Placing ancient texts

Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism Texte und Studien zum Antiken Judentum Edited by Maren Niehoff (Jerusalem) Annette Y. Reed (Philadelphia, PA) Seth Schwartz (New York, NY) Moulie Vidas (Princeton, NJ) 174 Placing Ancient Texts The Ritual and Rhetorical Use of Space edited by Mika Ahuvia and Alexander Kocar Mohr Siebeck Mika Ahuvia, born 1983; BA from Rollins College; MA from the University of Michigan; PhD from Princeton University; the Marsha and Jay Glazer Endowed Chair in Jewish Studies and Assistant Professor in the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies at the University of Washington, Seattle. orcid.org/0000-0002-3836-5465 Alexander Kocar, born 1984; BA from the Univesity of Minnesota; MA from the University of Washington; PhD from Princeton University; Lecturer in the department of Religion at Princeton University. ISBN 978-3-16-156376-8 / eISBN 978-3-16-156377-5 DOI 10.1628/978-3-16-156377-5 ISSN 0721-8753 (Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism) Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2018 by Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, Germany. www.mohrsiebeck.com This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher’s written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations and storage and processing in electronic systems. The book was typeset by Martin Fischer in Tübingen using Minion typeface, printed by Gulde Druck in Tübingen on non-aging paper and bound by Buchbinderei Spinner in Ottersweier. Printed in Germany. Preface This volume presents a selection of papers originally prepared for the Placing Ancient Texts conference at Princeton University in 2014. Funding for this conference was generously provided by Princeton University’s Department of Religion, the David A. Gardner ’69 Magic Project in the Humanities Council, the Committee for the Study of Late Antiquity, the Program in the Ancient World, the Seeger Center for Hellenic Studies, with the support of the Stanley J. Seeger Hellenic Fund, the Program in Judaic Studies, the Ronald O. Perelman Institute for Judaic Studies, and the Center for the Study of Religion. We are also grateful to the University of Washington’s Stroum Center for Jewish studies and the Gorasht Family Endowed Fund for funding the formatting of this volume by Lance Jenott. The theme of the conference took shape thanks to the input and encouragement of John Gager, Derek Krueger, Moulie Vidas, and Martha Himmelfarb. Our heartfelt gratitude goes as well to AnneMarie Luijendijk and Sarit Kattan Gribetz for their mentorship from the very beginning to the very end of this project. Our heartfelt gratitude also goes out to Baru Saul of the Program in Judaic Studies and the wonderful staff of the Religion Department at Princeton University: Lorraine Fuhrmann, Pat Bogdziewicz, Kerry Smith, Mary Kay Bodnar, and Jeff Guest. We could not have organized or carried out this conference without them. Peter Schäfer’s vision of topical, productive, and collegial graduate-student-led colloquia at Princeton University served as a model for us, and we hope that we succeeded in continuing this tradition even after his retirement. Finally, we wish to thank Dr. Henning Ziebritzki and the production team at Mohr Siebeck for their expert guidance in bringing this volume to press. Mika Ahuvia Alexander Kocar Seattle Princeton Table of Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V XI Mika Ahuvia and Alexander Kocar Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Part I: Constructing Spaces and Places Eshbal Ratzon Placing Eden in Second Temple Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Gil P. Klein Sabbath as City: Rabbinic Urbanism and Imperial Territoriality in Roman Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Ophir Münz-Manor In situ: Liturgical Poetry and Sacred Space in Late Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Part II: Placing People Alexander Kocar A Hierarchy of Salvation in the Book of Revelation: Different Peoples, Dwellings, and Tasks in the End Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Rachel R. Neis Directing the Heart: Corporeal Language and the Anatomy of Ritual Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Derek Krueger Beyond Eden: Placing Adam, Eve, and Humanity in Byzantine Hymns . . . 167 VIII Table of Contents Part III: Re-Placing Ritual Texts David Frankfurter ‘It is Esrmpe who appeals!’: Place, Object, and Performance in a Quest for Pregnancy in Roman Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 AnneMarie Luijendijk ‘If you order that I wash my feet, then bring me this ticket’: Encountering Saint Colluthus at Antinoë . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Mika Ahuvia The Spatial and Social Dynamics of Jewish Babylonian Incantation Bowls 227 List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Abbreviations AB ACW AfO AIT AJSR AnBoll BA BDB BDD BETL BIFAO BSAC ByzZ CBQMS CEJL CSCO CurBR DJD DOP DSD EJL EncJud FAT FC HALOT HTR HTS ICC IEJ JAAR JAOS JARCE JBL JBQ JEA Anchor Bible Ancient Christian Writers Archiv für Orientforschung James A. Montgomery, Aramaic Incantation Texts from Nippur. Cambridge University Press, 1913. Association for Jewish Studies Review Analecta Bollandiana Biblical Archaeologist Brown, Francis, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament Bekhol Derakhekha Daehu: Journal of Torah and Scholarship Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium Bulletin de l’Institut francais d’archeologie orientale Bulletin de la société d’archéologie copte Byzantinische Zeitschrift Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series Commentaries on Early Jewish Literature Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium Currents in Biblical Research Discoveries in the Judean Desert Dumbarton Oaks Papers Dead Sea Discoveries Early Judaism and Its Literature Encyclopedia Judaica. Edited by Fred Skolnik and Michael Berenbaum. 2nd ed. 22 vols. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007 Forschungen zum Alten Testament Fathers of the Church The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Ludwig Koehler, Walter Baumgartner, and Johann J. Stamm. Translated and edited under the supervision of Mervyn E. J. Richardson. 4 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1994–1999 Harvard Theological Review Harvard Theological Studies International Critical Commentary Israel Exploration Journal Journal of the American Academy of Religion Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt Journal of Biblical Literature Jewish Bible Quarterly Journal of Egyptian Archaeology X JECS JEOL JJS JLA JNES JQR JRH JRS JSJ JSJSup JSQ JSOT JSOTSup JSP JSS JTS LCI NEA NICOT NovT NTS OLA OLZ OTL OtSt PO RB RC RGRW RQ SBM SHR SJ SJLA STAC StBibLit SVTP TBN TDOT TENTS TSAJ TU VTSup WBC ZAH ZPE Abbreviations Journal of Early Christian Studies Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Gezelschap (Genootschap) Exoriente lux Journal of Jewish Studies Journal of Late Antiquity Journal of Near Eastern Studies Jewish Quarterly Review Journal of Religious History Journal of Roman Studies Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods Journal for the Study of Judaism, Supplements Series Jewish Studies Quarterly Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Journal of Semitic Studies Journal of Theological Studies Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie. Ed. Engelbert Kirschbaum and Günter Bandmann. 8 vols. Rome: Herder, 1968– 1976 Near Eastern Archaeology New International Commentary on the Old Testament Novum Testamentum New Testament Studies Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta Orientalistische Literaturzeitung Old Testament Library Oudtestamentische Studiën Patrologia Orientalis Revue biblique Religion Compass Religions in the Greco-Roman World Römische Quartalschrift für christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchengeschichte Stuttgarter Biblische Monographien Studies in the History of Religions (supplements to Numen) Studia Judaica Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity Studies and Texts in Antiquity and Christianity Studies in Biblical Literature (Peter Lang) Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigraphica Themes in Biblical Narrative Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament Texts and Editions for New Testament Study Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism Texte und Untersuchungen Supplements to Vetus Testamentum World Biblical Commentary Zeitschrift für Althebräistik Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik Introduction Mika Ahuvia and Alexander Kocar What difference does place make in our interpretations of ancient religious texts? This volume, which examines ancient Jewish and Christian literary, liturgical, and ritual texts seeks to offer a variety of answers clustered around three interrelated topics: the rhetorical construction of places both earthly and cosmic, the positioning of people in religious space, and the performance of ritual texts in place. We seek to overcome disciplinary boundaries, placing studies of liturgy and ritual alongside more literary studies and challenging scholars to consider space, performance, and meaning in their analyses of ancient textual and material sources. In the chapters that follow, scholars interrogate the use of imagined or conceptual spaces. They explore how and for what purposes place was rhetorically constructed in ancient texts. For example, Derek Krueger’s chapter examines the relationship between the rhetorical construction of place and the formation of community in the church. Alexander Kocar considers what can be deduced about social boundaries and ethical expectations based on how ancient authors and practitioners deployed imagined space(s). Two scholars, Rachel Neis and Gil Klein, raise questions about how rhetoric concerning the body intersects with constructions of space and ritual behavior. As both demonstrate, neither measures of space nor gestures in place are given, but are the products of a cultural logic (“of intellection” as Jonathan Z. Smith puts it),1 which must be innovated for the establishment of rituals or borrowed from the cultural milieu. Neis’s and Klein’s analyses of rabbinic literature show how the “corporeal turn” may intersect with the “spatial turn.”2 David Frankfurter, AnneMarie Luijendijk, and Mika Ahuvia investigate the performative aspect of ritual texts, discussing how texts were performed in their physical environment (e. g., in an Egyptian temple, an oracular shrine, a home). They investigate how our understanding of a letter to the dead, an oracular ticket, or an incantation bowl changes when we ask where they were performed, with 1 Jonathan Z. Smith, To Take Place: Toward Theory in Ritual (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 26. 2 Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, “The Corporeal Turn,” JQR 95 (2005): 447–61; Kim Knott, “Religion, Space, and Place: The Spatial Turn in Research on Religion,” Religion and Society: Advances in Research 1 (2010): 29–43. 2 Mika Ahuvia and Alexander Kocar whom they were used, and where they were ultimately installed or discarded. These scholars demonstrate that the interpretation of ritual or liturgical language is affected by its location in a physical space as well as its particular social and institutional dimensions. As we will see, ancient authors and texts repurposed or re-placed ancient texts into new contexts or physical spaces. In the case of ritual texts, the following chapters consider how their situatedness affects our interpretations of their performance. In the case of texts constructing imagined space, the contributors examine how ancient authors construct new spaces out of inherited conceptual spoila. Placing Our Volume: The Ritual and Spatial Turn What if space were not the recipient but rather the creation of the human project? What if place were an active product of intellection rather than its passive receptacle? (Smith, To Take Place, 26) Ritual is, first and foremost, a mode of paying attention … It is this characteristic, as well, that explains the role of place as a fundamental component of ritual: place directs attention. (Smith, To Take Place, 103) Emphasizing the richness and malleability of the concept of place, our contributors do not approach the idea of place or space through a single methodological or disciplinary lens. Their analyses are informed, but not driven by theoretical conclusions. Their studies range from the Second Temple period through late antiquity and from Babylonia to Egypt, and they feature voices and views that have traditionally been overlooked. In the last few decades, the publications of the ritual texts from around the Mediterranean basin have broadened the availability of sources for the study of a wider swath of people from antiquity.3 Our volume includes studies of Roman-Egyptian letters to the dead, Christian oracular tickets, and Jewish incantation bowls. At the same time, scholars of religion have sought to remove the baggage of “magic” from such sources and accord them a place in the study of religious life.4 These texts also allow female figures to come to the fore. Ancient and biblical women receive attention in many of the chapters in our volume. 3 Dieter Betz, Greek Magical Papyri in Translation Including the Demotic Spells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Marvin Meyer and Richard Smith, eds. Ancient Christian Magic: Coptic Texts of Ritual Power (San Francisco: Harper, 1994); Dan Levene, A Corpus of Magic Bowls (London: Routledge, 2002). Shaul Shaked, Siam Bhayro, and James Ford, Aramaic Bowl Spells: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic Bowls (Leiden: Brill, 2013). 4 Olof Pettersson, “Magic – Religion: Some Marginal Notes to an Old Problem,” Ethnos 22 (1957): 109–19; John Gager, Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992); Rebecca Macy Lesses, Ritual Practices to Gain Power: Angels, Incantations, and Revelation in Early Jewish Mysticism (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, Introduction 3 Ancient liturgical and magical-ritual texts published in recent decades offer particularly productive and untapped resources for the development of ritual theory and research on daily life in antiquity. Much of ritual theory has emerged out of contemporary ethnography,5 drawing attention away from clues in ancient texts that signal ritual behavior. Meanwhile, historians of ideas have largely eschewed image-based arguments for more technical or pastoral texts when narrating the history and development of important ethical ideas.6 The chapters in this volume put into conversation insights about ritual and rhetorical space from ritual theory, anthropology, and other fields with close analyses of ancient texts and their various relationships with place. Our volume also engages with “the ways that never parted” approach to the study of ancient Judaism and Christianity.7 This perspective emphasizes that Jews and Christians did not separate or develop fixed communal boundaries by the second century CE, but continued to be in the process of self-definition and definition through the other well into the fourth century and beyond. Local diversity prevailed, a phenomenon particularly evident with Jewish and Christian ritual practitioners. Priests, prayer leaders, and ritual practitioners could be found in every community in the Mediterranean world, but surviving textual evidence has been uneven. It is one of the interventions of this volume to include the product of ritual practitioners alongside more traditionally and canonically accepted figures. Although it is not the main focus for our contributors, the ongoing religious and political dialogue between these diverse and polythetic groups informs all of the discussions of place in this volume. Thus, we offer new avenues for theorists of place but also specialized discussions of important texts and arguments within and between ancient Judaism and Christianity. 1998); Jonathan Z. Smith, “Trading Places,” in Ancient Magic and Ritual Power, ed. Marvin Meyer and Paul Mirecki (New York: Brill, 1995). 5 Jas Elsner, “Material Culture and Ritual: State of the Question,” in Architecture of the Sacred: Space, Ritual, and Experience from Classical Greece to Byzantium, ed. Bonna D. Wescoat and Robert G. Ousterhout (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 1–26. For an ethnographic approach to ancient daily life in Palestine, see Yizhar Hirschfeld, The Palestinian Dwelling in the Roman‐Byzantine Period (Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 1995); Ann E. Killebrew, Billy J. Grantham, and Steven Fine, “A ‘Talmudic’ House at Qasrin: On the Use of Domestic Space and Daily Life during the Byzantine Period,” NEA 66 (2003): 59–72. 6 Specialists in cognate disciplines such as anthropology, philosophy, and cognitive linguistics have proven to be useful resources for bridging this gap: e. g., Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge, 1966); Michel Foucault, L’archéologie du savoir (Paris: Gallimard, 1969); George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). Two wonderful instances of theoretical and historical synthesis can be found in Carol Newsom’s The Self as Symbolic Space: Constructing Community and Identity at Qumran (Leiden: Brill, 2004) and Ishay Rosen-Zvi, Demonic Desires: Yetzer Hara and the Problem of Evil in Late Antiquity (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011). 7 Adam H. Becker and Annette Y. Reed, eds., The Ways That Never Parted: Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, TSAJ 95 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003). 4 Mika Ahuvia and Alexander Kocar The Ritual Turn Although this volume does not present a single approach to the concept of ritual, each author is the beneficiary of exciting developments emerging from ritual studies. No author has been more influential in this field over the past several decades than Catherine Bell.8 Drawing upon Pierre Bourdieu’s work on practice,9 Bell reframed ritual as a particular type of practice in which “a ritualized body” is in dialectical relationship with a “structured and structuring” environment. This ritualized body, according to Bell, is a socially constructed body with a “sense” of ritual.10 As such, a ritualized body, as generated by, and generator of, a closed environment, is a mediator par excellence insofar as it is able to consent, resist, or negotiate the continued production of its structured and structuring environment.11 Bell thus removed the counter-productive dichotomy of myth / ritual or thought / action and replaced it with a co-determined and circularly dialectical relationship.12 Additionally, she contended that ritual significance arises from deferred and unresolved play between dialectal tensions.13 In other words, there is not a single symbolic or allegorical meaning to a specific ritual; the significance of a particular ritual is inextricably linked to the cultural milieu in which the ritual was performed.14 8 Catherine Bell, Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); eadem, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997). 9 Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977). 10 Bell, Ritual Theory, 98: “‘It is in the dialectical relationship between the body and a space structured according to mythico-ritual oppositions,’ writes Bourdieu, ‘that one finds the form par excellence of the structural apprenticeship which leads to the embodying of the structures of the world, that is, the appropriating by the world of a body thus enabled to appropriate the world.” 11 Bell, Ritual Theory, 209. 12 Bell, Ritual Theory, 99: “A focus on the acts themselves illuminates a critical circularity to the body’s interaction with this environment: generating it, molded by it in turn. By virtue of this circularity, space and time are redefined through the physical movements of the bodies projecting organizing schemes on the space-time environment on the one hand while reabsorbing these schemes as the nature of reality on the other.” 13 As Bell convincingly shows, apparent ambiguity or misrecognition of symbolic meaning, even among practitioners, is part of what creates the meaning of a rite. Drawing upon Derrida, Bourdieu, and others, she argues that there is not a clear one-to-one relationship between object and semantic significance; instead, ritualization and the meaning of ritual is necessarily relational: “Semiologically speaking, just as a sign or a text derives its significance by virtue of its relationship to other signs and texts, basic to ritualization is the inherent significance it derives from its interplay and contrast with other practices” (Bell, Ritual Theory, 90.) 14 Bell, Ritual, 252: “No ritual stands by itself. It is always embedded in a thick context of traditions, changes, tensions, and unquestioned assumptions and practices. Ritual is a way that people can act in the world, and all those factors that influence how any person and group acts will influence the performance and understanding of ritual. A community’s attitudes and styles of ritualizing are inseparable from their worldview.” Introduction 5 In short, the authors in this volume elucidate some of the cultural and situational factors whose dialectical tension with specific ritual practices created ritual meaning, in as much as we can recover it from these ancient texts. For example, Ophir Münz-Manor’s chapter draws the reader into the physical confines of late antique churches and synagogues to hear liturgical poetry performed.15 Through the immediacy of this context, he brings into relief how factors outside of texts, in this instance sacred architecture, contributed to the performance and meaning of these rituals.16 To provide these layered and rich analyses, our authors make use of ongoing conversations in cognate fields such as archeology, papyrology, and religious history. This emphasis on interdisciplinary approaches has resulted in exciting glimpses into just how these ancient rituals might have been experienced nearly two millennia ago. The Spatial Turn Without forcing a confrontation between literary and material sources, this volume seeks to ask new questions about texts and space in antiquity. In doing so, it participates in the so-called spatial turn in religious studies. Kim Knott has noted that before the mid-1990s, there was “comparatively little interest in researching religion, space, and place.”17 Two early examples are of note: Sharing the Sacred: Religious Contacts and Conflicts in the Holy Land (1998) and Experiences of Place (2003). The former presented an array of articles focused on the texts and local cults of the Holy Land, especially highlighting its vibrant, multifaceted religious milieu, where polytheistic religions continued to thrive alongside Judaism and Christianity. This collection of articles gestured towards the rich history of religious interactions in the Levant, where multiple religious groups laid claim to holy sites and holy figures. Chapters in the present volume contribute to that history from additional sources of evidence. For example, Eshbal Ratzon examines the location of the Garden of Eden in post-biblical texts, and Derek Krueger analyzes the invocation of Adam and Eve in late antique liturgical song. In doing so, both authors highlight textual conceptions of place. Their work also stands in line with Mary MacDonald’s study of place, which analyzes how “places are known, imagined, remembered, and struggled for,” and how they orient human 15 For a similar approach to the social and physical context of ancient Roman speeches, in particular Cicero’s, and how their context would have affected audience reception, see Anne Vasaly, Representations: Images of the World in Ciceronian Oratory (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993). 16 A model study that shows the significance of factors outside of the text is Susan Ashbrook Harvey’s book Scenting Salvation: Ancient Christianity and Olfactory Imagination (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006). 17 Knott, “Religion, Space, and Place,” 29; and Knott, “Spatial theory and the Study of Religion,” Religion Compass 2 (2008): 1102–16. 6 Mika Ahuvia and Alexander Kocar lives.18 Her volume showcased a broad comparative and ethnographic perspective, with articles ranging from an analysis of the boundaries of the Holy Land in the Bible to Sacred Yorùbá cosmology. By contrast, our volume concentrates on late antique religious texts, juxtaposing texts from a variety of genres – legal, poetic, narrative, ritual – to elucidate their many resonances of space and place. Focus on ancient conceptual and rhetorical uses of space is a more recent phenomenon. Ancient religious studies on this theme gained traction with studies that firmly situated Judaism and Christianity in their Roman context. Charlotte Fonrobert’s work on “The Political Symbolism of the Eruv” proved outstanding for showing how rabbinic conceptions of Sabbath space (the eruv) may represent an assertion of “non-territorial sovereignty” on the part of the rabbis, where the concept of the eruv was formed partly as a response to the Roman occupation of Syro-Palestine.19 Geographical and political conditions set the stage for a rhetoric of space, a legal fiction, with enduring practical implications for rabbinic Jews. Gil Klein’s chapter in the present volume continues to interrogate Jewish and Roman conceptions of space, emphasizing points of contact and creativity. In early Christian studies, Laura Nasrallah’s book Christian Responses to Roman Art and Architecture: The Second-Century Church amid the Spaces of Empire (2010) exemplified the importance of reading texts in place. She reinterpreted early apologetic texts in the context of the material culture of the Roman empire to offer fresh insights about their meaning. As Nasrallah writes, her book brings “together literary texts and archaeological remains to help us to understand how religious discourse emerges not in some abstract zone, but in lived experiences and practices in the spaces of the world.”20 In the present volume, the chapters by David Frankfurter, AnneMarie Luijendijk, and Mika Ahuvia continue this conversation by interpreting ritual texts and their performance in place. Geographers such as Lily Kong and Kim Knott have distinguished two trends in the spatial turn in religion, namely the poetics and politics of space, where the former is more phenomenological and concerned with experience and aesthetics, while the latter is more attuned to production of knowledge, power, and ritual.21 Chapters in our volume tend to undermine this dichotomy: distinctions of public and private, religious and secular, political and religious are modern 18 Mary MacDonald, ed., Experiences of Place (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 2. 19 Charlotte Fonrobert, “The Political Symbolism of the Eruv,” Jewish Social Studies 11:3 (2005): 9–35; Fonrobert, “The New Spatial turn in Jewish Studies,” AJS Review 33 (2009): 155–64. 20 Laura Nasrallah, Christian Responses to Roman Art and Architecture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). 21 Lily Kong, “Mapping ‘New’ Geographies of Religion: Politics and Poetics in Modernity,” Progress in Human Geography 25 (2001): 211–33. See discussion and literature review in Knott, “Religion, Space, and Place,” 30. Introduction 7 binaries not found in antiquity. Focusing on the experience of liturgy or ritual in Roman Palestine cannot help but make us aware of the politics of spatial construction. Recent conference titles show that religion and space continues to be a topical area of research.22 Whereas other volumes have considered particular sacred geographies or pilgrimage texts,23 our volume analyzes religious texts whose spatial dimensions have been neglected. Few studies here focus on particular sacred places per se, but rather examine the interplays of text and space: how ancient religious texts imaginatively constructed the location of the Garden of Eden, how liturgy shaped people’s experience in ancient synagogues, and how legal discourse shaped their self-conceptualization within the grounds of Roman Palestine. In the final three chapters one may read about the way that Jewish homes, Christian shrines, and public temples shaped the performance of ritual texts. These studies flow in two directions: some focus on how texts created meaningful space, others on how spaces shaped the meaning of ritual texts. In between, some focus on how recitations, which survive as texts, positioned people in ritual or religious spaces. For readers interested in the religions of antiquity, we hope the chapters in this volume offer innovative approaches to ancient texts and insights about the way ancient peoples imagined earthly and cosmic spaces, placed themselves in ritual mode, and experienced text in place. To paraphrase Smith’s observations above, places are not passive receptacles, but the products of active intellection, and as such, cannot be separated from ritual experiences. When people enact rituals in places where there is much cultural contestation (such as Roman Egypt or Byzantine Palestine), their actions necessarily have political and social implications as well. Moving forward, we hope more scholars will see the potential of opening up spaces for conversation between specialists in literature, liturgy, and ritual texts. Together they offer a fuller picture of the religious past. More research that is able to see the interactions of the people behind these ancient texts is a desideratum. 22 Solemn Geographies & Sacred Places: The Literature of Holy Location, at Abilene Christian University, Dallas, October 5–7, 2017; Sacred Spaces and Sacred Places: Expressions and Experiences of Lived Religion, at Aldo Moro University of Bari, May 24–26, 2017; Imaginal Worlds: Religion in Speculative and Fan Fiction, at Columbia University, April 7, 2017; Religion and Movement, at the University of Chicago Divinity School, April 15–16, 2016; Kissing the Mezuzah: Jews Between Public and Private Space, February 11–12, 2016, at Indiana University; Exploring Other Worlds: Constructing, Locating, and Navigating Imagined Religious Space, at Stanford University, October 1–2, 2015. 23 See, e. g., the excellent array of articles in Pilgrimage and Holy Spaces in the Late Antique Egypt, ed. David Frankfurter (Leiden: Brill, 1998) and From Temple to Church, ed. Johannes Hahn, Stephen Emmel, and Ulrich Gotter (Leiden: Brill, 2008). 8 Mika Ahuvia and Alexander Kocar Overview of Chapters The first section of our volume, Constructing Spaces and Places, includes three chapters spanning the Second Temple period through late antiquity, from biblical authors to the rabbis of Roman Palestine and the poets and craftsmen of late antique churches and synagogues. The scholars in this section analyze the construction of place in a range of sources, each answering the pressing questions of ancient people: Where is Eden and what is the way back to it? How does one navigate sacred boundaries in Roman occupied Palestine? What is the meaning of a house of worship built by human hands in the cosmos created by God? The Hebrew Bible begins with the creation of the earth and the place of humans within it. The first chapter in this section takes us back to those early texts and questions about people’s place in the cosmos. Eshbal Ratzon, in “Placing Eden in Second Temple Judaism,” illuminates the changing locations of the Garden of Eden in biblical and pseudepigraphic texts, tracing how Eden shifted from Adam and Eve’s first residence on the earth to the heavenly resting place of the righteous. Ratzon observes that though the early Scriptures do not betray any desire to return to the Garden, by the early centuries CE Eden had become the sought-after final destination of the righteous in Jewish and Christian texts. She uncovers the evolution of the place of Eden in ancient thought through careful deconstruction of literature that bridges biblical texts and first-century Jewish and Christian sources, namely 1 Enoch and its component parts. The Book of the Watchers and the Book of Parables reveal several disparate views of Eden, originally separate strata of texts; but when combined into one book, these chapters allowed the hearer to locate Eden in heaven as the abode of the righteous. Ratzon illustrates how a foundational conceptualization of the heavens and the earth gradually emerged, one with enduring implications for Jews and Christians. In the next chapter, “Sabbath as City: Rabbinic Urbanism and Imperial Territoriality in Roman Palestine,” Gil Klein showcases the rabbis in deep engagement with Roman culture, even as they strive for a particularly Jewish conception of space in Palestine. He argues that gesture and posture are not only spatial manifestations of culture, but that they are also used to consciously produce a culture’s sense of its territory. Klein explores two interconnected practices of land distribution: the rabbinic Sabbath Boundary (tehum shabbat) and Roman land survey and allotment. He shows that for the rabbis, walking on the Sabbath was not only an act that should be limited, but was also a way to define place in relation to one’s body and community. Interestingly, the rabbis utilized sophisticated techniques of measurement in precise gestural terms that bear remarkable similarities to the details of Roman manuals of land survey, particularly their rich ritualistic augural practices. The practices involved in the Sabbath Boundary may be seen as the rabbinic movement’s utilization of Roman movements in its institution of Jewish space within the imperial landscape. Klein demonstrates how the rabbinic Introduction 9 construction of space may be seen as an expression and realization of Roman culture in late antique Palestine. Whereas the rabbis and Christian leaders had a hand in developing what would become normative religious traditions, a visit to late antique synagogues and churches would reveal popular leaders engaged in an innovative poetic production of their own. To gain a more complete picture of the way ancient people constructed space, we turn from narrative pseudepigraphic texts and legal sources to liturgical poetry. Though this poetry has been studied textually, it has not received much attention from a performative and spatial perspective. Thus in the third chapter, “In situ: Liturgical Poetry and Sacred Space in Late Antiquity,” Ophir Münz-Manor explores the performance of poetry in houses of worship. Syriac, Greek, and Hebrew liturgical poems describe, explicitly or implicitly, the ritual space in which they were performed, that is the church and synagogue. Münz-Manor argues that one of the central techniques used by the poets was ekphrasis, a well-known Greco-Roman rhetorical device that poets used to connect images in churches and synagogues with the words of the liturgy in general and liturgical poems in particular, thereby creating a unique ritual experience. He highlights the shared ekphrastic technique of the poets of synagogue and church while singling out the unique characteristics of each religious tradition. Liturgical-poetry guided the ancient individual to view her synagogue or church with significance accruing over the course of the lectionary cycle as it was performed in her local place of prayer. While the first section treats the construction of space from cosmic, territorial, and local perspectives, the second section, Placing People, features chapters that ask how ancient texts taught people to place themselves, and how Jewish and Christian texts incorporated believers into a religious landscape. This section is also arranged chronologically and thematically: it begins with an inquiry into how early Christian texts taught people to imagine themselves within the hierarchy of salvation and corresponding heavenly dwellings (Alexander Kocar); then moves to how the rabbis sought to direct people with spatial techniques for ritual prayer (Rachel Neis); and closes with a study of how Byzantine liturgical hymns interpolated Christians as later Adams and Eves (Derek Krueger). Inquiries into subjectivity in space emerge clearly in each chapter, further detailing how ancient authors were called to answer people’s questions about where they would reside after death, how they were to transition from the ordinary routine of life to enter the space of ritual, and how to imagine themselves in exile even as they inhabited the stronghold of community. Alexander Kocar’s chapter, “A Hierarchy of Salvation in the Book of Revelation: Different Peoples, Dwellings, and Tasks in the End Times” examines how the author of Revelation, John of Patmos, struggled to find appropriate spaces for different sorts of people in the end times. After the death of Jesus and the gradual inclusion of gentiles into the Jesus movement, some Jewish authors began to pon- 10 Mika Ahuvia and Alexander Kocar der: where do these saved Gentiles end up? Do they deserve or are they even able to enter into the heavenly Jerusalem? For John, saved gentiles would be present to fulfill eschatological expectations; however, where they would be situated was more problematic due to concern for purity in this heavenly Jerusalem. Indeed, the limited gentile participation in the eschatological celebration was a corollary of prophetic expectations for the restoration of Israel. Kocar shows that John attempted to reconcile this incongruity with metaphorical language expressing shared but hierarchical salvation where gentiles and restored Israel would be spatially differentiated and assigned different tasks after the final resurrection. Rachel Neis’s chapter, “Directing the Heart: Corporeal Language and the Anatomy of Ritual Space,” traces an expression of bodily language (kavvanat halev, “directing the heart”) from biblical to early rabbinic sources and demonstrates how it oriented people to the affective, physical, and spatial dimensions of prayer. Rejecting a binary that would treat such language as either mental / subjective (and thus metaphorical) or soley physical / objective, Neis argues that we must unpack the fraught meaning of such corporeal spatial terminology to understand “rabbinic concepts of body-mind, ritual technology, and sacred geography” (132). She highlights the guidelines for the body in prayer mode found in the Mishnah and Tosefta Berakhot, which provide a geography and choreography of bodily and affective orientation that calls into question the notion of a fixed mandate to turn toward the site of the Jerusalem Temple. Although later directions found in the Babylonian Talmud on praying toward the holy of holies have come to be viewed as normative, Neis warns against reading these into the earlier sources on prayer, finding multiple focal points in her anatomy of the tannaitic evidence. Analyzing kavvanat halev in Mishnah Rosh Hoshana and its parallel in the Tosefta, Neis shows how the sages turned hearing into ritual listening, and ordinary gazing into observing, directions grounded in the body, space, and affect. Neis concludes with a section on the broader implications of her work for scholarly discussions of mind / body dualisms and metaphorical and embodied language. With the chapters by Ratzon on the location of Eden, Münz-Manor on performance of poetry in synagogues and churches, and Neis on the affective dimension of ritual in the liturgical environment, the contribution of Derek Krueger’s chapter, “Beyond Eden: Placing Adam, Eve, and Humanity in Byzantine Hymns” comes into relief. Krueger surveys three Byzantine hymns on Adam and Eve written between the fifth and the ninth century, which use the first humans to explore and cue emotional responses to the condition of humanity after the expulsion from Paradise. He illustrates how the cantors, merging their voice with biblical figures, would also invite the congregation to do so, creating a space for them to merge their identities and their fallen states with figures like Adam and Eve. Using biblical types with whom Christians should identify, these hymns both placed the congregation in the world beyond Eden and transmitted affects of grief and Subject Index 144,000 105n20, 106, 109n35, 110–11, 113, 120 Adam 5, 8–11, 15, 16n4, 17–18, 20–21, 27, 28n44, 30n55, 40–41, 44n100, 167–177 – Adam in the Garden of Eden 15, 17–18, 20–21, 27, 41 – On Adam’s Lament see Hymn Addai, Amidonius, and Asaph 90, 92 Aelia Capitolina 55, 78 Aelius Aristides 212 Agent see Subjectivity Agricultural land 58, 62 Aharon 93 Amidah 133 n9, 138–41, 150–51, 156n86 Anachronisms 102, 104, 106, 132 Ancestor(s) 11, 26–27, 31, 34, 103–4, 169 Ancestor Worship 11, 182n5, 183–86, 188–90, 193 Andrew of Crete 173–75 Angel(s) 2n4, 19n12, 22–24, 26–7, 28n46, 31, 33–36, 38, 39n41, 40–44, 105n21, 105n22, 111, 169, 176, 231, 234, 237n47, 241–42, 244–46, 247n87, 248 – Cherub / Cherubim 16n4, 17n5, 18, 19n12, 22, 93, 167, 172, 176 Antinoopolis / Antinoê 11–12, 197–99, 200n13, 202–208, 209n57, 210, 211n68, 211n69, 212n71, 212n72, 213n78, 214n83, 213n85, 218n108, 219 Antioch 237–38 Aphrahat 162n108 Apocalypse / Apocalyptic 20n16, 22n22, 23, 24n30, 31n62, 104n18, 105–110, 112n48, 114n52, 115n60, 115n62, 119n76, 119n78, 120n81, 120n83 Apotropaic 78, 233n29, 239n63, 240 (see also Magic, Ritual, and Ritual Object) Aramaic 21, 22n22, 24n29, 28–32, 36, 38n78, 41n88, 42n94, 57n22, 61, 88n2 (see also Incantation bowls) Architecture 3n5, 5–6, 59, 62, 66–67, 77n99, 81n111, 88, 90–91, 93–95, 175n12, 203n26, 235n41 (see also Church, Shrine, and Synagogue) Asclepius 212 Asia Minor 120, 191n47 Ascetic / Asceticism 121, 201, Astronomical calculations 74–75 Athanasius 186, 187n25 Atonement, Day of 91 Augustine of Hippo 108n31, 161n104, 204n34 Augustus Caesar 59 Avodah 91, 94n26 Babylon / Babylonia 2, 12, 41n88, 125n104, 148n63, 150n71, 151n75, 168, 227–48 – Babylonian Talmud see Talmud Baths / bath houses 88, 211–13, 215n90, 217, 219 Bantia, Italy 53n1, 69n81, 75 Beast, of Revelation 113, 120n81, 125n106 Behemoth 22, 39–41 Berakhot see Mishnah and Tosefta Bethlehem 171–72 Bezalel 90, 92–93 Blood 112n47, 119, 124, 154, 161n102, 247–48 Bodily language 10–11, 131–34, 136, 138–41, 142n43, 142n44, 145–46, 150, 151n75, 151n76, 152–55, 157–58, 160–62 (see also Heart) Body 1, 4, 8, 10, 62–67, 78n103, 131–34, 135n18, 135n19, 136–42, 144–48, 150n71, 151n75, 152, 154, 157–62, 206, 213, 216, 240 Body–Mind dualism 10, 132, 134, 158–62 Book of Giants 29, 32n66, 41n89 Book of Life 113, 116, 119n75, 121, 123 Byzantine / Byzantium 3n5, 7, 9–10, 41n88, 53, 60n29, 87n2, 89–90, 167–77, 182n8, 183n14, 202n22, 204n32, 206n45, 206n46, 207n50, 211n67, 215n91, 235n41 Cain 41n88 Calendar 25n32, 67, 75, 201 Canon / Canonical 3, 11, 171, 173n8, 175n12, 187 Celibacy 120–21 256 Subject Index Cheesefare Sunday 169, 175 Christ 110, 113, 119, 171–73, 176 (see also Jesus) –Antichrist 105n20 Christmas Vigil 172 Christopher, author of On the Transgression of Adam 175–76 Church(es) 1, 5–6, 7n23, 8–11, 81n111, 87–92, 94–96, 102n7, 105n20, 106n26, 107n28, 116n65, 120n81, 168–69, 199n10, 203–205, 207, 210, 213, 214n85, 215n91, 218, 219n113, 238 Cicero 5n15 Cippi 77 City 8, 11, 19n12, 25n33, 37n75, 53, 55–58, 60n29, 62–63, 64n45, 66n70, 67–80, 89, 103, 114–16, 118–19, 121n90, 123, 124n100, 125n104, 126, 142–44, 147, 152, 184, 198, 202–203, 220, 227 (see also Jerusalem and Rome) – city walls 43n96, 70, 77, 95n29, 108, 116, 203 (see also Sabbath Boundary) – Levitical cities 57, 74n92, 78 – pomerium 67n74, 77–80 Clement of Alexandria 101n3, Client / Clientele 12, 208, 210, 213, 216, 218, 220, 221, 229–33, 235–47 Colluthus, Saint 11, 197–221 Constantinople 78n105, 88–9, 172, 175 Coptic 2n3, 11, 181–4, 187n28, 188n33, 192–93, 197, 198n4, 199, 201, 204, 207–8, 209n57, 210–17, 219, 232n23, 240n65 Corpus Agrimansorum Romanorum 59–60, 65, 68–72, 76 Cosmology 6, 37n76, 39–40, 42 – church / synagogue / tabernacle’s relation to cosmos 91–6 Cubits 57n 25, 62–63, 64n44, 65–67, 74, 75, 76n97 (see also Measurements) David, root of 119 Death 9, 15, 28, 39n81, 41–42, 45, 113, 119, 120n84, 121n89, 124, 126–27, 170, 172, 201, 203, 209–10 – Second Death 121n89, 126–27 Demon / demonology 3n6, 197–98, 201n14, 205n37, 210, 230, 233, 236–44, 246–47 (see also Satan) Demotic 2n3, 182–83, 184n15, 185n21, 186n22, 186n23, 188n32, 191, 207 Desert 22, 27, 29, 39–42, 91, 93 Deuteronomy 134n16, 142n46, 157n87, 233 Diocletian or Great Persecution 11, 201 Dioptra 60 Directions see Geography Divination 11, 53, 198, 202, 208n54, 216, 218–20, 230n16 – augury 68 – oracles, by lot / ticket 198–200, 202, 204, 207–21 Domestic see Family Matters and Home Donkey 140, 143–144, 148–50 Ear(s) 137n30, 138, 153, 155–56, 162n108, 171–72, 175 Eden, Garden of 5, 7–8, 10, 15–46, 167–77 Edessa 89, 91 Egypt 1–2, 7, 11–12, 25n32, 65, 154, 173n8, 181–193, 197–221, 233n29 Egyptian and Greco-Egyptian deities – Anubis 181–82, 185, 185n22, 188 – Isis 181, 185n22 – Oserapis 182, 185–86, 188, 190–92 – Osiris 11, 181–82, 184–86, 188–89, 192 – Sarapis 184, 185n22 – Thoth 182, 184–86 Ekphrasis 9, 88–90, 94–95 Elazar birabi Qilir 93 Elvira, Council of 187 Enoch, Literary Character 16n4, 20n16, 21–24, 26–27, 28n43, 28n44, 29n52, 32–38, 41–45 Enoch, Books of – 1 Enoch 8, 15–17, 19n13, 20n16, 20n18, 21–46, 107n29, 108,136n27 – Astronomical Book 21, 29, 41, 42n94, 45–46 – Book of Parables 8, 15, 21, 36–46 – Book of the Watchers 8, 15, 21–28, 29n52, 30–37, 38n78, 41, 45–46 Epigraphy / Epigraphic 53n1, 124, 199n8, 206, 229n8 Epiphanius of Salamis 143n48, 204n34 Eruv 6, 56, 57 (see also Mishnah and Tosefta) – Eruvin 80 Eschaton / Eschatology 10, 23–24, 26, 33n68, 35–36, 37n76, 46, 102, 106–110, 112, 115–18, 120, 123–26 Ethics / Ethical 1, 3, 67n74, 101–102, 106, 109–10, 112n46, 113–14, 117–18, 120–21, 125–27, 135n18 Ethiopia / Ethiopic 21, 23, 24n29, 25n32, 26, 29–32, 33n67, 36, 38, 40n86, 42n94, 44n99, 44n100 Ethnography 3, 6 Subject Index Etruscan rites and beliefs 75, 78 Euphrates 17n5, 227, 228n4 Eve 5, 8–10, 15, 16n4, 17n5, 20–21, 27, 28n44, 167n1, 168, 170–75, 177 Exegesis / Exegetical 63, 102n6, 115, 116n65, 119, 143n47, 153–54, 168, 174 Exodus 18, 57, 63, 105n20, 152–54, 156, 233 Exorcism / Exorcists 236n43, 241, 242n73, 245 (see also Demon / Demonology) Eye(s) 31, 34, 88–89, 92, 117n67, 132, 136, 136n27, 137n30, 138, 142n46, 143n47, 145n53, 146–47, 153, 155–56, 162, 167, 172, 176, 202, 206, 212, 243 (see also Senses) Ezekiel 16–19, 22, 25–27, 32, 34–36, 43n96, 63, 91, 109n35, 116, 124, 134 Ezra, Book of 4th 20, 28n46, 35n71, 39n83, 107n29, 108, 120n84 Family Matters 11, 181–88, 192–93, 201, 210n63, 233n32, 236 – childbirth 189, 245 – household(s) 145n55, 183, 233, 235–36, 238, 244–47 – pregnancy / pregnant 11, 78n103, 181–82, 189 Feast(s) 93, 169n4, 172n7, 184, 201, 247 Ferrata, 6th Roman legion 55, 61 Flora, goddess 75 Frontinus, Julius 60–61, 69, 70n83, 75 Fruit(s) 23–24, 26–27, 31–34, 125n108, 174, 215 – first fruits 105n22, 109, 111n43 Gabriel, Angel 22, 247n87 Galen 202n20, 206 Galilee 55, 60, 67n74, 79, 94n28, 157 Genesis 16–19, 20n.16, 21–22, 26–27, 29–32, 34–35, 38, 42n93, 44n100, 117n68, 167–69, 172–73 Genre(s), textual 6, 11, 91, 182–84, 190, 192, 198n7, 220 – letter(s) 11,182–84, 190, 192 – poetry 91 – ticket oracle 220 Gentile(s) 9–10, 53, 101, 103–113, 116–18, 122–27, 234 Geography 6–7, 10, 17, 21–22, 25–27, 29n50, 35n70, 41n89, 57n21, 60n29, 131–32, 133n6, 134n17, 142, 144, 150, 157–58, 231 – East 16, 17n5, 17n8, 22–25, 27, 28n43, 32, 33n68, 34–36, 40–41, 42n93, 46, 53, 257 58n26, 69, 74–76, 87, 89–90, 92, 135n20, 138n35, 142n46,143, 146, 151n75, 157, 167, 203, 227, 232, 234, 237, 240, 247, 248 – North 11, 17n5, 23, 25, 36, 43–44, 56n18, 69, 74, 75n97, 76, 142n46, 143, 146–47, 202, 203n29, 204, 247–48 – South 22–25, 69, 74, 75n97, 76, 142n46, 143, 146, 203, 205, 218n108, 227, 247, 248 – West 12, 17n5, 22–23, 25, 34–36, 42n93, 44, 46, 53, 56n18, 58n26, 69, 74–76, 142n46, 143, 146, 160, 185–86, 188, 202n22, 203, 227, 247 Geometry 59n27, 64–71, 80 – concentric circles 123, 143–44, 147 Georgian language 20, 172 Greek 2n3, 9, 18, 20n16, 21–23, 24n29, 25n32, 26, 28–32, 33n67, 36, 38n78, 60n29, 64–65, 67n74, 68n76, 70–74, 78n100, 79n107, 87n1, 89–90, 94, 103, 104n16, 108, 110n38, 112n47, 112n48, 116–17, 119, 121, 124, 126 161n102, 167, 171n6, 182–84, 186, 188, 190–92, 197, 199, 200n11, 201–202, 206n45, 207, 209, 211–12, 216, 217n100, 232n23, 238, 242 – Greek letters and correspondence to city planning 70–4 Gulf, Persian 27 Hades 113 Hagia Sophia (Constantinople) 88–90 Hagia Sophia (Edessa) 89 Hadrian 55, 78 Hanukkah 93 Hasmonean 37n75, 93, 103, 104n16 Heart 10, 117n67, 124, 131–33, 134n15, 136, 137n28, 137n30, 138–57, 161–62, 240 (see also Bodily language) – kavvanat halev 10, 132, 134–41, 143–46, 148, 150–53, 155–62 Heaven(s) / Heavenly 8–10, 15, 16n3, 17n5, 18–22, 28, 30, 31n62, 33n68, 36–37, 39–40, 42–46, 89–91, 92n20, 93–94, 95n29, 105n22, 109–111, 113–16, 120, 127, 133, 136n27, 139n37, 142, 144–45, 149–50, 152–57, 162n108 (see also Eden, Jerusalem, and Temple) Hebrew 8–9, 15–16, 24, 27–31, 32n63, 41n88, 43n95, 45, 55, 57n22, 61, 65, 67, 68n76, 79, 87n1, 92, 95n29, 102n6, 107n28, 133–62, 167, 232, 233n28, 238, 239n55, 242–43 258 Subject Index – Hebrew Bible 8, 15–16, 24, 27–28, 30n58, 45, 92n17, 106n6, 107n28, 133n6, 233n28, 238, 239n55 Hellenism / Hellenistic 21, 53, 54n5, 60n29, 60n30, 80n108, 103, 110n40, 186, 191n47 Hermopolis 11, 181, 184, 186, 203n24 Heseret 184, 186 Hippolytus of Rome 95 Holy of Holies 10, 16n4, 28n43, 135n20, 138n35, 139n37, 143–44, 145n52, 145n54, 146n56, 147–52, 158 Home 1, 7, 11, 12, 189, 229, 231, 233, 235–38, 240, 241–46, 248 – domestic 3n5, 184–87, 189, 217 – dwelling chamber(s) or place 32, 42–43, 68, 116, 118n71, 123 – house(s) 3n5, 8–9, 24, 26, 34, 68, 74, 91, 111n41, 124, 135n20, 141–42, 152, 156, 204n34, 205, 215n91, 218, 227, 239, 241–42, 244–45 – quarters 56–57 – residence 8, 16n4, 63, 118n73 Human body 62–7, 78n103 – analogia and measurements 64–77 Hybridity 55, 74, 81 Hyginus 71–72, 74–76 Hymn See Liturgy Incantation bowl(s) 1–2, 12, 227–48 Intent / Intention 132, 134n17, 135, 137–38, 140–41, 152, 155, 157, 159, 170, 190, 193, 214, 239 Isaac of Antinoê 200n13, 219 Isaiah 16 n. 2, 18n10, 19n12, 25, 29n54, 35n70, 37n76, 108, 110n39, 111–12, 114–17, 124–26, 133n7 Israel / Israelites 10, 27, 102n7, 104–105, 107n29, 108–111, 113, 116n66, 117–18, 120, 122–25, 127, 133, 136, 142–48, 151–56, 234, 237n47, 246n82, 247n87 – Land of Israel 17n5, 25n33, 37, 55n12, 61,142, 144–45, 147, 168 Jacob of Serugh 92–93 Jeremiah 25 Jerusalem 10, 16n3, 16n4, 18n10, 25–27, 34, 37n75, 43n96, 78, 103, 108n32, 109–110, 112, 114–27, 136n27, 142–44, 145n52, 172 – future Jerusalem 18n10, 26–27, 34 – heavenly Jerusalem 10, 115 – Jerusalem Talmud see Talmud – Jerusalem Temple see Temple – New Jerusalem 110, 114–27 Jesus 9, 112–13, 171, 201n14, 210n62 – followers of Jesus / Jesus Movement 9, 101, 106, 107n28, 109, 123n97, 123n98, 127, 215n90 Jew(s) 3, 6, 8, 35n69, 53, 54n7, 54n8, 81, 87n1, 101–107, 109–110, 111n42, 112n46, 114, 117, 120, 122–27, 151n81, 158, 168, 230–35, 237–38, 240, 244, 246 – “Jew” v. “Judean” 101–104 Job, Book of 134n16, 136, 238 Joel 16 n. 2 John Chrysostom 167–68, 237–38 John of Gaza 88 John of Patmos 9–10, 101–127 Josephus, Flavius 31, 57n25, 67n74, 92n17, 101n2, 111n45, 123, 215n90 Jubilees 16n4, 21, 32n66, 35, 38n78, 44n100, 57n25, 111n45 Judah, tribe of 105n21,119 Judgment, Final 23–24, 27, 34, 37n76, 39–40, 41n88, 43n95, 113 Jupiter 75, 80n108 Justin Martyr 101n3, 154n81 Justinian I 88–89 Lake of Fire 113, 121n89, 123, 126, 127 Lamb 105n21, 105n22, 111, 114, 116, 119, 121, 123, 125n106 Land 5–6, 8, 17n5, 21, 25n33, 29, 30n57, 37, 40, 42, 44, 53, 55, 58–63, 65, 68–72, 74, 77, 80–81, 103, 118n71, 142–45, 147, 152, 157n87, 168, 171–72, 175, 185, 227n3 – distribution of 8, 59, 62, 68 – ownership of 70 – uncultivated 62 Land, Surveying 8, 55n12, 58–62, 64n54, 65, 68–72, 74, 80–81 – limitatio 68, 78 – surveyors, Rabbinic 61–62 – surveyors, Roman 59n28, 60, 68n79, 69–71, 72n89, 74, 80n108 Latin 20n16, 28n46, 28n49, 59, 68n76, 95, 199, 212, 216 Lazarus 238 Lectionary 9, 168, 171–72 Legal discourse 6–7, 9, 30n58, 56, 57n24, 62, 68, 78, 80, 159, 237n49, 242–43, 248n89 Legio, Camp of the Sixth Roman legion 55, 60–61 Lent 169, 171, 173, 175 Leviathan 39–40 Subject Index Levite(s) 108, 111, 113, 122, 124, 127 Leviticus 16n4, 122, 124n99 Lilith 242–43 (see also Demon / Demonology) Liturgy 1–3, 5, 7, 9–11, 87–96, 110n39, 112, 114, 117, 132n2, 139n37, 146, 152, 155n83, 157, 162n108, 167– 77, 204, 233, 238, 247 – cantor(s) 10, 168, 170, 174 – choir(s) 168, 174 – festival(s) 80n108, 96, 108n32, 184, 193 – hymn(s) 9–11, 90, 167–177 – hymnographer / hymnographic 168, 171, 174, 175n12 – kanon 173–75 – liturgical poetry 5, 9–10, 87–96, 168n3, 171n6 – panegyric 89 Luke, Gospel of 20n17, 30, 172n7 Maccabeus, Judas 103 Magic 2–3, 11, 181n2,182n4, 187n28, 188n33, 190, 191n46, 191n49, 192n50, 192n51, 206n45, 215n92, 216, 227n2, 228n6, 229–33, 234n39, 236, 237n46, 238–45, 247n87 – amulet(s) 220n114, 229n12, 231–36, 237n49, 238, 240–41, 243–45, 247n87 Mandaean / Mandaic 227, 228n6, 230, 232, 235, 238n53, 241 Manuscript(s) 38n78, 39n81, 59, 96, 172, 175, 182, 198n4, 210n62 – illuminated manuscripts 59 Mark, Gospel of 136n27, 213n82, 215n90 Martyr(s) 11, 95, 106, 109, 113–14, 120, 123, 127, 187, 198, 201–202, 206, 211, 217 – martyrdom 119–21, 198n4, 198n7, 201 – matryrion / martyrium 198, 203–205, 209n57 Mary 171–73, 176, 203 – Theotokion 176 Masoretic Text 18, 19n12, 44n100, 167 Matthew, Gospel of 201n14 Measurement(s) 8, 43, 57n25, 58, 62–68, 75n97 – Greco-Roman unit(s) 62, 64–65, 75n97 – Rabbinic unit(s) 62–63, 67–68, 75n97 Medicine / Medicinal 11, 198n4, 201–202, 205–206, 211, 212n76, 214–16, 229 Megillah 137n30, 141, 152, 156–57, 159 Messiah 43n97, 105 (see also Christ) Metaphor / Metaphorical 10, 43n95, 44n99, 95, 102, 115, 119n77, 121n90, 131–132, 136, 158, 160–62, 174n10 259 Michael, Angel 24, 26–27, 34 Mile 63n38, 65, 76n87 Mind 3n6, 10, 41, 132–35, 136n23, 137–40, 142n44, 146n56, 148, 151, 158, 160–62, 173–75, 184 – affective dimensions / states 10, 131–33, 136, 139, 145–46, 151–52 – mental dimensions / states 10, 131, 133, 134n15, 134n17, 135–41, 144–46, 151–52, 154, 157, 161 Miracle(s) / Miraculous 154, 176n13, 190n42, 197–98, 199n10, 201–202, 204n30, 206, 210, 212, 217–20 Mishnah 10, 56, 63, 68, 74n92, 91, 135n18, 137, 138n35, 140–41, 145n52, 148–51, 153 –57, 159, 243, 247–48 – Berakhot 137n29, 138–41, 143, 145n52, 146n56, 148–52, 153n79, 157, 161n105 – Eruvin 53n2, 56–57, 60n32, 61n33, 61n35, 63n39, 66n67, 67n73, 68, 77n98, 134n17, – Rosh Hashana 10, 136n22, 138, 141, 150, 152–57 – Zevahim 247–48 Missionary / Missionizing 106, 107n28, 112n46, 201n14 Monk / Monastic 168, 173–74, 209n57, 210, 219n113 Mortuary Practices 181–93 – mortuary or cemetery shrines 11, 181–93, 203 – mummification 185–87, 218n108 – necropolis 11, 184–88, 193, 202–203 Mosaic(s) 21, 90–91, 93–95 Moses 90, 92–93, 125, 142n46, 143n47, 152–56, 157n87 Mountain(s) 16n4, 18n11, 19, 22–27, 36, 41n88, 56n15, 61, 70, 92, 105n22, 111n41, 111n43 – Mount Sinai 25n32, 92 – Mount Zaphon 19, 25 – Mount Zion 18n11, 19, 26n36, 105n22, 111n43 Music 87, 95n29, 174n9 Narsai 92 Nativity 171–72 Neighbor(s) / Neighborhood 57–58, 104n16, 191, 217, 233, 244–45 Nikolaos, Rhetorician 94 Nippur 227–29, 231, 233n32, 234–36, 238, 240–44 Noah / Noahide 36–39, 110n40 260 Subject Index Orality 11, 183, 188, 192, 209, 239, 241, 243–45, 248n89 – textuality 183 Origen of Alexandria 57n24 Ostracon / Ostraka 207, 208n54, 240n65, 243 Palestine 3n5, 6–9, 54–57, 58n26, 59–62, 65n63,67n74, 71, 78, 80, 93, 95n29, 151n75, 176n13, 232, 233n29, 234 – Palestinian Talmud See Talmud – Roman Palestine 59–62, 65n63, 67n74, 71, 78, 80 Palladius 217 Papyrus / Papyri 2n3, 41n88, 181–84, 185n22, 187, 188, 190, 192, 198n6, 201, 202n20, 202n22, 203n25, 205n36, 206–18, 220, 240n65 – Papyrology / Papyrological 5, 198–99, 206, 221 – Schmidt Papyrus 181–83, 188, 192 Paradise 10, 16n3, 20n18, 21–22, 26n37, 27–28, 29n54, 30, 31n62, 33n68, 35n69, 35n71, 90n11, 119n79, 167, 169–73, 175–77 (see also Heaven / Heavenly) – pardes 20n18, 24, 28–29, 30n57, 33, 36, 41n89, 46 Parallelism 22n25, 26, 34, 36, 46, 114 Paul the Apostle 101, 103n9, 103n11, 104n17, 107n27, 108n28, 110n40, 123 127 Paul the Silentiary 88–90 Pellagia 197–98, 201, 205–206, 218 Performance 1–2, 4n14, 5–7, 9–12, 87, 94, 96, 157, 168, 170, 173–74, 177, 181, 183, 185, 188, 190, 236, 240–45, 247–48 – audience 5, 87, 89, 244 – oral performance 11, 183, 241, 244–45 Pergamon / Pergamum 107n28, 113n51, 212 Persia / Persian 21, 27–29, 186, 232–33 Philo of Alexandria 92, 109, 136n27 Pilgrimage 7, 11, 108–10, 125, 136n27, 151, 153n79, 155n83, 184n16, 185n22, 187n25, 190, 197–98 – pilgrimage shrines: 190, 197–98 Pious / Piety 24, 34, 117–18, 120n84, 125, 138–39, 155n83, 182n5, 186n24, 238 Plato 67n74 – Platonic forms 92 Plotinus 112n46 Pompeius, Magnus 37 Popular Religion 11, 132n2, 229–30, 232n24, 236, 246 Post-Colonialism 53, 55, 59, 80–81 Prayer 3, 9–10, 87n1, 91, 111n41, 125, 132, 133n8, 135n19, 136, 138–52, 156–58, 162, 167n1, 170, 173, 175–76, 187, 188n33, 189, 191, 206, 217n101, 220, 230n16, 237, 239, 247n87 (see also Bodily Language and Ritual) – supplicant(s) 132, 139–40, 142, 144–46, 149, 150n67, 150n70, 151, 185–86 Priest(s) 3, 16n4, 18n10, 57n25, 63, 91, 104n15, 108–109, 111–e14, 118, 122–25, 127, 135n20, 147n58, 208, 212, 237, 247, 248 – High Priest 91, 122, 135n20 – Kingdom / Nation of Priests 112n47, 114, 118, 122, 125 – priestly practice(s) 57n25, 63, 112, 117–18, 121, 125, 183–84, 186, 248 Private 6, 7n22, 56n17, 181, 184n17, 185, 192–93, 204, 228, 229n7, 233n29 Prophet(s) 10, 22n22, 44n99, 105, 109–10, 113, 115, 125, 136n27 Prudentius 95 Psalms, Book of 30n58, 78n105, 95n29, 116n63, 117n68, 134n13, 134n14, 136, 138, 156, 168, 173 Pseudepigraphy / Pseudepigraphic 8–9, 22n22, 32n66, 38n78, 43n97, 118n71 Public 6–7, 56, 80n108, 104n16, 184n17, 191–93, 204n34, 212n71, 233n29, 239n61, 243 Purity 3n6, 10, 16n4, 104, 122, 135n18, 158n89, 159n91, 159n95, 234 – impurity 16n4, 121–23, 124n99, 126, Qumran 3n6, 21, 22n22, 29n51, 29n52, 30n57, 56n16, 57n24, 59n27, 107n28, 115n62, 121n90 Rabbis 6, 8–9, 53–58, 62–68, 70–71, 74–75, 77n98, 80–81, 122, 150n71, 215n90, 234, 237, 240n65, 246, 247n85, 248 – Ada, Rav 62 – Akhai, Rabbi 138 – Hamnuna, Rav 234 – Hananya, Rabbi 66 – Ishmael b. Yose, Rabbi 145n53, 162n108 – Joshua b. Perahia 243, 246 – Judah Ha-Nasi, Rabbi 63, 138, 143–45, 149 – Saul, Abba 138 – Ulla, Rav 234 – Yose, Rabbi 74 Subject Index Rabbinic Literature, 56, 59, 87 (see also Mishnah, Talmud, and Tosefta) Raphael / Rapha’el, Angel 31, 34, Redaction / Redactor(s) 15–16, 21–23, 25– 26, 34–35, 37–39, 41n92, 42–46, 147n57 Repent / Repentance 104, 112, 117n68, 126n112, 170, 173 – penance 169–70 Resurrection 10, 112–13, 116n65, 123, 172, 209–10 – Second Resurrection 113, 116n65 Revelation(s) / Vision(s) 2n4, 28n49, 30n58, 33n68, 36, 38, 42, 43n95, 92, 101–102, 109–10, 115, 118, 124, 136n27, 137n30, 202n23 – Book of Revelation 9–10, 20n17, 35n71, 101–27 – seer 38 Rhetoric / Rhetorical 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 88–89, 94, 106n26, 107n29, 109,112, 120,125, 126,144, 167, 218, 221, 238, 242–43, 248n89 (see also ekphrasis) – rhetorical handbook(s) 88, 94 – ethopoeia 167 Righteous / Righteousness 8, 15, 19–20, 21n19, 23–24, 26–28, 30–37, 39–46, 107n27, 109, 114, 120–21, 125 – qushta 20n18, 24, 28–30, 33, 36, 41n89, 46 Ritual(s) 1–7, 9–12, 53, 55–56, 57n19, 58, 67n74, 74, 78, 80, 87–88, 90–91, 92n17, 94–96, 101n2, 104, 111n45, 121–23, 124n99, 131–32, 134, 136–41, 144, 146, 152, 155–58, 160–62, 167n1, 181–93, 199, 210, 218, 221, 227, 230, 232–233, 235–40, 243–48 (see also Liturgy, Magic, Mortuary practices, and Prayer) – incubation 197, 205, 217 – ritual deposition 236, 240, 248 – ritual experience 7, 9, 94, 96 – ritual practice(s) 2n4, 4n8, 5, 11, 88, 111n45, 184, 221, 227, 233, 236, 238, 246 – ritual recitation(s) 7, 133n9, 139, 152, 187n29, 236, 239n61, 240–41, 247n87 – ritual theory 3–4 Ritual Object(s) 91, 230, 236 (see also Incantation bowl and Magic) – basin(s) 204–205, 211–14 – candelabrum 92–93 – ex vota 190n42, 198, 206, 218, 220 – mezuzah 7n22, 233, 240 – ritual figurine(s) 11, 182, 188–90, 233n29 – tefillin 233, 240 261 Ritual Subject(s) (see also Priest and Sorcerer) – ritual expert(s) 220, 245 – ritual practitioner(s) 3, 11, 235, 237–39, 243, 245–48 – ritual specialist(s) 230–31, 238, 246 River(s) 27, 69–71, 125n108, 168, 227 Road(s) 56, 65, 69, 80n108, 134n16 Rome, City of 56, 70n84, 77–78, 79n106, 95 Roman 2, 3n5, 5n15, 6–9, 11, 35n69, 37, 53–72, 74–81, 87n1, 112n46, 113n52, 120, 157, 181, 183, 184n16, 185n19, 186–88, 190–93, 199n9, 202n20, 208n54, 212 – Roman culture 8–9, 54, 78, 81 – Roman Egypt 2, 7, 11, 181, 183, 184n16, 185n19, 186, 191–93, 199n9, 208n54 – Roman Empire 6, 53, 55, 87n1, 112n46, 202n20 – Roman legion 55, 60–61 Romanos the Melodist 87, 171–73 Romulus 78 Rural Lands 56, 58, 62–63, 69, 75, 192n50 – field(s) 56, 63, 140 Sabbath 6, 8, 53, 56–60, 62–63, 64n44, 65–67, 70–71, 74–81, 111n41, 237n49 – Sabbath boundary (tehum shabbat) 8, 53, 57–60, 62–63, 65–66, 70–71, 75, 77–81 Sacred 3n5, 5–10, 16n4, 19n13, 21, 26n36, 28n43, 35n69, 63, 68, 77–78, 88–89, 91, 94–96, 115, 118, 122–24, 132, 135n18, 142–43, 147, 152, 158, 168, 171, 220, 231n19, 235n41 – profane 26n36, 111n41, 116, 121–23, 124n99, 126 – sacred geography 7, 10, 132, 142 – sacred place 7, 35n69, 63, 91, 96 Sacrifice 87n1, 111, 119, 123n97, 149, 206n45, 247 Sage(s) 10–11, 54n8, 60, 62, 112n46, 139n37, 143n48, 146n56, 150n68, 234n35, 237, 243 Saint(s) 11, 39n81, 105, 107n28, 113, 115, 182n8, 186–87, 189n34, 190n42, 197–21 – holy one(s) 31–35, 42, Samaritan(s) 233 Saqqara 182, 185, 188, 191–92 Sasanian 228n4, 229, 230n13, 230n16, 231–32, 233n30, 233n31, 236n42, 238 Satan 107, 170, 240 – devils 240 Scribes 186, 190–92, 208, 212 (see also Ritual Experts) 262 Subject Index Sea 27, 39–40, 90, 105n21, 105n22, 111, 114, 117n67, 133 – home of Leviathan 39 – Red Sea 27 Second Temple 2, 8, 15–16, 20n16, 20n17, 28–30, 35n71, 45–46, 104, 108, 112n46, 114n55, 122, 150n71 – literature 16, 28, 30n58, 35n71, 108, 114n55, 122 – period 2, 8, 15, 20n16, 20n17, 29–30, 45–46, 112n46, 150n71 Secret(s) 34, 36, 40, 42, 81, 136n23, 162n108 Sefer haRazim 245 Senses 133n6, 135n20, 137–38, 152–53, 155 – gaze 69, 92, 135n20, 142n46, 152–57 – sight 23–24, 26, 31, 33–34, 47, 90, 93, 136n27, 145, 153, 155n83, 156n85, 168–69, 172–73, 212 – smell 24, 33–34, 172–73 – sound 95–96, 105n22, 141, 152–53, 155–56, 169, 171–73, 183, 233 Sepphoris 60, 94n28, 237n50 Septuagint 18, 22, 29–31, 44n100, 107n28, 117, 125, 167–68 Serapeum 186 Serpent 154, 175 Shem 16n4, 21 Shema 138–40, 145n55, 150n71 Shenoute of Atripe 187, 208, 219 Shofar 138n32, 141, 152–53, 155–57, 158n89 Shrine 1, 7, 11–12, 95, 181–86, 187n25, 188–93, 197–98, 200, 202–21 – Shrine to Saint Colluthus 11–12, 197–98, 200, 202–21 Sin(s) / Sinner(s) 18, 30n55, 122n91, 126, 168, 170, 173, 247 Solomon 63, 93 Soul(s) 95, 113, 114n54, 134n11, 161n102, 162n108, 174–75 Sorcerer(s) 12, 121, 126, 238, 247 (see also Magic and Ritual Subject) Soteriology 101, 106, 108–109, 113, 127 Smyrna 106, 107n28 Space 1–12, 55–56–58, 62–63, 64n44, 66–67, 69–70, 71n88, 74–75, 77n98, 78, 80–81, 88, 92n20, 94–96, 112n48, 114–15, 118, 124, 131, 135–38, 141, 142n44, 144, 147– 50, 152, 157–58, 160–62, 169, 176n13, 177, 184–89, 193, 203, 204n30, 230, 235n41 – communal space 56, 80 – individual space (arba amot) 63–67, 115 – ritual or cultic space 9–10, 57n19, 58n26, 78n103, 146, 158, 160–62, 204n30 – spatial dynamic(s) 12, 155, 248 – spatial turn 1–2, 5–6 Stoic / Stoicism 159 Stone(s) 18, 22–25, 65n63, 69–70, 72, 75, 77, 79–81, 154n82, 187, 203n29, 233n26 – boundary stones 69–70, 72, 75, 77, 79–81, – precious stones 18, 22–25 – tombstone(s) 187 Stoudios Monastery 175 Subjectivity 9, 55, 132, 146, 158–62, 174 (see also Body and Mind) – agent / agency 55n11, 62, 65n64, 131, 154–55, 188–89, 192, 244 Suburban 62, 77n98, 187 Sukkah 67 Supersessionism 106 – tertium quid 124 Synagogue(s) 5, 7–10, 75n96, 87–89, 91, 93–96, 106–107, 108n31, 141, 150n71, 152, 155–58, 168, 237–38 Syncretism 219n113, 231 Synchronic 15, 19, 33, 35, 37, 42–43, 45–46 Syriac 9, 28n49, 87n1, 89–92, 162n108, 167n1, 174n10, 227, 232, 235, 238, 243n75 Tabernacle 90–93, 95n29 Talmud(s) 10, 53, 56, 60, 62, 73, 76–77, 151, 232n24, 234 – Babylonian 10, 60, 62, 73, 76–77, 151, 234 – Jerusalem / Palestinian 53, 56, 60 Tannaitic literature 10, 131–34, 135n18, 135n19, 136–38, 139n39, 146n56, 148, 150–53, 158–59 Tannaitic midrashim 153–56 – Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael 135n20, 153–155 – Sifra Leviticus 135n20, 247n87 – Sifre Deut 133n9, 137, 142n45, 142n46, 143n47, 146n56, 147n58, 157n87 – Sifrei Zuta 57n25, 63n41 Taxes 56 – taxable units of space 70 Temple 1, 7, 10–11, 15–16, 19n12, 23, 26n36, 27, 33n68, 37, 42, 57, 63, 66, 68, 78n102, 78n105, 78n107, 89–93, 95n29, 103, 109, 113–14, 115n62, 116, 118, 120, 123, 124, 136n27, 137n30, 142–45, 147, 148n63, 150–52, 153n79, 157– 8, 183n14, 184, 185n19, 185n22, 185n23, 188, 192, 209n57, 227, 247–48 – Egyptian temple(s) 1, 184, 192 Subject Index – heavenly temple 33n68, 37n76, 42, 113–14, 150n71 – Second Temple 10, 15, 37, 63, 78n102, 78n105, 78n107, 93, 103, 118, 120, 123 – Solomon’s Temple 63, 93 – templum 66n67, 68–69, 75 Territory / Territorial 6, 8–9, 55–59, 62–63, 67n74, 68–70, 75, 80, 170, 235 Thebaid 201–202 Theodore the Stoudite 175 Theodoret 206 Throne of God or Heavenly Throne 19, 22– 25, 27–28, 37n76, 38–40, 42, 46, 105n21, 105n22, 109, 111, 113–14, 119 Tiberias 55, 60 Tiberius 55 Tomb(s) 11, 68, 87, 182–90, 204n30 Torah 54, 107n27, 122, 137, 158, 233n30 Tosefta 10, 56, 63, 64n44, 65–66, 68n78, 70–71, 74, 75n97, 137–138, 142n46, 144, 146n56, 147n57, 148, 150–51, 156–57, 243 – Berakhot 133n9, 136n27, 138–42, 144, 145–46, 148–50, 151, 153, 156n86, 157 – Eruvin 53, 57, 60n32, 61n33, 63n39, 64, 66, 67n73, 68n78, 70, 74, 75n97, 77n98 – Rosh Hashana 134n17, 138, 141, 156 Town 67, 69n80, 70n83, 70n85, 78n100, 78n101, 78n102, 78n104, 187, 205n37, 227, 234–35, 238, 245 – hometown 88 263 Tree(s) 17, 22–27, 29–36, 43, 46, 105n21, 111, 118n74, 119n79, 125n108, 140, 145,149,167, 170, 172–74, 176 – forest 28, 70 – Tree of Knowledge 17n8, 30–31, 32n63, 35, 46 – Tree of Life 17, 22, 24, 26, 32, 35–36, 43, 46 , 119n79, 125n108, 167, 172 – Tree of Wisdom 31, 33–35, 46 Tyre 18, 25n33, 32 Urban Planning 53, 55–56, 58–63, 65, 66n70, 67–77, 80 – centuriatio 59, 68, 70–71, 74, 77 – grid 56, 69–70, 74–75 – squaring (ribu‘a) 68, 74 – urban foundation(s) 53, 56, 62, 68, 75, 78n102, 78n105 Urha 89–90, 92 Village 79n107 Vitruvius 59, 62, 64–66, 67n71 Wall Hanging 204–205, 218n108 War Scroll 107n28, 108, 120n85 Wisdom 27, 30–36, 46 Yannai 93 Zodiac 75n96, 94–96