Fortifications of Mount Oneion, Corinthia

he sper ia฀ 75 ฀ ( 2006) Page s ฀327 – 35 6 Fortifications฀of฀ Mount฀Oneion,฀ Corinthia ABST RAC T Recent฀investigations฀on฀the฀Isthmus฀of฀Corinth฀by฀the฀Eastern฀Korinthia฀ Archaeological฀Survey฀(EKAS)฀have฀revealed฀a฀series฀of฀relatively฀humble฀ fortifications฀situated฀along฀the฀ridge฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion,฀which฀forms฀the฀southern฀boundary฀of฀the฀Isthmus.฀These฀Late฀Classical–Early฀Hellenistic฀walls,฀ along฀with฀a฀nearby฀series฀of฀later฀Venetian฀fortifications,฀were฀designed฀to฀ block฀access฀to฀the฀south฀through฀several฀low฀passes.฀Controlling฀the฀passage฀ of฀ northern฀ armies฀ through฀ the฀ Isthmus฀ to฀ the฀ Peloponnese฀ was฀ clearly฀ a฀ long-term฀strategic฀concern฀for฀diverse฀regional฀powers. The฀Isthmus฀of฀Corinth฀is฀one฀of฀the฀most฀strategically฀important฀regions฀in฀ the฀eastern฀Mediterranean.1฀It฀lies฀at฀the฀junction฀of฀the฀main฀north–south฀ roads฀between฀central฀Greece฀and฀the฀Peloponnese฀and฀the฀sea฀routes฀between฀the฀eastern฀and฀the฀western฀Mediterranean.฀The฀Corinthians,฀with฀ their฀imposing฀citadel฀of฀Acrocorinth,฀traditionally฀controlled฀the฀Isthmus,฀ which฀runs฀from฀the฀city’s฀western฀port฀of฀Lechaion฀to฀its฀eastern฀port฀at฀ Kenchreai฀ (Fig.฀ 1).฀ At฀ numerous฀ times,฀ however,฀ a฀ foreign฀ power฀ such฀ as฀Rome฀or฀Venice฀has฀sought฀to฀dominate฀this฀strategically฀significant฀฀ corridor.฀ The฀Isthmus฀is฀both฀a฀relatively฀fertile,฀flat฀agricultural฀area฀and฀the฀ natural฀point฀of฀defense฀for฀the฀Peloponnese฀against฀any฀attack฀from฀the฀ north.2฀Only฀7฀km฀wide฀at฀its฀narrowest฀point,฀the฀Isthmus฀is฀cut฀today฀by฀ the฀Corinth฀Canal฀and฀was฀crossed฀in฀antiquity฀by฀the฀Diolkos฀road.฀It฀is฀ 1.฀We฀would฀especially฀like฀to฀thank฀ Daniel฀Pullen,฀codirector,฀and฀Thomas฀ Tartaron,฀field฀director,฀of฀the฀Eastern฀ Korinthia฀Archaeological฀Survey฀ (EKAS).฀The฀37th฀Ephoreia฀of฀ Classical฀and฀Prehistoric฀Antiquities฀ and฀the฀4th฀Ephoreia฀of฀Byzantine฀and฀ Post-Byzantine฀Antiquities฀provided฀ cooperation฀and฀encouragement฀at฀ every฀step฀of฀this฀project.฀We฀would฀ also฀like฀to฀thank฀Ronald฀Stroud,฀฀ James฀Wiseman,฀and฀Merle฀Langdon฀ for฀advice฀and฀for฀reading฀earlier฀฀ drafts฀of฀the฀article.฀Thanks฀are฀also฀ due฀to฀the฀anonymous฀Hesperia฀referees,฀ who฀helped฀us฀avoid฀many฀errors฀and฀ infelicities.฀Holly฀Cook฀prepared฀the฀ pottery฀drawings,฀and฀Karen฀Soteriou฀ prepared฀the฀plans฀of฀the฀Maritsa฀Venetian฀fortifications.฀Finally,฀special฀ ©฀T h e ฀ A m e r i c a n ฀ S c h o o l ฀ o f ฀ C l a s s i c a l ฀ S t u d i e s ฀ a t ฀ A t h e n s thanks฀are฀due฀to฀the฀many฀members฀฀ of฀EKAS฀who฀trudged฀up฀and฀down฀ the฀steep฀paths฀of฀Oneion฀in฀hot฀and฀ sometimes฀dangerous฀situations,฀often฀ carrying฀heavy฀equipment.฀This฀article฀ is฀primarily฀the฀fruit฀of฀their฀labor. 2.฀Wiseman฀1978,฀pp.฀17–21,฀52–฀ 56,฀81–82;฀Isthmia฀V,฀pp.฀7–10;฀Fowden฀ 1995. 328 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y one฀of฀a฀handful฀of฀natural฀places฀critical฀to฀the฀defense฀of฀Greece,฀along฀ with฀the฀eastern฀pass฀of฀Thermopylai฀and฀the฀western฀passes฀of฀KithaironParnes฀between฀Boiotia฀and฀the฀Attic-Megarid฀region.3฀Although฀these฀ three฀areas฀have฀natural฀features฀that฀have฀made฀them฀easily฀defensible,฀all฀ of฀them฀required฀complex฀systems฀of฀fortification฀to฀prevent฀the฀passage฀of฀ an฀enemy.฀Here฀we฀seek฀to฀shed฀new฀light฀on฀the฀southernmost฀fortifications฀of฀the฀Isthmus฀corridor.฀ At฀the฀southern฀boundary฀of฀the฀Isthmian฀plain,฀the฀abrupt฀heights฀of฀ Mt.฀Oneion฀provide฀a฀natural฀defensive฀line฀from฀Kenchreai฀to฀Acrocorinth฀ (Figs.฀1,฀2).฀For฀an฀enemy฀approaching฀Mt.฀Oneion฀from฀the฀north,฀the฀ sheer฀cliffs฀and฀steep฀slopes฀present฀a฀formidable฀barrier.฀To฀gain฀access฀to฀ lands฀south฀of฀the฀mountain,฀it฀is฀possible฀to฀pass฀the฀Oneion฀barrier฀in฀a฀ number฀of฀ways฀(Fig.฀3).฀The฀easiest฀method฀is฀to฀go฀around฀it,฀either฀to฀ the฀east฀or฀the฀west.฀The฀principal฀routes฀of฀both฀ancient฀and฀modern฀times฀ skirt฀Mt.฀Oneion฀to฀the฀west,฀following฀the฀course฀of฀the฀Xeropotamos฀ (Leukon)฀River฀or฀traversing฀the฀valleys฀of฀the฀Longopotamos฀(Rachiani)฀ and฀Nemea฀(Koutsomadiotikos)฀rivers฀farther฀to฀the฀west.4฀The฀difficulty฀ with฀these฀routes฀in฀the฀past฀was฀that฀they฀ran฀directly฀within฀the฀view฀of฀ the฀powerful฀fortifications฀of฀Acrocorinth,฀often฀prompting฀an฀invading฀ army฀to฀seek฀an฀alternative฀course.฀ To฀the฀east฀a฀route฀ran฀along฀the฀coast฀of฀the฀Saronic฀Gulf฀near฀the฀ port฀of฀Kenchreai,฀just฀west฀of฀the฀modern฀coastal฀highway฀to฀Epidauros.5฀ The฀disadvantage฀of฀this฀route฀was฀that฀it฀passed฀close฀to฀the฀fortifications฀ of฀Kenchreai,฀and฀beyond฀these฀the฀road฀narrows฀between฀the฀sea฀to฀the฀ east฀and฀the฀mass฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion฀to฀the฀west.6฀Here฀a฀small฀force฀could฀ easily฀block฀an฀invader’s฀progress฀to฀the฀south.฀An฀invader฀with฀control฀of฀ Figure฀1.฀The฀Isthmus฀of฀Corinth,฀ with฀sites฀mentioned฀in฀the฀text. W.฀R.฀Caraher 3.฀Fowden฀1995,฀p.฀550. 4.฀For฀the฀Xeropotamos,฀see฀Wise-฀ man฀1978,฀pp.฀81,฀88–90;฀Salmon฀1983,฀ p.฀36.฀For฀the฀Nemea฀and฀Longopotamos฀rivers,฀see฀Pritchett฀1969,฀pp.฀77– 79;฀Wiseman฀1978,฀pp.฀81,฀108–110;฀ Salmon฀1983,฀pp.฀36–37;฀Bynum฀1995,฀ pp.฀40–45;฀Pikoulas฀1995,฀pp.฀31–35;฀ Lolos฀1998,฀pp.฀129–132;฀Marchand฀ 2002,฀pp.฀40–72. 5.฀Stroud฀1971a,฀p.฀127.฀For฀the฀ identification฀of฀wheel฀ruts฀presumably฀ belonging฀to฀this฀road฀along฀a฀stretch฀ of฀exposed฀bedrock฀on฀the฀beach฀north฀ of฀Loutro฀Elenis,฀see฀Kenchreai฀I,฀p.฀2;฀ Salmon฀1983,฀p.฀37. 6.฀Pseudo-Skylax฀54;฀Kenchreai฀I,฀฀ pp.฀6–12. f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 329 Figure฀2.฀Mt.฀Oneion,฀looking฀south฀ from฀the฀Isthmus.฀The฀Maritsa฀pass฀ is฀just฀right฀of฀center.฀Photo฀T.฀E.฀ Gregory 7.฀E.g.,฀Diodoros฀(19.54.3)฀recorded฀ that฀in฀316฀Kassander฀avoided฀a฀con-฀ frontation฀with฀the฀troops฀of฀Polyperchon,฀who฀held฀the฀Isthmus฀at฀that฀ time,฀by฀transporting฀his฀men฀from฀ Megara฀to฀Epidauros฀by฀sea;฀see฀Stroud฀ 1971a,฀p.฀142. 8.฀For฀Solygeia,฀see฀Thuc.฀4.42–45;฀ Corinth฀I.1,฀pp.฀97–99;฀Stroud฀1971b;฀ 1994,฀pp.฀269–280;฀Wiseman฀1978,฀฀ pp.฀56–58.฀See฀Lorandou-Papantou-฀ niou฀1999฀for฀N.฀M.฀Verdelis’s฀excavations฀in฀1957–1958;฀for฀finds฀elsewhere,฀ see฀Stroud฀1971b,฀p.฀238;฀Wiseman฀ 1978,฀p.฀58. 9.฀Tartaron฀et฀al.,฀forthcoming. the฀sea฀would฀have฀found฀it฀easier฀to฀circumvent฀the฀defenses฀along฀the฀ Saronic฀Gulf.7 When฀an฀invading฀army฀found฀the฀natural฀routes฀around฀the฀ends฀of฀ Mt.฀Oneion฀blocked,฀it฀might฀attempt฀to฀cross฀the฀mountain฀directly.฀It฀ is฀possible฀to฀do฀so฀through฀one฀of฀several฀north–south฀passes,฀including฀ the฀Stanotopi฀and฀Maritsa฀passes,฀which฀are฀the฀particular฀focus฀of฀this฀ article.฀To฀attempt฀either฀of฀these฀passes,฀located฀in฀the฀eastern฀part฀of฀the฀ Oneion฀range,฀an฀attacking฀army฀must฀have฀had฀serious฀reasons฀to฀bypass฀ the฀easier฀routes฀skirting฀its฀eastern฀and฀western฀ends.฀Not฀only฀are฀the฀ mountain฀routes฀arduous,฀but฀they฀would฀place฀the฀attackers฀in฀a฀position฀ well฀east฀of฀Corinth฀and฀outside฀the฀main฀routes฀to฀the฀Argolid.฀The฀most฀ compelling฀reason฀for฀using฀these฀passes฀would฀have฀been฀that฀forces฀attempting฀to฀block฀the฀Isthmia฀corridor฀typically฀arrayed฀themselves฀at฀the฀ eastern฀and฀western฀ends฀of฀the฀mountain,฀defending฀the฀easy฀passages฀and฀ maintaining฀close฀contact฀with฀the฀resources฀and฀fortifications฀of฀Corinth฀ and฀Kenchreai.฀An฀attempt฀to฀pass฀through฀the฀center฀of฀the฀mountain฀ ridge,฀ therefore,฀ may฀ have฀ seemed฀ preferable฀ to฀ meeting฀ concentrated฀ defenses฀on฀the฀Saronic฀coast฀or฀in฀the฀Xeropotamos฀valley. There฀ were฀ other฀ reasons฀ for฀ an฀ invader฀ to฀ seek฀ access฀ to฀ the฀ area฀ immediately฀south฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion฀and฀east฀of฀the฀traditional฀routes฀to฀the฀ Argolid.฀Textual฀and฀archaeological฀evidence฀from฀the฀Classical฀period฀attests฀to฀the฀existence฀of฀an฀unfortified฀community฀at฀Solygeia฀in฀the฀rolling฀ hills฀immediately฀south฀of฀Oneion฀(Fig.฀1).8฀Archaeological฀finds฀have฀been฀ reported฀near฀the฀town฀of฀Almyri฀and฀on฀the฀hills฀of฀Brielthi฀and฀Vigla.฀ Moreover,฀in฀the฀course฀of฀geological฀work฀conducted฀by฀EKAS,฀scatters฀ of฀ancient฀material฀in฀the฀fields฀to฀the฀west฀of฀the฀modern฀village฀of฀Rhyto฀ were฀observed,฀indicating฀that฀the฀hills฀south฀of฀Solygeia,฀reached฀today฀by฀ a฀road฀heading฀south฀from฀Galataki,฀may฀have฀had฀significant฀settlement฀in฀ antiquity฀as฀well.9฀The฀presence฀of฀these฀apparently฀unfortified฀settlements฀ within฀easy฀reach฀of฀the฀coast฀may฀have฀tempted฀an฀enemy฀either฀to฀forage฀ 330 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y in฀their฀vicinity฀or฀to฀carry฀out฀destructive฀raids฀on฀vulnerable฀centers฀of฀ rural฀agricultural฀production.฀ In฀ addition,฀ once฀ an฀ army฀ crossed฀ the฀ mountain’s฀ eastern฀ end฀ and฀ moved฀south,฀it฀had฀bypassed฀the฀defenses฀of฀Acrocorinth฀and฀gained฀access฀to฀a฀complex฀network฀of฀roads฀leading฀toward฀the฀population฀centers฀ of฀the฀southwest฀Corinthia,฀such฀as฀Tenea,฀Kleonai,฀and฀Phlius,฀as฀well฀as฀ the฀Sanctuary฀of฀Zeus฀at฀Nemea.฀Thereafter,฀an฀army฀could฀link฀up฀with฀ routes฀into฀the฀Argolid฀or฀move฀toward฀the฀west฀through฀the฀uplands฀of฀ the฀ northeastern฀ Peloponnese฀ to฀ descend฀ into฀ Sikyonia,฀ Arkadia,฀ and฀ Achaia.10฀It฀also฀would฀have฀been฀possible฀for฀an฀invading฀army฀without฀ substantial฀ naval฀ power฀ to฀ proceed฀ south฀ into฀ the฀ Epidauria,฀ although฀ there฀is฀little฀evidence฀for฀this฀actually฀occurring.11฀Furthermore,฀east–west฀ routes฀passing฀immediately฀to฀the฀south฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion฀would฀have฀given฀ an฀army฀relatively฀easy฀access฀to฀the฀city฀walls฀of฀Corinth฀in฀the฀vicinity฀of฀ the฀southeast฀gate,฀allowing฀the฀invaders฀to฀attack฀Corinth฀from฀an฀unex-฀ pected฀direction.12 In฀this฀article,฀we฀discuss฀the฀archaeological฀evidence฀from฀the฀Stanotopi฀and฀Maritsa฀passes฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion฀and฀the฀attempts฀made฀to฀fortify฀ them฀in฀at฀least฀two฀distinct฀periods.฀The฀Stanotopi฀pass฀runs฀just฀to฀the฀ 10.฀Polyb.฀4.13.1–6.฀The฀roads฀of฀ the฀southwest฀Corinthia฀and฀the฀passes฀ into฀the฀Argolid฀have฀been฀well฀studied:฀ Stroud฀1971a,฀p.฀128;฀Bynum฀1995,฀฀ pp.฀14–27;฀Pikoulas฀1995,฀pp.฀285–288;฀ Lolos฀1998,฀pp.฀182–190.฀Walbank฀ (1957,฀p.฀461)฀proposed฀that฀the฀Aito-฀ lians฀may฀have฀followed฀a฀route฀from฀ Sikyon฀to฀the฀eastern฀part฀of฀the฀Isth-฀ mus,฀avoiding฀Acrocorinth฀after฀the฀ Battle฀of฀Kaphyai฀in฀220฀b.c. 11.฀Diod.฀Sic.฀15.69.1;฀Dixon฀2000,฀ p.฀94. 12.฀This฀is฀the฀route฀taken฀by฀ Dodwell฀(1819,฀pp.฀196–197).฀For฀the฀ gate,฀see฀Corinth฀III.2,฀pp.฀47–54. Figure฀3.฀Routes฀south฀through฀the฀ Isthmus:฀(A)฀the฀coastal฀route฀ blocked฀during฀the฀Classical฀period฀ by฀the฀long฀walls฀linking฀Corinth฀to฀ its฀port฀of฀Lechaion;฀(B)฀the฀traditional฀route฀south฀following฀the฀ Xeropotamos฀River;฀(C)฀the฀eastern฀ coastal฀road฀passing฀to฀the฀east฀of฀ Stanotopi;฀(D)฀the฀Stanotopi฀pass;฀ (E)฀the฀Maritsa฀pass.฀W.฀R.฀Caraher f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 331 west฀of฀the฀port฀of฀Kenchreai,฀and฀by฀traversing฀it,฀an฀enemy฀could฀skirt฀ the฀eastern฀defenses฀of฀the฀Isthmus฀and฀descend฀into฀the฀plain฀to฀the฀south.฀ Stroud฀has฀already฀discussed฀this฀passage฀in฀some฀detail.13฀The฀Maritsa฀ pass฀is฀some฀2฀km฀farther฀west,฀between฀Kenchreai฀and฀the฀modern฀village฀of฀Xylokeriza,฀in฀an฀area฀locally฀called฀Maritsa฀or฀Trypeio฀Lithari.฀ Scholars฀generally฀have฀not฀recognized฀this฀more฀difficult฀and฀remote฀pass;฀ nevertheless,฀the฀remains฀of฀substantial฀fortifications฀designed฀to฀defend฀ it฀suggest฀that฀it฀was฀perceived฀as฀a฀viable฀route฀south฀during฀the฀ancient฀ and฀early฀modern฀periods.14 MAJ O R฀ LINES฀ O F฀ D EFENSE ฀ IN฀T H E ฀ E A ST ERN฀ CORINT H IA 13.฀Stroud฀1971a. 14.฀This฀pass฀is฀not฀to฀be฀confused฀ with฀the฀western฀pass฀noted฀by฀Stroud฀ (1971a,฀pp.฀129,฀137). 15.฀Stroud฀1971a,฀p.฀127. 16.฀Isthmia฀V,฀pp.฀4–6. 17.฀Broneer฀1966;฀see฀also฀Kardara฀ 1971;฀Wiseman฀1978,฀p.฀60. 18.฀Hdt.฀8.71,฀9.7.1;฀Wiseman฀1978,฀ p.฀60;฀see฀also฀Isthmia฀V,฀p.฀5. 19.฀Wiseman฀1963;฀1978,฀pp.฀59–฀ 63.฀See฀alslo฀Lawrence฀1979,฀p.฀169;฀ Isthmia฀V,฀p.฀5,฀n.฀35. 20.฀Wiseman฀1963,฀pp.฀255–256. 21.฀Isthmia฀V. 22.฀Isthmia฀V,฀pp.฀150–151;฀Malte-฀ zou฀1978.฀There฀was฀even฀talk฀of฀refortifying฀the฀Hexamilion฀at฀the฀time฀of฀ the฀Greek฀War฀of฀Independence฀in฀the฀ early฀19th฀century. 23.฀Stroud฀1971a.฀Wiseman฀(1978,฀ p.฀59,฀p.฀77,฀n.฀91)฀lists฀eight฀instances฀ in฀which฀Oneion฀was฀fortified฀between฀ 369฀and฀146฀b.c. Stroud฀observed฀that฀there฀have฀always฀been฀two฀lines฀of฀defense฀running฀ through฀the฀Corinthia:฀a฀freestanding฀trans-Isthmian฀wall฀and฀the฀series฀ of฀fortifications฀along฀Mt.฀Oneion.15฀The฀idea฀of฀a฀trans-Isthmian฀wall฀ has฀long฀commanded฀the฀larger฀share฀of฀scholarly฀attention.฀Researchers฀ have฀identified฀and฀seriously฀discussed฀no฀less฀than฀four฀trans-Isthmian฀ fortifications,฀all฀of฀which฀were฀designed฀to฀take฀advantage฀of฀the฀series฀ of฀upturned฀marine฀terraces฀extending฀northwest–southeast฀through฀the฀ Isthmian฀plain.16฀Broneer฀sought฀to฀identify฀and฀trace฀a฀Mycenaean฀wall฀ that฀ran฀from฀the฀beach฀south฀of฀the฀canal฀near฀the฀modern฀settlement฀of฀ Isthmia฀to฀the฀neighborhood฀of฀the฀Sanctuary฀of฀Poseidon฀and฀presumably฀ beyond.17฀Wiseman฀reported฀fortifications฀along฀the฀Ayios฀Dimitrios฀ridge฀ (Fig.฀3),฀arguing฀that฀pottery,฀loomweights,฀and฀the฀masonry฀itself฀might฀ identify฀this฀wall฀with฀the฀fortifications฀constructed฀during฀the฀Persian฀Wars฀ and฀mentioned฀in฀books฀8฀and฀9฀of฀Herodotos.18฀He฀also฀documented฀more฀ thoroughly฀a฀wall฀of฀Hellenistic฀date฀that฀followed฀a฀similar฀line฀on฀the฀ Ayios฀Dimitrios฀ridge.19฀Excavations฀on฀this฀ridge฀uncovered฀substantial฀ remains฀of฀towers฀and฀what฀appear฀to฀have฀been฀barracks.20฀While฀there฀ was฀no฀evidence฀of฀the฀Classical฀wall฀beyond฀the฀top฀of฀the฀ridge,฀Wiseman฀was฀able฀to฀trace฀the฀Hellenistic฀wall฀as฀it฀turned฀to฀the฀northwest฀and฀ ultimately฀to฀the฀north฀toward฀the฀modern฀city฀of฀Corinth.฀ The฀final฀trans-Isthmian฀fortification,฀and฀certainly฀the฀most฀impressive฀today,฀is฀the฀Hexamilion,฀constructed฀in฀the฀early฀years฀of฀the฀5th฀cen-฀ tury฀a.d.฀and฀rebuilt฀on฀many฀occasions฀afterward.฀Its฀remains฀are฀still฀well฀ preserved฀in฀many฀places,฀and฀they฀can฀be฀traced฀from฀the฀Saronic฀Gulf฀ to฀the฀Corinthian฀Gulf.21฀This฀formidable฀fortification,฀despite฀periods฀of฀ disrepair,฀served฀to฀block฀access฀to฀the฀Peloponnese฀for฀over฀1,000฀years.฀In฀ fact,฀the฀last฀attempt฀to฀fortify฀the฀lower฀line฀of฀the฀Hexamilion฀was฀during฀ the฀second฀period฀(1686–1715)฀of฀Venetian฀occupation฀of฀the฀Peloponnese,฀ although฀the฀Venetian฀senate฀was฀evidently฀unable฀to฀provide฀the฀funds฀ necessary฀for฀its฀proper฀repair฀and฀defense.22 The฀second฀line฀of฀defense฀serving฀to฀fortify฀the฀Isthmia฀corridor฀was฀ farther฀south฀and฀took฀advantage฀of฀the฀Oneion฀range฀as฀a฀natural฀barrier฀ against฀north–south฀movement.23฀The฀fortifications฀along฀this฀line฀left฀the฀ plain฀of฀the฀Isthmus฀undefended฀and฀could฀not฀protect฀against฀an฀army฀ that฀moved฀west฀to฀enter฀the฀Peloponnese฀through฀any฀of฀the฀north–south฀ 332 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y river฀valleys.฀The฀Oneion฀fortifications฀were฀also฀less฀spectacular฀than฀the฀ freestanding฀walls฀of฀the฀lower฀plain,฀and฀they฀were฀apparently฀erected฀and฀ manned฀under฀less฀dramatic฀circumstances.฀They฀are฀associated฀with฀the฀ Stanotopi฀and฀Maritsa฀passes฀(Fig.฀4).฀ The฀Stanotopi฀pass฀runs฀between฀the฀principal฀mass฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion฀ and฀its฀easternmost฀prominence,฀a฀hill฀called฀Stanotopi.฀This฀pass฀crosses฀ the฀mountain฀at฀a฀comparatively฀low฀elevation,฀ca.฀200฀m.฀The฀main฀routes฀ ascend฀the฀mountain฀from฀the฀flat฀land฀near฀Kenchreai฀and฀descend฀close฀to฀ the฀modern฀town฀of฀Loutro฀Elenis.฀The฀best฀paths฀follow฀two฀converging฀ ravines฀that฀cut฀into฀the฀north฀face฀of฀the฀mountain.฀These฀ravines฀begin฀ ca.฀150฀m฀to฀the฀east฀of฀the฀entrance฀to฀a฀modern฀quarry฀(which฀at฀present฀ consumes฀the฀eastern฀extent฀of฀the฀mountain)฀and฀40฀m฀to฀the฀south฀of฀ the฀southern฀fence฀of฀a฀modern฀Greek฀army฀base.฀One฀route฀ascends฀the฀ western฀side฀of฀the฀eastern฀ravine฀and฀the฀other,฀probably฀easier,฀passage฀ runs฀just฀to฀the฀east.฀These฀paths฀provide฀access฀to฀the฀top฀of฀the฀Oneion฀ ridge,฀which฀is฀under฀250฀m฀in฀elevation฀at฀this฀point,฀and฀from฀there฀an฀ army฀could฀descend฀by฀numerous฀routes฀to฀the฀south. The฀Maritsa฀pass฀runs฀across฀the฀center฀of฀the฀mountain฀ridge,฀ascend-฀ ing฀ca.฀2.4฀km฀west฀of฀Kenchreai฀and฀2฀km฀east฀of฀the฀village฀of฀Xylokeriza.฀ The฀best฀modern฀path฀approaches฀a฀deep฀ravine฀from฀the฀east,฀crossing฀ a฀broad฀alluvial฀fan.฀Ascent฀from฀the฀west฀would฀have฀involved฀a฀much฀ steeper฀climb.฀The฀path฀from฀the฀east฀ascends฀sharply฀toward฀the฀east฀side฀ of฀the฀ravine฀before฀crossing฀to฀the฀west฀side฀of฀a฀broad฀saddle฀that฀passes฀ across฀the฀mountain฀at฀an฀elevation฀of฀slightly฀over฀320฀m.฀On฀the฀southern฀ side฀of฀the฀saddle฀the฀path฀breaks฀to฀the฀east,฀crossing฀the฀saddle฀again,฀ and฀descends฀south฀along฀the฀spines฀of฀any฀number฀of฀alluvial฀fans฀toward฀ Galataki฀and฀ancient฀Solygeia. Figure฀4.฀The฀eastern฀part฀of฀the฀ Oneion฀ridge,฀with฀passes฀and฀forti-฀ fications.฀Contour฀interval฀20฀m.฀฀ W.฀R.฀Caraher f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 333 Figure฀5.฀Classical–Hellenistic฀fortifications฀at฀Stanotopi.฀Contour฀interval฀ 20฀m.฀W.฀R.฀Caraher฀ CLASSICAL– H ELLENIST IC ฀ FO RT IFICAT IO NS฀ AT ฀ STANO TO P I The฀Classical–Hellenistic฀fortifications฀at฀Stanotopi฀have฀been฀clearly฀and฀ accurately฀ described฀ by฀ Stroud,฀ who฀ dated฀ the฀ architecture฀ to฀ the฀ 4th–฀ 3rd฀centuries฀b.c.,฀with฀a฀latest฀date฀of฀224฀b.c.,฀based฀on฀the฀pottery฀found฀ in฀the฀vicinity,฀as฀well฀as฀historical฀probability.24฀The฀most฀impressive฀element฀of฀the฀fortifications฀is฀the฀freestanding,฀nearly฀square฀tower฀located฀ on฀ the฀ summit฀ of฀ the฀ relatively฀ low฀ easternmost฀ spur฀ of฀ Mt.฀ Oneion,฀ overlooking฀ Loutro฀ Elenis฀ (ancient฀ Chersonesos).฀ Made฀ of฀ rectangular฀ ashlar฀blocks฀laid฀in฀rough฀courses,฀it฀measures฀8.80฀x฀9.10฀m฀and฀is฀preserved฀to฀a฀maximum฀height฀of฀1.20฀m฀(Fig.฀5).฀To฀the฀west฀of฀the฀tower฀ is฀the฀so-called฀upper฀enclosure,฀covering฀an฀area฀of฀about฀75฀x฀125฀m฀and฀ seemingly฀surrounded฀by฀walls฀made฀of฀cut฀rectangular฀blocks฀whose฀precise฀extent฀cannot฀be฀determined.25฀Stroud฀inferred฀from฀the฀thick฀scatter฀ of฀pottery฀and฀the฀presence฀of฀a฀cistern฀that฀intensive฀activity฀had฀taken฀฀ place฀within฀the฀enclosure฀during฀antiquity.26฀The฀cistern฀and฀the฀ashlar฀ tower฀ may฀ have฀ supported฀ a฀ garrison฀ in฀ the฀ upper฀ enclosure฀ and฀ demonstrate฀a฀significant฀interest฀and฀investment฀in฀the฀fortification฀of฀this฀ strategic฀height. Below฀and฀to฀the฀north฀of฀the฀tower฀and฀the฀upper฀enclosure,฀a฀wall฀ran฀ approximately฀east–west฀along฀the฀top฀of฀a฀steep฀slope฀for฀ca.฀600฀m.27฀In฀ 24.฀Stroud฀1971a;฀see฀pp.฀139–145฀ for฀discussion฀of฀the฀date. 25.฀Stroud฀1971a,฀pp.฀129–135,฀฀ figs.฀2,฀3. 26.฀Stroud฀1971a,฀p.฀133.฀Recent฀ clandestine฀excavations฀have฀revealed฀ another฀possible฀cistern฀cut฀into฀the฀ conglomerate฀near฀the฀northeast฀corner฀ of฀the฀tower.฀Unfortunately,฀the฀mouth฀ and฀shape฀of฀this฀cistern฀were฀destroyed฀ by฀the฀looters,฀making฀it฀impossible฀to฀ determine฀the฀dimensions฀with฀any฀ precision.฀The฀looting฀also฀revealed฀ what฀may฀be฀tentatively฀interpreted฀as฀ three฀graves฀in฀the฀upper฀enclosure;฀ each฀appears฀to฀have฀been฀ca.฀1.80฀m฀in฀ length฀and฀ca.฀0.70฀m฀in฀width.฀Around฀ one฀possible฀grave฀was฀a฀large฀scatter฀฀ of฀Classical–Hellenistic฀coarse-฀and฀ fine-ware฀pottery฀that฀included฀two฀ substantial฀amphora฀fragments฀(11,฀12;฀ Fig.฀13)฀apparently฀disturbed฀in฀the฀ course฀of฀the฀digging. 27.฀Stroud฀1971a,฀pp.฀135–137,฀fig.฀3. 334 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y contrast฀to฀the฀other฀structures฀mentioned฀above,฀this฀wall฀was฀built฀with฀ two฀faces฀of฀unworked฀stones฀filled฀with฀rubble฀and฀measured฀ca.฀2.50฀m฀in฀ thickness.฀Although฀there฀were฀few฀traces฀of฀a฀wall฀along฀the฀south,฀Stroud฀ reasonably฀proposed฀that฀this฀north฀wall฀continued฀around฀the฀whole฀of฀ the฀summit฀of฀Stanotopi,฀with฀the฀tower฀approximately฀at฀its฀center฀and฀ a฀possible฀gate฀along฀the฀wall’s฀south฀side.฀Stroud฀thought฀it฀likely฀that฀ this฀larger฀enclosure฀was฀an฀expansion฀of฀the฀upper฀enclosure,฀although฀he฀ admitted฀that฀the฀chronology฀could฀have฀been฀reversed.28 West฀of฀this฀substantial฀complex,฀Stroud฀noted฀two฀long฀walls฀designed฀ to฀guard฀the฀two฀lowest฀routes฀across฀the฀Oneion฀ridge,฀located฀west฀of฀ Stanotopi฀and฀east฀of฀the฀hill฀designated฀427฀in฀his฀figure฀1.29฀These฀walls฀ lie฀along฀the฀crest฀of฀the฀ridge฀between฀the฀two฀heights฀and฀run฀roughly฀ east–west.฀The฀eastern฀wall฀was฀preserved฀for฀ca.฀245฀m,฀the฀western฀for฀ ca.฀255฀m.฀Built฀of฀rubble,฀in฀a฀style฀similar฀to฀that฀of฀the฀larger฀enclosure,฀ the฀walls฀were฀2.40–2.50฀m฀thick.฀Although฀this฀area฀is฀overgrown฀with฀ dense฀vegetation฀and฀has฀been฀disturbed฀by฀the฀bulldozing฀of฀a฀forest฀road,฀ one฀can฀nevertheless฀trace฀short฀fragments฀of฀the฀walls฀(Figs.฀4,฀5). CLASSICAL–H ELLENIST IC฀ FO RT IFICAT IO NS฀ AT ฀ MARI T SA The฀second฀fortress฀on฀Oneion,฀above฀the฀Maritsa฀pass,฀is฀also฀datable฀to฀ the฀Late฀Classical–Early฀Hellenistic฀period.฀It฀has฀three฀parts:฀a฀fortress,฀ or฀enceinte,฀and฀two฀independent฀shield฀walls,฀all฀apparently฀constructed฀ at฀the฀same฀time฀(Fig.฀6).฀The฀fortress฀encloses฀the฀highest฀point฀on฀the฀ eastern฀part฀of฀the฀mountain฀and฀consists฀of฀a฀large฀enclosure฀with฀two฀ major฀spur฀walls.฀The฀shield฀walls,฀one฀to฀the฀northeast฀and฀the฀other฀to฀the฀ west,฀served฀as฀additional฀defenses฀for฀the฀main฀enclosure.฀The฀Maritsa฀and฀ Stanotopi฀fortifications฀are฀similar฀in฀organization,฀suggesting฀comparable฀ functions฀and฀dates฀of฀construction.฀ The฀Maritsa฀fortress฀has฀a฀commanding฀view฀of฀the฀central฀Isthmia฀ corridor฀to฀the฀north฀and฀the฀ravine-dissected฀hill฀country฀to฀the฀south฀ around฀modern฀Galataki฀and฀ancient฀Solygeia.฀The฀Gulf฀of฀Corinth฀and฀ the฀Saronic฀Gulf฀are฀clearly฀visible฀to฀the฀north,฀although฀part฀of฀the฀ancient฀ harbor฀of฀Kenchreai฀is฀obscured฀by฀the฀eastern฀heights฀of฀the฀mountain.฀ The฀Saronic฀Gulf฀may฀be฀seen฀to฀the฀south฀and฀east,฀along฀with฀the฀coast฀ from฀Loutro฀Elenis฀to฀the฀village฀of฀Almyri฀and฀the฀site฀on฀the฀suggestively฀ named฀hill฀of฀Vigla฀(meaning฀lookout฀post฀or฀watch),฀which฀has฀evidence฀ for฀occupation฀from฀prehistory฀to฀the฀Byzantine฀period.30฀Immediately฀to฀ the฀east,฀the฀hill฀of฀Stanotopi฀with฀its฀tower฀is฀visible฀as฀well.฀The฀modern฀ villages฀of฀Examilia฀and฀Xylokeriza,฀along฀with฀much฀of฀Acrocorinth,฀fall฀ within฀the฀fortification’s฀view฀to฀the฀west.฀ While฀it฀seems฀likely฀from฀the฀arrangement฀of฀shield฀walls฀that฀the฀ fortress฀ served฀ to฀ secure฀ the฀ heights฀ of฀ Oneion฀ against฀ an฀ enemy฀ from฀ the฀ north,฀ it฀ also฀ would฀ have฀ controlled฀ the฀ southern฀ approach฀ to฀ the฀ pass.฀In฀fact,฀anyone฀beginning฀an฀ascent฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion฀from฀the฀south฀ in฀the฀general฀vicinity฀of฀the฀Maritsa฀pass฀would฀quickly฀fall฀out฀of฀the฀ view฀from฀Stanotopi,฀but฀never฀from฀the฀view฀of฀the฀fortified฀heights฀of฀฀ 28.฀Stroud฀1971a,฀p.฀137. 29.฀Stroud฀1971a,฀p.฀128. 30.฀Wiseman฀1978,฀p.฀58. f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 335 Figure฀6.฀Classical–Hellenistic฀forti-฀ fications฀above฀the฀Maritsa฀pass.฀ Contour฀interval฀20฀m.฀W.฀R.฀Caraher Maritsa.฀It฀is฀possible฀that฀Maritsa’s฀favorable฀position฀obviated฀the฀need฀ for฀a฀watchtower฀such฀as฀the฀one฀found฀on฀Stanotopi฀and฀elsewhere฀in฀the฀฀ Corinthia.31 The฀Oneion฀ridge฀dominates฀the฀Isthmia/Examilia฀basin,฀and฀if฀the฀ fortification฀walls฀stood฀higher฀in฀antiquity,฀which฀they฀almost฀assuredly฀ did,฀they฀would฀have฀been฀visible฀from฀the฀Isthmus.฀From฀the฀south฀the฀ fortress฀also฀would฀have฀been฀visually฀impressive.฀ Ma i n ฀ E n c l os u re 31.฀Watchtowers฀are฀not฀uncommon฀ on฀elevated฀locations฀in฀the฀Corinthia;฀ there฀are฀examples฀at฀Kefalari฀(Wiseman฀1978,฀pp.฀118–119,฀figs.฀166–168)฀ and฀along฀the฀Epidaurian฀border฀ (Dixon฀2000,฀pp.฀51–93). 32.฀Pritchett฀(1974,฀pp.฀133–146)฀ has฀proposed฀that฀some฀low฀stone฀walls฀ may฀have฀served฀as฀anchors฀for฀wooden฀ palisades.฀The฀preponderance฀of฀tiles,฀ however,฀suggests฀that฀these฀low฀walls฀ were฀socles฀for฀upper฀walls฀made฀of฀ mudbrick. The฀walls฀of฀the฀main฀enclosure฀are฀largely฀preserved.฀They฀surround฀a฀ rocky,฀mostly฀treeless฀peak฀covering฀an฀area฀of฀over฀5,000฀m2.฀The฀peak฀ rises฀gently฀to฀the฀east฀toward฀Stroud’s฀hill฀427;฀today฀a฀Hellenic฀Army฀ Geographical฀Service฀geodetic฀marker฀with฀an฀elevation฀of฀423.99฀m฀stands฀ just฀inside฀the฀enclosure฀wall฀at฀its฀easternmost฀point฀(Fig.฀6).฀The฀enclosure฀ has฀a฀maximum฀length฀east–west฀of฀110฀m฀and฀a฀maximum฀width,฀roughly฀ north–south,฀of฀72฀m. The฀course฀of฀the฀enclosure฀wall฀is฀visible฀for฀almost฀the฀entire฀circuit.฀ The฀walls฀are฀constructed฀of฀roughly฀cut฀stones฀laid฀in฀two฀faces฀with฀a฀ rubble฀fill฀(Fig.฀7),฀the฀same฀construction฀that฀Stroud฀noted฀at฀Stanotopi.฀ There฀is฀no฀evidence฀for฀the฀use฀of฀mortar฀or฀rectangular฀blocks.฀In฀a฀number฀of฀places฀both฀faces฀of฀the฀wall฀are฀visible;฀it฀measures฀1.80–2.00฀m฀in฀ thickness.฀At฀its฀greatest฀height฀the฀wall฀is฀preserved฀to฀just฀over฀1฀m,฀and฀it฀ is฀possible฀that฀the฀stone฀walls฀did฀not฀stand฀much฀higher.฀Along฀the฀course฀ of฀the฀wall฀are฀numerous฀large฀fragments฀of฀Lakonian฀and฀Corinthian฀tiles฀ (discussed฀below),฀and฀these฀may฀indicate฀that฀the฀upper฀part฀of฀the฀wall฀ was฀constructed฀of฀mudbrick฀with฀a฀covering฀of฀tiles฀to฀protect฀it.32฀ The฀main฀enclosure฀is฀an฀irregular฀polygon,฀with฀its฀walls฀taking฀advantage฀of฀the฀local฀topography฀as฀much฀as฀possible.฀The฀north฀and฀east฀ 336 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y Figure฀7.฀Typical฀section฀of฀the฀main฀ enclosure฀wall฀of฀the฀Maritsa฀fortifications.฀Photo฀T.฀E.฀Gregory sides฀are฀the฀least฀accessible,฀as฀they฀lie฀at฀the฀top฀of฀steep฀cliffs.฀The฀west฀ wall฀is฀built฀along฀a฀slight฀ridge฀of฀bedrock.฀The฀easiest฀way฀to฀travel฀from฀ the฀pass฀to฀the฀main฀enclosure฀is฀to฀ascend฀the฀gradual฀western฀slope,฀but฀ no฀evidence฀for฀a฀gate฀exists฀along฀the฀west฀wall.฀The฀only฀other฀approach฀ would฀be฀from฀the฀south,฀albeit฀over฀much฀steeper฀terrain.฀In฀the฀middle฀of฀ its฀course,฀the฀south฀wall฀protrudes฀slightly฀to฀the฀south฀to฀take฀advantage฀of฀ a฀local฀increase฀in฀slope.33฀In฀general,฀however,฀the฀gentler฀slope฀of฀the฀south฀ face฀of฀the฀mountain฀suggests฀that฀access฀to฀the฀main฀enclosure฀was฀gained฀ from฀that฀direction,฀which฀agrees฀with฀our฀understanding฀that฀defensive฀ forces฀would฀have฀sought฀primarily฀to฀hold฀the฀Isthmus฀against฀invaders฀ from฀the฀north.฀It฀seems฀reasonable฀to฀imagine฀that฀the฀fortifications฀at฀ both฀Maritsa฀and฀Stanotopi,฀standing฀guard฀over฀the฀northern฀approach฀ to฀the฀Peloponnese฀and฀the฀southern฀reaches฀of฀Corinthian฀territory,฀were฀ designed฀to฀be฀resupplied฀from฀the฀south. We st er n ฀ Shi el d฀Wa l l The฀western฀shield฀wall฀runs฀north–south฀along฀a฀ridge฀ca.฀200฀m฀west฀ of฀the฀main฀enclosure.฀It฀extends฀220฀m฀from฀a฀bedrock฀outcropping฀at฀ its฀northern฀terminus฀to฀an฀abrupt฀drop฀at฀the฀south.฀It฀is฀similar฀in฀construction฀to฀the฀walls฀of฀the฀main฀enclosure,฀with฀a฀rubble฀fill฀and฀a฀rough฀ facing฀ without฀ mortar.฀The฀ western฀ shield฀ wall฀ was฀ thicker,฀ however,฀ reaching฀nearly฀3฀m฀in฀some฀places.฀As฀with฀the฀walls฀of฀the฀main฀enclosure฀ and฀those฀at฀Stanotopi,฀Lakonian฀and฀Corinthian฀tiles฀were฀occasionally฀ 33.฀Just฀to฀the฀east฀of฀this฀southward฀ diversion฀is฀the฀only,฀very฀meager,฀evi-฀ dence฀for฀a฀gate.฀At฀this฀point฀the฀wall฀ seems฀to฀stop฀abruptly,฀and฀several฀ uncut฀stones฀possibly฀laid฀in฀courses฀ may฀represent฀the฀eastern฀side฀of฀a฀gate.฀ There฀is฀no฀evidence฀for฀a฀western฀side฀ of฀a฀gate,฀however,฀and฀the฀route฀to฀this฀ part฀of฀the฀southern฀wall฀would฀be฀ quite฀steep.฀The฀presence฀of฀a฀major฀ spur฀wall฀projecting฀from฀the฀southwest฀ corner฀of฀the฀enclosure’s฀circuit฀suggests฀ that฀the฀protection฀of฀this฀southern฀ flank฀was฀a฀priority,฀and฀this฀might฀also฀ imply฀the฀presence฀of฀a฀gate฀in฀the฀ south฀wall.฀Stroud฀(1971a,฀pp.฀134,฀ 137)฀noted฀that฀the฀fortifications฀at฀ Stanotopi฀are฀most฀easily฀approached฀ from฀the฀south฀side฀as฀well,฀and฀the฀ only฀evidence฀for฀a฀possible฀gate฀was฀on฀ the฀southern฀flank฀of฀the฀north฀wall. f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 337 found฀along฀its฀course.฀In฀places฀the฀western฀shield฀wall฀stands฀to฀a฀height฀฀ of฀1.20฀m.฀ To฀ the฀ west฀ of฀ the฀ wall,฀ the฀ ground฀ falls฀ away฀ steeply฀ toward฀ the฀ north–south฀ravine฀that฀forms฀the฀Maritsa฀pass฀through฀the฀mountain.฀The฀ area฀immediately฀to฀the฀east฀of฀the฀wall฀is฀more฀or฀less฀level,฀and฀scattered฀ concentrations฀of฀broken฀pottery฀are฀visible฀there.฀Farther฀to฀the฀east,฀the฀ rocky฀ground,฀now฀heavily฀wooded,฀rises฀to฀the฀west฀wall฀of฀the฀main฀enclosure.฀The฀western฀shield฀wall฀does฀not฀connect฀directly฀with฀the฀main฀ enclosure.฀The฀steep฀northern฀and฀southern฀faces฀of฀the฀mountain฀would฀ have฀made฀it฀difficult,฀if฀not฀impossible,฀for฀an฀army฀to฀ascend฀to฀the฀area฀ between฀the฀western฀shield฀wall฀and฀the฀main฀enclosure. It฀is฀important฀to฀note฀that฀this฀shield฀wall฀does฀not฀block฀the฀pass฀ itself.฀It฀is฀situated฀to฀overlook฀the฀Maritsa฀pass,฀and฀can฀be฀seen฀today฀ from฀the฀southern฀end฀of฀the฀pass฀below.฀Moreover,฀it฀stands฀at฀a฀place฀ that฀is฀already฀difficult฀to฀access฀from฀the฀pass;฀although฀the฀1:5,000฀maps฀ indicate฀a฀modern฀path฀running฀from฀the฀pass฀to฀the฀wall,฀this฀would฀be฀ useful฀only฀for฀shepherds฀or฀resin฀collectors.฀The฀western฀shield฀wall฀was฀ therefore฀ probably฀ intended฀ to฀ discourage฀ a฀ direct฀ assault฀ on฀ the฀ main฀ enclosure฀from฀the฀pass฀and฀to฀protect฀a฀stretch฀of฀level฀high฀ground฀from฀ which฀the฀pass฀itself฀could฀be฀controlled.฀It฀would฀have฀provided฀a฀barrier฀ behind฀which฀guards฀could฀hide.฀Depending฀on฀the฀precise฀course฀of฀the฀ ancient฀route฀through฀the฀pass,฀the฀wall฀was฀between฀200฀and฀300฀m฀distant,฀ placing฀it฀at฀the฀margin฀of฀the฀effective฀range฀of฀ancient฀projectiles.34฀The฀ pottery฀on฀the฀level฀ground฀immediately฀to฀the฀east฀of฀the฀wall฀may฀reflect฀ the฀use฀of฀this฀level฀area฀for฀troop฀quarters. Nort h er n ฀ Sh i el d฀Wa l l 34.฀Mcleod฀(1965)฀notes฀that฀the฀ range฀of฀archers฀rarely฀exceeded฀200฀m,฀ and฀Echols฀(1949–1950)฀suggests฀a฀ similar฀range฀for฀the฀ancient฀sling;฀฀ see฀also฀Baitinger฀2001,฀pp.฀31–32. The฀northern฀shield฀wall฀runs฀for฀a฀distance฀of฀300฀m฀along฀the฀top฀of฀the฀ northern฀slope฀of฀the฀mountain.฀It฀is฀of฀the฀same฀construction฀as฀the฀western฀ shield฀wall,฀but฀it฀is฀on฀average฀only฀2.50฀m฀thick.฀The฀eastern฀part฀of฀the฀ wall฀runs฀for฀80฀m฀almost฀north–south฀along฀a฀rocky฀spur฀projecting฀from฀ the฀face฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion.฀It฀then฀turns฀sharply฀to฀the฀southwest฀for฀80฀m฀ before฀turning฀west,฀following฀the฀contours,฀for฀nearly฀130฀m.฀Its฀western฀ end฀seems฀to฀be฀in฀the฀rocky฀and฀wooded฀northern฀face฀of฀Oneion,฀40฀m฀ to฀the฀north฀of฀the฀northeastern฀wall฀of฀the฀main฀enclosure.฀ The฀most฀distinctive฀feature฀of฀this฀wall฀is฀an฀abrupt,฀right-angle฀turn฀ some฀100฀m฀from฀its฀eastern฀end.฀To฀the฀south฀of฀this฀sharp฀turn,฀there฀ is฀ a฀ natural฀ depression฀ in฀ the฀ exposed฀ bedrock฀ that฀ may฀ have฀ provided฀ a฀level฀place฀for฀a฀tower.฀There฀are,฀however,฀no฀exceptional฀concentrations฀of฀pottery฀or฀additional฀tumble฀that฀might฀indicate฀more฀intensive฀ activity฀ here฀ than฀ elsewhere฀ along฀ the฀ wall.฀ Nevertheless,฀ there฀ is฀ no฀ topographical฀ reason฀ for฀ the฀ well-defined฀ right-angle฀ turn฀ in฀ the฀ wall,฀ and฀it฀is฀possible฀that฀the฀natural฀depression฀in฀the฀bedrock฀was฀used฀as฀a฀ foundation฀for฀a฀tower฀of฀some฀sort,฀perhaps฀constructed฀of฀mudbrick฀or฀฀ even฀wood. Pottery฀was฀visible฀on฀the฀surface฀between฀the฀northern฀shield฀wall฀and฀ the฀east฀wall฀of฀the฀main฀enclosure.฀Although฀tiles฀of฀various฀kinds฀were฀ 338 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y predominant,฀there฀were฀also฀pithos฀and฀amphora฀fragments,฀suggesting฀ that฀the฀defenders฀used฀this฀area฀for฀storage฀or฀habitation. As฀in฀the฀case฀of฀the฀western฀shield฀wall,฀the฀exact฀tactical฀purpose฀of฀ this฀wall฀is฀difficult฀to฀discern.฀Less฀than฀200฀m฀to฀the฀north฀of฀the฀wall฀are฀ steep฀cliffs,฀making฀a฀direct฀ascent฀from฀the฀plain฀below฀perilous.฀Perhaps฀ the฀wall฀served฀to฀guard฀the฀main฀enclosure฀from฀an฀army฀ascending฀the฀ north฀face฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion฀from฀the฀east—a฀difficult,฀if฀not฀impossible,฀route.฀ It฀may฀also฀have฀protected฀the฀relatively฀flat฀area฀on฀top฀of฀the฀Oneion฀ ridge฀where฀troops฀presumably฀camped. FORT IFICAT IONS฀ BE T W EEN฀ STANO TO P I฀ AND ฀ MARI T SA East฀of฀the฀Maritsa฀peak฀and฀the฀main฀enclosure,฀the฀ground฀drops฀down฀ to฀a฀high,฀relatively฀flat฀saddle฀and฀then฀rises฀to฀another฀very฀small฀peak฀ at฀ an฀ elevation฀ of฀ 393.80฀ m,฀ according฀ to฀ the฀ topographic฀ maps฀ of฀ the฀ Hellenic฀Army฀Geographical฀Service.฀A฀series฀of฀walls฀guard฀the฀ascent฀ to฀this฀peak.฀These฀are฀not฀well฀preserved;฀many฀of฀their฀stones฀have฀been฀ incorporated฀into฀a฀large฀mandra฀(goat฀fold)฀immediately฀southeast฀of฀the฀ highest฀point฀(Fig.฀8).฀In฀their฀current฀condition฀they฀appear฀primarily฀to฀ have฀blocked฀ascent฀from฀the฀east฀and฀south.฀It฀is฀difficult฀to฀evaluate฀the฀ possibility฀of฀an฀eastern฀ascent,฀since฀a฀large฀modern฀quarry฀has฀destroyed฀ much฀of฀the฀topography฀of฀this฀part฀of฀the฀mountain.฀To฀judge฀from฀the฀ 1:5,000฀maps,฀produced฀almost฀40฀years฀ago฀when฀the฀quarry฀was฀much฀ smaller,฀however,฀it฀seems฀probable฀that฀the฀easiest฀route฀of฀ascent฀to฀this฀ part฀of฀the฀mountain฀was฀from฀the฀south;฀the฀eastern฀slopes฀of฀the฀mountain฀ are฀quite฀steep฀and฀interrupted฀by฀sheer฀cliffs.฀ The฀highest฀peak฀between฀Stanotopi฀and฀Maritsa฀may฀have฀received฀ more฀substantial฀fortifications.฀A฀short฀course฀of฀roughly฀trimmed฀stones฀ is฀arranged฀in฀an฀east–west฀line฀along฀the฀steep฀northern฀slope฀immedi- Figure฀8.฀Walls฀on฀the฀eastern฀face฀฀ of฀Mt.฀Oneion.฀Contour฀interval฀4฀m. W.฀R.฀Caraher f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 339 Figure฀9.฀Trimmed฀stones฀on฀the฀ northern฀face฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion. Photo฀T.฀E.฀Gregory Figure฀10.฀Niches฀cut฀in฀the฀southern฀face฀of฀the฀mountain฀east฀of฀the฀ Maritsa฀pass.฀Photo฀T.฀E.฀Gregory ately฀below฀the฀high฀point฀of฀the฀ridge฀(Fig.฀9).฀This฀wall฀is฀flanked฀to฀the฀ north฀by฀another฀east–west฀line฀of฀stone,฀producing฀what฀could฀well฀be฀ an฀entrance฀to฀an฀upper฀enclosure฀similar฀to฀what฀Stroud฀argued฀for฀the฀ Stanotopi฀fortifications.฀The฀stones฀in฀these฀walls฀were฀quarried฀from฀the฀ mountain฀itself,฀and฀several฀quarry฀cuts฀are฀evident฀in฀the฀exposed฀bedrock฀ of฀the฀ridge.฀ Although฀these฀two฀short,฀isolated฀walls฀do฀not฀provide฀evidence฀for฀ a฀full-fledged฀ashlar฀fortification฀on฀the฀Oneion฀ridge,฀they฀might฀suggest฀ an฀ attempt฀ to฀ fortify฀ the฀ mountain฀ in฀ a฀ more฀ permanent฀ way.฀ On฀ the฀southern฀side฀of฀this฀peak฀(see฀the฀“Quarried฀Area”฀in฀Fig.฀8),฀several฀ niches฀have฀been฀cut฀in฀the฀rock฀(Fig.฀10).฀These฀are฀semicircular฀in฀shape฀ 340 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y and฀are฀raised฀above฀the฀modern฀ground฀level.฀They฀may฀have฀been฀cut฀ for฀the฀placement฀of฀votives฀in฀a฀fashion฀not฀uncommon฀in฀antiquity฀(see,฀ e.g.,฀the฀Sanctuary฀of฀Aphrodite฀on฀the฀‘Ιερὰ ‘Οδός฀at฀Daphni).฀The฀area฀ has฀been฀extensively฀used฀by฀shepherds฀over฀the฀centuries,฀and฀no฀other฀ traces฀of฀antiquity฀survive,฀but฀it฀is฀not฀impossible฀that฀a฀small฀sanctuary฀ existed฀at฀this฀spot. Just฀to฀the฀east฀of฀this฀peak฀is฀another,฀somewhat฀lower,฀outcropping฀ (shown฀as฀355.00฀m฀on฀the฀Greek฀army฀map)฀just฀above฀the฀western฀edge฀ of฀the฀modern฀quarry.฀No฀fortification฀walls฀were฀discovered฀on฀this฀peak,฀ but฀there฀is฀a฀thick฀scatter฀of฀tile฀and฀pithos฀fragments.฀There฀are฀no฀other฀ remains฀of฀architecture฀in฀this฀area฀nor฀any฀evidence฀for฀foundation฀cuttings.฀ Nevertheless,฀there฀may฀have฀been฀a฀structure฀here฀roughly฀contemporary฀ with฀the฀fortifications฀at฀Stanotopi฀and฀Maritsa,฀although฀it฀is฀now฀impossible฀to฀be฀certain. FIND S฀ FROM฀T H E ฀ ANCIENT ฀ FO RT IFICAT IO NS฀ AT ฀ MARI T SA In฀2001฀EKAS฀carried฀out฀an฀intensive฀investigation฀of฀the฀area฀around฀ the฀ Maritsa฀ Classical–Hellenistic฀ fortifications.฀This฀ involved฀ the฀ de-฀ tailed฀description฀of฀the฀architectural฀remains฀and฀artifacts฀(mostly฀pottery)฀ on฀the฀surface฀of฀the฀ground.฀There฀were฀two฀impediments฀to฀our฀task.฀ First,฀the฀very฀irregular฀visibility฀of฀artifacts฀due฀to฀the฀dense฀vegetation฀on฀ the฀Oneion฀ridge฀limited฀our฀ability฀to฀sample฀the฀surface฀systematically.฀ Second,฀ the฀ relatively฀ remote฀ and฀ rugged฀ location฀ of฀ the฀ fortifications฀ imposed฀limitations฀on฀the฀size฀of฀our฀survey฀team฀and฀the฀time฀that฀we฀ could฀ spend฀ there.฀These฀ difficulties,฀ combined฀ with฀ our฀ commitment฀ to฀low-impact฀archaeology฀and฀the฀decision฀to฀remove฀only฀a฀few฀artifacts฀from฀the฀area,฀affected฀the฀nature฀of฀our฀investigation.฀Description,฀฀ photography,฀and฀illustration฀of฀artifacts฀were฀carried฀out฀in฀the฀field,฀and฀ the฀ vast฀ majority฀ of฀ the฀ objects฀ were฀ left฀ where฀ they฀ were฀ found.฀ Only฀ small฀representative฀samples฀were฀brought฀back฀to฀our฀study฀area฀for฀further฀analysis.฀This฀approach฀was฀deemed฀appropriate฀from฀both฀ethical฀ and฀scientific฀perspectives,฀as฀the฀finds฀were฀generally฀similar฀throughout฀฀ the฀area.35 Our฀survey฀technique฀was฀similar฀to฀that฀used฀in฀the฀course฀of฀the฀ EKAS฀high-intensity,฀gridded฀collections฀of฀Localized฀Cultural฀Anomalies฀ (LOCAs).36฀We฀established฀a฀flexible฀grid฀over฀the฀entire฀site฀and฀sampled฀ sections฀of฀the฀grid฀where฀visibility฀permitted.฀The฀goal฀of฀this฀method฀ was฀to฀determine฀whether฀there฀was฀substantial฀functional฀or฀chronological฀ variation฀present฀on฀the฀top฀of฀the฀hill.฀The฀poor฀surface฀visibility฀made฀ traditional฀density฀calculations฀essentially฀irrelevant. Overall,฀757฀artifacts฀were฀recorded฀using฀the฀chronotype฀system.37฀ The฀artifacts฀were฀chronologically฀homogeneous.฀All฀datable฀premodern฀ material฀ could฀ be฀ assigned฀ to฀ the฀ Late฀ Classical฀ and฀ Early฀ Hellenistic฀ periods.฀Table฀1฀provides฀a฀summary฀of฀the฀most฀common฀finds฀in฀order฀ of฀frequency.฀These฀finds฀are฀now฀stored฀at฀the฀facilities฀of฀the฀Ohio฀State฀ University฀Excavations฀at฀Isthmia฀in฀Kyras฀Vrysi. 35.฀For฀this฀approach,฀which฀is฀ consistent฀with฀the฀methods฀adopted฀by฀ EKAS฀throughout฀the฀survey฀area,฀see฀ Tartaron฀et฀al.,฀forthcoming;฀Gregory฀ 2004. 36.฀Tartaron฀et฀al.,฀forthcoming. 37.฀For฀the฀chronotype฀system,฀see฀ Given฀and฀Knapp฀2003,฀pp.฀14–16;฀ Gregory฀2004. f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 341 TABLE฀1.฀FINDS฀FROM฀TH E฀MARI TSA฀ FORT IFICAT IONS Chronotype฀ Tile,฀Lakonian,฀Classical–Hellenistic฀ Tile,฀painted,฀Classical–Hellenistic฀ Amphora,฀Corinthian฀B฀ Tile,฀Greek฀Corinthian฀pan฀tile,฀yellow฀slip฀ Pithos,฀orange฀and฀blue฀core฀ Medium฀coarse฀ware,฀Classical–Hellenistic฀ Tile,฀Lakonian,฀painted,฀Classical–Hellenistic฀ Kitchen฀ware,฀Classical–Hellenistic฀ Amphora,฀Corinthian฀A฀ Undiagnostic฀ Quantity฀ Percent 207฀ 163฀ 124฀ 82฀ 63฀ 31฀ 30฀ 17฀ 13฀ 27฀ 27.3 21.5 16.4 10.8 8.3 4.1 4.0 2.3 1.7 3.6 The฀overwhelming฀majority฀of฀artifacts฀found฀(482,฀or฀ca.฀64%฀of฀the฀ total฀sample)฀were฀Lakonian฀and฀Corinthian฀tiles,฀many฀of฀them฀slipped.฀ Also฀common฀were฀storage฀and฀transport฀vessels,฀especially฀Corinthian฀B฀ amphoras,฀and฀fragments฀of฀pithoi.฀Classical–Hellenistic฀cooking฀pots฀were฀ frequent฀finds฀on฀the฀surface฀of฀the฀site.฀Few฀examples฀were฀collected฀of฀ fine฀ware฀or฀the฀semifine฀(plain฀ware)฀pottery฀commonly฀associated฀with฀ domestic฀assemblages฀in฀the฀Corinthia. The฀following฀catalogue฀provides฀examples฀of฀common฀finds฀from฀the฀ Maritsa฀main฀enclosure.฀All฀measurements฀are฀given฀in฀meters. Cata l o g u e 1฀ Stamped฀Attic฀black-glazed฀bowl฀ Fig.฀11 9008-146-1. P.L.฀0.025;฀p.W.฀0.017;฀Th.฀0.003. Fine฀red฀clay฀(2.5YR฀5/8)฀with฀few฀voids.฀Fragment฀preserves฀small฀part฀of฀ the฀base฀and฀the฀attachment฀for฀the฀missing฀ring฀foot.฀Shiny฀black฀glaze฀interior฀ and฀exterior,฀stamped฀(rouletted)฀marks฀on฀the฀bottom฀interior. 2฀ Semiglazed฀bowl฀ Fig.฀11 9008-157-101. P.H.฀0.030;฀est.฀Diam.฀(foot)฀0.05. Fine฀ pink฀ clay฀ (7.5฀ YR฀ 7/4)฀ with฀ some฀ small฀ voids.฀ Bowl฀ with฀ low฀ ring฀ foot. Cf.฀Corinth฀VII.3,฀pp.฀28–29;฀probably฀4th฀century฀as฀the฀ring฀foot฀is฀higher฀ in฀the฀3rd฀century. 3฀ Blister฀ware฀jug฀ Fig.฀11 9008-157-102. P.H.฀0.034;฀Diam.฀(neck)฀0.029. Relatively฀fine฀pink฀clay฀(5YR฀7/4)฀with฀a฀few฀small฀brown฀inclusions฀and฀small฀ voids,฀fired฀gray฀on฀the฀surfaces.฀Small฀jug฀with฀vertical฀neck฀and฀flaring฀rim. 4฀ Medium฀coarse฀jug฀or฀pitcher฀ 9008-130-101. P.H.฀0.064;฀est.฀Diam.฀(rim)฀0.10. Fig.฀11 342 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y 2 1 3 5 4 Reddish฀ yellow฀ clay฀ (5YR฀ 7/6)฀ with฀ small–medium฀ brown฀ and฀ black฀ and฀ some฀sparkling฀inclusions.฀Large฀jug฀or฀pitcher฀with฀tapering฀neck฀and฀flaring,฀ thickened฀rim;฀lip฀with฀a฀broad฀groove฀on฀the฀upper฀surface. 5฀ Medium฀coarse฀jug฀or฀pitcher฀ Fig.฀11 9008-166-101. P.H.฀0.060;฀est.฀Diam.฀(rim)฀0.12. Description฀identical฀to฀4,฀except฀that฀rim฀is฀pointed,฀with฀a฀shallow฀groove฀ on฀the฀exterior. 6฀ Coarse฀mortarium฀ Fig.฀12 9008-183-101. P.H.฀0.061;฀est.฀Diam.฀(rim)฀0.29. Coarse฀ reddish฀ yellow฀ clay฀ (5YR฀ 7/6)฀ with฀ many฀ large฀ white,฀ black,฀ and฀ brown฀ inclusions฀ and฀ small฀ voids.฀ Mortarium฀ with฀ plain฀ vertical฀ rim;฀ a฀ broad฀ horizontal฀ ridge,฀ tapering฀ toward฀ the฀ exterior฀ and฀ sharply฀ cut฀ back,฀ probably฀ served฀as฀a฀handle.฀ 7฀ Corinthian฀B฀amphora฀toe฀ Fig.฀12 9008-145-105. P.H.฀0.058;฀max.฀Diam.฀(toe)฀0.051. Relatively฀fine฀reddish฀yellow฀clay฀(5YR฀6/6)฀with฀small฀black฀and฀red฀inclusions฀ and฀voids.฀Bulbous฀amphora฀toe฀with฀distinct฀round฀impression฀on฀bottom. 8฀ Pithos฀with฀molded฀decoration฀ Fig.฀12 9008-162-5. P.W.฀0.112;฀p.H.฀0.096;฀max.฀Th.฀0.022. Coarse฀red฀clay฀(10R฀5/8)฀with฀many฀medium–large฀angular฀blue-gray฀stone฀ inclusions฀ and฀ voids,฀ fired฀ gray฀ at฀ core.฀ Body฀ sherd฀ is฀ broken฀ all฀ around;฀ two฀ raised฀horizontal฀bands,฀one฀rectangular,฀the฀other฀rounded฀in฀section;฀thin฀black฀ slip฀on฀exterior. 9฀ Slipped฀Lakonian฀tile฀ 9008-153-1. Fig.฀12 Figure฀11.฀Typical฀ceramic฀finds฀ from฀the฀Maritsa฀main฀enclosure.฀ Scales฀1:1฀(1)฀and฀1:2฀(2–5).฀H.฀Cook f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 343 6 8 9 7 10 Figure฀12.฀Typical฀ceramic฀finds฀฀ from฀the฀Maritsa฀main฀enclosure.฀ Scales฀1:2฀(7)฀and฀1:4฀(6,฀8–10).฀H.฀Cook P.฀dims.฀0.140฀x฀0.112;฀Th.฀0.026. Medium฀ coarse฀ reddish฀ yellow฀ clay฀ (5YR฀ 6/6)฀ with฀ many฀ medium–large฀ brown฀ inclusions,฀ small฀ gold฀ sparkling฀ inclusions,฀ and฀ many฀ small–large฀ voids.฀ Lakonian฀tile฀with฀chamfered฀edge฀and฀deep฀groove฀on฀concave฀side;฀orange฀slip฀ also฀on฀concave฀side. 10฀ Slipped฀Lakonian฀tile฀ Fig.฀12 9008-150-1. P.฀dims.฀0.198฀x฀0.148;฀Th.฀0.021. Medium฀coarse฀light฀red฀clay฀(2.5YR฀6/8)฀with฀few฀medium฀white,฀red,฀and฀ gold฀sparking฀inclusions฀and฀few฀medium฀voids.฀Tile฀with฀slightly฀chamfered฀edge;฀ rather฀thin;฀dark฀red฀slip฀on฀concave฀side.฀ The฀assemblage฀is฀consistent฀with฀what฀one฀would฀expect฀from฀a฀fortified฀area฀occupied฀for฀short฀periods฀of฀time.฀It฀is฀understandable฀that฀the฀ inhabitants฀made฀extensive฀use฀of฀storage฀vessels,฀as฀there฀is฀no฀evidence฀ for฀a฀local฀water฀supply.฀Cooking฀vessels฀also฀would฀have฀been฀required฀by฀ soldiers฀encamped฀on฀the฀mountain฀for฀any฀length฀of฀time.฀The฀assemblage฀ lacks฀any฀artifacts฀recognizable฀as฀potentially฀religious฀in฀nature,฀such฀as฀ miniatures,฀figurines,฀or฀lamps.฀Chronologically,฀the฀finds฀generally฀fit฀best฀ in฀the฀second฀half฀of฀the฀4th฀century฀b.c.,฀but฀it฀is฀possible฀that฀many฀of฀ them฀would฀still฀have฀circulated฀in฀the฀3rd฀century. 344 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y 11 12 Figure฀13.฀Two฀amphora฀rims฀from฀ the฀Oneion฀ridge.฀Scale฀1:4.฀H.฀Cook OT H ER฀ FIND S฀ FROM฀T H E ฀ ONEIO N฀ RID G E In฀addition฀to฀the฀intensive฀collection฀conducted฀during฀the฀2001฀field฀ season,฀ we฀ also฀ collected฀ nonsystematic,฀ judgmental฀ samples฀ of฀ highly฀ diagnostic฀ sherds฀ from฀ other฀ areas฀ of฀ the฀ Oneion฀ ridgeline.฀Two฀ wellpreserved฀amphora฀rims,฀one฀Corinthian฀A฀and฀one฀Corinthian฀B,฀were฀ recovered฀from฀a฀hole฀that฀probably฀had฀been฀dug฀by฀looters฀on฀Stanotopi฀฀ hill. Cata l o g u e 11฀ Corinthian฀A฀amphora฀ Fig.฀13 ST฀1. P.H.฀0.128;฀Diam.฀(rim)฀0.122;฀Diam.฀(handle)฀0.036. Coarse฀red฀clay฀(2.5YR฀5/8)฀with฀many฀small–large฀red,฀brown,฀and฀black฀ inclusions฀and฀voids.฀Typical฀Corinthian฀A฀amphora฀with฀heavy฀pointed฀folded฀ rim฀and฀oval฀handles. 12฀ Corinthian฀B฀amphora฀ Fig.฀13 ST฀2. P.H.฀0.128;฀est.฀Diam.฀(rim)฀0.15. Hard฀light฀red฀clay฀(2.5YR฀6/8),฀fairly฀fine฀with฀few฀small฀voids.฀Small฀part฀ of฀the฀shoulder,฀half฀of฀the฀neck,฀and฀about฀a฀quarter฀of฀the฀rim.฀Vertical฀neck฀ with฀broad฀wheel฀ridges฀on฀the฀interior;฀flaring,฀pointed฀rim,฀horizontal฀on฀the฀ top.฀Attachment฀for฀a฀vertical฀oval฀handle฀just฀below฀the฀rim. On฀the฀outcrop฀immediately฀to฀the฀west฀of฀the฀modern฀quarry,฀we฀observed฀several฀well-preserved฀examples฀of฀painted฀Lakonian฀tiles฀identical฀ to฀those฀found฀in฀the฀vicinity฀of฀the฀Maritsa฀fortress.฀At฀the฀same฀spot,฀a฀ large฀fragment฀of฀a฀particularly฀elaborate฀Classical–Hellenistic฀pithos฀body฀ sherd฀was฀also฀found.฀At฀no฀place฀along฀the฀entire฀length฀of฀the฀Oneion฀ ridge฀ was฀ there฀ any฀ concentration฀ of฀ pottery฀ from฀ a฀ period฀ other฀ than฀ the฀Classical–Hellenistic฀era.฀In฀an฀area฀such฀as฀the฀Corinthia,฀which฀is฀ generally฀characterized฀by฀a฀carpet฀of฀chronologically฀variable฀artifacts,฀the฀ uniformity฀of฀these฀finds฀is฀truly฀remarkable฀and฀most฀likely฀testifies฀to฀the฀ exceptional฀circumstances฀under฀which฀this฀nearly฀inaccessible฀mountaintop฀ was฀fortified฀and฀used. f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a Figure฀14.฀Density฀of฀finds฀in฀the฀ vicinity฀of฀the฀Maritsa฀fortifications.฀ Contour฀interval฀4฀m.฀W.฀R.฀Caraher 345 Figure฀ 14฀ shows฀ the฀ findspots฀ and฀ the฀ gridded฀ density฀ of฀ artifacts฀ from฀the฀Maritsa฀fortifications.฀Although฀the฀dense฀ground฀cover฀around฀ many฀parts฀of฀the฀fortifications฀certainly฀affected฀our฀ability฀to฀recognize฀ artifacts,฀it฀seems฀that฀the฀archaeological฀material฀was฀concentrated฀primarily฀ in฀ two฀ areas:฀ one฀ along฀ the฀ western฀ wall฀ of฀ the฀ main฀ enclosure,฀ the฀other฀at฀its฀eastern฀edge฀and฀down฀the฀slope,฀especially฀to฀the฀north฀ and฀northeast.฀Counts฀were฀certainly฀far฀lower฀in฀the฀central฀area฀of฀the฀ enclosure.฀This฀disparity฀may฀be฀the฀result฀of฀the฀use฀of฀tiles฀to฀cap฀a฀possible฀mudbrick฀superstructure฀on฀the฀stone฀foundations฀of฀the฀fortification฀ walls.฀In฀addition,฀it฀is฀possible฀that฀the฀inhabitants฀of฀the฀fortifications฀ spent฀more฀of฀their฀time฀along฀the฀walls฀than฀they฀did฀in฀the฀central฀part฀ of฀the฀defensive฀area. H ISTO RY,฀TO PO G RAP HY,฀ AND ฀ F UNC T IO N฀ O F฀ T H E ฀ ANC IENT ฀ FO RT IFICAT IO NS 38.฀Wiseman฀1963;฀Stroud฀1971a,฀ pp.฀139–145. Wiseman฀ and฀ Stroud฀ have฀ ably฀ discussed฀ the฀ literary฀ evidence฀ for฀ the฀ fortification฀of฀the฀Isthmus฀during฀antiquity.฀They฀focus฀primarily฀on฀the฀฀ Late฀Classical฀and฀Hellenistic฀periods,฀when฀the฀Isthmus฀became฀a฀high-฀ way฀for฀the฀forces฀of฀outside฀powers฀such฀as฀Attica,฀Thebes,฀and฀Macedon฀ seeking฀ to฀ intervene฀ among฀ the฀ rival฀ and฀ recalcitrant฀ cities฀ of฀ the฀ Peloponnese.38฀Political฀conditions฀dictated฀that฀almost฀every฀occasion฀for฀ the฀defense฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion฀was฀connected฀with฀the฀movement฀of฀a฀north-฀ ern฀army฀south฀into฀the฀Peloponnese.฀The฀strategy฀of฀fortifying฀the฀moun-฀ tain฀ and฀ allowing฀ a฀ large฀ stretch฀ of฀ fertile฀ Corinthian฀ land฀ to฀ remain฀฀ 346 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y undefended฀reflects฀the฀interests฀of฀foreign฀(non-Corinthian)฀powers฀in฀ defending฀the฀Isthmus.39 The฀function฀of฀the฀fortifications฀documented฀in฀this฀article฀is฀highly฀ relevant฀to฀debates฀on฀whether฀we฀should฀understand฀Greek฀fortifications฀ as฀a฀local,฀in฀this฀case฀Corinthian,฀defensive฀response฀or฀as฀the฀work฀of฀non-฀ local฀powers฀such฀as฀Athens,฀Thebes,฀Sparta,฀or฀Macedon.40฀As฀Wiseman฀ and฀Stroud฀have฀argued,฀it฀is฀not฀necessary฀to฀assume฀that฀the฀mountain฀ was฀fortified฀by฀the฀Corinthians฀simply฀because฀it฀is฀located฀in฀Corinthian฀ territory.฀The฀presence฀of฀a฀second฀rough฀fortification฀above฀the฀Maritsa฀ pass฀does฀not฀substantially฀challenge฀Stroud’s฀conclusions฀regarding฀the฀ defense฀of฀the฀Isthmus฀along฀the฀Oneion฀line.฀It฀does,฀however,฀allow฀us฀ to฀offer฀several฀modest฀contributions฀to฀previous฀discussions฀of฀the฀history฀ and฀topography฀of฀this฀region. To฀understand฀the฀fortifications฀on฀Mt.฀Oneion,฀it฀is฀necessary฀to฀review฀ briefly฀the฀ancient฀understanding฀of฀the฀topography฀and฀communication฀ network฀in฀the฀area.฀While฀numerous฀scholars฀have฀studied฀the฀roads฀in฀ the฀ southwestern฀ Corinthia฀ and฀ the฀ passes฀ to฀ the฀ Argolid,฀ the฀ eastern฀ Corinthia,฀ particularly฀ the฀ area฀ immediately฀ south฀ of฀ the฀ Isthmus,฀ has฀ not฀received฀as฀much฀systematic฀attention.41฀Nevertheless,฀Stroud,฀Wiseman,฀and฀Dixon฀provide฀general฀treatments฀of฀the฀historical฀topography฀ of฀the฀larger฀region,฀establishing฀the฀importance฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion฀within฀ this฀context. There฀are฀no฀explicit฀references฀to฀military฀activity฀on฀Mt.฀Oneion฀in฀ the฀century฀before฀366฀b.c.฀The฀unsettled฀conditions฀of฀the฀second฀half฀of฀ the฀4th฀century,฀coinciding฀with฀the฀establishment฀of฀Macedonian฀power,฀ along฀with฀the฀evidence฀from฀the฀finds฀associated฀with฀the฀walls,฀make฀it฀ certain฀that฀these฀passes฀were฀used฀and฀defended฀during฀this฀time.฀Stroud฀ thus฀established฀a฀sound฀historical฀terminus฀post฀quem฀of฀ca.฀350฀b.c.฀for฀the฀ fortification฀based฀on฀archaeological฀and฀historical฀data.฀The฀best฀insights฀ into฀the฀intended฀function฀of฀the฀fortifications฀and฀their฀respective฀passes,฀ however,฀derive฀from฀an฀earlier฀period,฀370–366฀b.c.,฀when฀Theban฀armies฀ under฀Epaminondas฀moved฀north฀and฀south฀through฀the฀Isthmus.42฀The฀ accounts฀of฀the฀Theban฀wars฀in฀Xenophon฀describe฀the฀efforts฀of฀various฀ forces฀to฀block฀the฀eastern฀routes฀over฀Mt.฀Oneion฀without฀permanent฀ fortifications.฀These฀efforts฀and฀the฀regularity฀with฀which฀Epaminondas฀ breached฀the฀Isthmus฀at฀this฀point฀might฀have฀led฀to฀the฀fortification฀of฀ the฀mountain฀sometime฀after฀350฀b.c. The฀humble฀walls฀at฀Stanotopi฀and฀Maritsa฀do฀not฀feature฀prominently฀ in฀the฀literary฀sources฀from฀later฀periods.฀One฀passage,฀already฀noted฀by฀ Stroud฀and฀others,฀may฀make฀an฀oblique฀reference฀to฀the฀presence฀of฀fortifications฀in฀the฀proximity฀of฀Kenchreai฀and฀the฀Oneion฀ridge.฀In฀315฀b.c.,฀฀ during฀ the฀Wars฀ of฀ the฀ Successors,฀ Alexander,฀ the฀ son฀ of฀ Polyperchon,฀ sought฀to฀hold฀the฀Corinthia฀against฀Kassander.฀Diodoros฀(19.63.4)฀tells฀ us฀that฀Kassander καὶ τὸ µὲν πρῶτον Κεγχρεὰς ἐπολιορκήσας ἐδῄωσε τὴν χώραν τῶν Κορινθίων, µετὰ δὲ ταῦτα δύο φρούρια κατὰ κράτος ἑλὼν τοὺς ὑπ’ Ἀλεξάνδρου καθεσταµένους φρουροὺς ὑποσπόνδους ἀφῆκεν. 39.฀Stroud฀(1971a,฀pp.฀139–145)฀ provides฀a฀careful฀summary฀of฀the฀various฀parties฀who฀garrisoned฀the฀Isthmus,฀ and฀the฀Oneion฀line฀in฀particular. 40.฀E.g.,฀Lauter-Bufe฀1988;฀ McCredie฀1966. 41.฀An฀exception฀is฀Dixon฀2000. 42.฀Stroud฀1971a,฀pp.฀139–142,฀with฀ sources. f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 347 first฀took฀Kenchreai฀and฀plundered฀the฀fields฀of฀the฀Corinthians.฀ Then,฀after฀taking฀two฀fortresses฀by฀storm,฀he฀dismissed฀under฀฀ truce฀the฀garrisons฀that฀had฀been฀placed฀in฀them฀by฀Alexander.43 Just฀one฀year฀earlier,฀these฀troops฀had฀forced฀Kassander฀to฀take฀his฀ troops฀from฀Megara฀to฀Epidauros฀by฀sea฀(Diod.฀Sic.฀19.54.3).฀Although฀the฀ passage฀lacks฀any฀detail฀concerning฀the฀two฀fortifications,฀Stroud฀thought฀ that฀the฀fortifications฀on฀Stanotopi,฀near฀Kenchreai,฀were฀reasonable฀candidates฀as฀they฀were฀“in฀the฀vicinity฀of฀the฀heaviest฀fighting.”44฀Following฀ this฀ logic,฀ and฀ considering฀ that฀ Diodoros฀ puts฀ the฀ conquest฀ of฀ the฀ two฀ fortifications฀directly฀after฀the฀siege฀of฀Kenchreai,฀we฀believe฀it฀is฀plausible฀ to฀suggest฀that฀the฀two฀fortresses฀are฀those฀of฀Stanotopi฀and฀Maritsa. While฀the฀exact฀date฀and฀specific฀function฀of฀these฀defenses฀remain฀฀ unclear,฀it฀seems฀most฀likely฀that฀the฀enclosures฀on฀Stanotopi฀and฀Maritsa฀ were฀fortified฀camps฀designed฀to฀provide฀protection฀and฀a฀base฀of฀operations฀for฀forces฀assigned฀to฀hold฀these฀important฀passes.45฀Their฀simple฀ architectural฀style,฀limited฀evidence฀for฀long-term฀occupation,฀and฀strategic฀ placement฀find฀parallels฀in฀other฀strategic฀settings,฀such฀as฀the฀fortifications฀ at฀the฀Dema฀Gap฀near฀Thermopylai฀and฀the฀better-built,฀more฀substantial฀ Dema฀Wall฀between฀Mt.฀Aigaleos฀and฀Mt.฀Parnes.46฀Moreover,฀the฀recurrent฀ instances฀ of฀ foreign฀ detachments฀ being฀ stationed฀ in฀ the฀ Corinthia฀ during฀ the฀ Late฀ Classical฀ and฀ Hellenistic฀ periods฀ help฀ to฀ explain฀ the฀ presence฀of฀modest฀fortifications฀suitable฀for฀short-term฀defensive฀deployments.฀It฀is฀worth฀noting฀that,฀in฀contrast฀to฀the฀Dema฀Wall฀in฀Attica,฀ these฀fortifications฀did฀not฀serve฀to฀block฀the฀pass฀itself.฀It฀seems฀likely฀that฀ they฀were฀designed฀to฀allow฀a฀force฀responsible฀for฀blocking฀the฀pass฀to฀ occupy฀a฀fortified฀position฀on฀high฀ground฀in฀the฀immediate฀vicinity.฀Following฀Stroud’s฀interpretation฀of฀the฀walls฀on฀Stanotopi,฀we฀conclude฀that฀ the฀fortifications฀on฀Mt.฀Oneion฀at฀the฀Maritsa฀pass฀belong฀to฀a฀growing฀ corpus฀of฀humble฀fortifications฀that฀served฀to฀complement฀and฀reinforce฀ the฀more฀sophisticated฀and฀substantial฀examples฀of฀military฀architecture฀ found฀throughout฀the฀Greek฀world. VENE T IAN฀ D EFENSES฀ O N฀ MO UNT ฀ O NEIO N The฀Stanotopi฀and฀Maritsa฀passes฀were฀also฀fortified฀during฀the฀Second฀ Venetian฀ period.฀ Both฀ sets฀ of฀ fortifications฀ were฀ designed฀ to฀ cut฀ the฀ north–south฀routes฀between฀the฀Isthmus฀and฀the฀area฀south฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion.฀ They฀were฀constructed฀of฀identical฀masonry,฀with฀exterior฀walls฀of฀irregular฀ blocks฀ filled฀ with฀ rubble฀ and฀ mortar.฀The฀ exterior฀ blocks฀ were฀ roughly฀ hewn฀on฀their฀outer฀surface฀to฀make฀a฀relatively฀smooth฀face.฀The฀outer฀ 43.฀Trans.฀R.฀M.฀Geer,฀Cambridge,฀ Mass.,฀1947. 44.฀Stroud฀1971a,฀p.฀143;฀see฀n.฀7,฀ above.฀Cf.฀Perlman฀2000,฀pp.฀148–149. 45.฀For฀numerous฀examples฀from฀ throughout฀the฀Greek฀world,฀see฀ McCredie฀1966;฀Pritchett฀1974,฀฀ pp.฀133–146;฀Lawrence฀1979,฀pp.฀160–฀ 167.฀For฀some฀recent฀dissenting฀opin-฀ ions,฀particularly฀regarding฀the฀fortifications฀at฀Korone,฀see฀Lauter-Bufe฀ 1988.฀For฀the฀Dema฀Wall,฀see฀Munn฀ 1993. 46.฀For฀the฀sometimes฀acrimonious฀ discussion฀of฀the฀complex฀fortifications฀ around฀Thermopylai,฀many฀of฀which฀ are฀very฀similar฀in฀construction฀to฀the฀ walls฀on฀Mt.฀Oneion,฀see฀Pritchett฀ 1958,฀1994;฀MacKay฀1963;฀Cherf฀1996,฀฀ pp.฀56–59. 348 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y surfaces฀were฀covered฀by฀a฀coat฀of฀mortar฀that฀has฀mostly฀disappeared฀but฀ was฀presumably฀applied฀over฀the฀entire฀face.฀The฀exterior฀faces฀of฀the฀walls฀ have฀a฀significant฀upward฀taper฀or฀battering,฀a฀characteristic฀of฀military฀ construction฀in฀this฀period.฀In฀the฀first฀quarter฀of฀the฀20th฀century,฀Fowler฀ observed฀a฀finished฀top฀made฀of฀triangular-shaped฀blocks฀at฀several฀points฀ along฀the฀Stanotopi฀wall.฀The฀wall฀tops฀are฀no฀longer฀preserved฀at฀either฀ location฀today.47 Each฀fortification฀complex฀is฀a฀barrier฀wall฀with฀a฀fighting฀platform฀ along฀ the฀ interior,฀ terminating฀ in฀ a฀ rectangular฀ tower฀ (hypothesized฀ for฀ Stanotopi,฀as฀the฀western฀end฀was฀destroyed฀by฀quarrying฀during฀the฀past฀ 30฀years).฀In฀each฀case,฀the฀wall฀crosses฀the฀road฀through฀the฀pass฀relatively฀ low฀on฀the฀mountain,฀about฀a฀third฀of฀the฀way฀to฀the฀top,฀at฀a฀point฀where฀ the฀road฀itself฀changed฀course฀and฀the฀natural฀lay฀of฀the฀land฀made฀evasion฀difficult฀(see฀above,฀Fig.฀4).฀The฀purpose฀of฀the฀tower฀was฀to฀block฀an฀ evasion฀downhill,฀while฀permitting฀enfilading฀fire฀back฀up฀across฀the฀road.฀ The฀fortifications฀at฀the฀Maritsa฀pass฀continued฀up฀the฀mountain฀above฀the฀ tower,฀to฀further฀prevent฀an฀army฀from฀ascending฀the฀pass฀or฀from฀positioning฀itself฀behind฀the฀fortifications,฀where฀the฀defenders฀would฀have฀been฀ unprotected.฀The฀design฀of฀the฀Stanotopi฀fortifications฀was฀more฀complex฀ (Fig.฀15).฀The฀wall฀ran฀between฀a฀series฀of฀natural฀heights,฀each฀of฀which฀ was฀defended฀by฀a฀bastion.฀The฀eastern฀and฀western฀bastions฀were฀open฀in฀ the฀rear,฀while฀the฀central฀bastion฀was฀pentagonal,฀evidently฀designed฀to฀ cover฀the฀stretch฀of฀wall฀both฀east฀and฀west.฀ We฀have฀no฀idea฀whether฀these฀two฀fortifications฀were฀actually฀used฀to฀ defend฀the฀Peloponnese฀at฀the฀time฀of฀the฀final฀Ottoman฀attack.฀Probably฀ they฀were฀not,฀because฀their฀usefulness฀depended฀on฀the฀Venetians฀being฀ able฀to฀hold฀the฀main฀lines฀of฀attack฀at฀the฀Hexamilion,฀the฀coastline฀near฀ Kenchreai,฀and฀the฀Xeropotamos฀Valley.฀Finlay฀reports฀that฀in฀late฀July฀of฀ 1715,฀the฀Ottomans,฀under฀the฀command฀of฀Ali฀Kumurgi,฀descended฀into฀ the฀Corinthia฀with฀a฀force฀of฀70,000฀men,฀while฀the฀Venetians฀had฀only฀ 8,000฀soldiers.48฀The฀Venetians฀placed฀their฀hopes฀in฀the฀local฀Greek฀population฀and฀elected฀to฀defend฀only฀five฀of฀the฀fortresses฀in฀the฀Peloponnese;฀ the฀Venetian฀Senate฀ordered฀the฀dismantlement฀of฀the฀rest.฀Accordingly,฀ the฀Venetians฀offered฀no฀resistance฀at฀the฀Hexamilion฀and,฀after฀a฀short฀ siege,฀Acrocorinth฀surrendered฀on฀August฀3.49฀By฀August฀11,฀the฀Ottomans฀ were฀in฀the฀Argolid฀and฀the฀defense฀of฀Oneion฀was฀moot. As฀is฀common฀at฀Venetian฀fortifications฀elsewhere฀in฀Greece,฀virtually฀ no฀pottery฀or฀other฀finds฀associated฀with฀the฀period฀of฀use฀were฀found฀in฀ or฀around฀the฀Venetian฀defenses.฀Only฀two฀pieces฀of฀undiagnostic฀medium฀ coarse฀pottery฀were฀found฀just฀outside฀the฀tower฀at฀Maritsa,฀while฀no฀pottery฀at฀all฀was฀seen฀within฀the฀fortifications฀at฀Stanotopi.฀In฀part฀this฀may฀ be฀attributable฀to฀the฀dense฀ground฀cover฀at฀both฀locations,฀but฀it฀may฀also฀ indicate฀that฀the฀defenses฀were฀never฀used฀or฀inhabited.50 47.฀Corinth฀I.1,฀p.฀104. 48.฀Finlay฀1877,฀pp.฀217–222. 49.฀The฀aftermath฀was฀the฀famous฀ slaughter฀of฀many฀Venetians฀and฀ Greeks,฀portrayed฀vividly฀by฀Byron฀in฀ his฀epic฀poem฀“The฀Siege฀of฀Corinth.” 50.฀Alternatively,฀certain฀groups฀฀ of฀people฀in฀the฀Venetian฀period฀may฀ not฀have฀made฀great฀use฀of฀ceramic฀฀ vessels;฀see฀Vroom฀1998;฀2003,฀pp.฀85–฀ 86. f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 349 Figure฀15.฀Venetian฀fortifications฀฀ at฀Stanotopi.฀Contour฀interval฀4฀m.฀฀ W.฀R.฀Caraher The฀ Fort i f i c at i on s ฀ at ฀ S ta n otop i Fowler฀was฀the฀first฀to฀mention฀the฀Stanotopi฀fortifications,฀and฀his฀description,฀even฀without฀a฀plan,฀has฀long฀been฀considered฀sufficient฀and฀accurate.51฀ His฀interpretation฀remains฀fundamentally฀correct,฀and฀so฀we฀proceed฀from฀his฀ observations.฀The฀fortifications฀were฀designed฀to฀block฀two฀routes฀through฀ Mt.฀Oneion฀in฀the฀Stanotopi฀area,฀representing฀the฀westernmost฀of฀the฀passages฀also฀guarded฀by฀the฀Classical–Hellenistic฀fortifications฀(Fig.฀15).฀These฀ passes฀followed฀the฀course฀of฀two฀ravines฀that฀descend฀to฀the฀plain฀in฀the฀ vicinity฀of฀the฀modern฀army฀camp.฀The฀Venetian฀fortifications฀were฀originally฀ made฀up฀of฀three฀bastions.฀The฀bastions฀at฀the฀ends฀were฀designed฀to฀block฀ the฀roads.฀The฀bastion฀approximately฀in฀the฀center฀sits฀at฀a฀height฀above฀the฀ other฀two.฀It฀is฀noteworthy฀that฀this฀fortification฀complex฀was฀built฀in฀the฀ age฀of฀gunpowder,฀when฀an฀enemy฀could฀overcome฀any฀defense฀simply฀by฀ placing฀artillery฀at฀a฀nearby฀higher฀elevation.฀The฀fortifications฀today฀are฀in฀ relatively฀good฀condition,฀although฀a฀section฀of฀the฀wall฀above฀the฀eastern฀ bastion฀has฀recently฀been฀bulldozed฀for฀construction฀of฀a฀forest฀road,฀while฀ the฀western฀bastion฀has฀been฀completely฀destroyed฀by฀the฀modern฀quarry. East er n฀ Bast ion 51.฀Corinth฀I.1,฀pp.฀104–105.฀Cf.฀ Stroud฀1971a,฀pp.฀137–138,฀n.฀9;฀Peppas฀1990,฀pp.฀51–57฀and฀plan฀36;฀1993,฀ pp.฀142–143.฀ 52.฀Corinth฀I.1,฀pp.฀104–105. The฀eastern฀bastion฀is฀a฀three-sided฀fortification฀without฀a฀wall฀protecting฀ its฀ southwestern,฀ upslope฀ exposure.฀ Its฀ eastern฀ wall฀ runs฀ for฀ some฀฀ 20฀m฀parallel฀to฀the฀course฀of฀the฀ravine.฀This฀wall฀is฀pierced฀by฀three฀drains,฀ which฀allow฀water฀accumulating฀inside฀the฀bastion฀to฀run฀out฀toward฀the฀ ravine฀(Fig.฀16).฀At฀its฀southern฀end,฀it฀turns฀almost฀90฀degrees฀and฀runs฀ some฀15฀m฀to฀the฀southwest.฀At฀its฀northern฀end,฀this฀wall฀also฀turns฀at฀฀ 90฀degrees฀and฀extends฀nearly฀50฀m฀uphill,฀also฀in฀a฀west/southwest฀direction.฀The฀wall฀of฀the฀bastion฀is฀preserved฀today฀to฀a฀maximum฀height฀of฀฀ 2.62฀m฀above฀the฀ground฀on฀the฀exterior฀(at฀the฀southeast฀corner).฀On฀the฀ interior,฀there฀is฀a฀fighting฀platform฀ca.฀1.45฀m฀wide;฀according฀to฀Fowler,฀ this฀ was฀ once฀ 1.25฀ m฀ below฀ the฀ top฀ of฀ the฀ wall.52฀The฀ northeast฀ and฀ 350 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y Figure฀16.฀Venetian฀fortifications฀฀ at฀Stanotopi:฀east฀wall฀of฀the฀eastern฀ bastion,฀from฀the฀northeast.฀฀ Photo฀T.฀E.฀Gregory southeast฀corners฀of฀the฀eastern฀bastion฀are฀better฀made฀than฀the฀rest฀of฀ the฀fortifications.฀They฀were฀constructed฀of฀headers฀and฀stretchers฀laid฀in฀ alternating฀courses,฀a฀characteristic฀of฀the฀masonry฀in฀some฀contemporary฀ Venetian฀castles฀such฀as฀the฀Palamidi฀at฀Nauplion. The฀eastern฀bastion฀guards฀a฀path฀extending฀along฀the฀western฀side฀ of฀a฀shallow฀ravine.฀It฀stands฀above฀a฀point฀where฀the฀ravine฀splits฀in฀two฀ directions,฀ either฀ of฀ which฀ would฀ have฀ provided฀ access฀ to฀ the฀ summit฀ of฀Stanotopi฀and฀beyond฀to฀the฀land฀south฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion.฀Presumably,฀ however,฀any฀traveler฀or฀attacking฀army฀intending฀to฀reach฀the฀top฀of฀the฀ mountain฀would฀not฀have฀walked฀at฀the฀bottom฀of฀the฀ravine,฀as฀at฀many฀ points฀the฀floor฀meets฀impassable,฀nearly฀vertical฀walls฀of฀bedrock. Like฀the฀Maritsa฀fortifications,฀the฀eastern฀bastion฀at฀Stanotopi฀narrowed฀the฀route฀over฀the฀mountain฀rather฀than฀blocking฀it฀totally,฀leaving฀ a฀small,฀relatively฀level฀area฀to฀the฀southeast฀of฀the฀bastion฀wall.฀It฀is฀also฀ notable฀that฀the฀bastion฀is฀not฀closed฀on฀its฀southwestern฀side.฀The฀southern฀wall฀is฀not฀as฀long฀as฀the฀northern฀wall,฀and฀the฀bastion฀overall฀has฀the฀ shape฀of฀a฀partially฀open฀rectangle.฀Like฀the฀earlier฀Greek฀fortifications,฀the฀ Venetian฀fortifications฀were฀apparently฀designed฀to฀be฀resupplied฀from฀the฀ rear,฀presumably฀from฀the฀main฀Venetian฀power฀base฀south฀of฀the฀Isthmus,฀ at฀Nauplion.53 Cent ral ฀ Bast ion The฀northern฀wall฀of฀the฀eastern฀bastion฀continues฀west฀up฀the฀hill฀in฀an฀ approximately฀straight฀line฀and฀then฀turns฀to฀the฀northwest฀to฀the฀top฀of฀ the฀ridge,฀where฀a฀well-built฀pentagonal฀bastion฀occupied฀the฀high฀point฀ between฀the฀ravines.฀In฀the฀middle฀of฀the฀southwest฀side฀(the฀continuation฀ of฀the฀main฀wall)฀is฀a฀doorway,฀ca.฀1.50฀m฀wide,฀leading฀into฀the฀bastion.฀ The฀fighting฀platform฀is฀ca.฀1.50฀m฀wide฀on฀the฀northern฀face฀of฀the฀main฀ wall,฀and฀according฀to฀Fowler,฀it฀was฀ca.฀0.50฀m฀below฀the฀top฀of฀the฀wall.฀ 53.฀Andrews฀(1953,฀pp.฀237–238)฀ discusses฀the฀Venetians’฀concern฀with฀ protecting฀Nauplion,฀attested฀by฀ fortifications฀along฀the฀coast฀of฀the฀ Argolid฀from฀Nauplion฀to฀Drepanon,฀ Porto฀Heli,฀and฀Poros.฀The฀historically฀ close฀relationship฀between฀the฀ports฀of฀ the฀Saronic฀Gulf฀makes฀it฀likely฀that฀ the฀fortifications฀on฀Mt.฀Oneion฀were฀ part฀of฀the฀larger฀strategy฀to฀defend฀this฀ stretch฀of฀coastline. f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 351 Approximately฀15฀m฀west฀of฀the฀central฀bastion฀is฀a฀doorway฀through฀the฀ wall,฀the฀same฀width฀as฀that฀in฀the฀bastion.฀On฀the฀southeastern฀side฀of฀ the฀doorway฀a฀series฀of฀steps,฀parallel฀to฀the฀wall,฀provided฀access฀to฀the฀ fighting฀platform฀on฀the฀interior. We st er n฀ Bast ion From฀the฀central฀bastion,฀the฀fortification฀wall฀descends฀for฀about฀100฀m฀฀ in฀a฀line฀that฀curves฀slightly฀to฀the฀north฀and฀reaches฀the฀point฀where฀the฀ western฀ravine฀and฀a฀road฀undoubtedly฀once฀ran.฀Today฀the฀wall฀terminates฀ abruptly฀here,฀cut฀by฀a฀modern฀road฀and฀an฀enormous฀quarry.฀Originally,฀ however,฀and฀even฀in฀Fowler’s฀time,฀the฀wall฀extended฀up฀the฀slope฀on฀the฀ western฀side฀of฀the฀ravine฀for฀about฀40฀m,฀then฀turned฀north฀and฀again฀ west–northwest฀ until฀ it฀ reached฀ a฀ cliff.฀ It฀ is฀ difficult฀ to฀ understand฀ the฀ course฀of฀the฀wall฀in฀this฀area,฀largely฀because฀the฀topography฀has฀been฀ thoroughly฀disrupted฀by฀the฀quarry.฀It฀is฀possible฀that฀the฀western฀end฀of฀ the฀wall,฀which฀would฀have฀turned฀sharply฀to฀the฀east฀before฀ending฀at฀a฀ large฀rock,฀served฀as฀another฀bastion฀with฀an฀open฀rear฀exposure.฀Fowler฀ describes฀the฀arrangement฀to฀allow฀water฀to฀pass฀under฀the฀wall,฀but฀these฀ remains฀have฀since฀been฀destroyed.54 The฀ Fort i f i c at i on s ฀ at ฀ Ma r i ts a 54.฀Corinth฀I.1,฀pp.฀104–105,฀fig.฀73. The฀Venetian฀fortifications฀in฀the฀Maritsa฀pass฀display฀many฀of฀the฀same฀ characteristics฀as฀those฀at฀Stanotopi.฀They฀may฀have฀been฀built฀at฀the฀same฀ time฀and฀perhaps฀by฀the฀same฀work฀crews.฀They฀are฀located฀astride฀what฀ must฀have฀been฀the฀main฀road฀into฀the฀pass,฀along฀the฀eastern฀side฀of฀the฀ ravine,฀and฀they฀are฀relatively฀low฀on฀the฀side฀of฀the฀mountain,฀beginning฀at฀ an฀elevation฀of฀ca.฀236฀m฀(Figs.฀17,฀18).฀The฀main฀defense฀is฀a฀rectangular฀ tower,฀ca.฀8.80฀x฀11.20฀m฀on฀the฀exterior฀(Fig.฀19),฀built฀on฀a฀rock฀outcrop฀ that฀adds฀to฀the฀elevation฀of฀the฀tower฀at฀a฀point฀where฀the฀original฀road฀ must฀have฀made฀a฀turn฀along฀the฀side฀of฀the฀ravine.฀No฀rectangular฀blocks฀ were฀used฀in฀the฀fortification,฀although฀the฀stones฀were฀roughly฀finished฀ to฀make฀a฀relatively฀flat฀surface,฀especially฀on฀the฀exterior.฀The฀stones฀used฀ seem฀to฀have฀been฀ca.฀0.30฀m฀in฀length฀and฀0.20฀m฀in฀height,฀but฀many฀ larger฀stones฀were฀also฀employed.฀Both฀the฀exterior฀and฀the฀interior฀of฀the฀ walls฀were฀originally฀covered฀with฀stucco.฀The฀interior฀face฀of฀the฀walls฀is฀ vertical,฀but฀the฀outer฀face฀is฀battered. The฀ walls฀ of฀ the฀ tower฀ vary฀ between฀ ca.฀ 0.90฀ and฀ 1.15฀ m฀ thick฀ at฀ their฀preserved฀height,฀although฀they฀certainly฀would฀have฀been฀thinner฀ higher฀up.฀They฀are฀preserved฀as฀much฀as฀3฀m฀above฀the฀lowest฀level฀of฀the฀ bedrock฀inside฀the฀tower,฀although฀there฀are฀places฀where฀the฀bedrock฀is฀ actually฀higher฀than฀the฀preserved฀tops฀of฀the฀walls.฀Inside฀the฀tower฀is฀a฀ fighting฀platform,฀ca.฀1.00–1.25฀m฀wide,฀with฀its฀original฀surface฀preserved฀ in฀several฀places.฀In฀keeping฀with฀the฀declining฀level฀of฀the฀bedrock฀outside฀ the฀ tower,฀ the฀ fighting฀ platform฀ of฀ the฀ north฀ and฀ south฀ walls฀ descends฀ noticeably฀from฀east฀to฀west,฀creating฀a฀ramplike฀effect.฀Interestingly,฀there฀ seems฀not฀to฀have฀been฀any฀doorway฀into฀the฀tower;฀instead,฀access฀must฀ have฀been฀from฀the฀level฀of฀the฀fighting฀platform฀of฀the฀curtain฀wall฀behind฀฀ the฀tower. 352 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y Figure฀17.฀Venetian฀fortifications฀ at฀the฀Maritsa฀pass,฀from฀the฀south.฀ Photo฀T.฀E.฀Gregory Figure฀18.฀Venetian฀fortifications฀at฀ the฀Maritsa฀pass,฀from฀the฀southeast;฀ the฀rectangular฀tower฀is฀visible฀at฀the฀ center.฀Photo฀T.฀E.฀Gregory To฀the฀southeast,฀the฀mountainous฀terrain฀directly฀behind฀the฀tower฀ rises฀precipitously.฀The฀original฀roadway฀presumably฀was฀located฀just฀behind฀the฀tower฀and฀was฀blocked฀by฀the฀wall฀running฀uphill฀from฀the฀tower.฀ This฀wall฀went฀first฀in฀a฀southeasterly฀direction฀for฀ca.฀10.50฀m,฀and฀then฀ more฀directly฀east฀for฀about฀50฀m฀before฀reaching฀a฀huge฀outcrop฀of฀rock.฀ This฀curtain฀wall฀was,฀like฀the฀walls฀of฀the฀tower,฀ca.฀1.10฀m฀wide;฀it฀was฀ attached฀to฀a฀fighting฀platform฀ca.฀1.30฀m฀wide.฀The฀original฀surface฀of฀ the฀platform฀is฀relatively฀well฀preserved฀at฀many฀points฀and฀is฀sometimes฀ even฀higher฀than฀the฀curtain฀wall฀itself.฀The฀surface฀of฀the฀ground฀inside฀ the฀fortifications฀is฀very฀irregular,฀but฀at฀one฀point฀the฀fighting฀platform฀is฀ ca.฀1.40฀m฀above฀the฀surface. Over฀the฀total฀length฀of฀the฀wall,฀ca.฀60.50฀m,฀the฀elevation฀rises฀by฀ ca.฀21฀m,฀creating฀an฀average฀slope฀of฀about฀35%.฀In฀order฀to฀allow฀the฀ soldiers฀to฀go฀up฀and฀down฀this฀slope฀with฀relative฀ease,฀a฀series฀of฀steps฀ Figure฀19.฀Plan฀of฀the฀Venetian฀fortifications฀at฀the฀Maritsa฀pass.฀K.฀D.฀Soteriou 354 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y were฀constructed฀at฀points฀of฀rapid฀rise,฀and฀these฀survive฀in฀the฀fighting฀ platform฀today.฀The฀fortification฀walls฀are฀not฀preserved฀to฀their฀original฀ height,฀but฀they฀stand฀about฀2.30฀m฀above฀the฀surface฀on฀the฀exterior฀at฀ the฀highest฀preserved฀point,฀just฀beyond฀the฀jog฀in฀the฀wall฀to฀the฀east.฀At฀ a฀point฀midway฀along฀the฀eastward฀stretch฀of฀wall,฀another฀structure฀seems฀ to฀have฀been฀built฀flush฀against฀the฀fighting฀platform฀on฀the฀interior฀of฀ the฀wall.฀This฀is฀not฀well฀enough฀preserved฀to฀allow฀us฀to฀be฀certain฀of฀its฀ function,฀but฀it฀may฀have฀been฀a฀stairway฀up฀to฀the฀level฀of฀the฀fighting฀ platform฀from฀the฀ground฀below. These฀relatively฀modest฀fortifications฀are฀a฀far฀cry฀from฀the฀imposing฀ castles฀built฀elsewhere฀in฀Greece฀by฀the฀Venetians฀at฀this฀time฀and฀known฀ from฀the฀plans฀executed฀for฀Francesco฀Grimani,฀the฀governor.55฀Nonetheless,฀they฀must฀have฀been฀designed฀by฀military฀engineers฀who฀understood฀ the฀local฀topography฀and฀who฀employed฀sophisticated฀flourishes฀such฀as฀ arrangements฀for฀routing฀the฀flow฀of฀water฀through฀the฀bastion฀walls. CONCLUSION The฀geography฀of฀the฀Isthmus฀and฀the฀geopolitics฀of฀Greece฀have฀long฀ demanded฀ the฀ fortification฀ of฀ this฀ vital฀ north–south฀ corridor฀ into฀ the฀ Peloponnese.฀The฀ Hexamilion฀ and฀ its฀ predecessors฀ are฀ well-known฀ examples฀ of฀ such฀ defenses.฀The฀ presence฀ of฀ a฀ complex,฀ secondary฀ system฀ of฀fortifications,฀however,฀suggests฀that฀during฀some฀periods฀formidable฀ freestanding฀ barrier฀ walls฀ guarding฀ the฀ Corinthia฀ and฀ the฀ Peloponnese฀ did฀not฀serve฀the฀strategic฀or฀tactical฀purposes฀of฀those฀wishing฀to฀fortify฀ the฀Isthmus.฀The฀Late฀Classical฀and฀Hellenistic฀periods฀and฀the฀Second฀ Venetokratia฀were฀times฀when฀limited฀resources฀and฀the฀pace฀of฀events฀ encouraged฀the฀reinforcement฀of฀existing฀natural฀defenses฀to฀prevent฀the฀ movement฀of฀armies฀to฀the฀south.฀The฀simple฀fortifications฀of฀Mt.฀Oneion฀ reflect฀a฀keen฀awareness฀of฀local฀topography฀and฀sound฀tactical฀reasoning.฀ Both฀sets฀of฀defenses฀were฀designed฀to฀prevent฀the฀enemy฀from฀occupying฀ local฀high฀ground,฀and฀both฀were฀positioned฀to฀take฀advantage฀of฀reinforcement฀from฀the฀south. Although฀both฀fortifications฀required฀local฀knowledge฀for฀their฀shrewd฀ placement฀and฀construction,฀they฀also฀demonstrate฀a฀genuinely฀regional฀ conception฀of฀defense.฀The฀southern฀border฀of฀the฀Isthmus฀represented฀ the฀last฀point฀at฀which฀a฀force฀could฀mount฀a฀concerted฀defense฀of฀the฀ Peloponnese.฀Farther฀south,฀the฀numerous฀routes฀open฀to฀an฀invading฀army฀ made฀the฀defense฀of฀any฀single฀point,฀even฀the฀narrow฀Dervenaki฀pass฀running฀south฀to฀the฀Argolid,฀insufficient฀to฀block฀the฀northern฀or฀southern฀ passage฀ of฀ a฀ determined฀ foe.฀The฀ various฀ fortifications฀ of฀ the฀ Isthmus,฀ ranging฀from฀the฀fortress฀at฀Acrocorinth฀to฀the฀humble฀walls฀of฀the฀Maritsa฀ and฀Stanotopi฀passes,฀endeavored฀to฀seal฀off฀the฀entirety฀of฀southern฀Greece฀ from฀any฀northern฀aggressor฀moving฀overland.฀They฀would฀have฀served฀the฀ needs฀of฀a฀regional฀defense฀far฀more฀effectively฀than฀the฀interests฀of฀the฀ local฀Corinthians,฀whose฀territory฀was฀effectively฀split฀between฀the฀exposed฀ area฀north฀of฀the฀Isthmus฀and฀the฀protected฀southern฀valleys. 55.฀Andrews฀1953. f o r t i f i c at i o n s ฀ o f ฀ m o u n t ฀ o n e i o n ,฀ c o r i n t h i a 355 REFERENC ES Andrews,฀K.฀1953.฀Castles฀of฀the฀Morea,฀ Princeton. Baitinger,฀H.฀2001.฀Die฀Angriffswaffen฀ aus฀Olympia฀(OlForsch฀29),฀Berlin. Broneer,฀O.฀1966.฀“The฀Cyclopean฀ Wall฀on฀the฀Isthmus฀of฀Corinth฀฀ and฀Its฀Bearing฀on฀Late฀Bronze฀฀ Age฀Chronology,”฀Hesperia฀35,฀฀ pp.฀346–362. Bynum,฀R.฀1995.฀“Studies฀in฀the฀Topog-฀ raphy฀of฀the฀Southern฀Corinthia”฀ (diss.฀Univ.฀of฀California,฀Berkeley). Cherf,฀W.฀J.฀1996.฀Thermopylai:฀Myth฀ and฀Reality฀in฀480฀B.C.,฀Chicago. Corinth฀=฀Corinth:฀Results฀of฀Excavations฀ Conducted฀by฀the฀American฀School฀of฀ Classical฀Studies฀at฀Athens ฀ ฀ I.1฀=฀H.฀N.฀Fowler฀and฀R.฀Still-฀ well,฀Introduction,฀Topography,฀and฀ Architecture,฀Cambridge,฀Mass.฀ 1932. ฀ ฀ III.2฀=฀R.฀Carpenter฀and฀A.฀Bon,฀ The฀Defenses฀of฀Acrocorinth฀and฀the฀ Lower฀Town,฀Princeton฀1936. ฀ ฀ VII.3฀=฀G.฀R.฀Edwards,฀Corinthian฀Hellenistic฀Pottery,฀Princeton฀ 1975. Dixon,฀M.฀2000.฀“Disputed฀Territories:฀ Interstate฀Arbitrations฀in฀the฀Northwest฀Peloponnese,฀ca.฀250–150฀b.c.”฀ (diss.฀Ohio฀State฀Univ.). Dodwell,฀E.฀1819.฀A฀Classical฀and฀ Topographical฀Tour฀through฀Greece฀2,฀ London. Echols,฀E.฀C.฀1949–1950.฀“The฀An-฀ cient฀Slinger,”฀CW฀43,฀pp.฀227–230,฀ 245. Finlay,฀G.฀1877.฀A฀History฀of฀Greece฀฀ from฀Its฀Conquest฀by฀the฀Romans฀to฀ the฀Present฀Time฀5,฀Oxford. Fowden,฀G.฀1995.฀“Late฀Roman฀ Achaea:฀Identity฀and฀Defence,”฀฀ JRA฀8,฀pp.฀549–567. Given,฀M.,฀and฀A.฀B.฀Knapp.฀2003.฀฀ The฀Sydney฀Cyprus฀Survey฀Project:฀ Social฀Approaches฀to฀Regional฀Ar-฀ chaeological฀Survey฀(Monumenta฀ archaeologica฀21),฀Los฀Angeles. Gregory,฀T.฀E.฀2004.฀“Less฀is฀Better:฀ The฀Quality฀of฀Ceramic฀Evidence฀ from฀Archaeological฀Survey฀and฀ Practical฀Proposals฀for฀Low-Impact฀ Survey฀in฀a฀Mediterranean฀Con-฀ text,”฀in฀Mediterranean฀Archaeolog-฀ ical฀Landscapes:฀Current฀Issues,฀฀ ed.฀E.฀Athanassopoulos฀and฀฀ L.฀Wandsnider,฀Philadelphia,฀฀ pp.฀15–36. Isthmia฀V฀=฀T.฀E.฀Gregory,฀The฀Hexamilion฀and฀the฀Fortress,฀Princeton฀ 1993. Kardara,฀C.฀P.฀1971.฀“The฀Isthmian฀ Wall,”฀AAA฀4,฀pp.฀85–89. Kenchreai฀I฀=฀L.฀Ibrahim,฀R.฀Scranton,฀ and฀R.฀Brill,฀Topography฀and฀Architecture,฀Leiden฀1976. Lauter-Bufe,฀H.฀1988.฀“Die฀Festung฀ auf฀Koroni฀und฀die฀Bucht฀von฀Porto฀ Raphti:฀Ein฀Beitrag฀zur฀Geschichte฀ Athens฀im฀3฀Jh.฀v.฀Chr,”฀in฀Attische฀ Festungen:฀Beiträge฀zum฀Festungswesen฀und฀zur฀Siedlungsstrucktur฀vom฀5.฀ bis.฀zum฀3.฀Jh.฀v.฀Chr.,฀ed.฀H.฀Lauter,฀ H.฀Lauter-Bufe,฀and฀H.฀Lohmann,฀ Marburg,฀pp.฀67–102. Lawrence,฀A.฀W.฀1979.฀Greek฀Aims฀in฀ Fortification,฀Oxford. Lolos,฀Y.฀1998.฀“Studies฀in฀the฀Topography฀of฀the฀Sikyonia”฀(diss.฀Univ.฀฀ of฀California,฀Berkeley). Lorandou-Papantoniou,฀R.฀1999.฀ Σολύγεια: Η ανασκαφή 1957–1958,฀ Athens. MacKay,฀P.฀A.฀1963.฀“Procopius’฀De฀ Aedificiis฀and฀the฀Topography฀of฀ Thermopylae,”฀AJA฀67,฀pp.฀241–255. Maltezou,฀C.฀1978.฀“Βενετσιανικὲς ἐκθέσεις γιὰ τὴν ὀχύρωση τοῦ Ἰσθµοῦ τῆς Κορίνθου στὰ τέλη τοῦ฀17ου αἰώνα,”฀in฀Πρακτικὰ τοῦ Α΄ ∆ιεθνοῦς Συνεδρίου Πελοποννησιακῶν Σπουδῶν฀3,฀Athens,฀฀ pp.฀269–276. Marchand,฀J.฀2002.฀“Well-Built฀Kleonai:฀A฀History฀of฀the฀Peloponnesian฀ City฀Based฀on฀a฀Survey฀of฀the฀Vis-฀ ible฀Remains฀and฀a฀Study฀of฀the฀ Literary฀and฀Epigraphic฀Sources”฀ (diss.฀Univ.฀of฀California,฀Berkeley). McCredie,฀J.฀1966.฀Fortified฀Military฀ Camps฀in฀Attica฀(Hesperia฀Suppl.฀11),฀ Princeton. Mcleod,฀W.฀1965.฀“The฀Range฀of฀the฀ Ancient฀Bow,”฀Phoenix฀29,฀pp.฀1–14. Munn,฀M.฀1993.฀The฀Defense฀of฀Attica:฀ The฀Dema฀Wall฀and฀the฀Boiotian฀War฀ of฀378–375฀B.C.,฀Berkeley. Peppas,฀Y.฀1990. Μεσαιωνικές σελίδες της Αργολίδος, Αρκαδίας, Κορινθίας, Αττικής,฀Athens. 356 w i l l i a m ฀ r .฀ c a r a h e r ฀ a n d ฀ t i m o t h y ฀ e .฀ g r e g o r y ———.฀1993.฀Μεσαιωνικές σελίδες της Κορινθίας,฀Athens. Perlman,฀P.฀2000.฀City฀and฀Sanctuary฀฀ in฀Ancient฀Greece:฀The฀Theorodokia฀฀ in฀the฀Peloponnese,฀Göttingen. Pikoulas,฀Y.฀1995.฀Οδικό δίκτυο και άµυνα: Από την Κόρινθο στο Άργος και την Αρκαδία,฀Athens. Pritchett,฀W.฀K.฀1958.฀“New฀Light฀on฀ Thermopylae,”฀AJA฀62,฀pp.฀203–213. ———.฀1969.฀Studies฀in฀Ancient฀Greek฀ Topography฀(University฀of฀California฀ Publications฀in฀Classical฀Studies฀4),฀ Berkeley. ———.฀1974.฀The฀Greek฀State฀at฀War฀2,฀ Berkeley. ———.฀1994.฀Essays฀in฀Greek฀History,฀ Amsterdam. Salmon,฀J.฀B.฀1983.฀Wealthy฀Corinth:฀ A฀History฀of฀the฀City฀to฀338฀B.C.,฀ Oxford. Stroud,฀R.฀1971a.฀“An฀Ancient฀Fort฀on฀ Mount฀Oneion,”฀Hesperia฀40,฀฀ pp.฀127–145. ———.฀1971b.฀“Thucydides฀and฀฀ the฀Battle฀of฀Solygeia,”฀CSCA฀4,฀฀ pp.฀227–247. ———.฀1994.฀“Thucydides฀and฀Cor-฀ inth,”฀Chiron฀24,฀pp.฀267–302. Tartaron,฀T.฀F.,฀T.฀E.฀Gregory,฀D.฀J.฀ Pullen,฀J.฀S.฀Noller,฀R.฀M.฀Rothaus,฀ J.฀L.฀Rife,฀L.฀Diacopoulos,฀R.฀L.฀ Schon,฀W.฀R.฀Caraher,฀D.฀K.฀Pette-฀ grew,฀and฀D.฀Nakassis.฀Forthcoming.฀“The฀Eastern฀Korinthia฀Ar-฀ chaeological฀Survey:฀Integrated฀ William฀R.฀Caraher Univ ersit y฀of฀North฀Dakota department฀of฀history box฀8096 grand฀forks,฀north฀dakota฀58202-8096 wil liam.c ar [email protected] Timothy฀E.฀Gregory Ohio฀S tate฀Univ ersit y department฀of฀history 106฀d ul le s ฀hal l 230฀we st฀1 7th฀av en ue columb us,฀ohio฀43210-1367 gregor [email protected] Methods฀for฀a฀Dynamic฀Landscape,”฀Hesperia. Vroom,฀J.฀1998,฀“Early฀Modern฀Ar-฀ chaeology฀in฀Central฀Greece:฀฀ The฀Contrast฀of฀Artefact-Rich฀฀ and฀Sherdless฀Sites,”฀JMA฀11,฀pp.฀3– 36. ———.฀2003.฀After฀Antiquity:฀Ceramics฀ and฀Society฀in฀the฀Aegean฀from฀the฀฀ 7th฀to฀the฀20th฀Century฀A.C.,฀Leiden. Walbank,฀F.฀W.฀1957.฀A฀Historical฀Commentary฀on฀Polybius฀1,฀Oxford. Wiseman,฀J.฀1963.฀“A฀Trans-Isthmian฀ Fortification฀Wall,”฀Hesperia฀32,฀฀ pp.฀248–275. ———.฀1978.฀The฀Land฀of฀the฀Ancient฀ Corinthians,฀Göteborg.