, slides, impacts and the rhythms of running a course.4 To borrow C.S. Peirce’s (see 2011) semiotic terms again, the representation here is not the iconic (imitative by resemblance) mode one might expect, but more indexical (in that it represents the traces left by the physical action which are then implicit in the reading). The meaning proposed by the title, ‘symbolic’ in Arnheim’s (2004) terms, can then be used to interpret the piece, in the sense that it is a cue to the reader to re-orient his or her expectations from seeing the marks as figural (iconic) and to perceive the possibility of indexical representation. Perhaps at this moment of realisation, the abstract collapses into the representational, but perhaps, rather, it is primarily the detached rhythms and motion of the piece being embodied in the comic, borrowed from the physical action, rather than any representation of a specific real-world event. Any ‘character’ here is likewise disembodied, implicit only in the traces left in the marks on the page. This is not mimetic representation, then, though it is a sort of representation; it is to some degree specific, to some degree general—it may represent a particular course or rhythm, but underdetermines, at least mimetically, what or where that course might be, and whilst it may be read as showing concrete, if indexical, marks of a creator, the notion of energy, running, pace, movement (or musical rhythm) is abstract, in the sense of immaterial, conceptual. Andrei Molotiu, in ‘Abstract Form: Sequential Dynamism and Iconostasis in Abstract Comics and Steve Ditko’s Amazing SpiderMan’ (2011), discusses this piece as embodying what he terms ‘sequential dynamism’. For him the dynamics of the page represent a musical rhythm, rather than the rhythm of physical movement in space that I am suggesting. He opposes this dynamism in comics to ‘iconostasis’, the perception of the comics image as a still arrangement of panels, an ‘n-tych’ of static drawings. It is the act of choosing to ‘read’ the comic that brings out its dynamism, as will be explored below, and the opposite 4 For me, this piece inspires synaesthesia—I feel I can hear the footsteps, scratches, scatter of stones, thumps of impact suggested (symbolically?) by the images. Then the piece can fall free of its representational mode offered by the title (many of Molotiu’s selections carry titles that point to a semi-representational interpretation) and can be enjoyed with the status of music, or dance, both modes accepted as abstract under the OED definitions. 54 P. F. DAVIES choice can be made, studying a comic for its abstract formal properties even when a straightforward narrative invites such a reading. Richard Hahn’s undated work in Molotiu’s collection is a piece that again initially resists interpretation and appears to be a pure arrangement of colour. Its panels are numerous and directly adjacent to each other and seem to show a fairly even variation, segments of a red circle. But if one commits to the choice of reading in conventional order, it is possible to perceive that a larger, pink-red object is being viewed through the tiny panels; and when one follows the sequence, one feels that one’s viewpoint is revolving slowly around this vast, gently undulating and colour-shifting sphere. (Or is it rotating around the viewer and is it the lighting conditions that are changing?) A central convention of the comic strip that has not yet appeared in these pieces is the word balloon, which indicates dialogue. Our tendency so far has been to set this aside, as implying the use of text, which from the definition of comics onwards has been excluded as a necessary component. Balloons do appear in abstract comics at times: I have mentioned the use of text in Crumb’s opening piece from Molotiu’s collection, and Janusz Jaworski’s 2001 work contains several balloons filled with asemic script or colour (Molotiu 2009). In a piece by Lewis Trondheim, the balloons impute desires in the object, which refers forward in its ‘utterance’ to a shape it will adopt later in the sequence (the content in the balloons match cataphorically to shapes which appear to the right or below). When this fails, later in the page, one can read ‘frustration’ in its more rapid repetitions of the squiggle it intends in the fourth tier, and an enlarged image and balloon (representing, conventionally, raised volume of an utterance). Its references back to re-try earlier forms (a circle) and even its original form (a humble blot) also fail. Ultimately, its empty ‘speech’ balloon, with reduced size (suggesting quieter utterance) and a bent tail (perhaps representing wavering voice) bring about its disappearance, so that its final panel—established by spatial position alone, rather than by frame—leaves the narrative on a blank page and returns the story to a point prior to its beginning. Has the polymorphous speaker accidentally brought about its own demise, or has it committed suicide? The ‘intentional’ language helps readers explain the sense they make of the sequence. This use of framing in abstract enclosures, and projection of the internal life of a character, will be important in our later discussions of the logical structures of comics in Chapter 7, as well as interpersonal 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 55 engagement in Chapter 4. It is worth dwelling more on this use of abstraction in a complex piece of graphic narrative. If Trondheim’s untitled piece begins to suggest a more sophisticated management of narrative shape and time, as well as the introduction of dialogue, then Stop Quibbling Please by Ibn Al Rabin (Fig. 2.6) illustrates this even further. Here can be found Genette’s ‘metalepses’ or ‘embedded’ narrative. The status of the narrative in the black circle’s speech balloon is not fully determined. Is it a reference back to a past conversation they have had, a conversation they have often had before (note the second and third level metalepsis in tiers two and three of circle’s monologue), a hypothetical about the way square’s proposed conversation will go or a prediction thereof? The order of reading is disrupted here too, as the first panel seen (panel one of circle’s ‘speech’) is not the first to be read in the logic of the sequence (square and circle facing off, left of the bottom tier). This is part of the play of the comic: it challenges readers’ assumptions of how to approach it and sets one in search of its logic of dependencies and nesting. Below I attempt a gloss of how this complex page reads, freely using the ‘intentional’ verbs of action that Heider and Simmel (1944) found that onlookers need to describe the action of entities and aiming to represent the ‘nested’ metalepses with indented paragraphing: Starting at the lower-left panel of the strip at the bottom of the page, black square makes a proposal to black circle in panel 2: ‘circle square’. Circle responds with a lengthy and nested monologue in reply: Square has said ‘white square, circle’ before, to which circle replied ‘black square circle’. Square then proposed, ‘white square, black circle’, to which circle pointed out that square had said ‘square circle’ in the past — perhaps above. (Does white signify a past or subjunctive mode?) So circle repeats, ‘black square circle’, slightly larger than in the panel above — suggesting that this is uttered more firmly. Square says (suggests? Points out?), ‘white square’. Circle responds, ‘black circle’. The matching of their own physical shapes to the shapes they utter suggests opposition, entrenched views. Circle expands: square said ‘white square circle’, circle said ‘black square circle’. Circle repeats, a third time, in a column: ‘black square circle’. Circle’s unwillingness to budge, and reference to past arguments in support of this fixed position, is represented by this repetition of the shapes embodying its dialogue. Two panels pass without dialogue balloons, suggesting an impasse. Square 56 P. F. DAVIES Fig. 2.6 ‘Stop Quibbling, Please’ (2001) by Ibn Al Rabin (in Molotiu 2009) 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 57 starts an utterance, signified by the small but contentless word balloon, but circle immediately repeats (the swiftness of the response indicated by the proximity of circle’s word balloon): ‘black square circle’. Two more panels pass in silence: square has nothing more to add, and the conversation is ended. Returning back up a narrative level, as we return to the strip below which we had left in order to parse the contents of circle’s large word balloon, circle repeats one more time the conclusion the two had reached in their nested dialogue: ‘black square circle’. Black square, in the final panel, is silenced by this argument. This description depends on the ability of abstract elements of comics to signify subjunctive modes, to explore the inner imaginative life of thinkers and speakers, and to construct hierarchically complex discourse patterns in the manner of a sophisticated language. This brief survey has established a number of narrative capabilities shown by these abstract comics. Firstly, in addition to the representation of ‘amoeba-like’ forms, we have seen a second way of representing character abstractly, as implicit in the traces of movement shown ‘indexically’. Secondly, we have discussed the ability of abstract comics to show shifting physical viewpoint of a reader by encoding a re-recognisable form around which a viewport-frame itself can be perceived to move. (This leaves aside other interpretations of ‘viewpoint’ or ‘focalisation’, but the intention here is to offer an example that demonstrates that abstract comics could at least take one approach to managing this narrative effect.) Thirdly, we have seen ways of encoding dialogue in the absence of words by the deployment of comics’ symbolic conventions such as the word balloon, in tandem with the reproduction of shapes in the main body of the comics, and finally the use of those same conventions to accomplish shifts of narrative level, tense and perhaps subjunctive status. It is evident that abstract comics are capable of detailed and complex narrative effects. Conclusion My proposal is that the reading skills exposed by our efforts to make sense of abstract comics, and these boundary-testing ways of composing texts, have something to say about how readers enjoy and make sense of the apparently ‘transparently readable’ sorts of images shown 58 P. F. DAVIES in predominantly representational graphic narrative. The much-noted superficial simplicity of comics masks a detailed set of readership practices applied to interpreting and motivating the nature of these images and lines. Readers make a string of decisions in reading graphic narrative, which have been touched upon throughout this chapter: 1. The decision to read images as metonymic—as representing a fragment of a larger process. Comics thereby operate by a system of visual ‘différance’—where meaning is dependent on material elsewhere, in the text or its context. This stands in opposition to a ‘meaningless’ abstraction which emphasises the qualities of the image/text itself, and also in opposition to mimetic representation: it is not just resemblance to an object in the world that constitutes this différance of meaning, but a reliance on implicature of material outside the frame or implied before or after the events depicted.5 2. The decision to read similar images as identical. This choice is key to understanding comics at all. This is a core sort of abstraction to be performed: in the sense that there are existents in comics that persist beyond each individual rendering of them, which the reader needs to ‘generalise’ from the string of particular instantiations given in the text. 3. The decision to read these entities as animate. The reader invests in the image-sequence not only identity but motivation, engaging with the action represented by means of (1) and (2) above as purposeful accounts of human-like and physical behaviour. Daniel Dennett’s physical and mechanical stances account for backgrounds and world-building; the Intentional stance in addition accounts for narrative. This is a set of assumptions that account for patterns of causation in the graphic narrative. In making these choices to read, built on the affordances offered by the text, the reader is recruited into bringing to life the narrative worlds of comics, including ‘abstract’ ones. What is exposed here, by suppressing representation, is the way that comics can engage us in meaning-making, involving us in the mutual work of constituting the text. 5 The idea of différance comes from Derrida (1985); for its application to comics see Groensteen (2009). 2 PRELUDE: ‘ANIMATING’ THE NARRATIVE IN ABSTRACT COMICS 59 SUMMARY This chapter has opened up the multifunctional nature of graphic narrative by examining what happens when just one of those functions is withheld, the one that typically draws most attention when discussing comics: their representational function, part of the ideational metafunction. What is exposed is some practical tenets of comics, which the next chapter will develop into a series of pragmatic ‘maxims’ of comics readership, building on the readerly decisions described above. Abstract graphic narratives, in eschewing the experiential function of representation, reveal some of the interpersonal function: the engagement of the reader in interaction with the text, in a challenging play of meaning-making by identifying difference and reading in personal and emotional value. The expressive nature of the abstract images is not to be ignored either: without anything concrete to represent, the sheer energy and emotion of the lines and colours are foregrounded, and the interpersonal value of these will be picked up on in Chapter 5 below. Finally, the reader here needs to do work in tracking identities between different patches of the text, seeing and drawing connections between elements, whether links are made in the text or whether it is left elliptical, for the reader to infer. This reflects the textual function of comics. The following chapter will turn to Halliday’s ideational metafunction, with this framing challenge in mind, to think of the work of ideation as non-obvious, not a ‘given’ in graphic narrative. In considering the work of representation, the experiential function of comics, as a set of writerly choices—options a creator may choose, offering affordances that enable a reader to make meaning from the text—the routes out to the remaining metafunctions will be mapped. REFERENCES Abel, Jessica, and Matt Madden. 2008. Drawing Words and Writing Pictures. New York: First Second. Arnheim, Rudolf. 2004. Visual Thinking. 35th Anniversary ed. Berkeley: University of California Press. Baetens, Jan. 2011. ‘Abstraction in Comics’. SubStance 40 (1): 94–113. https://doi.org/10.1353/sub.2011.0004. Bal, Mieke. 2009. Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative. 3rd ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 60 P. F. 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