On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule.

Российский государственный гуманитарный университет Институт языкознания Российской Академии наук Вопросы языкового родства Международный научный журнал № 6 (2011) Москва 2011 Russian State University for the Humanities Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences Journal of Language Relationship International Scientific Periodical Nº 6 (2011) Moscow 2011 Редакционный совет: Вяч. Вс. ИВАНОВ (Москва – Лос-Анджелес) / председатель Х. АЙХНЕР (Вена) М. Е. АЛЕКСЕЕВ (Москва) В. БЛАЖЕК (Брно) У. БЭКСТЕР (Анн Арбор) В. Ф. ВЫДРИН (Париж) М. ГЕЛЛ-МАНН (Санта-Фе) А. Б. ДОЛГОПОЛЬСКИЙ (Хайфа) Ф. КОРТЛАНДТ (Лейден) А. ЛУБОЦКИЙ (Лейден) А. Ю. МИЛИТАРЕВ (Москва) Л. ХАЙМАН (Беркли) Редакционная коллегия: В. А. ДЫБО (главный редактор) Г. С. СТАРОСТИН (заместитель главного редактора) Т. А. МИХАЙЛОВА (ответственный секретарь) К. В. БАБАЕВ А. В. ДЫБО А. С. КАСЬЯН О. А. МУДРАК И. С. ЯКУБОВИЧ Журнал основан К. В. БАБАЕВЫМ © Российский государственный гуманитарный университет, 2011 Advisory Board: Vyach. Vs. IVANOV (Moscow – Los Angeles, Calif.) / Chairman M. E. ALEXEEV (Moscow) W. BAXTER (Ann Arbor, Mich.) V. BLAŽEK (Brno) A. B. DOLGOPOLSKY (Haifa) H. EICHNER (Vienna) M. GELL-MANN (Santa Fe, New Mexico) L. HYMAN (Berkeley) F. KORTLANDT (Leiden) A. LUBOTSKY (Leiden) A. YU. MILITAREV (Moscow) V. F. VYDRIN (Paris) Editorial Staff: V. A. DYBO (Editor-in-Chief) G. S. STAROSTIN (Managing Editor) T. A. MIKHAILOVA (Editorial Secretary) K. V. BABAEV A. V. DYBO A. S. KASSIAN O. A. MUDRAK I. S. YAKUBOVICH Founded by Kirill BABAEV © Russian State University for the Humanities, 2011 УДК 81(05) ББК 81я5 Вопросы языкового родства: Международный научный журнал / Рос. гос. гуманитар. ун-т; Рос. Акад. наук. Ин-т языкознания; под ред. В. А. Дыбо. ― М., 2011. ― № 6. ― xxvi + 260 с. ― (Вестник РГГУ: Научный журнал; Серия «Филологические науки. Языкознание»; № 16(78)/11). Journal of Language Relationship: International Scientific Periodical / Russian State University for the Humanities; Russian Academy of Sciences. Institute of Linguistics; Ed. by V. A. Dybo. ― Moscow, 2011. ― No. 6. ― xxvi + 260 p. ― (RSUH Bulletin: Scientific Periodical; Linguistics Series; No. 16(78)/11). ISSN 1998-6769 http://www.jolr.ru [email protected] Дополнительные знаки: С. Г. Болотов Add-on symbols by S. G. Bolotov Подписано в печать 29.07.2011. Формат 60×90/8. Бум. офсетная. Печать офсетная. Тираж 1050 экз. Заказ № Отпечатано в полном соответствии с качеством предоставленного оригинал-макета в «Наша Полиграфия», г. Калуга, ул. Грабцевское шоссе, 126 Лиц. ПЛД № 42-29 от 23.12.99 Table of Contents / Содержание Table of Contents / Содержание . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contributors / Сведения об авторах . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Note for Contributors / Будущим авторам . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Владимиру Антоновичу Дыбо 80 лет (30 апреля 2011 г.) A l’occasion du 80 ème . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . anniversaire de Vladimir Antonovitch Dybo (30 avril 2011) Список печатных работ В. А. Дыбо / Bibliography of V. A. Dybo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii ix x xi xiii xvi Articles / Статьи Kirill Babaev. On the reconstruction of some tense/aspect markers in Proto-Mande . . . . . . . . . 1 [К. В. Бабаев. К реконструкции некоторых видовременных показателей праманде] John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek. On the Burushaski–Indo-European Hypothesis by I. Čašule . 25 [Дж. Бенгтсон, В. Блажек. О бурушаски-индоевропейской гипотезе И. Чашуле] Alexei Kassian. Annotated 50-item wordlist of the basic lexicon of the Ancient Greek language (the idiolect of Herodotus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 [А. С. Касьян. Опыт составления аннотированного 50-словного списка базисной лексики для древнегреческого языка (идиолект Геродота)] Ilia Peiros. Some thoughts on the problem of the Austro-Asiatic homeland . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 [И. И. Пейрос. Некоторые мысли относительно проблемы австроазиатской прародины] George Starostin. On Mimi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 [Г. С. Старостин. О языках мими] Gábor Takács. Lexica Afroasiatica XI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 [Г. Такач. Lexica Afroasiatica XI] Miguel Valério. Hani-Rabbat as the Semitic Name of Mitanni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 [М. Валерио. Хани-Раббат — семитское название Митанни] Discussion Articles / Дискуссионные статьи Leonid Kulikov. Drifting between passive and anticausative. True and alleged accent shifts in the history of Vedic ­ya­presents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 [Л. И. Куликов. Между пассивом и антикаузативом: действительные и мнимые акцентные сдвиги в истории ведийских -ya-презенсов] Alexei Kassian. Some considerations on Vedic -ya-presents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 [А. Касьян. Некторые соображения по поводу ведийского -ya-презенса] В. А. Дыбо. Относительно др.-инд. ­ya-глаголов . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 [V. A. Dybo. On Vedic -ya-presents] Leonid Kulikov. Reply to replies [Л. И. Куликов. Ответ на ответы] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Table of Contents / Содержание Book reviews / Рецензии Ю. В. НОРМАНСКАЯ, А. В. ДЫБО. Тезаурус: Лексика природного окружения в уральских языках, 2010 (М. А. Живлов / Mikhail Zhivlov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Angela MARCANTONIO (ed.). The Indo-European Language Family: Questions about its Status, 2009 (И. С. Якубович / Ilya Yakubovich) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Periodic reviews / Периодика The Journal of Indo-European Studies. Vol. 37, № 3–4, 2009 (Т. А. Михайлова / Tatyana Mikhailova) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reports / Хроника Шестые традиционные чтения памяти С. А. Старостина, Москва, РГГУ, 24—25 марта 2011 г. (Л. В. Клименченко / Lyubov’ Klimenchenko) . . . . . 238 [The 6th Traditional Conference in Memory of S. A. Starostin, Moscow, RSUH, March 24–25, 2011] Научные чтения к 80-летию В. А. Дыбо, Москва, РГГУ, 5 мая 2011 г. (Е. В. Коровина / Evgeniya Korovina) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 [Conference in honor of the 80th jubilee of Vladimir Dybo, Moscow, RSUH, May 5, 2011] VII Международный семинар по балто-славянской акцентологии, Москва, РГГУ, 7—9 июля 2011 г. (И. П. Котоедов / Ivan Kotoedov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 [7 International Workshop on Balto-Slavic Accentology, Moscow, RSUH, July 7–9, 2011] th Конференция «Изоляты в Африке», Лион, 3—4 декабря 2010 г. (К. Н. Прохоров / Kirill Prokhorov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [“Isolates in Africa”, Lyons, Laboratoire Dynamique du Langage, December 3–4, 2010] 247 Сведения об авторах Бабаев Кирилл Владимирович — канд. филол. наук, ст. науч. сотрудник Сектора компаративистики Института языкознания РАН (Москва), [email protected] Бенгтсон Джон — Ассоциация изучения языка в доисторический период, Миннесота, [email protected] Блажек Вацлав — проф. Масарикова университета, Брно, [email protected] Валерио Мигель — студент археологического отделения факультета социальных и гуманитарных наук Нового Лиссабонского университета, [email protected] Дыбо Владимир Антонович — доктор филол. наук, чл.-кор. Академии РАН, зав. Центром компаративистики ИВКА РГГУ (Москва), [email protected] Живлов Михаил Александрович — канд. филол. наук, науч. сотрудник отдела урало-алтайских языков Института языкознания РАН (Москва), [email protected] Касьян Алексей Сергеевич — канд. филол. наук, преп. Центра компаративистики ИВКА РГГУ, н.с. отдела индоевропейских языков Института языкознания РАН (Москва), [email protected] Клименченко Любовь Владимировна — студентка Института лингвистики РГГУ (Москва), [email protected] Коровина Евгения Владимировна — студентка Центра компаративистики ИВКА РГГУ (Москва), [email protected] Котоедов Иван Петрович — студент Института лингвистики РГГУ (Москва), [email protected] Куликов Леонид Игоревич — канд. филол. наук, Ph.D. (Лейденский университет); доцент Лейденского университета; докторант сектора типологии Института языкознания РАН (Москва), [email protected] Михайлова Татьяна Андреевна — доктор филол. наук, проф. кафедры германской и кельтской филологии филологического факультета МГУ (Москва), [email protected] Ослон Михаил Владимирович — канд. филол. наук, сотрудник Отдела типологии и сравнительного языкознания Института cлавяноведения РАН (Москва), [email protected] Пейрос Илья Иосифович — доктор филол. наук, Институт Санта Фе (Нью-Мексико, США), [email protected] Прохоров Кирилл Николаевич — сотрудник отдела этнографии народов Африки, Музей антропологии и этнографии РАН им. Петра Великого (Санкт-Петербург), [email protected] Старостин Георгий Сергеевич — канд. филол. наук, зав. кафедрой истории и филологии Дальнего Востока ИВКА РГГУ (Москва), [email protected] Такач Габор — научный сотрудник отдела египтологии Будапештского университета, Венгрия, [email protected] Якубович Илья Сергеевич — кандидат филол. наук, научный сотрудник Института мировой культуры МГУ (Москва); Ph.D. (Linguistics and Near Eastern Studies, University of Chicago), [email protected] Contributors Kirill V. Babaev — candidate of sciences (Philology), lead researcher, Department of Comparative Studies, Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow), [email protected] John D. Bengtson — Association for the Study of Language in Prehistory, Minnesota, [email protected] Václav Blažek — professor, Masaryk University, Brno, [email protected] Vladimir Dybo — doctor of sciences (Philology), corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Head of Center for Comparative Linguistics, Russian State University for the Humanities (Moscow), [email protected] Alexei Kassian — candidate of sciences (Philology), researcher, Center for Comparative Linguistics, Russian State University for the Humanities; researcher, Department of IndoEuropean Studies, Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow), [email protected] Lyubov’ Klimenchenko — student, Institute of Linguistics, Russian State University for the Humanities (Moscow), [email protected] Eugenia Korovina — student, Center for Comparative Linguistics, Russian State University for the Humanities (Moscow), [email protected] Ivan Kotoedov — student, Institute of Linguistics, Russian State University for the Humanities (Moscow), [email protected] Leonid I. Kulikov — candidate of sciences (Philology), Ph.D. (Leiden University); associated member and lecturer at Leiden University, Institute of Linguistics; doctorant of Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow), [email protected] Tatyana Mikhailova — doctor of sciences (Philology), professor, Department of Germanic and Celtic Philology, Faculty of Philology, Moscow State University (Moscow), [email protected] Mikhail Oslon — candidate of sciences (Philology), Department of typology and comparative linguistics, Institute of Slavic Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow), [email protected] Ilia Peiros — doctor of sciences (Philology), visiting researcher, Institute of Santa Fe (New Mexico, USA), [email protected] Kirill Prokhorov — researcher, Department of Africa, Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (St. Petersburg), [email protected] George Starostin — candidate of sciences (Philology), Head of Department of the history and philology of the Far East, Institute of Eastern Cultures and Antiquity, RSUH (Moscow), [email protected] Gabor Takács — researcher, Department of Egyptology, Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest, Hungary, [email protected] Miguel Valério — M. A. student of Archaeology, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, New University of Lisbon, [email protected] Ilya Yakubovich — candidate of sciences (Philology), research associate, Institute of World Cultures, Moscow State University; Ph.D. (Linguistics and Near Eastern Studies, University of Chicago), [email protected] Mikhail Zhivlov — candidate of sciences (Philology), researcher, Department of Uralo-Altaic Studies, Institute of Linguistics, Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow), [email protected] Note for Contributors Journal of Language Relationship welcomes submissions from everyone specializing in comparative-historical linguistics and related disciplines, in the form of original articles as well as reviews of recent publications. All such submissions should be sent to the managing editor: G. Starostin Institute of Oriental Cultures and Antiquity Russian State University for the Humanities 125267 Moscow, Russia Miusskaya Square, 6 E-mail: [email protected] Articles are published preferably in English or Russian, although publication of texts in other major European languages (French, German, etc.) is possible. Each article should be accompanied with an abstract (not exceeding 300 words) and keywords. For more detailed guidelines on article submission and editorial policies, please see our Website at: http://www.jolr.ru or address the editorial staff directly at [email protected]. Будущим авторам Журнал Вопросы языкового родства принимает заявки на публикацию оригинальных научных статей, а также рецензий, от всех, кто специализируется в области сравнительноисторического языкознания и смежных дисциплин. Рукописи можно высылать непосредственно заместителю главного редактора по адресу: 125267 Москва Миусская площадь, д. 6 Российский государственный гуманитарный университет Институт восточных культур и античности Г. Старостину E-mail: [email protected] Предпочтительные языки публикации — английский или русский, хотя возможна также публикация статей на других европейских языках (французский, немецкий и т. п.). К каждой статье обязательно прикладывается резюме (не более 300 слов) и список ключевых слов. Подробнее о требованиях к оформлению рукописи, редакционной политике журнала и т. п. Вы можете узнать на нашем сайте по адресу: http://www.jolr.ru, или же непосредственно обратившись к редакции по электронной почте ([email protected]). John D. Bengtson Association for the Study of Language in Prehistory and Evolution of Human Language Project Václav Blažek Masaryk University On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule * The paper deals with a relatively recent hypothesis, put forward by the scholar I. Čašule, according to which the Burushaski language, traditionally considered an isolate, actually belongs to the Indo-European linguistic stock. The authors approach Čašule’s hypothesis from the comparative side, evaluating phonological, morphological, and lexical arguments in its favour side by side with the corresponding arguments in favour of the Dene-Caucasian hypothesis, according to which Burushaski forms a separate one-language branch of the vast macrofamily that also includes Na-Dene, Sino-Tibetan, North Caucasian, Basque, and Yeniseian languages. It is concluded that arguments for the Dene-Caucasian status of Burushaski quantitatively override the Indo-European-Burushaski hypothesis by a very large margin; suggested Indo-European connections are either highly unsystematic (when it comes to phonetic correspondences), sporadic and insufficient (in morphology), or practically non-existent (in basic lexicon). Consequently, all of the resemblances between Indo-European and Burushaski must be ascribed to (a) recent contacts between Burushaski and Indo-Aryan languages, (b) chance resemblances, or (c) in a very small number of cases, traces of «ultra-deep» relationship that do not represent exclusively «Indo-European-Burushaski» connections. Keywords: Indo-European linguistics, Burushaski language, macrocomparative linguistics, Dene-Caucasian macrofamily, language isolates. Over the last two decades, Ilija Čašule has published a monograph (Čašule 1998) and an article (Čašule 2003) in which he attempts to show that the Burushaski language — traditionally considered an isolate — is a member of the Indo-European language family. One of the authors has already published a critique of the 1998 monograph (Bengtson 2000). In this article we shall mainly be dealing with the 2003 article in JIES, and all page number references will be to the latter work. While we agree with Čašule that there are some affinities between Burushaski (Bur) and Indo-European (IE), we do not consider Bur a part of the IE family, or even of the postulated deeper macro-family to which IE belongs (Nostratic or Eurasiatic), and we intend to show that * We are deeply indebted to the work of the late Sergei A. Starostin, who, in the last few months of his life, worked intensively on the Burushaski language and its relationship with Dene-Caucasian languages. The results can be seen in his DC phonology and glossary, and EHL/ToB etymological databases (see References). Since his father’s passing Georgiy (George) Starostin has continued to work with us and we are grateful to him. We are thankful for useful comments from Elena Bashir, Bertil Tikkanen, and Michael Witzel. We are also deeply thankful to the Evolution of Human Language Project, Santa Fe Institute, and Murray Gell-Mann, and the Centre for the Interdisciplinary Research of Ancient Languages and Older Stages of Modern Languages (MSM 0021622435), Masaryk University Brno, for their support. Journal of Language Relationship • Вопросы языкового родства • 6 (2011) • Pp. 25–63 • © Bengtson J. D., Blažek V., 2011 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek a large part of the resemblances between Bur and IE can be explained as areal, i.e., the results of long-term contact and borrowing — in both directions — between Bur and surrounding IE languages.1 However, we shall not simply demolish Čašule’s hypothesis without providing what we consider a better, more plausible, and more probable alternative for the classification of this fascinating (Bur) language. We shall present evidence that Bur is more likely a member of the Dene-Caucasian (or Sino-Caucasian) macro-family. This is of course not a new idea: it was prefigured long ago by scholars such as Karl Bouda, O. G. Tailleur, V. N. Toporov, and others. Recently this hypothesis has been given a firmer grounding using traditional historical linguistic methods: see, e.g., Bengtson (1997a, 2001a, 2008a), Blažek & Bengtson (1995), Starostin (n.d., 2005a, 2005b). While it is not possible to present all the evidence for this latter view (see the references), we think some salient aspects of the phonology, morphology, and lexicon of Bur are enough to indicate the greater probability of its Dene-Caucasian (DC) affiliation.2 Phonology At first glance Čašule’s comparison of IE and Burushaski phonology seems impressive. An ample number of examples is cited, and superficially it seems that Čašule (henceforth “Č”) has made a good case for a correspondence between IE and Burushaski phonology. However, on closer examination a number of problems appear. (a) Some “Bur” words cited for comparison are actually loanwords from Indo-Aryan or Iranian languages. Thus, dumáṣ ‘cloud of dust, smoke, water’ (p. 31) is clearly borrowed from Old Indic3 dhūmáḥ ‘smoke, vapor, mist’4 (even the accent is the same); púrme ‘beforehand, before the time’ (p. 34) is isolated in the Bur lexicon and looks like a derivative of OI *purima- > Pali purima- ‘earlier’ (CDIAL 8286; cf. Eng. former); badá ‘sole, step, pace’ (p. 40) appears to be from OI padám ‘step, pace, stride’ (CDIAL 7747), and perhaps others. (b) Some comparisons adduced in support of the correspondences are semantically tortuous if not utterly dubious. For example, IE *dȹeu- ‘to die, to lose conscience (sic)’ ~ Bur diú ‘lynx’ (p. 36); IE *h2er-t-om ‘white (metal), silver’ ~ Bur hargín ‘dragon, ogre’, etc. (c) The proposed correspondences are not consistent and do not form a coherent system. For example, IE *, *ȹ are said to correspond to Bur g (voiced velar stop) or ġ (voiced uvular fricative) (p. 39), apparently in free variation, but in Bur bérkat ‘summit, peak, crest; height’ (pp. 30, 35) IE *ȹ is matched with Bur k (voiceless velar stop), in Bur buqhéni ‘a type of goat’ (p. 31) IE * is matched with Bur qh (aspirated uvular stop or affricate), and in Bur je, já ‘I’ (p. 72) IE *ȹ is matched with Bur j [ = dź]. IE *kw is said to correspond to Bur k (voiceless velar stop) (p. 38), but in Bur ­śóġut ‘the side of the body under the arm; bosom’ (p. 30) it is matched with Bur ġ (voiced uvular fricative), while in Bur waq ‘open the mouth, talk’ (p. 38) it is matched with Bur q (voiceless uvular stop). PIE *w (* ) becomes Bur w in waq ‘open the mouth, The authors accept Nostratic/Eurasiatic and Dene-Caucasian as working hypotheses that represent, in our opinion, the best available explanations for language classification in northern Eurasia (see, e.g., Bengtson 2008b, Blažek 2003, 2008). 2 For some history of the DC hypothesis see e.g. Bengtson (1994), Blažek & Bengtson (1995), Peiros (1988), Ruhlen (1996, 1998a, 2001). 3 Old Indic (OI) here encompasses Vedic and Classical (Sanskrit) forms of OI. 4 H. Berger (p.c. to author Bengtson) regarded Bur dumáṣ as a loanword from Indic (CDIAL 6849). See Bengtson (2001b, p. 185). 1 26 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule talk’ (p. 38),5 but b in buḍóo ‘rinsing water; water that becomes warm in the sun’ (p. 31).6 For Č the Bur uvulars (q, qh, ġ) are merely variants of the velars and do not form an historical class of their own (but see [d.3] below). (d) Č totally overlooks (or minimizes) many distinctive features of the Burushaski phonological system. These features include (1) the retroflex stops, (2) the phoneme /ỵ/, (3) the uvular consonants, (4) the tripartite sibilant contrast /ṣ ~ ś ~ s/, and (5) the cluster ­lt­, and the t- ~ ­lt- alternation (corresponding, we think, to Dene-Caucasian lateral affricates). We reproduce below (with minor modifications) the table of Burushaski consonants presented by Berger (1998, I: 13): uvular velar retroflex dental qh kh ṭh th q k ṭ t ġ g ḍ d ŋ h retroflex palatal laminal ṣ ś s h ćh ch ph ć c p j z b  n r l labial Table 1 m ỵ (1) The retroflex stops. Č (pp. 26–27) claims “We do not know the genesis of the retroflex consonants in Bur … we cannot know with certainty whether Bur originally possessed aspirates and cerebrals or whether these phonemes were acquired from IndoAryan.” Although Č does not discuss it, the DC hypothesis provides a ready explanation for at least some of the retroflex consonants in Bur: 7 • Bur *giṭ ‘anus; vulva; intestines with inner fat’ < *girt or *gilt ~ Caucasian: PEC *ḵwǸlṭV (Dargwa ḳulṭa ‘belly, stomach’, Agul guṭul ‘kidney’, etc.)8 ~ PY *gǸʔd ‘fat’: Ket, Yug kǸʔt, Kott kīr, Arin ki (NCED 711, CSCG 119) • Bur *­phaṭ ‘gizzard, stomach of fowl’ < *phart ~ Caucasian: PEC *pHVrṭwV (Bezhta pirṭi ‘lung, bladder’, Archi pạrṭi ‘large intestine’, etc.)9 ~ Basque *e-purdi ‘buttocks, rump’ (NCED 871, CSCG 160)10 • Bur *ġiṭ ‘slime’11 < *ġirt ~ Caucasian: PEC *wirdǸ (Avar xwerd ‘pus’, Agul furd ‘dung’, etc.) ~ Basque *lirdi ‘drivel, saliva’ ~ PST *lt ‘mucus, phlegm’ (Tibetan lud ‘phlegm, mucus; manure, dung’, etc.) (NCED 763, LDC 19, CSCG 132) See CSCG (p. 8) for an alternative comparison with DC. Cf. instead OI *buḍyati ‘sinks’, Marathi buḍbuḍ ‘sound of bubbling’, etc. (CDIAL 9272). 7 It is important to note that *ṭ in Nikolaev’s & Starostin’s Caucasian reconstructions does not denote a retroflex stop but rather a glottalized stop (similarly with other glottalized obstruents: , , , , , ḳ, . On the other hand, in this paper ṭ, ṭh, ḍ, ṣ, , h, , ỵ in Burushaski words always denote retroflex obstruents. 8 Some Caucasian words, e.g. Udi gurdak ‘kidney’, Tabasaran gurdum id., seem to reflect influence of Persian gurde ‘kidney’. Perhaps in some cases there is a blend of the Persian word with Proto-Lezgian *k:wǸrṭ- (k:wǸlṭ-?) (thanks to E. Bashir, pc.). 9 ạ represents a pharyngealized vowel, also (confusingly) written aI, where I represents the paločka in the Cyrillic orthography of Caucasian languages (Catford 1977: 296). 10 Assuming a semantic development such as ‘large intestine > colon > rectum > buttock’ in Basque. Cf. OI gudá- ‘intestine, entrail, rectum, anus’, Sindhi guī ‘anus, posterior’, etc. (CDIAL 4194). 11 ‘Schlamm (feucht oder ausgetrocknet)’ (Berger 1998). E. Bashir (pc.) suggests possible Indo-Aryan origin: cf. Panjabi giḍḍ ~ gidd ‘matter that accumulates in the corner of the eye’. 5 6 27 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek • Bur *ćhaḍ-úm ‘narrow’12 < *ćhard- ~ Caucasian: PEC *HVrdV ‘narrow’ (Avar :edera-b, Dargwa Akushi ạrṭa, etc.) ~ PY *toʔd- (~ *coʔd­) ‘shallow (of a river)’ (NCED 387, CSCG 199) • Bur *gaṭú ‘clothes’ < *gart- ~ Caucasian: PEC *gwĭrdwV ‘a kind of clothing’ (Avar gordé ‘shirt’, Dargwa Akushi gurdi ‘dress’, etc.) ~ PY *χʔt(Ǹr1) ‘cloth, felt’ > Arin qot, kot ‘trousers’, etc. (NCED 449, CSCG 223) These examples suggest that the Proto-DC intervocalic clusters *­lt­, *­rṭ­, *­rd- regularly correspond to Bur retroflex consonants. While this process does not account for all occurrences of retroflex consonants in Burushaski, it does indicate a very old origin of the retroflex series that is analogous to the origin of retroflexes in Indo-Aryan.13 (See below for the development of a new cluster /lt/ in Bur.). (2) The Bur phoneme /ỵ/. Č (p. 25) briefly mentions Bur /ỵ/, but it has no real place in his IE-Bur phonology. As far as we can see, /ỵ/ figures in only one of Č’s Bur-IE comparisons, that of Bur ġuỵ-aŋ ‘hair’ with IE *go r- ‘hair’ (p. 32). Č provides no explanation of why IE *r becomes Bur /ỵ/ in just this one case.14 This seems to us a very unsatisfactory treatment of this important Bur phoneme. Before presenting our view of the genesis of /ỵ/, some further information is necessary: Burushaski and Ḍomākí (an Indo-Aryan language spoken in parts of the Burushaskispeaking area)15 have an unusual consonant [ỵ], variously described as “a fricative r, pronounced with the tongue in the retroflex (‘cerebral’) position” (Morgenstierne 1945), “a kind of ṛ ḷ ỵ and ẓ̌” (Lorimer 1937: 72), “a voiced retroflex sibilant with simultaneous palatal-dorsal narrowing” (Berger 1998), “a curious sound whose phonetic realizations vary from a retroflex, spirantized glide, to a retroflex velarized spirant” (Anderson, ms.). Because of the elusive character of this sound, it has been transcribed in various ways; for example, the word for ‘my father’, transcribed here as áỵa, is found in the literature as aiyah, álya, āgha, aỵa, or a!a. As noted by Morgenstierne (1945), Bur [ỵ] in loanwords from Indo-Aryan derives from the retroflex sound *ṛ, which in turn can come from *ṭ, *ḍ, *ḍh. Morgenstierne and Berger cite the examples: • • • • Bur (H,N) daỵ ‘fat, strong, robust’ < OI dṛḍha- (Beiträge 36, no. 3.35) Bur (H,N) báỵum ‘mare’ < *vaḍam- = OI vaḍabā- (Beiträge, ibid.) Bur (H) páaỵo, (N) páỵo, (Y) pálu ‘wedge’ < OI pāṭaka- (Beiträge 24, no. 3.13) Bur (H, N) kiláaỵ ‘beesting curds’ = Late OI kilāṭa ‘cheese’ (but see further below) Note also: • [ỵ] is heard in the Hunza and Nager dialects, but not in Yasin (“Werchikwar”), where [ỵ] either corresponds to zero (as in ba for baỵ ‘millet’) or a different phoneme: Yasin pálu ‘wedge’ ~ (H) páaỵo, (N) páỵo; Yasin kha" ‘(stony) shore, bank’ ~ (H, N) khaỵ, etc.; The variant (Y, H) ć(h)an-úm appears to be contaminated by the verb du-ć(h)an­. “The development *lt > retroflex is evident also from early Indo-Aryan, and later again in the Prakrits. Nostraticists explain Dravidian retroflexes in the same way. This areal tendency should probably not be attributed to influence of Dravidian (which is not seen in the early Rgveda), but as an areal feature of the Northwest (of Greater India), as seen in Bur, Pashto, Old Indic of the Rgveda, and later also Khotanese Saka.” (M. Witzel, pc.) 14 /ỵ/ is also seen in Č’s comparison of Bur biỵ ‘butter’ with IE *p- ‘fat’ (p. 40), though no IE suffix corresponding to Bur ­ỵ is proffered. 15 Ḍomākí, an endangered language, is spoken in the village of Mominabad (Hunza) and in a couple of villages in Nager (B. Tikkanen, p.c.). 12 13 28 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule • Berger (1998 I: 22, note 8) also finds [ỵ] similar to the Tamil sound commonly transcribed as ḻ; • Place names confirm the ancient affinity of [ỵ] with [l] or other laterals: Bur Námaỵ = Nomal; Puny$ãỵ = Punial (Lorimer 1937: 73); • The Bur word (H, N) kiláaỵ ‘Quark aus Biestmilch’ is found in Vedic as kīlāla- ‘beestings, a sweet drink’ (Witzel 1999: 3), also in Khowar as kiḷāl, kiḷāri; • Some Indo-Aryan dialects (including those of some Vedic texts) have/had a retroflex ḷ corresponding to the ḍ of Classical OI,16 as in Ved. nīḷá- ‘nest’ = Skt. nīḍa- < PIE *nizdó­. With that background, we propose that Burushaski [ỵ] — apart from loanwords — ultimately derives from laterals (*l,*ł) and clusters involving laterals (e.g., *lć, *lč, *lχ, *ɦl) in ProtoDC. The following examples support this interpretation: • Bur *ġaỵ ‘thread, strand (in weaving)’ ~ Caucasian: Lezgi 'al = ġal ‘thread’, etc. < PEC *(āłV ‘sinew, thread’ (NCED 1067) ~ Basque: *ha[l]i ‘thread, yarn, filament, wire’ • Bur *khiỵ > (H,N) khiỵ ‘leaf’, (Y) khi-áŋ ‘(fallen) leaves’ ~ Caucasian: Tindi koli, Abkhaz a-ḳ)la ‘sheaf’, etc. < PNC *ḵ+wł (NCED 690). • Bur *qhiỵé > (H,N) qhiỵé ‘(single, small) stones, gravel’ ~ Caucasian: Archi ,ɀil ‘rock, cliff’, Abkhaz a-,ɀa-rá ‘rocky river bank’, etc. < PNC *,wił0 (NCED 939) • Bur *baỵ, (Y) ba ‘(small-grained) millet’ ~ Caucasian: Chechen borc ‘millet’, etc. < PNC *bŏlćwĭ (NCED 309, CSCG 15) • Bur *huỵ- ‘to dry’17 ~ Caucasian: Dargwa Urakhi =ir-/=u- ‘to roast, fry’, etc. < PEC *=i[l]čwĚ ‘to roast, fry, dry’ (NCED 633, CSCG 103) • Bur *huỵóo > (H,N) huỵóo ‘wool animal, sheep’ ~ Caucasian: Chechen ȥāχa-r ‘lamb’, Andi iχo ‘sheep, ewe’, etc. < PNC *ȱīlχU (NCED 247, CSCG 265) • Bur *ġuỵ ‘hair’18 ~ Caucasian: Chechen ēχang ‘woollen thread, yarn’, Rutul arχ̣ ‘spring wool’, Tsakhur arχ̣ ‘autumn wool’, etc.19 < PEC *ȱālχV ‘wool’ (NCED 242) ~ Basque *ulhe ‘hair, wool’ • Bur *ġaqáỵ(­um) ‘bitter; unsweetened; sour’ > ġaqáỵ(­um) (H,N), qaqám (Y) ~ Caucasian: Archi ,ala ‘bitter’, Khinalug ,ilez ‘salty’, Ubykh ,a,) ‘sweet’, etc. < PNC *,ĕɦlV (~ ­ł­) (NCED 912) ~ PY *qVqVr ‘gall; bitter’ ~ Basque: *kerać ‘bitter, sour; stench’ (CSCG 236)20 The following examples indicate DC lateral suffixes (*­alV, *­ulV, *­ilV) with the reflexes /aỵ/, /uỵ/ in Bur: • Bur *tumáỵ ‘shell of nut, fruit stone’ ~ Caucasian: Archi ṭummul ‘grape’, Budukh ṭombul ‘plum’, etc. < Proto-Lezgian *ṭum(:)ul (beside suffixless Chechen, Ingush, Batsbi ṭum ‘marrow; kernel of fruit, nut’) < PNC *ṭŭmhV ‘kernel, nut, fruit-stone; marrow’ (NCED 1004, CSCG 205) “The Rgveda originally did not have [retroflex l] but acquired it only during [oral] transmission, by c. 500 BCE. And Pāṇini also does not have it in his grammar … He does not even have the vowel l [], just the vowel r [ ]. The later Vedic (Post-Rgveda) record is quite checkered [in regard to retroflex l]. The Delhi area and some texts east and south of it had such a retroflex. … [retroflex l] is now found in the mountain area of Indo-Aryan, from the Afghan border to the western Nepalese border.” (M. Witzel, p.c.). 17 (H, N) b-úỵ­, (Y) b-u­, du-hu­. 18 (Y) ġóyaŋ, (H,N) ġuyáŋ ‘hair’ (both with ordinary /y/), (N) ­thóġuỵ ‘fine hair of small children’, also in (H) phul-ġúuỵ, (N) phur-ġúuỵ ‘feather’. 19 /χ/ denotes the Caucasian pharyngealized voiceless uvular affricate = NCED /χI/. ̣ 20 For semantics, cf. Albanian ëmbël ‘sweet’, Armenian amokh ‘sweet’, maybe cognate with Latin amārus ‘bitter’, Old Swedish amper ‘sauer, scharf, bitter’, etc. 16 29 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek • Bur (N) ­pháġuỵ ‘stick, walking-stick’ (beside [H] ­pháġo) ~ Caucasian: Andi moq’:ol ‘ceiling’ (beside suffixless Avar moq’: ‘pole’, Tsez mạq ‘short stick, rod’,21 etc.) < PNC *bħ>n? ‘pole, post’ ~ Basque *makiła ‘stick, cane’ (beside Bizkaian mak-et ‘club’, with a different suffix)22 (NCED 295, CSCG 14) • Bur qarúuỵo (H), ġarúuỵo (N) ‘heron’ ~ Basque *ku@V(­lo) ‘crane’ (Bizkaian, Gipuzkoan kurrillo, kurlo, Zuberoan khürlo, vs. suffixless Low Navarrese kurru, Roncalese kurri);23 Caucasian words for ‘crane’ display a variety of suffixes and reduplications: cf. Chechen 'ar'uli = ġarġuli, Andi ,:urru, Karata ,:uru-n‚ Adyge q:araw ‘crane’, etc. < PNC *?>r>,wV beside the simplex *?wVrV (NCED 914–5, CSCG 237). We believe we have shown that the Bur phoneme /ỵ/ is an integral feature of the language, and that only the DC model provides a plausible explanation of its origin. (3) The uvular consonants. The Bur uvular consonants, as a class, are totally ignored by Č, to whom /q/, /qh/, and /ġ/ are simply erratically occurring variants of /k/, /kh/, and /g/. We intend to show that the Bur uvulars constitute a class of importance and long standing in the language, and can be derived from the DC uvulars.24 • Bur qarúuỵo ~ ġarúuỵo ‘heron’ ~ Basque *ku@V(­lo) ‘crane’ ~ PNC *?>r>,wV / *?wVrV ‘crane’ (see above) • Bur *qVt- > ­qat (H), ­qhat (N), ­qet-araŋ (Y) ‘armpit’ ~ Caucasian: Avar me-héd ‘brisket (chest of animal)’, Bezhta 'ade = ġade ‘brisket’ < PEC *qVdV (NCED 897) ~ PY *qot- (~χot­) ‘in front, before’ (cf. Eng. abreast, etc.) (CSCG 170) • Bur *qorqor- > (H) qorqór ‘soft porous stone’, (N) qoqór ‘small stones’ ~ Caucasian: Dargwa q:arq:a ‘stone’, etc. < PEC *GŏrGV 25 ~ Basque *gogo@ ‘hard’ • Bur *quś- > (Y) quś ‘armpit (of clothing)’ ~ Caucasian: PNC *?HwaǸ ‘hole, hollow’ > Chamalal ,:ua ‘vagina’, Lezgi ,u ‘armpit’, etc. (NCED 922, CSCG 176) • Bur. *qaq- ‘dry, hungry’ ~ PY *qV[(ʔ)G]i- ‘dry’: Kott xújga, Arin qoija, etc. ~ PNC *BwiBwĂr: Lak q’a-q’- ‘dry’, etc. (CSCG 223) • Bur *qhaś- > ­qháśiŋ (H,N) ‘hind end, arse’, ­xáśaŋ (Y) ‘female sex organ’ ~ Caucasian: Udi qoš ‘behind’, etc. < PEC *­VEV (NCED 1026) • Bur *qhát- > ­qhát (H,N), ­xát, ­xat (Y) mouth’ ~ Caucasian: Lak qịṭ (dial. qɀịṭ, qụṭ) ‘Adam’s apple, beak’, etc.26 < PEC *qwJṭi (NCED 905, CSCG 172) • Bur *qhurc ‘dust’ ~ Caucasian: Tsez, Khwarshi ,ec ‘dirt, mud, slush’, Lezgi χanc’ ‘a layer of hardened dirt’, etc. < PNC *qānVKwV (NCED 884, CSCG 169) /ạ/ denotes a pharyngeal vowel = NCED /aI/. The supposed derivation of *makila from Latin bacilla (pl.) ‘sticks’ (Trask 2008: 281) seems to us to be rather a case of chance resemblance. Lat. bacilla cannot account for the Bizk. form maket. Lat. bacillum, baculum are themselves suspect, having the rare PIE phoneme *b­, and reflexes of PIE *bak- (if it existed) are found only in western IE languages for which hypothetical DC-like substrata have been supposed. 23 One could suspect derivation of the Basque words from Romance (cf. Latin grūs, Italian gru, French grue, Spanish grúa, grulla), but the Basque words always have initial /k/ vs. Romance /g/, and in Romance a lateral suffix is found only in the Castilian variant grulla, where we can suspect Vasconic influence, or a blend of Romance grúa + Basque kurrillo. The Basque simplex forms Low Navarrese kurru, Roncalese kurri are parallel to the Caucasian simplex forms such as Andi :urru, Karata :uru-n ‘crane’ (NCED 915). 24 In Basque all DC uvulars become velars /k, g/ or the spirant /h/; in a few cases *Gw > *gw > /b/. 25 < *GŏrqV or *qŏrGV? 26 /ị/, /ụ/ denote pharyngealized vowels = NCED /iI/, /uI/. 21 22 30 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule • Bur *qhái ‘revenge’ ~ PY *χV(ʔ)j- ‘to be angry’ ~ Caucasian: Udi χuj ‘anger’, Dargwa qạ ‘oath’, etc.27 < PEC *qwĕj (NCED 901, CSCG 171) • Bur ­qhúrpat (H,N), ­xórpet (Y) ‘lung’ ~ ? Cauc.: Tsez χoṭori, Lak hutru, etc. ‘lung’ < PEC *Ew0lθV(rM) ~*(w0lθV(rM) (NCED 901) ~ ? Basque *hauśpo ‘bellows, lungs’ (LDC 22)28 • Bur *qhVltá ‘sack, pocket’ > (H) qhiltá, (N) qhaltá, (Y) xalt(y)á ~ Caucasian: Akhwakh ,:ẽQe ‘sack, pillow’, etc. < PEC *GHRrSwV (NCED 457, CSCG 55) • Bur *ġaqáỵ(­um) ‘bitter; unsweetened; sour’ ~ PNC *,ĕɦlV ~ PY *qVqVr ‘gall; bitter’ ~ Basque *kerać ‘bitter, sour; stench’, etc. (see above) • Bur *ġul ‘grudge, enmity, hatred’ ~ Caucasian: Avar 'wel = ġwel ‘gossip, rumor; abuse’, Khinalug qol ‘offence’, etc. < PEC *Gwāłħo (NCED 465) ~ PY *q0(ʔ)r- (χ­) ‘angry’ ~ Basque *bVrhao / *bVraho ‘curse, blasphemy’ (CSCG 55) • Bur *cháġur ‘chest or box for grain or meal’ ~ Caucasian: Avar ca'úr = caġúr ‘corn bin, barn’, Chechen cχar ‘penthouse’, etc. < PEC *cVGVr- (NCED 328, CSCG 189) • Bur ġónderes, ġondoles (Y) ‘water that runs over many stones’ ~ Cauc.: Botlikh 'adaru = ġadaru ‘stream, brook’, Lak ạtara ‘mountain stream’, etc. < PEC *GHwadVrV (NCED 478, CSCG 185) • Bur *ġórqu- > ġúrqun (H), ġúrquc (N), ġórkun (Y) ‘frog’ ~ Caucasian: Tindi ,or,:u, ,o,:u, Khinalug ,ur,or, Kabardian ħand0r-q:wāq:wa, etc. ‘frog’ < PNC *?wVrV,M (NCED 942) ~ PY *x0ʔr- ‘frog’ > Ket, Yug Tʔl, Arin kere (CSCG 243) • Bur *ltaġ > taġ (Y) ‘branch, shoot’29 ~ Caucasian: Avar W:oχ: ‘stubble’, etc. < PEC *SɦwāχV ‘stick, chip’ (NCED 778, CSCG 137) • Bur *ġaỵ ‘thread, strand (in weaving)’ ~ PEC *(āłV ‘sinew, thread’ ~ Basque *ha[l]i ‘thread, yarn, filament, wire’ (see above) The Bur uvulars are thus far from being merely peripheral and erratic variations of the velars: they constitute an integral series in the Bur phonological system that cannot be understood apart from the DC context from which they arose. (4) The tripartite sibilant (and sibilant affricate) contrast. A sibilant contrast with three points of articulation that carries through to sibilant affricates, though ignored by Č, is a significant feature of Burushaski phonology that did not exist in Proto-IE,30 but is characteristic of Caucasian languages as well as of Basque. Below is the Burushaski system as outlined by Berger (1998, I: 13): laminal palatal retroflex s ś ṣ ch ćh h c ć z j Table 2  /ạ/ denotes a pharyngeal vowel = NCED /aI/. A questionable comparison. At the very least, there have been some irregular changes and/or contaminations, e.g. Basque *hauśpo with *hauć ‘dust’, etc. 29 See below for the correspondence of Bur t- with Caucasian lateral affricates. 30 Unlike most IE languages, Old Indic had a triple contrast (s, ś, ṣ). We suggest that this was an areal feature acquired by early Indic as its speakers sojourned in the Hindu-Kush area. “A good point again about the three sibilants in IA: Iranian only has two (š and s). I agree with your assessment as an areal feature: again the NW [northwestern Greater India]. Note that many other forms result from the NW predilection for ‘bending back the tongue’: (PIE) *rēk’s > *rāćš > *rāçṣ > (Skt) rāṭ (nom. ‘the king’).” (M. Witzel, p.c.). 27 28 31 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek This is very similar to the slightly more complex system reconstructed for Proto-Caucasian (NCED, p. 40; palatal = hissing-hushing): hissing palatal hushing s ś š z ź ž c ć č ʒ  ǯ   Table 3 And cf. the more simplified system of Basque (Hualde 1991): Table 4 laminoalveolar apicoalveolar palatal s ś š c ć č In the Basque orthographic system the sounds /s/, /ś/, /š/, /c/, /ć/, /č/ are denoted by the letters z, s, x, tz, ts, tx, respectively. We think it interesting that this characteristic DC pattern has been maintained to the present day in widely separated descendant languages. Naturally, there have been extensive changes, but the systems as a whole have remained. The following comparisons are typical of the Bur system of sibilants and affricates and their relationship to those of other DC languages. Note that some of the phonetic correspondences are complex, and CSCP (Starostin 2005b) should be consulted for the details. • Bur *´­s ‘heart, mind’ ~ Caucasian: Ubykh p-sa ‘soul, spirit’, Bezhta, Hunzib has ‘sky, cloud, fog’, etc. < PNC *ȱămYa ~ Basque *ɦaise ‘wind’ ~ Yeniseian: PY *ʔes ‘God, sky’ (NCED 243, CSCG 263)31 • Bur *´­so[m] ‘kidney’32 ~ Caucasian: Chechen sam-g ‘sausage (made from a large intestine)’, Akhwakh s:e ‘sinew, muscle’, etc. < PEC *YēħmV / *ħēmYV ~ Basque *sain ‘vein, nerve, root’ (NCED 959, CSCG 187)33 • Bur *­sZsVn ‘elbow’34 ~ Caucasian: Udi sun ‘elbow’, Lak s:an ‘foreleg, paw’, etc. < PEC *YJnŏ ~ Basque *san-ko ‘leg, calf, foot, paw’, etc. (NCED 963, CSCG 187) • Bur *sán ‘spleen’ ~ Caucasian: Archi s:am ‘gall’, Dargwa *sumi ‘gall, anger’, etc. < PNC *Kw[jmĕ ~ Basque *beHa-su[m] ‘gall’ (NCED 329, LDC 18, CSCG 22) For semantics, cf. Rumanian inimă ‘heart, soul, mind,’ etc. < Latin anima ‘wind, air, breath, spirit, mind’, etc. Underlying m found in the plural form ´-somuc. 33 Starostin (CSCG 187) adds the following Sino-Tibetan forms: PST *sim ‘heart, soul’ > Old Chinese *sm ‘heart’; Tibetan sem(s) ‘soul; think’, b-sam ‘thought’; Burmese simh ‘to conceive, be in the charge of’; Lushai thiam ‘to know’; Lepcha a-sóm ‘spirit, breath’, etc. For semantics, cf. e.g. Skt. híra- ‘band, strip, fillet’, hir ‘vein, artery’; Gk. χορδή ‘gut, cord, string’; Lat. hīra ‘empty gut’; Lith. žarnà ‘intestine, small intestine’; Ger. Garn ‘yarn, thread, net’, Eng. yarn, etc. (IEW I: 604); Turkish böbrek ‘kidney’; Proto-Tungus-Manchu *pugi- / *puki- ‘intestines, stomach’ Proto-Japanese: *púnkúri ‘testicles’ (ToB). 34 (Y) ­sésen, (H, N) ­súsun. 31 32 32 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule • Bur *­sú[m] ‘umbilical cord, navel’35 ~ Caucasian: Dargwa zu ‘navel’, Khinalug c’um id., etc. < PEC *\ŏnʔŭ (NCED 1096, CSCG 249) • Bur *sa ‘sun, day, month’ ~ Caucasian: Lak s:aw ‘sky’, Botlikh ziwu ‘day’, etc. < PNC *ʒ+wR (NCED 1092, CSCG 248) • Bur *sum ‘sprout, shoot; tail; spout (of a vessel)’ ~ Caucasian: Lak c’un ‘spout (of a vessel)’, Chechen c’om ‘trunk’, etc. < PEC *^ūmV (~ *\ūmV) (NCED 367, CSCG 249) • Bur *sesin- ‘clear, clean’ ~ Caucasian: Chechen c’ena ‘clean, pure’, Abaza b-zi ‘good’, etc. < PNC *Hă\Ĕm- ~ Basque *susen ‘right, correct, just’ (NCED 552, LDC 189, CSCG 64)36 • Bur *­sqa ‘(on one’s) back’ ~ Caucasian: Proto-Abkhaz-Tapant *z0kwa ‘back’ ~ Basque *biska-@ ‘back; crest, hill’ ~ PY *suga / *ʔuska ‘back, backwards’ (ToB) • Bur *bus ‘sheaf (of grass, hay)’ ~ Caucasian: Chechen buc ‘grass’, Adyge w0c0 id., etc. < PNC *wJcM (NCED 1053, CSCG 219) • Bur *kūs ‘wonder, sorcery’ ~ Caucasian: Ingush kust ‘bearing, appearance, figure’, Archi kus ‘habit’, etc. < PEC *kwJjKV ~ Basque *hoć ‘noise, sound; fame, reputation; longing, mania’, etc. ~ Yeniseian: PY *k[uʔu]s ‘idol, ghost’ (NCED 710, CSCG 118) • Bur *bas ‘wooden plow’ ~ Caucasian: Karata bec:e ‘wooden plow’, Abkhaz a-p)za ‘plowshare’, etc. < PNC *pVrVKĔ (NCED 877, CSCG 164) • Bur *mos ‘mud avalanche’ ~ Caucasian: Agul mes ‘mould’, etc. < PEC *mäYwV ~ PY *puʔs ‘mould’ (NCED 296 [note], CSCG 141) • Bur *śi ‘fireplace, hearth’ ~ Caucasian: Ingush c’i ‘fire’, Lak c’u id., Abkhaz á-m-ca id., etc. < PNC *"ăjR ~ Basque *śu ‘fire’ (NCED 354, CSCG 23) • Bur *śe[m] ‘wool’37 ~ Caucasian: Lezgi r-"am ‘eyebrow’ (< *‘eye-wool’), Chechen "o",am id., etc. < PEC *"ɦwĕme ~ Basque *sama-@ ‘fleece, mane; chamarra’, etc. ~ Yeniseian: PY *c0ŋe ‘hair’ ~ PST *chām ‘hair (of head)’ > Kanauri cam ‘wool, fleece’, etc. (NCED 364, CSCG 27) • Bur *śulú ‘driftwood’38 ~ Caucasian: Tindi c:ela ‘rod’, Abkhaz á-c’la ‘tree’, etc. < PNC *^+łV ~ *^ŏłV ~ PST *Cal ~ *C0l ‘wood’ (NCED 362, CSCG 26) • Bur *­śáŋ ‘limbs, body parts’ ~ Caucasian: Lezgi "um ‘shin-bone’, Bezhta õc ‘knuckle-bone’, etc. < PEC *H^wējn+ ~ Basque *śoin ‘shoulder, upper back’, etc. (NCED 555, CSCG 66) • Bur *śon ‘blind’ ~ Caucasian: Lak "an ‘darkness’, Ubykh ǯ´a ‘black’, etc. < PNC *"ĂwnV (NCED 352, CSCG 24) • Bur *śóq-um ‘wide, broad’ ~ Caucasian: Dargwa Chirag čaqw- ‘high’, Kabardian ­šxwa ‘big’, etc. < PNC *H0qwV ~ Basque *aśko ‘much, many’, *aśki ‘enough’ ~ PST *ćŏk ~ *}ŏk ‘enough, sufficient’ (NCED 386, CSCG 36) • Bur *śúśun ‘(child’s) penis’ ~ Caucasian: Lezgi "u" ‘spout (of a tea-pot)’, Kryz "Ǹ" ‘clitoris, ring-stone’, etc. < PEC *"ŏ"V ~ Basque *soc ‘spigot, faucet’ (NCED 367, CSCG 28) • Bur *śō ‘dried leaves, stalks, roots’, etc. ~ Caucasian: Avar š:wají ‘small chaff’, Khinalug pšä ‘bread’, etc. < PNC *€wĭʔē ~ Basque *osi ‘germ of grain, shoot that becomes a head of grain’ ~ PST *sej ‘seed, fruit’ (NCED 977, CSCG 195) • Bur *quś- ‘armpit (of clothing)’ ~ Lezgi ,u ‘armpit’, etc. (see above) • Bur *aúśi- ‘guest’39 ~ Caucasian: Chechen ħāša ‘guest’, Ubykh p´a id., etc. < PNC *HMwĔ ~ PY *ʔ0ča (*ča­) ‘guest’ ~ Basque *ɦauso ‘neighbor’ (NCED 612, LDC 179, CSCG 83) 35 36 Underlying m found in the plural form ­súimuc. The semantic values in some languages apparently reflect the development: ‘clean > pure > good > correct, right’. Underlying final m found in the plural form śémiŋ. “consider Kalasha [ṣułá] ‘firewood’ … with an IA etymology (T 12349 [< OI śalkā f. any small stake or stick’])” (E. Bashir, p.c.). 37 38 33 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek • Bur *śi / *ṣi / *ṣu ‘to eat’ ~ Caucasian: Tsez, Khwarshi =a"- ‘to eat’, Tindi c:a- ‘to drink’, etc. < PEC *=V^V ~ Basque *auśi-ki ‘to bite’ ~ Yeniseian: PY *sī- ‘to eat’ ~ PST *ʒha id. (NCED 1017, CSCG 209) • Bur *ṣuqúr ‘sour, to sour’ ~ Caucasian: Andi ":iḳ:u ‘sour’, etc. < PEC *^ǟḳwV ‘sour, raw’ ~ PST *săk ‘bitter, pungent’ (NCED 356, CSCG 24) • Bur *ṣúli ‘tube, pipe’40 ~ Caucasian: Avar (dial.) šulu ‘pipe’, Hunzib šelu ‘horn’, etc. < PEC *€wōł(H)V ~ Basque *sulɦo ‘hole, cave’ (NCED 978, CSCG 195) • Bur *ṣiŋ ‘milk’ ~ Caucasian: Chechen šin ‘udder’, Andi š:iwu, š:imu ‘milk’, etc. < PNC *‚[mʔV ~ Basque *e-Sene ‘milk’ ~ PY *de(ʔ)n ‘nipple, milk’ (NCED 982, CSCG 196) • Bur *ltiṣ > *tiṣ ‘wind’ ~ PEC *Q[a]r„V ‘movement of air’ > Khwarshi λaca ‘wind’, Tindi λač:u ‘voice, shout’, etc. (NCED 767, CSCG 134) • Bur *hiṣ ‘breath’41 ~ Caucasian: Chechen ħožu ‘odor’, Ingush ħaž, Batsbi ħai < Proto-Nakh *ħa ‘odor’ ~ Basque *hać ‘breath; stench’ (LDC 17) • Bur *´­meṣ ‘finger, toe’ ~ Caucasian: Kryz miek ‘nail, claw, hoof’, etc. < PEC *(H)miV ~ *(H)mi‡V ~ Yeniseian: Ket bεs-taq5 ‘index finger’ (NCED 819 [as *miV ~ *mi‡V], LDC 38, CSCG 77) • Bur *muṣ- > muṣk (H, N, Y) ‘wood, thicket’, muṣ-qú (H, N) ‘branches with leaves’ ~ Caucasian: Dargwa mur ‘rod, stick, vine’, Abkhaz a-m) ‘wood, firewood’, etc. < PNC *muU˘ / *umU ~ Basque *mośko@ ‘trunk of a tree’ < *moś-ko-@ (NCED 833, CSCG 147) • Bur *´­ci- ‘to kindle’ ~ Caucasian: Abkhaz a-cá ‘hot’, Rutul =isa- ‘to roast (grain)’, etc. < PNC *=ĕrKĂ ~ Basque *i-se-(ki) ‘to set fire, kindle, burn’, etc. ~ PST *cha ‘hot’ (NCED 415, CSCG 48) • Bur *ca- ‘to stand’ ~ Caucasian: Lak =a-c’a- ‘to stand’, Akhwakh heč’- ‘to stand up, raise’, etc. < PEC *Hĕr"V- ~ Basque *e-aśV (standard jaso, jasan) ‘to lift, raise, support, bear’, etc. ~ Yeniseian: PY *ta­, *pa-ta- ‘to stand up’ (NCED 562, CSCG 67) • Bur *bácin ‘shank, hind leg above the hock’ ~ Caucasian: Chamalal becw ‘knee (of animal), thigh’, Tsez besi ‘fist’, etc. < PEC *b[0]KV ~ Basque *borc ‘five’ (< *‘hand’) ~ Yeniseian: PY *baʔt- ‘knee’ ~ PST *pŭt(­s) ‘knee’ (NCED 291, CSCG 19) • Bur *bac ‘small terrace between mountains, grown with grass’ ~ Caucasian: Akhwakh beča, Tindi besa ‘mountain’, etc. < PEC *wJce ~ Basque *baśo ‘forest, desert’ (NCED 1053, CSCG 217) • Bur *´­ncu ‘paternal aunt’ ~ Caucasian: Chechen nēca ‘maternal aunt or uncle’, Abkhaz áca ‘sister-in-law, daughter-in-law’, etc. < PNC *nEKV ~ *KEnV ~ Basque *neś-ka ‘girl, unmarried young woman’ (NCED 322, CSCG 153) • Bur *­jḗc- ‘to see’42 ~ Caucasian: Hunzib =ã"-- ‘to see’, Ubykh "´a- ‘to know’, etc. < PNC *=ăm"Ĕ ~ Basque *e-ncu-n ‘to hear’ ~ Yeniseian: PY *ʔVt- ‘to know’ ~ PST *si0(H) ‘to know, think’ (NCED 262, CSCG 4) • Bur *phunc ‘dew’ ~ Caucasian: Lak pi" ‘dew, sweat’, Dargwa pen" ‘resin’, etc. < PNC *pĭn^wĂ ~ Yeniseian: PY *piʔt ‘glue’ (< ‘*resin’) • Bur *qhurc ‘dust’ ~ Caucasian: Tsez ,ec ‘dirt, mud, slush’, etc. (see above) (Y) aíśen, aúśin, pl. aúśu, (H, N) oóśin, pl. oóśo. “The word is also present in Shina õṍśo ‘guest’, where it is most probably < Burushaski (despite highly dubious derivation in Turner 427 < Skt. *apadeśya­)” (CSCG 83). “I think that this is probably an IA element. There are a considerable number of words in Khowar in which the initial awelement is related to a meaning of ‘separateness, distance’, e.g. a(u)werik ‘to take away’ or awižá ‘relative’, which seem to show the IA apa- element. This again would seem to be more likely to be an old IA loan” (E. Bashir, p.c.). 40 ‘Gewehrlauf; Schnabel (an einem Gefäß); Rohr zum Anblasen des Feuers’ (Berger 1998). 41 (Y, H, N) hiṣ ‘breath’, (Y) also ­héṣ ‘breath’, (H, N) hĩĩṣ ‘sigh’ (with secondary nasalization). 42 “The reconstruction of Bur. ‘to see’ would probably be *­jeéc­. The double vowel suggests that there may once have been a consonant (probably /g/ or /h/) between the vowels.” (B. Tikkanen, pc.) 39 34 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule • Bur *cháġur ‘chest or box for grain or meal’ ~ Caucasian: Avar ca'úr = caġúr ‘corn bin, barn’, etc. (see above) • Bur *chigír ‘goat’ ~ Caucasian: Lak "uku ‘goat’, Andi ":eḳir ‘kid’, etc. < PEC *\ĭk / *ḵĭʒ ~ Basque *sikiro ‘castrated ram’ (NCED 1094, CSCG 187) • Bur *chul- ‘male breeding stock’43 ~ Caucasian: Andi ora ‘heifer’, Agul lu ‘heifer’, etc. < PEC *H‡wJlM ~ *HlJ‡wM ~ Basque *čahal ‘calf’ (NCED 556) • Bur *ć(h)íki > (Y) ćíki ‘small’ ~ Caucasian: Tabasaran žiq:i ‘short’, Chamalal iḳ:u-b ‘small, short’, etc. < PNC *ŒĭḳwĂ ~ Basque *čiki ‘small’ ~ Yeniseian: Kott thūki ‘short’ (NCED 1108, LDC 194, CSCG 197) • Bur ć(h)argV > (Y) ćargé ‘flying squirrel’ ~ Caucasian: Adyge c0'ɀa = c0ġwa ‘marten, mouse’, Chechen šaṭ,a ‘weasel’, etc. < PNC *cārwV ~ Basque *śagu ‘mouse’ ~ Yeniseian: PY *saʔqa ‘squirrel’ ~ PST *sreŋ(H) ‘we asel, squirrel, mongoose,’ etc. (NCED 322, CSCG 21)44 • Bur *mićil / *bićil ‘pomegranate’ ~ Caucasian: Chechen ħamc ‘medlar’, Khinalug mǸč ‘apple’, etc. < PNC *ȥamćō ~ Basque *mahanć ‘grape’ (NCED 237, CSCG 267) • Bur *ćhap ‘flesh, meat’ ~ Caucasian: Bezhta šebo ‘liver’, Chechen žim ‘kidney’, etc. < PNC *ǯăwV ~ Basque *śab-el ‘belly’ ~ Yeniseian: PY *tVpVĺ- ‘spleen’ (NCED 1106, CSCG 196)45 • Bur *ćhemil ‘poison’ ~ Caucasian: Tsakhur Jrima-n ‘sour’, Khinalug mi" ‘sour’, etc. < PNC *ɦmVj„wĂ / *ɦ„wVjmV ~ Basque *śamin ‘bitter, pungent, piquant; choleric’ (NCED 521, CSCG 93) • Bur *ćhaḍ-úm ‘narrow’ ~ Caucasian: Akushi ạrṭa, etc. (see above) • Bur *ćhaġé-: (Y) ćaġé ‘jackdaw’, (H) ćhaġén ‘crow with a red beak’ ~ Caucasian: Chechen ē'ag = ēġag ‘magpie’, Lezgi a' = aġ ‘jackdaw, rook’, etc. < PEC *ām'ā (NCED 381, CSCG 35) • Bur *ćhiṣ ‘mountain’ ~ Caucasian: Chechen iž ‘amulet (stone)’, Lak ua ‘small stone’, etc. < PEC *[wV ~ Basque *činča ‘small stone, pebble’ ~ Yeniseian: PY *čǸʔs ‘stone’ (NCED 382, LDC 114, ToB) • Bur *ćhaṣ ‘thorn’ ~ Caucasian: Akhwakh žaža ‘thorn, prick’, Ubykh caca ‘spit’, etc. < PNC *ʒāʒĕ ~ Basque *śa(r)śi ‘bramble, thorn’ (NCED 1090, CSCG 248)46 • Bur *}ām ‘distant relative’ ~ Caucasian: Tabasaran ǯam ‘bridegroom’, Ingush zame ‘best man’, Lak mač:a ‘kinsman’, etc. < PEC *}ămV / *mă}V (NCED1101, CSCG 251) • Bur *}al- / *‘́al- ‘(long) hair’47 ~ Caucasian: Godoberi žali ‘fringe, forelock’, Bezhta žaro ‘horse’s mane’, etc. < PEC **}ăłhJ (NCED 1101, CSCG 251) • Bur *mu}-óq ‘fringe, bunch of hair (on cow’s tail)’ ~ Caucasian: Chechen merz ‘hair (in horse’s tail)’, Archi moor ‘beard’, etc. < PEC *mē„uri (NCED 800, CSCG 150) • Bur *‘́ó- ‘to come’48 ~ Caucasian: Kabardian ­ž0- ‘(to move) back’, Avar =a-in- ‘to come’, etc. < PNC *=i"´wĔ ~ Basque *e-uci ‘to let, leave, permit’ (NCED 627, CSCG 101) (Y) culá ‘fertile billy-goat’, culdár ‘bull’, (H, N) chulá ‘billy-goat, drake’, chindár ‘bull’. This etymon exhibits a wide range of semantic variation, though all pertaining to rodents or mustelids. Within the Caucasian family the meanings include ‘weasel’, ‘marten’ and ‘mouse’. According to NCED (p. 322) Georgian ciq’wi ‘squirrel is a loanword from East Caucasian. In Basque the stem *śagu or its variant *śat- (prob. from *śag-t­, with a fossilized oblique marker) is used for other animal names, such as *śagu-saha" ‘bat’ (lit. ‘mouseold’), *śat-hor ‘mole’ (lit. ‘mouse-dog’), *śat-iću ‘field-mouse’ (lit. ‘mouse-blind’). 45 This etymology may not hold together in all its parts, because of phonological difficulties. See the note in CSCG (p. 196). 46 This root, with two successive sibilant/affricates, has apparently been subject to various assimilations and dissimilations. Cf. also Spanish zarza ‘bramble, blackberry bush’ (OSp sarça), probably of Vasconic origin (the 17th c. Basque writer Oihenart had çarci: Trask 2008: 337). 47 (Y) jaláṣ ‘hairy’, (H) ´- al ‘strip (of cloth)’, aléi, alíi ‘beard (of goat)’, (H, N) jalli-miŋ ‘long hair (of people)’. 48 (Y) o­, (H, N) u- (with retroflex //. 43 44 35 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek (5) The cluster /lt/, and the t- ~ -lt- alternation. In the course of a thorough study of Bur phonology one becomes aware of the cluster /lt/ and the fact that in certain verbs as well as nouns there is a frequent alternation of initial dental stops /t­, th-/ with medial lateral-dental clusters /-lt-/. The dental stops occur in both noun and verb stems in word-initial position, while the lateral-dental clusters occur in the same stems when they occur after a prefix. For example, in Bur (H, N) ­ltúr ‘horn’ is a bound morpheme and can only occur with a possessive prefix, such as a-ltúr ‘my horn’, gu-ltúr ‘thy horn’, while in the Yasin dialect ‘horn’ is simply tur, a free morpheme. The underlying form of all these is *­ltúr ‘horn’ (thus Starostin, ToB). In a verb such as turú- ‘fall apart, disintegrate’ the cluster /lt/ appears in prefixed froms such as (absolutive or converb circumflex) nultúr ‘having fallen apart’ (with analogical variants nutúr, nutúru). The underlying root is thus *­ltúr- ‘to fall apart’, etc. (Starostin, ToB). It should be noted that Klimov & Ėdeľman (1972; see also Beiträge p. 80, no. 10.9) formulated an ingenious hypothesis that several of the words discussed here, and others that denote paired nouns (*­ltúr ‘horn’, *­ltúmal ‘ear’, *­lten ‘bone’, etc.) contain a prefix *­lt- derived from the numeral ‘two’ (see below under Numerals). While we admit this solution is inventive, we think it is an example of the dangers of relying solely on internal reconstruction. For example, the existence of external cognates to Bur *­ltúr ‘horn’, namely Avar Q:ar ‘horn’, Basque *ada@ ‘horn’, and others (see below), would require that this prefixing of the numeral ‘two’ must have taken place already in Proto-Dene-Caucasian. Furthermore, the existence of other Bur words with initial (or underlying) *lt­, and no semantic content of pairing, e.g. Bur *ltús ‘grave’, *ltap ‘leaf’,49 and of words for paired body parts such as Bur *qVt- ‘armpit’, ­qhúrpat ~ ­xórpet (Y) ‘lung’, *´­so[m] ‘kidney’, *­sZsVn ‘elbow’ (see above) that lack the supposed *­lt- prefix, indicates to us that it is probably only fortuitous that some words with initial *lt- denote paired objects. The following examples show both the internal Burushaski alternation of the initial dental stop t- with the medial clusters ­lt­, and the regular correspondence of both with Caucasian lateral affricates. In the following comparisons // denotes a voiceless lateral affricate = [tł], // denotes a glottalized lateral affricate = [tł̉], and /Ł/ denotes a voiced lateral affricate = [dl]: • Bur *­ltúr ‘horn’ > (Y) tur / (H, N) ­ltúr ‘horn’ (bound form) ~ PEC *”wRrV ‘horn; braid, mane’ (Avar Q:ar, Chechen kur, etc.)50 ~ Basque *ada@ ‘horn’ (< *a-rda@) (NCED 771, CSCG 134) • Bur *­ltén > (Y) ten ‘bone’ / (H, N) ­ltín ‘bone’ (bound form); (Y) tanc, (H, N) ­ltánc ‘leg’ ~ PEC *SwVnʔV ‘groin; part of leg’ (Avar W:an ‘groin’, etc.) ~ PST *l0ŋ ‘shin, ankle’ (NCED 785, CSCG 139–140) • Bur *ltap > (Y) tap ‘leaf’, (H, N) tap ‘petal, page’ / (Y) du-ltápi­, (H, N) du-ltápu- ‘to wither’ ~ PNC *Wăpi ‘leaf’ (Lak a•i ‘leaf’, etc.) ~ Basque *lapa@ ‘bramble’51 ~ PY *j>pe ‘leaf’ ~ PST *lăp ‘leaf’ (NCED 774, CSCG 136) • Bur *ltopo, *(l)tultopo > (H, N) tópo, tultópo ‘a kind of thin bread of leavened dough’ ~ PEC *Hār–ā•V (Tsez We•eli ‘a pastry made of barley flour’, Lak ạrč:ap ‘a food made of barley flour, curds, butter, and rice’, etc.) (NCED 546, CSCG 63) • Bur *­ltúr- > (H, N) turú- / nu-ltúr / ­túr(u), (Y) túr­, du-ltúr- ‘to fall apart, disintegrate, be cut into pieces’, etc. ~ PEC *=ēWwV(l) ‘to burst, tear’ (Hunzib =uW­, etc.) ~ Basque *lehe@ ‘to The underlying form *ltap is indicated by the verb *du-ltápV- ‘to wither’. In Avar (and Andian and Tsezian languages, and Archi) Proto-Caucasian lateral affricates are, by and large, preserved as such. In Nakh, Lak, Dargwa, Khinalug, and Lezgian languages (except Archi, which has velarized lateral affricates) lateral affricates have largely been replaced by lateral resonants, velars, or uvulars (NCED); cf. Catford (1977), Starostin (2005b). However, under certain conditions there are velar reflexes in the first group of languages as well. 51 For the semantics, cf. the IE etymology that includes Skt. t#́ṇa- ‘grass, herb, straw’ and Eng. thorn, etc. 49 50 36 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule • • • • • • burst, smash’ ~ PY *ʔil ‘to break, split’ ~ PST *rūł ~*ruał ‘to demolish, ruin’ (NCED 413, CSCG 105) Bur *­ltá- > (H,N) tá- / ­ltá­, (Y) tá- ‘to follow,’, etc ~ PEC *=VmWV ‘to go, come’ (Hunzib =ẽW- ‘to go, walk’, etc.) ~ Basque *urten ‘to go out, leave’ (NCED 1026, CSCG 212) Bur *­ltál- > (H, N) ­ltáli­, (Y) ­ltâli ‘to wind, turn’, tálen- / ­ltálen- ‘to go round’, etc.52 ~ PNC *QwJri ~ *rJQwi ‘wheel, vehicle’ > Chechen lāra ‘oval cradle runners; fan of the mill wheel’, Agul fur ‘wheel’, etc. ~ PST *r[ua]ł ‘round, roll, wheel’ (CSCG 134) Bur *ltul- > (H, N)-ltúl­, (Y) túl- / ­ltúl- ‘to saddle’, tilíhaŋ, teléhaŋ ‘saddle’, (H, N) tilíaŋ id. ~ PEC *Swiłē ‘saddle’ (Avar W:ili, Lak ḳili, etc.) (NCED 783, LDC 160, CSCG 139)53 Bur *­ltán- > tan- (tán­) / ­ltán- ‘to pound (objects)’ ~ PEC *=VSVw ‘to beat, hit’ (Avar W:ab‘to beat, hit; burst, shoot’, Andi W:a-hun, W:a-ṭun to burst, shoot’, etc.) ~ Basque *labu@ ‘short’ (< *‘pounded down’) (NCED 1023, ToB) Bur *­lté- > (Y) té- / ­lté- ‘to swear’ / (H, N) te-ṣ ‘oath’ ~ PEC *Hi–V ‘to say’ (Ingush le­, al- ‘to say’, Hunzib iQ- ‘to call’, etc.) ~ PY *ʔV(ʔ)ĺ- ‘to speak’ ~ PST *l+ ‘speak, speech’ (NCED 572, CSCG 70) Bur *­ltá- > tá- / ­ltá- ‘to put on (shoes, stockings)’ ~ PEC *=ōm–V ‘to put on (trousers, shoes)’ (Andi =iW:in- ‘to put on [shoes, footwear, trousers], etc.) (NCED 861, CSCG 130) In the following examples the Burushaski initial dental stop t- corresponds with ProtoCaucasian lateral affricates: • Bur. *(l)tam54 > (H, N) tam dél- ‘to swim, bathe, wash’ ~ PEC *”HwemV ‘liquid’ (adj.) > Avar Q:ami-ja­, Archi λ:ạma-t:u- id., etc. ~ Basque *limuri ‘moist, humid; slippery’, etc. ~ PST *li0m ‘to soak’, etc. (CSCG 134) • Bur *(l)tiṣ > *tiṣ ‘wind’ ~ PEC *Q[a]r„V ‘movement of air’, etc. (see above) • Bur *(l)tul > (Y) tul ~ (H) tol ‘snake’ ~ PEC *wHōrQwVłV ‘snake’55 (Avar boróx ‘snake’, Lak Vikhli bạrčalu ‘snail’) ~ PY *ʔurol ‘leech’ ~ PST *rūl ~ *rūł ‘snake’ (NCED 1048, CSCG 218) • Bur *(l)tal > tal ‘palate; eyelid’56 ~ PEC *H”0lV ‘mouth, jaw’ (Tindi erQ:i ‘jaw’, Tsakhur, Rutul γal ‘mouth’, etc.) ~ PY *jiĺ- ‘gills’ (NCED 589, CSCG 75) • Bur *(l)tal > *tal ‘dove’ ~ PEC *SeWē (Avar W:iW:í ‘a kind of songbird’, Lezgi ḳek ‘cock’, etc.) (NCED 776, ToB) • Bur *(l)tal > (H) tal ‘belly, stomach’ ~ PEC *HlaWV / *HWalV ‘liver’ (Avar ṭul, Tindi relaQ:, Lak t:iliḳ, Lezgi le,, etc.) (NCED 586, CSCG 76) With other derivatives: see Berger (1998). This comparison raises interesting questions about the spread of horsemanship and the saddle, implying that this was prior to the diaspora of the western Dene-Caucasian languages. If the split between Vasco-Caucasian and Burusho-Yeniseian took place about 10 kya (see below: Postscript), and domestication of horses only ca. 6 kya, with the saddle even later, it is difficult to reconcile genetic transmission of the word in both Caucasian and Bur. Another, probably likelier, possibility is that an equestrian culture bequeathed a word such as * uli, *tl̉uli ‘saddle’ to both Cauc and Bur separately, with subsequent usual developments in each language. 54 The notation *(l)t- means that the /l/ is only assumed from circumstantial evidence, since the correspondences are the same as in known Bur alternations of t- / ­lt­. 55 This appears to be an old compound. Only the second element is compared with Bur *tul. 56 “Skr. tālu- ‘palate’ [is] exactly matching Burushaski tal ‘palate’ — which is usually regarded as borrowed from Indian, but in fact also would be quite a regular reflex of [PDC] *H'(l)” (CSCG 75–76). The Sanskrit word, which has no clear Indo-European etymology, is thus probably one of the words adopted from Burushaski when Proto-Indic speakers entered the Indian subcontinent. See Witzel (1999). 52 53 37 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek • Bur *(l)tápi > (H,N) tápi ‘stone terrace’ ~ PEC *Wĕ•M (Chechen laba ‘shed, peak of cap’, Avar Web ‘stone’, etc.) ~ Basque *lape ‘shelter under an eave’57 ~ PST *t-lēp ‘flat, tablet, etc. (NCED 777, LDC 32, CSCG 137) • Bur *(l)tur ‘cross-beam in door’ > (H) tul, (N) tur ~ PEC *Ww>rHV (Tsez ˜e ‘bridge, stairs’, Tindi, Karata W:eru ‘bridge’, etc.) (NCED 783, ToB) • Bur *(l)taġ > taġ (Y) ‘branch, shoot’ ~ PEC *SɦwāχV ‘stick, chip’ (see above) • Bur *(l)tharén- > (H, N) tharén-um ‘narrow’58 ~ PNC *=iWRlV ‘thin’ (Avar ṭeréna-b, Agul ḳille-f, etc.) ~ Basque *lirain ‘slender, svelte, lithe’ (NCED 639, CSCG 105) • Bur *(l)tan- > (H, N) táno ‘colon (lower bowel of animal)’, táno, tanéelo ‘bastard, of lowly birth’59 ~ PNC *HWŏnŭ ‘bottom’ (Avar ṭinu ‘bottom’, Archi, Lezgi ḳan id., etc.) ~ PST *t-lăŋ ‘floor’ (NCED 590, LDC 169) • Bur *(l)talí > (H) talí ‘slope (of a mountain)’ ~ PEC *Wăłŭ ‘stone’ (Avar ṭálu ‘rock, rocky plateau’, Bezhta Walo ‘stone’, etc.) (NCED 773, CSCG 136) • Bur *(l)téne > (Y) téne ‘year before last’, (H, N) tén-dili ‘last year’ ~ PNC *HWwĭnM ‘winter, year’ (Avar W:in ‘winter’, Bezhta Qi ‘year’, etc.) (NCED 591, CSCG 76) • Bur *(l)tur- > (Y) tur-ćún, (H, N) tur-śún ‘marmot’ ~ PNC *–ărV ~ *WărV ‘hare’ (Ingush lerg, Karata W:an-ḳala, etc.) (NCED 788, ToB) • Bur *(l)ter > (H, N, Y) ter ‘summer pasture, mountain pasture’ (‘Hochweide, auf die das Vieh im Sommer getrieben wird’) ~ Avar lol ‘open enclosure (for sheep)’, Archi Qoli ‘yard, place in front of the house’, etc. < PEC *ŁwĕłV (NCED 791) ~ Basque *la@e ‘pasture, meadow’ ~ PST *răl ‘fence, framework’ (CVST II: 56, no. 204) • Bur *(l)tar- > (H, N, Y) tar-íŋ ‘skin bag’ ~ PNC *–ŏli ‘color, skin’ (Avar W:er ‘color’, Dargwa *k:uli ‘(sheep)skin’, etc.) ~ Basque *la@u ‘skin, leather’ (NCED 789, CSCG 130) This development of initial *lt- > t- in Bur partially converges with that in one Caucasian language, Avar (specifically northern Avar: see NCED, pp. 52, 102), where the glottalized affricate PNC/PEC *W, *Ww yields ṭ (glottalized dental stop). (The fuller forms of the following comparisons are found above.):60 • • • • • Bur *táno ‘colon (of animal), bastard’ ~ Avar ṭínu ‘bottom’ < PNC *HWŏnŭ Bur *talí ‘slope (of a mountain)’ ~ Avar ṭálu ‘rock, rocky plateau’ < PEC *Wăłŭ Bur *tápi ‘stone terrace’ ~ Avar (dial.) ṭeb ‘millstone, whetstone’ < PEC *Wĕ•M Bur *tal ‘belly, stomach’ ~ Avar ṭul ‘liver’ < PEC *HWalV Bur *tharén-um ‘narrow’ ~ Avar ṭeréna-b ‘thin’ < PNC *=iWRlV Hermann Berger, the authority on Bur, ventured some Basque-Burushaski lexical comparisons in his early works (Berger 1956, 1959). In his last published work (Beiträge: 2008), Berger acknowledged this early interest, and reckoned that a relationship between Bur and other non-Indo-European remnant languages was thinkable but not demonstrable.61 Nevertheless, Berger (1959, p. 26, note 34) discovered the correspondence of Basque initial *l- = Bur ‘refugio bajo el alero de un tejado / abri sous un avant-toit’ (Azkue). Aspirated /th/ is probably due to pretonal syllabic position. Note the similar ­n- extension in Bur, Avar, and Basque. 59 S. A. Starostin preferred to compare this Bur word instead with PNC *+anā ‘bottom’ (CSCG 131). 60 But not the tense affricates *,, *,w, which remain in Avar as : (or velarize to ḳ: under certain conditions; see NCED pp. 52–54). 61 “ … eine Beziehung zum Baskischen und anderen nicht-indoarischen Restsprachen [ist] zwar denkbar, aber bei dem heutigen Entwicklungsstadium dieser Sprachen nicht mehr zu beweisen ist” (Beiträge, p. 1). 57 58 38 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule initial *t(h)­, which we consider valid (as developments of DC lateral affricates), based on the following examples: • • • • • • • Bur *tápi ‘stone terrace’ ~ Basque *lape ‘shelter under eaves’62 Bur *ter ‘summer pasture’ ~ Basque *la@e ‘pasture, meadow’ Bur *tar-íŋ ‘skin bag’ ~ Basque *la@u ‘skin, leather’ Bur *tap ‘leaf; petal, page’ (< *ltap) ~ Basque *lapa@ ‘bramble’ Bur *tam dél- ‘to bathe’, etc. ~ Basque *limuri ‘moist, humid; slippery’ Bur (H, N) turú­, (Y) túr- ‘to fall apart’, etc. (< *­ltúr­) ~ Basque *lehe@ ‘to burst, smash’ Bur *(l)tharén- ‘narrow’ ~ Basque *lirain ‘slender, svelte, lithe’ The following examples (in addition to several above) confirm the correspondence of Burushaski medial ­lt- with Caucasian lateral affricates. The reflex ­lj- = [l] occurs in a few words, apparently from *­lti, *­ltja-: • Bur *díltar ‘buttermilk’63 ~ PNC *rħăQw ‘milk’ (Tsez riλ ‘butter’, Avar rax ‘milk’, etc.) (NCED 949, LDC 153, CSCG 183) • Bur *(y)alt- > (H, N) giỵált ‘spoon, scoop’64 ~ PEC *jă[l]QwV ‘wooden shovel’ (Lezgi jirf, Bezhta äko, etc.) ~ Basque *śaɦarde ‘pitchfork; dinner fork; rake’65 ~ PST *jok ‘scoop, ladle’ (NCED 673, CSCG 113) • Bur *yult > (H, N) yult ‘time, (right) moment’66 ~ PNC *QăjV ‘time, day’ (Akhwakh Qa-li-ge ‘in the daytime’, že-Qa ‘today’, etc.) ~ Basque *ordu ‘time, hour, occasion’ (NCED 766, CSCG 133) • Bur *yáltar > (H,N) yáltar ‘upper leafy branches of a tree, crown of a tree’, etc.67 ~ PEC *ɦălSVłV (Avar ȥarW:él ‘branch, bough’, Tsez aWiru ‘pod’, etc.) ~ Basque *ada@ ‘branch’ (< *arda@)68 (CSCG 91)69 • Bur *­ltáltar- > (H) ­ltáltar, (N) táltar ‘foreleg (of a quadruped), shoulder (of horse), ‘human arm’ (sometimes)70 ~ PNC *HluSĔ ~ *SulHV ‘arm’ (Avar ruW: ‘arm, shoulder’, Archi W:ol ‘shoulder-blade, foreleg (of animal)’, etc.) ~ PST *t-lŭH / *t-lŭ-k (?) ‘hand, arm, wing’ (NCED 588, CSCG 138) • Bur *maltáṣ ‘butter’ ~ PEC *nħĕSV (Chechen nalχa ‘butter’, Archi nạW: ‘milk’, etc.) (NCED 849, CSCG 146) See the complete DC etymology (CSCG 137) for semantic developments: original meaning probably something like ‘flat slab of stone’. Chechen and Ingush also have the meaning ‘shed’, possibly originally a crude outbuilding with roff made of stone slabs. 63 Bur initial d- ~ Caucasian *r is the regular initial reflex: see CSCP, p. 41. 64 Bur giỵált appears to be a compound of the verb giỵ- ‘pour’, etc. + ­yált or ­ált. 65 The Basque word appears to be an old compound: *śa- + *ɦarde (with obscure first element). 66 In stem-final position we would expect *yul (see below). In this case there was probably a variation between *yul (in absolute final position) vs. *yult- (preceding inflectional suffixes), with analogical leveling to the latter. 67 Cf. also (H,N,Y) galtár ‘small twig’, (H,N) giltír ‘pod, husk (of peas, beans, etc.)’. 68 In Basque this word has merged phonetically with *ada" ‘horn’ (see above). 69 The correspondence of Bur *y- = *j- ~ PNC initial *ɦ- is recurrent: cf. Bur *yaṭ-is ‘head’ ~ PEC *ɦwōmdV ‘brain, head’ (below). 70 (Y) ‘projecting breasts’ (‘hervorstehende Brüste’). 62 39 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek • Bur *harált ‘rain, rain cloud’71 ~ PEC *rĕnSw ~ *r[nSw ‘cloud, fog’ (Chechen doχk ‘fog’, Khinalug unḳ ‘cloud’, etc.)72 ~ Basque *lanbro ‘fog, mist, drizzle’73 ~ PST *rēŋ ‘drop, rain’ (NCED 947, CSCG 179) • Bur *alt- ‘two’, *w-ált- ‘four’ ~ PWC *p(:)0W´0 ‘four’ (Ubykh •W0, etc.)74 ~ PST *P-lĭj ‘four’ ~ Basque *lau- ‘four’ (NCED 314, CSCG 212) • Bur *baltí ‘front room of house, veranda’ ~ PEC *bŭlSV ‘house’ (Hunzib buQi ‘at home’, Lak bura-lu ‘threshold’, Hurrian purli ‘house’, etc.) ~ Basque *borda ‘cottage, cabin, stable’ (NCED 312, LDC 158, CSCG 15) • Bur *´­ltV-r ‘to show’ > (Y) ´-ltar­, ´-ltir­, (H, N) ´-ltir- ~ PEC *ʔi–V ‘to look’ (Chamalal W:i-d, Tabasaran lig­, etc.) ~ PY *ʔV(ʔ)l- ~ *ʔV(ʔ)r1­ > Kott. ŋ-āl-iga ‘I know’ ~ PST *t-l+(H) ‘to see, look’ (NCED 209, CSCG 255) • Bur *múltur > (H,N) ­múltur ‘nostril’ ~ PEC *wĕnWV (Batsbi marλŏ ‘nose’, Bezhta moWo ‘beak’, etc.) ~ Basque *mutu@ ‘snout, muzzle; end, edge’ < *murtu-@ ~ PST *lŭH ‘head’ (NCED 1041, CSCG 216) • Bur *qhVltá ‘sack, pocket’ ~ < PEC *GHRrSwV (see above) • Bur *­hált- ‘to wash’ > (Y) (ba)-hált­, (H, N) ­alt-/ ­yalt- ~ PEC *=VSVn ‘to wash, pour, weep’ (Chechen =ēlχ- ‘to weep; to pour (of rain)’, Archi e=W:in- ‘to make an ablution’, etc.) ~ PST *t-lēŋ ~ *t-lāŋ ‘to wash, clean’ (NCED 1023, CSCG 212) • Bur *dalt- > (N) daltán- ‘to thresh’75 ~ PEC *=M-rŁV < *rVŁZ ‘to thresh’ (Batsbi arl­, Bezhta =ol­, etc.; Andi loli ‘threshing; threshing floor; Archi Qorom ‘threshing board’, etc.) ~ Basque *la@ain ‘threshing floor’ (NCED 1031, CSCG 182) • Bur *­wél}i ‘dream’ > (Y) ­wélji, (H,N) ­úlji ~ PNC *ɦemWĂ ‘dream’ (Dargwa hanḳ ‘sleep’, Karata hanWu ‘fog, cloud’, etc.) ~ Basque *lainho ‘cloud, mist, fog’76 (NCED 512, CSCG 93) • Bur *­l}i ‘behind, backwards’77 ~ PEC *Si ‘below, down’ (Bezhta Qi- ‘down, below’, Lak luw id., etc.) (NCED 778) • Bur *­wél}i ‘womb, afterbirth’ ~ PEC *rVHVn”w / *HVrVn”w ‘some internal organ’: Tindi re˜:a-(:a ri:i) ‘diaphragm’, Rutul nixrä ‘placenta’, etc. (NCED 955, ToB) • Bur *hul}- > (Y) huljá- ‘to ride (a horse)’ ~ PEC *ʔīSV ‘to run, leap’ (Avar W:ú-r-d- ‘to dance’, Rutul hi=iga- ‘to drive, urge’, etc.) ~ PST *t-lăj(H) ‘to run, gallop’ (NCED 209, CSCG 256) The Burushaski reflex of all lateral affricates in stem-final position is simply /l/:78 • Bur *´­yal- ‘to hear’ ~ PNC *=eQu ‘to hear’: Andi anši- ‘to hear’, Budukh ix- id., etc. (NCED 411, CSCG 46) • Bur *w-él- / *b-él- ‘to put on (clothes)’ ~ PEC *=VWV ‘to put clothes (on the upper body)’: Chamalal, Tindi =al­, Khwarshi š-iW­, etc. ~ PY *ʔalVŋ ‘trousers’ (NCED 1024, CSCG 212) • Bur *bal­, *­wál- 1 ‘place between the shoulders’, 2 ‘back of the shoulders, upper part of the back’, 3 ‘back’ > (H) bálbal 1, bál-gićiŋ 2, ­wáldas 3, (N) bálbal 1, bál-gićaŋ 2, ­wáldas 3, (Y) Initial *ha- may be influenced by hará- ‘to urinate’. In stem-final position we would expect *(ha)rál (see below). See the note to *yult, above. 72 PEC *, is reconstructed on the basis of circumstantial evidence. 73 The Basque word requires a metathesized protoform such as * 3nwr4. 74 This is probably related to PEC *bǖn6e ‘eight’ (Avar mi :-go, Hunzib be'-no, etc.). 75 Bur initial d- < *r: cf. Bur *díltar ‘buttermilk’, above. 76 “Andian languages demonstrate a non-trivial semantic development ‘dream’ > *‘vision’ > ‘cloud’” (NCED). Likewise in Basque. 77 Starostin (ToB) prefers to compare Bur *­l7i with PNC *Hl[a] ) ‘breast, back’, etc. 78 Apparent exceptions are probably the result of analogical leveling. (See the notes to *yult and *harált, above.) 71 40 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule • • • • • • wáldes 3 ~ PNC *bŭWV ‘upper part of the body’ (Batsbi bali ‘shoulders’, Adyge, Kabardian •Wa ‘upper part of the back’, etc.) ~ Basque *śor-balda ‘shoulder’ < *śor-barda (NCED 313, LDC 32, CSCG 158) Bur *­híl ‘lip, edge, shore’ ~ PEC *HăSwV (~-ĕ­,-R­) ‘forehead’ > Chechen ħaž, Tindi haW:a, etc.)79 (NCED 543, CSCG 84) Bur *bal ‘marrow, brain, kernel (of walnut)’ ~ PEC *bɦĕrSV ‘(large) intestines’ > Bezhta baQa ‘large intestine’, Udi buq:un ‘belly’, etc.) ~ Basque *barda / *marda ‘belly, abdomen, bowels, tripe, stomach, rennet’ ~ PY *pǸʔǸĺ ‘intestine(s)’ ~ PST *bik ‘bowels’ (NCED 297, CSCG 13) Bur *el- > (Y) él-den ‘year before year before last’ (den ‘year’) ~ PEC *ʔVWwV ‘last year’ (Avar dial. uWi-sa, Tsez, Hinukh eWi, Bezhta iWe, etc.) ~ Basque *urte ‘year’ (NCED 225, CSCG 259) Bur *bél-is ‘ewe that has already given birth’ ~ PNC *bh[Wwĭ ‘small cattle’ (Bezhta, Hunzib biW ‘sheep’, Andi belir ‘deer’, etc.) ~ Basque *bil-doć ‘lamb (that has begun to feed itself)’ (NCED 293, CSCG 12) Bur *(l)tal > tal ‘dove’ ~ PEC *SeWē (Avar W:iW:í ‘songbird’, etc.) (see above) Bur *­úl ‘belly, abdomen’ ~ PEC *=Jr(a)–V ‘stomach; rennet, abomasum’ (Karata m-eW:u ‘stomach’, Hunzib b-eQ ‘rennet, abomasum’, etc.) ~ Basque *urdail ‘stomach, abomasum, womb’ ~ PST *t-l+w ‘belly, stomach’ (NCED 670, CSCG 112) One might have noted that in some forms above (*harált ‘rain, rain cloud’, *­hált- ‘to wash’) Burushaski has /lt/ in what appears to be final position, an apparent contradiction to the rule just cited. The restoration of /lt/ in these cases can be attributed to analogy, based on inflected forms such as haráltiŋ ‘rainfall, rainclouds’. Likewise in the case of Bur *bél-is ‘ewe’ (see above) the development of *W > stem-final /l/ had already taken place before the addition of ­is (a frequent Bur suffix). For more details on DC lateral affricates and their reflexes, see Bengtson (2008a: 59–61). Typological parallels of the change TL > LT: If we symbolize the postulated change of DC lateral affricates to Bur /lt/ (reduced in initial position to /t/ and in final position to /l/) as TL > LT, some typological parallels support the probability of this type of phonological change. The clearest and most familiar may be the change seen in Spanish: • • • • Lat. spatula > OSp. espadla ~ espalda > MSp. espalda ‘back’ Lat. capitulu > OSp. cabidlo ~ cabildo > MSp. cabildo ‘town council’ Lat. foliatile > OSp. hojadle ~ hojaldre > MSp. hojaldre ‘puff pastry’ Lat. titulu > (Catalan) title > OSp. tidle ~ tilde > MSp. tilde ‘written accent’ In Old Spanish the /dl/ and /ld/ forms coexisted, while in the modern language the /ld/ forms have prevailed. In Judeo-Spanish the change has been extended to include imperative plural + clitic constructions (Bradley 2006: 80): • JSp. traeldo = MSp. traedlo ‘bring it’ < Late Latin tra(h)ete + illu • JSp. tomalda = MSp. tomadla ‘take it’ • JSp. daldo = MSp. dadlo ‘give it’ For semantics, cf. Hunzib bil ‘lip’, Tindi bala ‘edge, end, corner’, Lezgi p:el ‘forehead’, etc.; Basque *beła-" ‘forehead’. 79 41 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek In English a parallel can be seen in the popular name Sheltie for Shetland pony or Shetland sheepdog. In recent American English chipotle, the name for a dried chili pepper derived (through Mexican Spanish) from Nahuatl, is frequently pronounced /čip’olti/.80 It is interesting to note the derivation of Spanish alcalde ‘judge’ < Arabic ̉ al-qāḍī ‘the judge’ (Corominas 1990: 38), in which the Spanish cluster /ld/ substitutes for the Arabic “emphatic” ḍ (which in turn comes from the Semitic lateral sibilant *¡). In Tibetan and other Bodic languages of the Sino-Tibetan family PST *t-l- may yield /lt/, /ld/, or /lć/, for example: • Tib lto ‘belly, stomach’ < PST *t-l+w id. ~ PEC *=Jr(a)–V, Bur *­úl, Basque *urdail, etc. (see above) • Tib lte ‘navel, center’ < PST *t-lăj ‘center‚ middle’ ~ PNC *=ĕSĔ ‘middle, half’, Basque *erdi id., PY *ʔaʔl ‘half’ (CSCG 46) • Tib lta ‘look’ < PST *t-l+(H) ‘to see, look’ ~ PEC *ʔi–V ‘to look’, Bur *´­ltV-r- ‘to show’, etc. (see above) • Tib ltag ‘nape, back part of the neck’ < PST *t-luak ‘back’ ~ PEC *War,wĕ ‘forehead; cap’, Basque *lok- ‘temple; middle of forehead’ (NCED 775, ToB) • Tib ldeb ‘leaf, sheet’ < PST *(t­)lăp ‘leaf’ ~ Burushaski *ltap- ‘leaf; to wither’, PNC *Wăpi ‘leaf’, Basque *lapa@ ‘bramble’, PY *j>pe ‘leaf’ (see above) • Tib ldeb-s ‘side’ < PST *t-lĕp ‘border, side’ (ToB) ~ (? Basque *lepo ‘neck’) • Tib lćag ‘rod, stick’ < PST *t-l+k ‘stake, stick’ ~ Bur *ltaġ ‘branch, shoot’, Avar W:oχ: ‘stubble’, etc. (see above) • Tib lćag-s ‘iron; lock’ < PST *t-l[ia]k ‘iron’ (ToB) ~ Bur *ltik > tik ‘earth, ground; rust’ The difference from Basque and Burushaski is that Bodic has the metathesized cluster only initially, not medially, as in the other languages. Since Burushaski is spoken in an area immediately adjacent to the Bodic dialects (Balti and Purik, archaic Bodic dialects, are spoken directly east of the Burushaski area), it is possible that at some time in the past, both families had lateral affricates, and that the change of *TL > /lt/ (etc.) was an areal phenomenon that affected Burushaski and Bodic, but not more distant Sino-Tibetan languages (such as Lushai, which frequently has /tl/ or /thl/ < PST *t-l­. Morphology Nouns In the Burushaski nominal system the case endings, as admitted by Č himself, are the same for both singular and plural. Bur therefore has an agglutinating morphology, not the inflected morphology typical of IE. We find the Bur case endings far more compatible with those of Basque and Caucasian, including the compound case endings found in all three families (Bengtson 2008a: 90–92). Furthermore, though it is not mentioned by Č, many (about 150) of the most basic nouns are bound forms, i.e., they cannot occur without a pronominal prefix (for example, Bur (H, N) ­ltúr ‘horn’ manifests as a-ltúr ‘my horn’, gu-ltúr ‘thy horn’, i-ltúr ‘his horn’, mu-ltúr ‘her horn’, etc.). Toporov (1971) pointed out these remarkable parallels between Bur and Yeniseian: Chipotle is also the name of a restaurant chain. Evidence of the metathesis chipotle ~ chipolte can easily be found with an internet search of chipolte. 80 42 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule ‘my hand’ ‘thy hand’ Burushaski (H, N) a-ríiŋ gu-ríiŋ Yeniseian (Ket) ab-ĺaŋ ug-ĺaŋ Table 5 These prefixes can be reconstructed to something like *aŋa- ‘my’ / *uxGu- ‘thy’ (see the PDC pronoun stems, below), and the word ‘hand’ itself is reconstructed as *ŕVŋHV (by Starostin: ToB). This type of construction is totally alien to IE patterns, as is the enormous number of different plural suffixes: about 70, as noted by Č (p. 23). So is the multiple class system of Bur, which is far more similar to class systems in Caucasian and Yeniseian than to gender in PIE. Table 6. Burushaski noun classes 81 Class type Class description Class letter (Lorimer) Class number Examples (Hunza-Nager) human non-human inanimate (uncountable objects, mass nouns, abstractions) human-male human-female non-human animate (animals, countable objects) hm hf x y I II III IV hir ‘man’ ´-uỵ ‘father’ qhudáa ‘God’ gus ‘woman’ dasín ‘girl’ parí ‘fairy’ haġúr ‘horse’ báalt ‘apple’ ´-l-ćin ‘eye’ phu ‘fire’ ge ‘snow’ ćhap ‘flesh’ Table 7. East Caucasian noun classes Class type Class description Class number Examples (Lak) human non-human human-male human-female non-human animate inanimate I II III IV š:ar ‘wife’ c:us:a ‘female’ ninu ‘mother’ ču ‘horse’ čimus ‘onion’ ja ‘eye’ čuw ‘man’ p:u ‘father’ ars ‘son’ c’u ‘fire’ š:in ‘water’ dik’ ‘flesh’ Bouda (1949); Catford (1977: 298–299). Personal Pronouns It is perhaps the personal pronouns that show most clearly the deep incompatibility of Bur and IE. IE, as is well known, is typified by the first and second-person pronouns *H1e(H)‘I’ / *(e)me- ‘me’ and *te­, *towe­, *tuHx- = *tū- ‘thou, thee’. In Bur (Berger 1998: I, p. 80) the scheme is entirely different. “The difference between class III and IV nouns is not as straightforward as [implied in the table.] Many class IV nouns are countable (and take class-specific plural endings), e.g. HN ­ríiŋ ‘hand’, ­úsis ‘foot’, ­ltúmal ‘ear’, ­8kin ‘liver’, ha ‘house’, tom ‘tree’, amé ‘bow (made of horn)’, while some abstract nouns are class III, e.g. ćuṭí ‘leisure, holiday’, rupiá ‘money’, ćilá ‘the coldest period of the year’, haríip ‘melody’. Yet there is, of course, this strong tendency that objects and materials (incl. artifacts made from such materials) lacking a clearly defined or stable physical form are class IV. So ‘trees’ are IV, but their ‘fruits’ are III.” (B. Tikkanen, pc.). 81 43 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek Table 8. Burushaski Personal pronouns Person Dial.\ Form Hunza & Nagir Yasin 1 sg. dir. 2 sg. g.-e. je v.p. jáa áa- ja dir. 1 pl. g.-e. v.p. dir. un uŋ N um gu­ gúgó(o)-kó(o)- mi un gu­ gúgó(o)-kó(o)- mi 2 pl. g.-e. v.p. mi­ mímé(e)- míi mée dir. g.-e. v.p. ma mamámáa- ma mamá- Berger (1998); dir. = direct, g.-e. = genitive-ergative, v.p. = verbal prefix. Here we see that the Bur system is suppletive, with different stems for direct forms and oblique forms, in both first and second person. Č (p. 72) attempts to connect Bur je, já with PIE *H1e(H)- but he can do so only by violating the sound correspondence discussed above (PIE *, *ȹ = Bur g, ġ)! He further tries to connect Bur un (~ um, uŋ) with PIE *tuHxom, emphatic form of *tuHx = *tū­, but again only by requiring another unprecedented change: t > d > 0! For comparison, below we present the attested forms of personal pronouns in the IndoIranian languages that surround Burushaski:82 see tables 9 & 10. Table 9. Personal pronouns in Nuristani & Dardic Person 1 sg. Lg. \ Case direct 2 sg. oblique direct 1 pl. oblique direct 2 pl. oblique direct oblique Kati vuze, ōnc 9a, ye tiu to, tu Waigali aŋa ; tǖ tū Aškun ai y; tu A ima Prasun unzū ändeiš i/üyū ütɁöiš asē Dameli ai mū, mo tu tō Gawar a mō tu tō amō, ama- mē Wotapuri au ma- tu ta, tha- mū, mun thū Šumašti ā mō tu tō Pašai a ma- t, tō tō, tē- Tirahi au, ao mē tu, to te, tē ao, mā mēn tao tā Kalaša ā mai tu / tū tai ābi hōma/i ābi mīmi/e Khowar awá ma tu ta Torwali ā, ai mF, mL tu ta Baškarik ya ma- tu tha- ma tha Garwi yah mā- tu ta- mā ta- 82 44 Thanks to E. Bashir for some corrections of Khowar forms. ema, imā, yimo amī amē ai wī w@ wī yä mīū amâ āb ša, šo ama hama bi myā wī (h)ēmā, mōmā, myā ispá mo, moi mo, ma- ima pisá tM, thō to, ta- On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule Person Lg. \ Case 1 sg. direct 2 sg. oblique direct 1 pl. oblique direct 2 pl. oblique direct oblique Maiyan m@ mN tū tN bē z@ tus s@ Kanyawali ma mī, m9 tu tī, t9 be z@ tus c@ be as- Phalura ma tu tus Šina ma(h) mă tu(h) thă, tǔ bě ăs- tsho, co Kašmiri ba(h) m’e cǔ(h) c’e as’ as’e twah’ Vedic ahám a. mā(m) tuvám a. tv(m) a. asmn, d. asmábhyam twah’e a. va, g. yuṣmkm Ėdeľman (1978, 289); a. = accusative, d. = dative, g. = genitive. Table 10. Personal pronouns in Pamir languages Person Lg. \ Case 1 sg. direct 2 sg. oblique direct 1 pl. oblique Yidgha zo, z mn, mun tu, t tu//o/a Munjan zå, z mn, mun tu, t to/å//aw Šughni wuz mu Rušan az mu tu Khuf waz mu Bartangi āz Orošor direct 2 pl. oblique direct oblique max, mox maf, mof mox mMf māš tama tā māš tama tu taw, tā maš tama mun, mu tū ta māš tamš waz mun, mu tu tā māš tamš Sarykoli waz my, myn tεw ta, ty maš tamaš Iškašim az(i) mak tǐ fak mǐx(ó) Yazghulam az můn, mon tow tu, ti- mox Wakhi (w)uz, wz maẓ̌ tu taw, tow sak Avestan azTm tuuTm, tū g. tauuā g. mTnā tu mǐčǐv(o) tǐmǐx tǐmǐx(ǐv) spó sá(y)išt sav g. ahmākm OPers. g. amāxam g. yūšmākm Efimov & Ėdeľman (1978, 218); g. = genitive. In spite of some formally similar forms in the contemporary languages, e. g. Yidgha mox, Munjan max, Iškašim mĭx ‘we’, vis-à-vis Bur mi id., deeper comparison shows that they have quite separate origins. Thanks to the archaic Indo-Iranian literary languages, Avestan, Old Persian and Vedic OI, we can project the Indo-Iranian forms into the past and derive them from the stem *asm£­, from PIE *s-mé­. Bur mi, on the other hand, maybe comes from PDC *mi(nV) ‘self, (our)self’, according to Starostin (CSCG 146: cf. ST: Lushai mi ‘me, us, my, our’, etc.). We propose that comparison of the Bur personal pronouns with those of East Caucasian (and other DC languages) is more fruitful as well as more straightforward than comparison with IE. Both Burushaski and the reconstructed Proto-(North) Caucasian have suppletive pronoun stems in the first and second person singular. For the present purpose, let us compare Bur with two East Caucasian languages, Khinalug and Tsakhur. Khinalug is the highest 45 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek (2300 m. = 7546 ft.) and most remote village in Azerbaijan, where the inhabitants still speak a Caucasian language.83 Tsakhur is also spoken in Azerbaijan as well as in Dagestan. Both languages appear to have preserved remnants of old eastern Dagestanian suppletive paradigms: see table 11. Table 11. Personal pronouns in Eastern Dagestanian languages direct 1st person sg. Khinalug Tsakhur 2nd person sg. Khinalug Tsakhur84 zǸ (nom.) jä (erg.) zu wǸ (nom.) wa (erg.) wu ~ Wu (= ġu) genitive dative i, e as jiz-Ǹn za- wi oχ j-ǸW- (= j-Ǹġ­) wa- According to Nikolayev and Starostin (NCED, pp. 402, 483–84, 855, 1014–15, 1084–85), the original Proto-Caucasian pronominal paradigms were very complicated, and difficult to reconstruct with much certainty. In the first person singular West Caucasian and most East Caucasian languages have forms going back to PNC direct *zō(­n), ergative *ʔez(V), genitive *ʔiz(V), oblique *zā­, though Lak and Dargwa have instead a first person stem *nR (cf. Basque *ni ‘I’, PST *ŋā- ‘I, we’, etc.). In the second person singular PEC had a “complicated suppletive paradigm” consisting of direct * ō(­n) / *'wM = *ġwM, ergative *ʔŏ'wV = *ʔŏġwV, genitive *ʔe V / *ʔi V, and dative *dū. Clearly a great deal of rearrangement has taken place in all of these languages since the original paradigms of thousands of years ago. West Caucasian abandoned most of the suppletive stems and kept only *sa ‘I’ (= *zō) and *wa ‘thou’ (= * ō). One East Caucasian language, Dargwa (Akushi and Urakhi dialects) has retained the stems *nR and *'wM = *ġwM, resulting in a paradigm coinciding with that of Basque:85 Dargwa (Akushi, Urakhi) Basque ‘I’ ‘thou’ nu ħu ni hi Table 12 We can then summarize the genesis of the Burushaski first and second person singular pronouns as follows: see table 13. Interrogative Pronouns As stated correctly by Č (p. 74), Bur interrogative pronouns are built on bases containing the labials /m/ and /b/: *me- ‘who’ and *be ‘what’, and he also quite correctly recognizes the Bur tendency to waver between /m/ and /b/. Č connects the Bur interrogatives with the rare IE inhttp://www.xinaliq.com/; http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/khinalugs.shtml. Note that Tsakhur exhibits free variation between the two old second person stems: wu < *Yō vs. ġu < *Ww). 85 Note that some Dargwa dialects have instead retained the PEC stem *zō as du ‘I’. 83 84 46 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule ProtoBurushaski Proposed cognates Proto-DeneCaucasian86 1st pers. sg. direct *7a Khinalug zǸ Tsakhur zu Chechen so PWC *sa Yen. *ʔaʒ 1st pers. sg. oblique *a- (< *ŋa­)87 Dargwa nu Basque *ni Kott *ŋ-/-ŋ88 *ŋV *u-n Archi un Khinalug wǸ Tsakhur wu (~ ġu) PWC *wa Yen. *ʔaw / *ʔu *wV *gu- / *go- Tsakhur ġu (~ wu) Chechen ħo Dargwa ħu Basque *hi Yen. *kV-/*ʔVk- *xGwV 2nd pers. sg. direct 2nd pers. sg. oblique *zV Table 13 terrogative stem *me/o­, attested only in Anatolian, Tocharian, and Celtic. We must point out, however, that the *mV- interrogative is much more richly attested in DC than in IE, and furthermore the m ~ b alternation is attested in DC, but not in IE: • • • Caucasian: PEC *mV- > Chechen mi-la ‘who’, mi-ča ‘where’, ma-ca ‘when’ etc.; Andi emi‘who’, Chamalal im id., Tind. ima-la ‘who’; Lezgi, Agul mu-s ‘when’ / Archi ba-sa ‘when’ Basque: ba- conditional prefix, ‘if-’ (Trask 1997: 225)89 Sino-Tibetan: PST *mV- > Karen *mV ‘what’, Serdukpen mu id., Bodo *maʔ id., Ao Naga *mV id., Sichuan *mV id. (ToB) / PST *Pa ‘what, which’ > Burmese ba ‘what, which’, Jingpo pha1 ‘what’, Bodo b0 ‘which one’ (CSCG I: 92) S.A. Starostin (ToB, 2004–2005a, 2004–2005b). Loss of initial PDC *ŋ in Bur (or replacement with /h/) is regular, per Starostin (CSCP 48). 88 According to Starostin, Ket b-/ʔab- belongs here; but the development *b < *m < *ŋ (CSCP 48) does not agree with the rules established by him earlier (Starostin 1982), while the Kott data agree excellently: ~âliga < ŋâliga ‘ich Weiss’ = *‘mein Wissen’ ~aiteän (ŋaiteän) ‘ich will’ = *‘mein Wunsch’ ~apeaŋ < ŋapeaŋ ‘in; hinein’ < *‘mein Inneres’ ~ani < ŋani ‘mein Schwiegersohn’ : Ket εń ‘Schwiegersohn’ ~âma < ŋâma ‘mein Mutter’ ~ôp < ŋôp ‘mein Vater’. See W. Werner, Vgl. Wörterbuch der Jenissej-Sprachen, Bd. 2, Wiesbaden 2002, 29–30, who has collected the Kott examples from Castrén 1858. Concerning Ket ab- ‘my’, Arin b(i)­, Kott m-inšo, and Ket & Yugh 1st person sg. verbal exponent ba-/bo­, a promising cognate appears in Hurrian ­iffu-/-iff-/-iffē- ‘my’, pl. ­iff=až ‘our’; and in the ergative suffix of the 1st person ­aw, e.g. tād=aw ‘I love [it]’ (see Gernot Wilhelm, „Hurrian,“ In: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages, ed. by Roger D. Woodard, Cambridge: University Press 2004, 107, 112). 89 For semantic development, cf. Old Irish ma ‘whether, if’ < PIE interrogative stem *me/o­, cited by Čašule (p. 74); German wenn ‘if’ < ‘when’; Czech či ‘ob’, Polish czy ‘ob’ < PIE interrogative stem *kwei­, etc . 86 87 47 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek • Yeniseian: PY *wi- / *we- ‘interrogative pronoun’90 > Ket biśέŋ / biśaŋ ( < biśa:ŋ3) ‘where’, biśśe ‘who’ (masc.), bε-śa ‘who’ (fem.), bi-ľa5,6 ‘how’, bi-ľέś / biľáś ‘whither’; Kott bi-li ‘where’, bilthuŋ ‘whither’, bilčaŋ ‘whence’, bi-ľaŋ ‘which’, etc. Verb In the verb the Bur variance from IE is just as pronounced as in the noun. The “typological similarity” claimed by Č (p. 75) is only in regard to vaguely similar systems of aspects and tenses, without any material parallels pointing to common genetic origin. The verbal endings (Č, pp. 75–77) are similar only in that both Bur and IE have endings containing n and m, though there are no real correspondences between them. Most striking is the existence of the Bur template verbal morphology with as many as four prefix positions preceding the verb stem. Table 14. Burushaski verb template prefix position –4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 NEG D PRON CAUS VERB PL.SBJ. DUR 1sgSBJ NON-FIN/ +5 +6 SBJ Q plural marker verb stem causivity/ valence pronominal prefix (person/ class) subject version MODAL negative marker function AP/ Tikkanen 1995, Berger 1998, Anderson, ms. It is well known that Proto-IE had few verbal prefixes.91 The Bur prefixal template is far more compatible with languages such as those of the Yeniseian family, especially the welldocumented verbal morphology of Ket, and of the extinct Kott; Basque, Caucasian (especially West Caucasian), and Na-Dene also seem to preserve distinctive features (multiple noun classes, polysynthesis, extensive verbal prefixing of pronominal and valence-changing grammemes) of the postulated Dene-Caucasian proto-language: see, e.g. Bengtson (2008a, 2010a, 2010b), G. Starostin (2010a). Numerals Č (p. 75) makes some ingenious Burushaski-IE comparisons of the numerals ‘one’, ‘two’ (actually Bur ‘two’ + IE *H2al- ‘other’), ‘eight’, and ‘nine’. Before commenting on these attempts, let us first provide some background information on the complete numeral systems of Bur and its IE neighbors: Yeniseian *w- is the regular reflex of PDC *m- (CSCP 35). Concerning verbal prefixes in IE, the situation is rather complex. Most of the historically attested IE languages use prefixes, which represent the prepositions, sometimes “frozen,” as in Hittite. The verbal augment is another example, different from usual prefixes. Its existence is attested in Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Greek. E. Hamp (1997, 127) tried to demonstrate that it is not excluded that it was known in other languages too, e.g. in the Latin form enos ‘we’ instead of nos in the Carmen Arvale. This means that this “prefix” would be free and not dependent only on the verb. There could also be some old prefixes of the type “s-mobile” in Indo-European, maybe corresponding with the Afroasiatic s-causative. 90 91 48 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule Table 15. Burushaski numerals Dial. \ Num. 1 2 3 4 5 Hunza & Nagir hin han hik altó altáć altá(n) iské(n) uskó iskí wálto wálti ćhundó ćhindí Yasin hen han hek altó altáć altá(n) iské iskó iskí wáltu/ wálte ćendó ćindó, -í Comments H 18: hun Dial. \ Num. w + *alt- 2 6 7 8 9 10 Hunza & Nagir mišíndo mišíndi mao thaló thalé altámbo altámbi hunćó huntí tóorumo tóorimi Yasin bičíndu bišínde thaló thalé altámbu altámbe huó hutí tórum -miṣ, pl. ­mianć Y ­meṣ, pl. ­mać ‘finger’ + ‘5’ maybe cf. Khaling tár 7 (Hd 361) *altan be 2 without *hun- 1 minus *Cu 10? or from Y ­cu‘take away’ (Bl 328) toórum Y. taúrum so many; cf. Khaling taḍham 10 (Hd 361) 40 50 áltar-tóorumo /tóorimi altó-áltar N ­álthar altó-áltar tóorumo 20 + 10 2 × 20 (2 × 20) + 10 Comments Dial. \ Num. 10 20 Hunza & Nagir tóorumo áltar N álthar Yasin tórum áltar < *alt- + *tarum(B 16) Comments Dial. \ Num. 60 70 Hunza & Nagir iskí-áltar iskí-áltar tóorumo Yasin iskí-áltar Comments 3 × 20 30 80 wálti-áltar 90 wálti-áltar tóorumo walte-áltar (3 × 20) + 10 4 × 20 100 tha tha (4 × 20) + 10 Berger 1998. 49 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek Table 16. Nuristani & Dardic numerals Language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kati ev diu tre št()vo puč }o, }u sut ošṭ, u}t noh, nu duc Waigali ew, ēk dǖ trē čatā p;č, pūč }ū sōt ō}ṭ n; dōš Aškun ač dA, du trä, trε catā }ū, }du sūt A}ṭ nA, nū dus Prasun i/upün lǖ cšī, čī čipū wuču wu}u sëtë āstë n;, nyū läzë Dameli ek dū trâ čōr p@č }o sat a}ṭ n€ daš Gawar yak, yk dū λē/ε cūr pō(n)c }uō, }ōu st, sat ō}ṭ n; dš, daš Wotapuri yek, yak dū ṭā, λā c/sawūr panʒ/c šō, }ē sat, sāt aṭ, āṭ nau daš() Šumašti yäk dū λyē, λīē cöYur pōn }Ao sat, st ā}ṭ nī däs Pašai ī dō trä, λ(Ɂ)ē čār, cōr panǰ š sat ašt nō dē Tirahi ek dō tre cawor panc xo sat axt nab dah Kalaša ek dū tre čau pAn, pānš }o sat a}ṭ nō daš Khowar ī ǰū troi čōr pōnǰ čhoi sot ošt něoh ǰoš Torwali e(k), ē du, dū, do ča, a čau panǰ šō, }o sat aṭ nōm daš Baškarik ak dū ṭhā čōr panǰ šo sat aṭh num daš Maiyan ak dū čā saur pānz šōh sāt āṭh num daš Kanyawali ek dū ā cōur p@s }ō sāt āṭh nau däš Phalura āk dū trō čūr pānž }oȹ sāt ā}ṭ n; dāš Šina ēk du e čar poĩ }a săt ă} naū daï Kašmiri akh zŭ(h) tr’ŭ(h) cōr pTnc šah sath Tṭh naw da(h) 50 pAnč, ponc On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule Table 16 (cont.) Language 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1000 Kati vici, vc vica-duc ďu-vc ďu vcatr vc duc Waigali wišī wišidōšī du-wišī du-wišīetrēw(i)šī dōšī Aškun wišī wiši-ādus dA-wišī duíšādŏs tré-wiši Prasun ʒū, zū lʒä(i)ž lyogʒu leǰebiz ščogʒu Dameli biši bišio-daš dū-biši Gawar išī išī-o-dš Wotapuri bīš() bīš-ō-daš dū-bīš Šumašti isī isī-däs dū-isī Pašai wst wst-odäi trīw du-wya Tirahi biau, byεh biau-dah do-bē do-biaudah Kalaša biši biši-ǰedaš dū-biši dū-bišiǰe-daš trebiši(r) trebíšidaš čaubiši(r) čaubíšidaš pˆñ-biši Khowar bišr bišr-ǰoš ǰū-bišr ǰūbiširoče-ǰoš troi-išir troibíšir o-če-ǰöš čōr-bišr čorbíširo -če-ǰöš pōnǰbišr, šōr Torwali bīš daš-obīš dū-bīš daš-odū-bīš čā-bīš čo-bīš panǰ-bīš, soh Baškarik bīš daš-ōbīš dū-bīš daš-ōdū-bīš ṭha-bīš čōr-bīš panǰ-bīš Maiyan bīš daš-ōbīš dū-bīš daš-ōdū-bīš ča-bīš saur-bīš šal Kanyawali bīš dū-bīš a-bīš cōur-bīš šal Phalura bhīš bhīš-edāš du-bhīša trōbhiša čūrbhiša pānžbhiša Šina bí(h) bi-g‰daĩ dībyo dībyog‰-daï ěbyo ěbyoga-dai čarbyo čarbyoga-dai šāl sās, s@s Kašmiri wuh trŭh catŭǰŭh pancāh šṭh satat šth namat hath sās, sôsu puč vc tréwišidŏs čattāwišī p;č-wišī catā-bíši, catāčattō-iši wiši-dŏs puncwišī čpagʒu wučεgʒu p@ž-biši du-išī dū-bīšō-daš du-wyau-däi λē-išī cūr-išī pāinšī ṭā-bīš cawurbīš panʒ-bīš λyē-isī cöur-isī pōn-isī trä-wya, λe-wya čār-wiya čār-wéadē panǰawia panz-bē Ėdeľman 1978, 285–87. 51 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek Table 17. Numerals of the Pamir languages Language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Yidgha yū loȹ Šuroi čšīr pāns, onǰ úxšo ávdo áščo nōu los Munjan yū lu Široi čfūr ponž óxšo óvdo oškɁo nau da Šughni yīw, yi δu, δiyūŒn aráy cavṓr pīnʒ xōŽ (w)ūvd waŠt nōw δīs Rušan/Khuf yīw, yi δaw aráy cavūŒr pīnʒ xūŒw (w)ūvd waŠt nāw/nōw δos Bartang yīw, yi δaw ary cavór pīnʒ x‘w ūvd waŠt nāw δus Sarykoli iw, i δεw, δa aroy cavúr pinʒ xel ыvd woŠt new δes Yazghulam wů(g) δow cůy čer penǰ Šu uvd uŠt nu(w) δůs Iškašim uk, ůk dь(w) rů(y) cьfůr půnʒ xůl(l) uvd ot naw, nu dI důst Wakhi yi(w) bu(y) tru(y) cыbыr panʒ šaδ ыb at naw δas 20 30 Language Yidgha wísto Munjan bist < Pers. Šughni δu δīs 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Šüroiwist pānžwist 1000 ara δīs cavōr δīs pīnʒ δīs xōŽδīs δīs δīs azo·r Rušan/Khuf δaw δos aray δos cavūŒr δos pīnʒ δos xūŒw δos δos δos-uk hazo·r Bartang arāy δus cavōr δus čil pīnʒ δus xōw δus δus δus-ak azōr wast-a δůs δow wast δow wast-a δůs cůy wast cůywást -at δůs čer wast čer wást-at δůs penǰ bist (h)azór bīst-t δas bu-bīst bu-bīstt-δas truybīst tru-bīst(t) δas cыbыr bīst cыbыr bīst-(t) δas panʒ-bist δas-δas sad < Š. δaw δus Sarykoli Yazghulam wast Iškašim bist, Sang dьwišt Wakhi wīst / bīst < Tajik Payne 1989, 435; Efimov & Ėdeľman 1978, 226–28. The first serious analysis of the Burushaski numerals was proposed by Tomaschek (1880, 823–24). He recognized the role of the numeral ‘2’ in ‘4’ and ‘8’,92 and the vigesimal character of the higher numerals ‘30’, ‘40’, ‘50’, ‘60’, ‘70’, ‘80’, ‘90’. Also remarkable are his external comparisons, *Cu ‘10’ (extracted from ‘9’) with Yeniseian (PY *tuʔ-ŋ; Starostin 1995, 289) and TiLet us mention that an even stricter binary system appears in Haida, one of the Na-Dene languages: see Blažek (1999: 327). 92 52 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule betan bću (PST *[}h]Vj; CVST IV, 144–45), and tóorumo ‘10’ with (Sino-Tibetan) Khaling taḍham, taṛ am ‘10’. It seems very probable that a Burushic substratum is responsible for the existence of vigesimal systems in the Nuristani and Dardic and Pamir languages (Lorimer 1937: 83), rarely also in Pašto (dwah-šilah ‘40’, dre-šilah ‘60’, tsalōr-šilah ‘80’), Baluči (dō-gīst ‘20’, sī-gīst ‘60’, čyār-gīst ‘80’), and Asiatic Romani (turrum-wist ‘60’, turrum-wist-das ‘70’)93 — see Tomaschek (1880: 826) — much as the vigesimal systems in Ossetic and Georgian are likely due to Caucasian substratum, and those of Romance and Celtic due to the Basque/Aquitanian substratum.94 Now as to Č’s proposed material correspondences between Bur and IE numerals: the first, comparing PIE *H1oi-no-s ‘one’ with Bur hen / hin (class I, II) ~ han (class II, IV) ~ hek / hik (counting form) ‘one’ is almost plausible, except that the form *H1oi-no-s is characteristic of western IE (Italic, Celtic, Germanic, Balto-Slavic), while forms with different suffixes *H1oi-ko-s and *H1oi- o-s gave rise to the Indic and Iranian words for ‘one’ shown above. The late Sergei Starostin derived Bur *he- ‘one’ from Proto-DC *HVc+́ / *cH+ ‘one’, a root that produced the word for ‘one’ in all DC languages (except Basque):95 Caucasian: PNC *cH+ (Chechen cħaʔ, Khwarshi has, Ubykh za, etc.), Yeniseian: PY *χu-sa, and Sino-Tibetan: PST *ʔǐt (Old Chinese *ʔit, Burmese ać, etc.). The phonetic development in Bur is regular, as also seen in the word for ‘fox’, e.g.:96 • Bur *he- ‘one’ : Chechen cħaʔ ‘one’ < PNC *cH+ • Bur *hal ‘fox’97 : Chechen cħōgal ‘fox’ < Proto-Nakh *cɦōḳal < PNC chwōlV-ḳV For Bur *alto ‘two’ Č suggests comparison with IE *H2al- ‘other’ + ordinal suffix *­to­, in spite of the fact that this is not an ordinal but a cardinal number, and that the “suffix” ­to- appears nowhere else in the Bur numerals. As we have shown above, Bur /lt/ is a distinctive cluster that can be traced back to PDC lateral affricates, and thus we prefer the comparison of Bur *alto ‘2’ (and *w-alt- ‘4’, *altamb- ‘8’, and *altar ‘20’) with PDC *=ZnŁe, whose other reflexes include PWC *p(:)0W´0 ‘4’, PEC *bǖn–e ‘8’ (Chechen barh, Avar míW:-go, Lezgi müžü-d, etc.), Basque *lau ‘4’, and PST *(p­)lĭj ‘4’ (Tibetan bźi, Burmese lijh, Kaling ‘bhäl, etc.). Note that only Bur retains this stem for 2, 22, 23, 2×10, while Basque, West Caucasian, and Sino-Tibetan use it only for 22, and East Caucasian only for 23, and that several of the languages cited have a labial prefix before the stem: Bur *w-alt- 22 PEC *bǖn6e 23 PWC *p(:) ´ 22 PST *(p­)lĭj 22 Table 18 Berger (1959) detailed Burushaski influences on Romani. E. Bashir (pc.) adds that the vigesimal system is also found in Panjabi. 94 Blažek (1999: 333–334) discusses in more detail the vigesimal systems in various IE languages and their probable origins from DC substrata. 95 S. A. Starostin suggested derivation of Basque bat ‘one’ from the PDC root *=ĭṭV ‘to cut, divide, break’, with a fossilized class prefix as in Avar b-uṭá ‘part’, Lak b-aṭu-l- ‘separate’, and Dargwa Chirag b-iṭa-l ‘part’ (NCED 660–661). 96 According to Starostin (CSCP 60–67) the PDC initial sibilant-laryngeal clusters *cH­, *ʒH­, *śH- regularly yield Bur *h­. 97 There is a certain resemblance to Indo-Aryan words for ‘jackal, fox’: Skt. ś#gālá- > Hindi siyāl, siyār, sāl, ‘jackal’, Oriya siyāḷa, siaḷa, etc. (CDIAL 729), though Berger (1998 III: 186) makes no reference to this as a source of Bur hal. 93 53 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek Next, Č attempts to derive Bur altámbo ‘8’ from PIE *o©tō(u) ‘8’, “with a change of ak > al under the influence of the Bur numerals for 2 and 4” (p. 75). In view of the holistic relationship of the Bur words for 2, 22, and 23, as shown above, it seems highly unlikely to us that all the other IE lower numerals would be discarded and only ‘8’ retained, with this odd change. Finally Č (p. 75) tries to connect Bur huntí ‘9’ with PIE *H1ne  ‘9’, “with dissimilation,” presumably to eliminate the first nasal. However, the non-counting forms contain sibilant affricates: (H, N) hunćó, (Y) hu"ó, and we saw (above) Tomaschek’s hypothesis of ‘one’ (hun­) away from ‘ten’ (­ćó, ­"ó). Besides Yeniseian *tuʔ- ‘10’and Sino-Tibetan *[ʒh]Vj ‘10’, Starostin and Nikolayev (NCED 245) have posited PNC *ȱĕn"Ĕ ‘10’ (Andi ho"o-go, Lezgi "u-d, Abkhaz ža-bá, etc.), and some have suggested that a cognate element *­ci is found in the Basque numerals *sor-ci ‘8’ and *bedera-ci ‘9’ (thus 10 — 2, 10 — 1, respectively), though this latter hypothesis has been criticized by Trask (1995: 64–65). One of the authors (Bl 328) has suggested another possibility: *hun- ‘1’ + (Y) ­cu- ‘take away’, i.e. ‘(10) take away 1’.98 Berger (Beiträge 79) derives hunćó and hu"ó < *hún"ió < *hun-tr-ió (‘1’ + ‘10’ + plural, i.e. ‘10 — 1’, like Finnish yhdeksan) Finally, Starostin (CSCG 255, CSCP 81) compares Bur *hunćó ‘9’ with PEC *ʔĭl"´wǸ ‘9’ (Andi hoo­, Khwarshi ũi-n, Lak ur, etc.), though this does not account very well for the Bur counting form huntí. In spite of Č’s ingenious (though, we think, erroneous) attempts, it is apparent that there is nothing in common between the Bur and IE numeral systems. The kinship of the Bur numeral system with those of DC languages is most clearly seen in the words for 2, 22, and 23. Lexicon If Burushaski is an IE language, one would expect it to have something in common with the inherited IE lexicon. We have already seen above that large segments of Bur basic vocabulary, including pronouns and numerals, have cognates in Dene-Caucasian languages. Here we compare some of the core vocabulary in both languages according to basic semantic fields. Kinship terms PIE *p2ter- (*pH2ter­) ‘father’ / *māter (*meH2ter­) ‘mother’ : Bur *­uỵ ‘father’, *´­mi ‘mother’. The Bur word for ‘mother’, like the initial element of PIE *māter, is a variation of the universal stem *mA, cf. Basque *eme ‘female’, *ama ‘mother’, Yeniseian *ʔama ‘mother’, etc. Bur *­uỵ ‘father’99 is clearly unrelated to PIE *pH2ter­, or to anything else in IE, for that matter. In any case the Bur words lack the characteristic IE structure ending in *­ter.100 “Interestingly, we have a similar situation in Vedic and later OI, where 19 = 20 minus 1. The minus is expressed by ūna ‘gap’: thus: eka-unā-viḿśati [> ekonaviḿśati] 20 – 1 = 19, [likewise] for 29, etc. Again areal influence? The Iranians of course do not do it.” (M. Witzel, pc.). 99 A highly speculative hypothesis for the origin of Bur *­uỵ ‘father’ < *‘foster-father’ could involve the PDC verb *=íȱwVl- ‘to eat’ (PNC *=iȱwVl ‘to feed on, to eat; to bite’, PY *ʔiʔr- ‘to eat’, Basque *alha- ‘to graze, feed’: CSCG 111). See above for the proposed lateral origin of Bur /ỵ/. A semantic analogy may be found in Old Irish al-tru ‘foster-father’ < al- to feed, nourish’ < PIE *al- ‘to raise, to feed’. 100 Elsewhere one of the authors has tried to demonstrate that the IE kinship terms in *­ter should be segmented as *p-H2-ter- ‘father’, *m-eH2-ter- ‘mother’, *bȹr-eH2-ter- ‘brother’, *dȹug-H2-ter- ‘daughter’, *šem-H2-ter ‘sonin-law’. The suffixal complex *­(e)H2-ter- corresponds to Hittite ­adar / Luwian ­attar, which bear a function similar to English ­hood or German ­heit. Hence these IE kinship names probably reflect an abstract meaning which can be expressed as ‘fatherhood, motherhood, brotherhood, daughterhood’, etc. (Blažek 2001, 24–33). 98 54 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule PIE *bhrā-t-er- (*bȹreH2-ter­) ‘brother’ / *swes-er- ‘sister’ : Bur has instead one stem *´-u that serves as both ‘brother of male’ and ‘sister of female’, and two others, *­hulVs ‘brother of female, and *­yást ‘sister of male’.101 All of these Bur words are bound morphemes — they can only occur with a possessive prefix — and all of them have parallels in DC languages. Bur *´-u closely resembles the Caucasian stem *=R¬ĭ that serves as ‘brother’ and ‘sister’, often with changing class prefixes (e.g., Agul ču ‘brother’, či ‘sister’, Chechen wa-ša ‘brother’, ja-ša ‘sister’, Dargwa u-zi ‘brother’, ru-zi ‘sister’, etc.); cf. Basque *an-his-ba ‘sister (of a woman)’; PST *ć+jH ‘elder sister or brother’; Yeniseian *b-[i](ʔ)s ‘brother, sister’ (CSCG 112). Bur *­hulVs ‘brother (of female), husband’s brother’ resembles PEC *χalȱV / *ȱVχalV, a word root that gives rise to Lak aħal-ču ‘bridegroom’s kinsman’ and aħal-š:ar ‘bride’s kinsman’, along with cognates that mean ‘guest’ (probably a semantic development from *‘wedding guest’ < *‘kinsman invited to a wedding’): Dargwa Akusha aħạl, Tabasaran χ̣alu-žv, etc. (NCED 1067).102 Bur *­yást ‘sister of male, wife’s sister’ can be compared with PEC *"HdV ‘woman’ (Chechen zuda ‘woman’, Dargwa Chirag cade ‘female’, Hunzib "utula ‘bride’, etc.), Urartian ašti ‘woman, wife, bride-groom’, PY *cVt- ‘husband’, Basque *(ema­)ste ‘married woman, wife’ (CSCG 26). PIE *s-nu­, *s-yo- (*suH-nu­, *suH-yo­) ‘son’, *dhug(h)a-t-er- (*dȹug-H2-ter­) ‘daughter’ : Bur has one stem, *­i, for both ‘son’ and ‘daughter’. Starostin (CSCG 156) connected this with PST *ŋe(j) ‘child, young’, with the regular Bur loss of initial *ŋ.103 Cf. also Basque *nini ‘child, doll’. Bur also has the word *´-s (Yasin ­ís, Hunza, Nager ´-sk) ‘human child, animal’s young’, probably cognate with Caucasian *=RšwĔ ‘son, daughter’ (Avar w-as ‘son’, j-as ‘daughter’, Kabardian śā-wa ‘son’, etc.); Basque *śV (in *śe-me ‘son’, *o-śa-ba ‘uncle’, *alha-ba-śo ‘granddaughter’, *a-śa-ba ‘ancestor’, etc.); PST *śū ‘grandchild’ (CSCG 113). IE *suH-nu­, *suH-yo- ‘son’ are derivatives of the verb *seuH- ‘to give birth’ (IEW 913–14; Rix et al. 2001: 538). Probably related are Kartvelian *šew-/*šw- ‘to give birth’: Georgian švili “son” (Klimov 1998, 248, 251) ||| Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic: (East) Somali was, Konso os ‘to have sexual intercourse’ || Omotic: Shinasha, Mocha šuw­, Kafa šii­, Anfillo šuy- ‘to give birth’ (Lamberti 1993: 384) ||| Uralic: Mari š0wä ‘to give birth’ (Illič-Svityč 1967: 361: IE + Kartv. + Mari). There is likely a remote (‘Borean’) connection between PDC *=RšwĔ and the other words in this paragraph, but the morphological features are entirely different: IE stem + suffix vs. Bur (and DC) prefix + stem. In sum, there is no resemblance whatsoever, whether in overall kinship structure or lexemes, between Bur and IE kinship terms, apart from some possibly very remote (‘Borean’) cognates (PIE *s­- ~ Bur *´­s, PIE *mā-t-er- ~ Bur *´­mi). Body part words PIE *erd- ‘heart’ : Bur *´-s ‘heart, mind’. The Bur word has been compared with Caucasian: PNC *ȱămYa ‘sky, cloud; soul, breath; god’ (Akhwakh as:i ‘breath’, Ubykh p-sa ‘soul, spirit’, etc.), Basque *ɦaise ‘wind’, etc. (CSCG 263);104 another possibility is comparison with These words have extended meanings in the Burusho kinship system: *´­u also serves as ‘husband of a man’s sister’, *­hulVs as ‘husband’s brother’, and *­jást as ‘wife’s sister’. The typology of the Bur sibling terms is similar to Basque: *anaie ‘brother of male’/ *ne-ba ‘brother of female’; *an-his-ba ‘sister of female’ / *a"e-ba ‘sister of male’. 102 In these words /ạ/ denotes a pharyngealized vowel, and /χ/ a voiceless pharyngealized uvular fricative, ̣ otherwise written (more awkwardly) with the paločka as /aI/ and /χI/, respectively. 103 Seen also in Bur *a- ‘1st person singular pronominal prefix’ ~ PST *ŋā- ‘I, we’, PEC *nœ ‘I’, Basque *ni ‘I’, etc. (CSCG 156, CSCP 48). 104 For semantics, cf. Rumanian inimă ‘heart, soul, mind,’ etc. < Latin anima ‘wind, air, breath, spirit, mind’, etc. 101 55 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek Basque *bi-si ‘life; alive’, PNC *YĭHwV ‘breath, breathe’: Chechen sa ‘soul’, oblique base si-na­, etc.) (CSCG 188). The IE word is, we think, cognate with Kartvelian *mḳerd- ‘chest, breast’ (Klimov 1998, 123; Illič-Svityč 1971, #200: IE+Kartv.) and, in Afro-Asiatic: Chadic: Hausa ḳirji, pl. ḳiraaza ‘chest’, Gwandara g0riji id. (Skinner 1996). PIE *okw- (*H3ekw­) ‘eye’ : Bur *´-l-ći / *il- (the latter in compounds). The Bur word is clearly comparable with Caucasian: PNC *ȱwĭlȱi ‘eye’ (cf. especially Dargwa *ħuli, Tabasaran, Agul, Rutul ul) and Yeniseian: PY *de-s (Ket dēś, Kott tīš, Pump. dat, where *d- is a regular initial reflex of PDC *l-: CSCG 266, CSCP 68). The IE word *H3ekw- has, we think, external cognates in Altaic: PA *úk®u ‘to understand, look into’ (Old Turkic uq- ‘to understand’, Old Japanese uka-kap- ‘to look into, inquire’, etc.); cf. also Semitic: Ugaritic ®aq ‘eyeball’; Hebrew ®āqā id. (Koehler & Baumgartner 2001 I: 873); Geez ®oqa ‘to know, understand, observe’, Amharic awwäqä ‘to know’, Harari āqa id. (Leslau 1987: 78–79); Cushitic: (Central) *­aq ‘to know’ > Kemant ax­, Kunfäl ah­, Awngi ­aq- id.; (East) Somali ­aq id. (Appleyard 2006, 89–90). PIE *ō(w)s- ‘mouth’105 : Bur *qhát. The latter is comparable with Caucasian: PEC *qwJṭi ‘Adam’s apple, uvula’ > Lak qwịṭ ~ qịṭ ~ qụṭ ‘Adam’s apple, beak’,106 Kryz χuluṭ ‘larynx’ (< *χuṭul), etc. (CSCG 172).107 PIE *ara­, *eras- ‘head’108 : Bur *yaṭ-is. Cf. Caucasian: PEC *ɦwōmdV ‘brain, head’: Avar ȥadá- ‘head’, Tsez, Hinukh ata ‘brain’, Archi ọnt ‘head (of woman or animal)’,109 etc. (CSCG 98).110 PIE *nas­, *nās- ‘nose’ : Bur *muś ‘nose’, *­múś ‘snot’. Cf. Caucasian: PNC *mɦ[^ĕ ‘edge’ (Ingush mȥiz-arg ‘snout’, etc.: NCED 813); or PEC *mHărčwV ‘pus; mucus, snot’ (Chechen marš ‘snot’, Tsakhur maš ‘pus’, etc.: CSCG 144); Basque *mośu ‘nose, face, kiss, point, beak’. PIE *ost(h)- ‘bone’111 : Bur *­ltén ‘bone’, *­ltán-c ‘leg’. Cf. Caucasian: PEC *SwVnʔV ‘groin; part of leg’: Avar W:an ‘groin’, Archi W:on-t’ol ‘fingernail’, Kryz kǸn ‘ankle’, etc.; PST *l0ŋ ‘shin, ankle’ (CSCG 140). PIE *ped- ‘foot’ : Bur *­húṭ- ‘foot’. Cf. Caucasian: Avar ħeṭ / ħeṭé ‘foot’, Dargwa Kaitag ṭah ‘foot, hoof’, etc. < PEC *ɦīṭwM / *ṭwīɦM; PST *tRH ~ *dRH ‘heel, ankle’ (CSCG 207). PIE *yekw- (*(H)°ékɀ±(t)) ‘liver’ : Bur *´-ken ‘liver’. Cf. Caucasian: PEC *²unHV > Chamalal ḳ³ ‘liver’, Bezhta, Hunzib koma ‘kidney’, etc. (NCED 728); cf. PST *kjnH ‘kidney’ (CVST V: 58, no. 214). According to D. Q. Adams (EIEC, p. 387), the form *ō(w)s- ‘mouth’ should be reinterpreted as two distinct stems: (i) *H1/4 óH1(e)s­, gen. *H1/2eHsós; (ii) *Hxoust-ā. 106 /ị/, /ụ/ represent pharyngealized vowels, also (awkwardly) written iI, uI, where I represents the paločka in the Cyrillic orthography of Caucasian languages. 107 Alternatively, cf. PNC *GwēṭV ~*GēṭwV ‘crop, craw; beak, Adam’s apple’ > Lak. q:iṭi ‘uvula’, etc. (CSCG 172). 108 The IE word for ‘head’ should be reconstructed as *Ÿ#réH , gen. *Ÿ#H ós, singulative *ŸórH s#, collective 2 2 2 *ŸérH2or (Adams, EIEC 260). The meaning ‘brain’ developed in Latin cerebrum and Old High German hirni. 109 /ọ/ represents a pharyngealized vowel = NCED /oI/ (cf. note to ‘mouth’, etc.) 110 The correspondence of Bur *y- = *j- ~ PNC *ɦ- is recurrent. Cf. Bur *yáltar ‘leafy branches’, etc. ~ PEC *ɦăl,VłV ‘branch, pod’ (above in the discussion of Bur ­lt­). 111 The IE word ‘bone’ should be reconstructed as *H est(H)­. 3 105 56 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule Č (p. 38) attempts to connect the Bur word with PIE *(H)°ékɀ±(t) (a heteroclitic ­r/-n stem), ignoring the root syllable *(H)°ékɀ- = *yekw­,112 while another originally heteroclitic word, PIE *wed- ‘water’, is compared with Bur buḍóo ‘rinsing water’, which has no trace of either heteroclitic suffix ­r or ­n. (Cf. instead OI *buḍyati ‘sinks’, Marathi buḍbuḍ ‘sound of bubbling’, etc.: CDIAL 9272.) PIE *(o)nAbh- ‘navel’113 : Bur *­sú[m] ‘umbilical cord, navel’114 ~ Cf. Caucasian: Chamalal ṣũj, Lak "un, Dargwa zu, Khinalug "um ‘navel’, etc. < PEC *\ŏnʔŭ (CSCG 249). Basic verbal roots PIE *lewe- ‘to hear’ : Bur *´-yal- ‘to hear’ ~ cf. Caucasian: PNC *=eQu ‘to hear’: Andi anši‘to hear’, Budukh ix- id., etc. (NCED 411, CSCG 46) PIE *ed- ‘to eat’ : Bur *ṣi (with class I, II, III singular object) / *ṣu (with class I, II, III plural object) / *śi ‘to eat’ (with class IV object) ~ cf. Yeniseian: PY *sī- ‘to eat’ ~ PST *ʒha id. ~ Caucasian: Tsez, Khwarshi =a"- ‘to eat’, Tindi c:a- ‘to drink’, etc. < PEC *=V^V ~ Basque *auśi-ki ‘to bite’ (NCED 1017, CSCG 209) PIE *dō(w)- ‘to give’115 : Bur (1) *­u- ‘to give’ (only with class I, II, III object), (2) *­ćhi- ‘to give’ (only with class IV singular object); (3) *­ġun- ‘to give’ (only with class IV plural object). The three class-determined Bur verb stems have distinct DC origins: (1) cf. PNC *mMxw; PST *ŋaH ‘to give, borrow, rent’ (CSCG 156); 116 (2) cf. Caucasian: Chamalal ič- ‘to sell, give’, Bezhta =is- ‘to sell’, Khinalug če=ḳwi ‘to sell’, etc. < PEC *=ićV (NCED 626); (3) ? cf. PEC *HVEVn- ‘to take, snatch’ (NCED 615); PST *gŏn ‘to collect’ (CVST V: no. 56); Basque *(e)-ken- ‘to take away’, etc.117 Here the verb used in Bur is determined by the class of the object. (Cf. the preceding example, ‘to eat’.) This is a totally un-Indo-European feature, but it appears to be a deep-seated trait of Dene-Caucasian, with manifestations at least in Basque and Na-Dene.118 Other basic words PIE *(e)nomen- ‘name’119 : Bur *yek ‘name, reputation’: (Y) ­yék, pl. ­yékiŋ, ­yékićiŋ, (H, N) ­ík, pl. ­íkićiŋ . Cf. Yeniseian: PY *ʔiG > Ket ī ‘name’, pl. εʔŋ, Kott ix, īx, pl. īkŋ / ekŋ / eäkŋ. This is Lorimer (1935) considered Burushaski ­8kin, pl. ­8kimiŋ, ­8ki·niŋ ‘liver’ a borrowing from Indo-Iranian: OI yák#t, gen. yakná ‘liver’, Pashto yna, Yidgha yēġn id. etc. (IEW 504; Bailey 1979: 108). 113 The IE word ‘navel’ should be reconstructed as *H nobȹ- (Adams, EIEC 391). 3 114 Underlying *m found in the plural form ­súimuc. 115 In LIV 105–07 reconstructed as *deH - & *deH Y. 3 3 116 According to Starostin < PDC *ŋVxwV ‘to give, borrow’, with regular loss of initial *ŋ in Bur (CSCP 48). 117 Assuming the common semantic relationship of ‘give’ and ‘take’ (as in PIE *gȹab(ȹ)­, etc.). 118 This trait is highly developed in Na-Dene: Athapaskan: e.g. Navajo ­tí¡ ‘handle animate singular object’, ­ką́ ‘handle a rigid container with contents’, ­žòòž ‘handle a set of parallel long rigid objects’ (each representing a different class). And at the far western extreme we find remnants of similar tendencies in Basque: the dialects have different words to express the concept ‘dry’, e.g. Zuberoan agor pertains to sources and streams of water, ütsal to aliments and terrain, eihar to the human body, fauna and flora, and idor to dryness in general. 119 The IE etymon ‘name’ has been reconstructed as *H nóm£ (Polomé & Mallory, EIEC 390). 1 112 57 John D. Bengtson, Václav Blažek one of the remarkable parallels between Bur and Yeniseian (cf. Toporov 1971), extending even to the inanimate plural endings with velar nasals.120 We can see from these examples that Bur really shares almost no basic vocabulary with IE. Conclusions It is impossible to disprove relationship. We agree with Čašule that there may be some kind of very deep-level relationship between Burushaski and IE. However, we propose, and we believe we have shown, that Burushaski is much closer genetically to the Dene-Caucasian languages than it is to Indo-European. Much of the similarity between Bur and IE can be attributed to a long period of symbiosis and language contact between Bur and its Indo-Iranian neighbors. There is evidence that early Indo-Aryan was influenced by Bur (or perhaps a wider-ranging Burushic family) as its speakers entered the Indian subcontinent by way of the Hindukush and Pamir regions (see, e.g., Lorimer 1937, Tikkanen 1988, Witzel 1999). We noted above such features as the vigesimal numeral system (discussed above) in Nuristani, Dardic, Pamir, Pašto, Baluči, and Asiatic Romani. There are also lexical borrowings from Bur that have penetrated into the basic lexicon, e.g. in Šina: birdi ‘earth’, phurgū ‘feather’, čhµṣ ‘mountain’, tam doiki ‘to swim’; and in Khowar: tip ‘full’, phur ‘hair’, būk ‘neck’, etc. (Kogan 2005: 173). These parallels reflect only areal, not genetic relations, and so they are the results of secondary convergence. The areal parallels indicate the existence of a much wider expanse of the Burushic stratum in the past, but there are no direct Burushaski-Indo-Iranian/Indo-European genetic links, only some very old elements that represent archaic residue from a remote ancestor (Borean) common to the ancestor of Indo-European (Nostratic or Eurasiatic) and the ancestor of Burushaski (Dene-Caucasian).121 Postscript Since this article was originally written (around mid-2007) there have been some new developments in the Dene-Caucasian hypothesis. A consensus has been developing that the eastern members, Sino-Tibetan and Na-Dene, probably result from an early split of the DC proto-language, leaving the western branches (Basque, Caucasian, Burushaski, and Yeniseian) to a period of common development in which some grammatical and lexical features (e.g., suppletive pronominal paradigms [see above]; words such as western *ȱwĭlȱi ‘eye’ [see above] vs. eastern *wĕm,Z ‘eye’122) crystalized. In a recent lexicostatistical study by George Starostin (p.c.), using the 50 most generally stable items on the Swadesh 100­word list (G. Starostin 2010b), a tentative subgrouping has emerged in which the eastern branches (Sino-Tibetan and Na-Dene) are indeed opposed to the western group (Basque, Caucasian, Burushaski, and Yeniseian), thus confirming the old „SinoBesides ‘name’, Bur and Yeniseian share several important basic lexical isoglosses, e.g. ‘eat’ (B *śi / *ṣi / *ṣu ~ Y *sī­), ‘egg’ (B *ṭiŋ- ~ Y *jeʔŋ / *jʔŋ), ‘eye’ (B *­l-ći ~ Y *de-s­), ‘hand’ (B *­reŋ ~ Y *ŕŋ), ‘leaf’ (B *ltap ~ Y *jTpe), ‘root’ (B *cheréṣ ~ Y *čīǯ­), etc., as well as the pronominal and numeral words discussed above. 121 For example, the case of Bur *´­s ‘child, young’ ~ PIE *suH-(­nu­,-yo­) ‘son’, cited above. 122 PST *my4k (Old Chinese 目 *muk, Tibetan mig, Lepcha mik, a-mik, etc. ‚’eye’); Tlingit wàg, Athabaskan *­n-wēg-ʔ ‘eye’. See CSCG 216: this word was preserved with other semantic developments in the western DC languages. 120 58 On the Burushaski–Indo-European hypothesis by I. Čašule Dene“ idea of Edward Sapir (Bengtson 1994). Within the western group G. Starostin finds a split between a Basque-Caucasian branch on the one hand and a Burusho-Yeniseian branch on the other (Bengtson 2010a, 2010b; G. Starostin 2010a). As to the recently developed „Dene-Yeniseian“123 idea initiated by Ruhlen (1998b) and continued by Vajda (e.g., 2008, 2009, 2010), it now appears that the Yeniseian languages have much more in common with Burushaski than (directly) with the Na-Dene languages. In other words, there is indeed a “relationship” between Yeniseian and Na-Dene, in the sense that both ultimately belong to different branches of the Dene-Caucasian macrofamily, but in our view they do not by themselves form a valid taxon.124 Likewise, Na-Dene seems to form a taxon with Sino-Tibetan and is thus closer to the latter than to Yeniseian. Abbreviations of languages and dialects Bur DC H JSp Lat MSp N OSp PDC PEC PNC PST PWC PY Tib Y Burushaski Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Hunza (Burushaski) Judaeo-Spanish Latin Middle Spanish Nager, Nagar (Burushaski) Old Spanish Proto-Dene-Caucasian (Proto-Sino-Caucasian) Proto-East Caucasian Proto-(North) Caucasian Proto-Sino-Tibetan Proto-West Caucasian Proto-Yeniseian Tibetan (Classical) Yasin (Burushaski) = Werchikwar Abbreviations of sources cited Beiträge Bl CDIAL CLI CSCG CSCP CVST EIEC H Hd IEW LDC NCED SSEJ Berger (2008) Blažek (1999) Comparative Dictionary of Indo-Aryan Languages (Turner 1966) Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum (Schmitt 1989) Comparative Sino-Caucasian Glossary (Starostin 2005a) Comparative Sino-Caucasian Phonology (Starostin 2005b) A Comparative Vocabulary of Five Sino-Tibetan Languages (Peiros & Starostin 1996) Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (Mallory & Adams 1997) Hayward (1871) Hodgson (1857) Pokorny (1959) Lexica Dene-Caucasica (Blažek & Bengtson 1995) North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary (Nikolaev & Starostin 1994) Sravniteľnyj slovaŕ enisejskix jazykov (Starostin 1995) See http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/dy/. 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Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. WITZEL, Michael. 1999. Early Sources for South Asian Substrate Languages. Mother Tongue (Special Issue, October 1999): 1–70. XELIMSKIJ, Evgenij A. 1982. Keto-Uralica. In: Ketskij sbornik, ed. by E.A. Alekseenko. Leningrad: Nauka, 238–251. XELIMSKIJ, Evgenij A. 1986. Arxivnye materialy XVIII veka po enisejskim jazykam. In: Paleo-aziatskie jazyki, ed. by P.Ja. Skorik. Leningrad: Nauka, 179–213. ZAXARJIN, B. A., and D. I. ZAXARJIN. 1971. Jazyk kašmiri. Moskva: Nauka. Статья посвящена относительно недавней гипотезе, выдвинутой И. Чашуле, согласно которой язык бурушаски, традиционно считавшийся изолятом, на самом деле входит в состав индоевропейской семьи. Авторы прибегают к сравнительному анализу, сопоставляя гипотезу Чашуле и те конкретные фонетические, морфологические и лексические аргументы, которые он приводит в ее поддержку, с соответствующими аргументами в пользу т. н. «дене-кавказской» гипотезы, которая утверждает, что бурушаски на правах отдельной ветви входит в обширную макросемью, включающую языки семьи на-дене, а также сино-тибетские, севернокавказские, баскский и енисейские языки. Анализ данных показывает, что аргументы в пользу дене-кавказского происхождения бурушаски в количественном отношении значительно превышают аргументы в пользу индоевропейско-бурушаскской гипотезы. Связи бурушаски с индоевропейской семьей оказываются либо чересчур бессистемными (в области фонетических соответствий), либо спорадическими и явно недостаточными (в области морфологии), либо вообще практически отсутствуют (в области базисной лексики). Таким образом, все случаи схождений между индоевропейскими и бурушаскскими элементами следует объяснять либо как (а) следы недавних контактов между бурушаски и индоарийскими языками, либо как (б) случайные сходства, либо, в очень немногочисленных случаях, как (в) следы «сверхглубокого» родства, которые никоим образом не представляют собой эксклюзивных «индоевропейско-бурушаскских» связей. Ключевые слова: индоевропеистика, язык бурушаски, макрокомпаративистика, денекавказская макросемья, языки-изоляты. 63