Marxist Philosophy [abridged]

AN INTRODUCTION TO MARXIST PHILOSOPHY Diana-Abasi Ibanga, PhD Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D ii Copyright © Diana-Abasi Ibanga, 2021. [email protected] +2347030096171 All rights of the author, Diana-Abasi Ibanga, are fully reserved under copyright laws of Nigeria. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or stored in a retrieval system, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the copyright owner. ISBN: 978-978-987-220-6 A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Nigeria. Published in Nigeria in 2021 by: Krispolis 18, Nairobi Street Wuse II Abuja, Nigeria. Printed by: Assurance Prints +2348067928847 An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy iii Dedication In honour of my parents, Evang. Ibanga Francis Umo & Mrs. Martha Ibanga Umo. Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D iv TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE DEDICATION TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES FOREWORD PREFACE INTRODUCTION i iii iv vii viii x xvi Chapter One: General Background to Marxism 01 ➢ Historical Roots and Development of Marxism ❖ Hegel’s Idealism and Marx’s Critique ❖ Feuerbach’s Materialism and Marx’s Critique ➢ The Subject-Matter of Marxist Philosophy ➢ Importance of Marxist Philosophy Chapter Two: Methodology and Conceptual Framework of Marxism ➢ Methodology of Marxist Philosophy ❖ Dialectical Materialism ❖ Historical Materialism ➢ Basic Concepts of Marxist Philosophy ❖ Labour (Production) ❖ Capitalism ❖ Socialism ❖ Communism Chapter Three: Categories of Materialist Dialectics ➢ Matter and Consciousness ➢ Matter and Motion ➢ Individual and Universal ➢ Content and Form ➢ Essence and Phenomenon ➢ Cause and Effect ➢ Necessity and Chance ➢ Possibility and Reality 26 63 An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy Chapter Four: Basic Laws of Materialist Dialectics ➢ The Law of the Unity and Struggle of Opposites ➢ The Law of the Transformation of Quantitative into Qualitative Change ➢ The Law of Negation of the Negation v 79 Chapter Five: Theory of Alienation 95 ➢ Alienated Labour as the Basis of Private Property ➢ Alienated Labour in a System of Private Property ➢ Alienated Labour and its Overcoming in Communism Chapter Six: Concept of State ➢ Origin and Nature of the State ➢ The State in Exploiting Society ➢ Dictatorship of the Proletariat ➢ The State in a Socialist Society ➢ The Withering away of the State ➢ Social Revolution 127 Chapter Seven: Classes and Class Struggle 135 ➢ The Origin and Essence of Classes ➢ Class Struggle as the Source of Development in Class Society ➢ Class Composition and Class Struggle in Capitalist Society ➢ Class Composition and Class Struggle in Socialist Society ➢ Ways of Eliminating Class Distinctions Chapter Eight: Theory of Gender ➢ Women in Pre-class Societies ➢ Women in Capitalist Society ➢ Ways of Restoring Gender Equality 143 Chapter Nine: Theory of Justice ➢ The Contribution Principle ➢ The Needs Principle 154 Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D vi Chapter Ten: Theory of Knowledge ➢ What is Knowledge? ➢ Practice as the basis of Knowledge ➢ The Dialectical Process of Cognition ➢ Concept of Truth ➢ Practice as the Criterion of Truth 165 Chapter Eleven: Forms of Social Consciousness ➢ Politics ➢ Law ➢ Art ➢ Science ➢ Religion 184 Endnotes Bibliography An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure A: A model illustrating dialectical materialism 28 Figure B: A model illustrating historical materialism 38 Figure C: Triangle of Production 51 Figure D: Forms of Practice 169 Figure E: Stages of Cognition 173 Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D viii FOREWORD Marxist philosophy is a very challenging area of study because of its far-reaching dimensions within and outside the scope of philosophy as a discipline. In it, one could read the minds and presuppositions of sociologists, economists, political scientists and most importantly, political philosophers. These and other interrelated disciplines make the study of Marxist philosophy a herculean task in the attempt to stay focused on the import of Marxism within the ambit of philosophy. It is in the light of the above that I find this text very germane in the study of the works of Karl Marx, his ideological influences, and the value of his philosophy to human and societal development. Actually, most students of philosophy and of other disciplines shy away from the study of Marxist philosophy, not particularly because of its radical ideological stance, but mainly due to the diversity of its major themes and their interdisciplinary underpinnings. This places a huge demand on the study of Marxism, which most lazy researchers find very scary, especially when one considers the fact that Marx was a very extensive writer whose works were churned out in volumes. Thus, to find a text that has compressed the major works of Karl Marx and his diverse contributions to philosophy in general, and political philosophy in particular, is heart-warming and intellectually enticing. But in doing so, the author of this text endeavoured to give some details, where necessary, especially in giving vent to the kernel of the rich ideas embedded in the many texts written by Karl Marx, on Marxist philosophy. The text further gives us a good background to the Marxism inspired by the works of such scholars like Georg Hegel on his thoughts on idealism and dialectics, and Ludwig Feuerbach on his thoughts on materialism. The rich influences of these scholars on the emergence of Marxist philosophy makes this book a must read for those teachers and students of philosophy who have not really An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy ix dedicated time and efforts to read the philosophies of Feuerbach and Hegel very carefully. The strong background of their philosophies provided fertile ground and great inspiration to Marxist philosophy. This book, however, does not delve detailly into the attempt to distinguish the intellectual exuberance of the Young Marx and the more mature philosophical thoughts of the Older Marx. But the core philosophical thoughts that Karl Marx and Frederick Engels birthed in their ideological polemics have been well captured in this work such that one does not miss such a perceived distinction in the peculiarities or the views of what constitutes the philosophical ideas of the younger Marx and the mature exposition of the older Marx. On the whole, I find this work to be a great contribution to the corpus of literature on the subject of Marxist philosophy. I really commend the author for a very lucid and thorough research work that culminated in the publication of this book. He has exhibited very strong scholarship that is rare to find among the young generation of scholars nowadays. In fact, this work is likely going to be a major text in the hands of both students and teachers of Marxist philosophy. Prof. Kyrian A. Ojong HOD, Department of Philosophy, University of Calabar, Nigeria. Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D x PREFACE Karl Jaspers notes that “Our knowledge of the history of philosophy has been enormously enlarged through the gathering of innumerable texts and traditions. But such encyclopedic knowledge obscures the intrinsic rank and merit of the individual thinkers.” Against this backdrop, I write this text as an exposition of the philosophy of Marx in its merits and unique characteristics as a distinct body of thought. The significance of this is that it allows Marxist thought to stand out from the herbarium of the history of philosophy (history of philosophy having been bracketed off), to speak to us directly outside the general context and classifications of the history of philosophy. As Jaspers again tells us, “The great philosophers can really speak to us only when, released from their historical contexts, they stand before us in their own identities.” In this text, what concerns us is not the historic knowledge of philosophy, which is the case with some texts on Marxism, but the philosophy itself as it is constituted in the mind of Marx and emerged therefrom. The aim of this book, therefore, is to help the student of Marxism and the general philosophical reader to access the philosophy of Marx as easy as possible. This requires making the reader to enter into the thinking of Marx. It is by entering into the thinking of Marx that the reader can understand how the philosophy of Marx is constituted. For as Martins Heidegger tells us, to understand how a phenomenon is constituted we have to understand the structure or constitution of the thinking in which the phenomenon is constituted. I hope to make the reader to enter into the thinking of Marx, to understand the structure of his thinking, to engage his philosophy, and to attain a lofty height of its consciousness in his own being in the process. With this book, the mind of Marx is opened, and his philosophy laid bare; Marx himself is waiting gladly to provide answers to our questions provided we know how to inquire. We can only know how to inquire and come closer to understanding Marxist philosophy if we ourselves philosophize. An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy xi I want the reader to confront Marxist philosophy itself. A superficial manipulation of texts and facts will not lead us to Marxism itself. To penetrate Marxism, we must be guided by the principles of Marxism – namely, dialectical and historical materialism. This can be secured if we think or philosophize along with Marx. We have to enter into the thinking of Marx, penetrating beyond the facade of Marxist thinking, and renew within ourselves the impulses that gave birth to, and the historical nuances that midwifed, his ideas. It is only in philosophizing along with Marx, putting ourselves in his companionship, that we can feel the heartbeat of Marxist philosophy. But if we study Marxist philosophy merely by learning by rote its concepts, propositions and submissions, then our understanding of Marxism would be superficial and hollow. Therefore, we are condemned to dive deeper into Marxist thinking, to the seabed of Marxism. This text is an important step in this direction to enable us perform this task in that perhaps there has never been a broader (in terms of thematic inclusiveness) introduction to Marxist philosophy such as I am attempting here. But that does not in any way represent a complete introduction to Marxism. No one can give a complete picture of the vast corpus of Marxism because of its many ramifications in different disciplines. Such a task cannot be performed by any single individual – because Marxism itself, like everything else, is an infinitely progressing phenomenon. Therefore, it would be a delusion of grandeur to claim to have presented a complete, or even a comprehensive, philosophy of Marx. It is for this reason this text is entitled An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy. In fact, the truth of the matter is that every text ever written on Marxism is an introduction to Marxism – long or short – since Marxist thought itself continues to evolve and change in relation to place and time. But this text is important in that it presents the foundational and cornerstone features of Marxism, which remain relatively unchanged, and serve as the basis to understand any variation in Marxist thought. The Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D xii variations are superficial because the principles remain the same across generations and traditions. Meanwhile, I would like to use this preface to point out that there is a difference between what Marx actually professed in his works and what some scholars have attributed to Marx. In their commentaries, some scholars have put their own words into the mouth of Marx and try to make him say what he did not say. In other words, some commentaries have confused, distorted and controverted Marx’s thought rather than reveal and enlighten it. It is therefore imperative that a student of Marxism should endeavour to read the original works of Marx and also of Engels his corroborator. This will enable the student to have firsthand access to Marx’s thought and hear directly from Marx’s mouth so as to know what Marx said about what and why. It is for this reason this book is not written as a commentary but as a course text on Marxism. Rather than merely analyzing and evaluating Marx’s ideas as it is in most books, I present them as they were written by Marx and tries to explain them. I do not simply explain Marx’s ideas and say this is what he said or meant. On the contrary, I present Marx’s ideas first in lengthy direct quotations and subsequently tries to explain or interpret them. The student can therefore compare my explanations with Marx’s actual statements within the same text. To enable this, I have made long quotations directly from works written by Marx himself and by Engels. I have added a few direct quotations from Lenin, Stalin and Mao as well as from Afanasyev. I have been careful to avoid commentaries written by Western liberal thinkers, which are replete with distortions of the ideas of Marx. The lengthy and direct quotations in this book make it unique and different from most coursetexts on Marx in terms of the function it serves the students. Another important thing to point out is that this text is not structured along the lines of the so-called younger and older Marx. Some Marxist scholars hold the view that the works Marx coauthored with Engels and those he wrote in older age are his matured thought, thus, represent the true Marxist thought. They An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy xiii believe that the so-called “matured” works of Marx have overshadowed those he wrote as a young man. On this basis, they have tried to relegate and even jettisoned his early writings including the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. This sort of thinking towards Marx’s works is un-Marxist and should be discouraged. The wall of partition erected by these commentators to separate the so-called “immature” and “matured” works of Marx as the basis to decide what aspect of Marx’s thought should be labelled as Marxist or un-Marxist is an artificial creation that serves a false purpose and, ultimately, distorts Marxist thought. What this sort of commentors conveniently forget is that Marx’s dialectical materialism applies even to Marx’s own thought. The dialectical process of thought is not simply blanket negation of the old by the new, rather it is a culmination of the previous stages of thought. The new mode of thinking does not completely obliterate the old but retains the best in it and assimilates it while raising it to a higher level of consciousness. Retention of the positive aspects of the previous mode of thought amount to continuity, to a connection between the older and the newer, without which development of thought is impossible. As Marx remarks, every stage of consciousness is a succession of developmental stages of thinking. The new and higher level of consciousness is a culmination of the previous levels. Thinking is a continuum – without the old you cannot understand the new. This applies equally to the development of Marxist thought. Without the early writings of Marx, you cannot truly understand his latter writings. Thus, his early writings cannot be separated from the latter. To understand Marx’s theory of capitalism, one must read his theory of alienation contained in one of his earliest works – Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. It is even impossible to truly understand Marx’s philosophical materialism without reading his PhD dissertation, which was written on Democritus’s atomist theory. How can one understand Marx’s philosophical dialectics if he does not read Marx’s critique of Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D xiv Hegel in the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844? Throughout Marx’s writings (and that of Engels) you can see repetition of ideas already instantiated in earlier works. There is a unity of thought – of Marxist thought. So, the attempt by some scholars to exclude early thoughts of Marx from the corpus of what is regarded as Marxist philosophy is counterintuitive to Marxism and therefore counterproductive to/in the study of philosophy of Marx. In the light of this, in presenting Marxist philosophy, I have disregarded this un-Marxist distinction. Finally, I want to thank my HOD, Prof. Kyrian Ojong, for accepting to write the foreword to this book. I must confess that it was when he taught me Marxist Political Philosophy during my doctoral programme that I developed a genuine interest in and love for Marxism. Chapters four, six and seven are improvements of the Term Papers he asked me to do as part of my study of Marxism. I appreciate my friend and colleague, Dr. Peter Bisong, who gave me the original book written by Engels on Social Revolution. The book served a useful purpose in the course of writing this text. Also, I am grateful to Dr. Ada Agada of the Eberhard Karls Universitat Tubingen, Germany who mailed the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 to me. In the course of writing this text, I found it very difficult, even impossible, to access the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts; yet, I did not want to use commentaries to distil out Marx’s theory of alienation. Without Agada’s help, I would not have written chapters one and five the way I did. I acknowledge the encouragement and support of my professors and colleagues, which have created the enabling environment for this book to fertilize. I equally want to thank my students – particularly Queeneth Aboli, Uduak Enoch, Ene Etim, Rebecca Etta, Joshua Eze, Kennedy Udochi, Lesoda Jimmy, Jude Ogar, Emmanuel Sunday and Gabriel Okoi – who challenged my thinking during class discussions. They inspired this book. An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy xv Ultimately, I am deeply thankful to the God of my experience and realization, for life and good health, without which this book would not come to light. It is my hope that students and teachers will find this book a useful study guide. Dr. Diana-Abasi Ibanga Department of Philosophy, University of Calabar, 2021. Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D xvi INTRODUCTION Marxist philosophy is a dominant aspect of Western philosophy whose influence has continued from the 19th century. Marxist philosophy is also fundamentally important because of its dominant place in Africa’s anti-colonial struggles and the subsequent development of African socialism, which was the dominant political ideology of the continent for five decades. Marxist philosophy is a critical study of man as it relates to matter. The philosophy focuses on man, matter, consciousness, motion, labour, society and nature. It is a study that sets out to reveal the nature of consciousness as the primal force in the transformation of matter and vice versa. The development of consciousness has been a long struggle through various conditions under which matter has been subjected upto the present stage of man living in society. Man is the product of the dialectical processes in matter. Man is, therefore, an extension of nature or matter. The processes of transformation in man, animal, plant, and matter generally, is due to the dialectical process present within them, which makes possible their development and growth. Marxist philosophy is the critical study of nature, in order to show how the dialectical process drives the development of matter and man, the social and economic formation of society, the changes observed in history and epochs, and the fall and redemption of the historical man. In a nutshell, the main subject-matter of Marxist philosophy is the analysis and resolution of the fundamental philosophical question, namely, the relation of consciousness to being. In the light of this, I have written this book in the hope that it will advance the study and understanding of Marxist philosophy. Specifically, this book highlights the essential features of Marxist thought including the influences that brought about its development. I place premium on the conceptual framework of the philosophy so that the reader may have a good understanding of the ramifications of the philosophy of Marx. The thematic arrangement of this book is in congruence with the curricula of An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy xvii undergraduate and postgraduate studies in Nigerian universities. This book is divided into eleven chapters based on the central themes of the philosophy of Marx. In chapter one, I introduce Marxism as a philosophical theory. I present the scope and subject-matter of Marxist philosophy as well as its importance to the development of science and society. Here, also, the historical roots and development of Marxism is demonstrated. On the one hand, I reveal how Marxist philosophy began, took shape and further developed as a result of Marx’s critique of Georg Hegel’s dialectical idealism. I show that the theoretical roots of Marxism are firmly established in Hegel’s philosophical dialectics. Marx himself acknowledged this influence in the preface to the second edition of the first volume of Das Kapital. Precisely, Marx took his theories of dialectics, alienation, class struggle, consciousness as well as the categories and the basic laws of dialectical materialism from Hegel. All that Marx did to Hegel’s philosophy was to strip it of its idealistic toga and replacing same with materialism. Hence, from the womb of Hegel’s dialectical idealism issued out Marx’s dialectical materialism. On the other hand, I reveal that Marx philosophical materialism took shape in the process of his critique of Feuerbach’s materialism. However, Marx’s materialist philosophy goes beyond Feuerbach to Democritus’s atomist theory and Heraclitus’s progress theory. But in his critique of Feuerbach’s speculative materialism, which was firmly rooted in Cartesianinspired 18th century French mechanical materialism, Marx was able to ground dialectics on materialism and further showed how the grounding produced the theory of dialectical materialism but equally that it serves as the beacon of socialist communism. In chapter two, I introduce a novel way of representing dialectical and historical materialism, not simply as a corpus of Marxism, but as a methodological framework that Marx developed to enable him and his disciples to understand his ideas. Importantly, I demonstrate how dialectical materialism dovetails into historical Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D xviii materialism – leading to the development of Marx’s philosophy of history. In addition, this novel way of re-presenting dialectical and historical materialism is very significant to philosophical research. By reading this chapter, the student of philosophy or, precisely, the student of Marxism, will be able to know the sort of data to collect and where to seek the data as well as how to analyze, transform and interpret the data to produce a philosophical work that can be correctly evaluated as Marxist. In the other half of the chapter, I discuss the conceptual framework of Marxism. Precisely, I present a detailed explanation of the concepts of labour (production), capitalism, socialism and communism. There are other notions such as matter and consciousness, which are discussed in detail in other chapters. These concepts are crucial introduction to Marxism, but which my discussions with students and scholars reveal that these concepts are frequently confused and misunderstood – especially the difference between socialism and communism. I have done great justice to these concepts to enable the student to establish his understanding of Marxism on his true thought rather than on distortions and propaganda that characterize much of Marxist studies in the West. In chapter three, I present the categories of dialectical materialism. I consider sixteen of such categories and demonstrates their interrelations. This is not exhaustive because I am aware of at least four other categories of materialist dialectics, which I have not discussed in this chapter. However, the left-out categories do not make an understanding of Marxist philosophy less probable. An obvious exclusion are the categories of space and time, which would have been unpardonable exclusion if this book has dedicated a specific chapter to explain Marx’s philosophy of science. In chapter four, I explain the three basic laws of dialectical materialism and demonstrates how they can be applied to understand natural and historical processes. A novel inclusion in this chapter is my attempt to show how these laws are interintuitive with some Annang and Igbo proverbs. This is to enable the African student to easily make sense of these laws. An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy xix In chapter five, I devoted copious space and ample time to explain the theory of alienation – which is the foundation of Marx’s critique of capitalism. The alienation theory is the first cornerstone Marx laid to ground his philosophy and is still an important cornerstone of Marxism. Some scholars tend to relegate or sidestep this important contribution to Marxism by Marx himself. But as Marx remarked in the prefaces to the first and second editions of the first volume of Das Kapital, his critique of capitalism is a continuation of his work in A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy – which itself is a further development of the ideas in the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 that contains Marx’s theory of alienation and his critique of Hegel. This chapter is a unique inclusion in an introductory text on Marxism. Most texts do not have anything on Marx’s theory of alienation. In chapter six, I explain Marxist concept of the state – its origin and nature. I show the character of the state in capitalist society and in socialist society. Further, I explain what Marx meant by the withering away of the state. The idea that the state will eventually die or disappear usually bewilder many students of Marxism. In this chapter, I have taken time to show the historical circumstances that would make the withering away and disappearance of the state to be a historical necessity. Meanwhile, in this chapter, I devote space to explain and discuss the notion of social revolution. This is another unique inclusion in an introductory course text on Marxism. The Marxist theory of social revolution, which was definitely developed by Engels and Lenin, discussed in this text will clear off the misunderstanding and confusion people have about the notion. After reading this chapter, one can predict a revolution with almost exactitude. In fact, I tested this forecasting possibility in an examination question I administered to my students at the University of Calabar in 2021, namely: The National Security Adviser (NSA) to the President of Nigeria studied for a postgraduate degree in Marxist theory at the Institute of Social Science at Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D xx Moscow, Russia. During the EndSARS protest, there were speculations that EndSARS would lead to a social revolution in the country. Jittery of these speculations, the President hurriedly summoned the NSA to seek his advice on whether the EndSARS movement could lead to a social revolution. Write a 500-word essay to explain what the NSA told the President about the EndSARS protest. In chapter seven, I explain in detail Marx’s theory of class struggle. I begin with a succinct definition of the notion of class – which many students of Marxism often misunderstand. Indeed, any definition of class or class struggle that is not embedded in or tied to mode of production in society is definitely not-Marxist. So, in this chapter, I explain the origin and essence of classes, class composition and class struggle in capitalist and socialist societies as well as ways of eliminating class distinctions in society. Many students of Marxism assume wrongly that classes and/or class struggle are absent in socialist society. This chapter explains why Marx sees classes and class struggle as a historical necessity, not only in capitalist society but also in socialist society. However, these class distinctions in these distinct societies are eliminated differently. While socialist revolution is the means of eliminating class distinctions in capitalist society, in socialist society elimination of class distinctions assumes a different, nonrevolutionary approach. In chapters eight and nine, I make a unique inclusion in the composition of this text, namely, theories of gender and justice. These two are frequently not considered for inclusion in a text on Marxist philosophy. First, on Marxist theory of gender, I explain in chapter eight that many Marxists usually assume that Marx was gender neutral. But in the chapter, I take time to explain what can be considered as Marxist theory of gender. I base almost the entire explanation on Engels’s book – The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State. An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy xxi Second, in chapter nine, I detail out Marxist theory of justice. There are some sort of misunderstanding, confusion or controversy on whether Marx indeed developed a theory of justice. This controversy is largely between the normative and classical Marxists. While the classical Marxists argue that Marxism does not presuppose any specific principle of justice, the normative Marxists argue that Marxism indeed prescribes specific doctrine of justice. As I explain in this chapter, this controversy arises from a misreading and non-progressive study of Marx’s thought. In the earlier works, such as The German Ideology, The Communist Manifesto, The Holy Family and Poverty of Philosophy, Marx and Engels suggested that a concept of justice was a bourgeois category and idealistic. But in The Critique of the Gotha Program, in particular, Marx indeed prescribed a concept of justice. Marx discounted theory and practice of justice in bourgeois society as idealistic and contradictory because the justice concept could not be traced to concrete historical reality in the material world. I have taken time to explain Marx’s two principles of justice – the Contribution Principle and the Needs Principle – quoting copiously from The Critique of the Gotha Program written by Marx in 1875. I also dispel the arguments of some Marxists who attempted to present Marx’s theory of justice as directed to function in a capitalist society. I show that Marx’s Contribution and Needs principles of justice are designed to function only in the socialist and communist societies respectively. To take these principles out of these specific contexts to which they were designed would render them meaningless and transform them into some idealistic notions of justice that Marx repudiated. In chapter ten, I explain Marx’s theory of knowledge. This chapter is important because many students sometimes confuse Marxist epistemology with pragmatism. This misunderstanding arises from the failure to properly understand the concept of ‘practice’, which is central in Marxist epistemology. In this chapter, I explain the notion of practice and illustrate the three forms of practice. Once the notion of practice is understood, one will easily understand the Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D xxii Marxist maxims – ‘practice is the basis of knowledge’ and ‘practice is the criterion of truth’. Further, I illustrate and demonstrate the dialectical process of cognition. But rather than showing that there are two phases in the cognition process as other scholars have done, I show that there are actually three stages in the cognition process according to Marx. All previous texts unfortunately fail to recognize the third phase, that is, practice. In Marxist thought, knowledge begins with sensory perception in practice and proceed to logical thinking but it must proceed further, in a cyclic sense, to practice. Now, in chapter eleven, I discuss the forms of social consciousness – namely, politics, art, law, science and religion. This list is not exhaustive but I choose to limit to these five forms. Social consciousness is the superstructure that sits upon the substructure, that is, the economic system. The nature, character and quality of the forms of social consciousness are reflections of the mode of production in society. In conclusion, it is important to recognize that Marxist philosophy is a means of understanding and transforming the world. This involves application of the theory and analysis to concrete historical conditions in which its laws and principles operate. Understanding and mastery of Marxist philosophy goes beyond merely learning by rote its propositions and submissions; rather to understand its essence and how to apply it in practice. The student of Marxism must endeavour to apply his knowledge of Marxism to practice – in economic production, in revolutionary class struggle and in scientific experiment. Application of Marxist theory in practice is possible only in vanguard with one’s knowledge of the progress of science. Denied access to pages 1 to 194. Buy a copy of the book to have access to the full content. An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy ENDNOTES Chapter One 1. Kant qtd. in Jaspers, p.356. 2. Ibid, pp.361-362 3. Afanasyev, p.35. 4. Krapivin, p.86. 5. Ibanga, Being & Nonbeing, p.3. 6. Ibid. 7. Ucheaga, p.253. 8. Ibid., p.253-254. 9. Hegel, Lectures, p.27. 10. Durant, p.296. 11. Op. cit., p.28. cf. Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit. 12. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, p.137. 13. Okoro, p.219. 14. Ibid. 15. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, p.149. 16. Ibid, p.148. 17. Marx & Engels, Holy Family, p.113. 18. Unah and Okoro, Ludwig Feuerbach…. 19. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, p.147. 20. Krapivin, p.14. 21. Op. cit., p.151. 22. Durant, p.296. cf. Marx & Engels, Holy Family. 23. Unah and Okoro, pp.158-159. 24. Engels, Ludwig & End of German Philosophy, p.40. 25. Krapivin, pp.71-72. 26. Op. cit., p.9. 27. Okoro, p.218. 28. Durant, p.296. 29. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, p.168. 30. Hegel, Lectures, p.27. cf. Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit. 31. Op. cit., p.147. 32. Ibid, p.148. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid, p.149. 35. Ibid, p.161. 36. Ibid, p.150. 37. Ibid, pp.154-155. 38. Ibid. 39. Afanasyev, p.33; Krapivin, p.86; Durant, p.297. 40. Op. cit., p.144. 41. Unah & Okoro, p.156. - 195 - 42. Feuerbach, Essence of Christianity, p.1. 43. Ibid., p.13. 44. Unah & Okoro, p.169. 45. Op. cit., p.26. 46. Krapivin, p.75. 47. Kuznetsov, p.48. 48. Copleston, p.63. 49. Ibid, p.67. 50. Marx, German Ideology, p.569. 51. Ibid, pp.44-45. 52. Ibid, p.45. 53. Ibid, p.46. 54. Marx, On Feuerbach, p.155. 55. Marx & Engels, Holy Family, p.176. 56. Ibid. 57. Engels, Dialectics of Nature, p.24. 58. Afanasyev, p.16. 59. Ibid, p.181. 60. Ibid, p.18. 61. Lenin, “A Brief Biographical Sketch of Marx and Exposition of Marxism” (https://www.marxists.org). 62. Ibid. Chapter Two 1. Ibanga, A Guide to Philosophical Research, pp.3739. 2. Stalin, p.1. 3. Bowens et al, p.16. 4. Afanasyev, p.17. 5. Marx & Engels, Vol. XIV, p.651. 6. Stalin, Dialectical & Historical Materialism. 7. Marx & Engels, Vol. 1, p.302. 8. Op. cit., p.9. 9. Lenin, Vol. XIII, p.267. 10. Hill, p.34. 11. Marx & Engels, Vol. 1, p.330. 12. Op. cit., pp.33-34. 13. Stalin, p.2. 14. Engels, On Historical Materialism, pp. 81-85. 15. Op. cit. 16. Engels, Anti-Duhring, p.86. 17. Op. cit. 18. Marx & Engels, Vol. XIV, p.23. 19. Op. cit., p.4. 20. Engels, On Historical Materialism, pp. 81-85. Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D 21. Ibid. 22. Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, p.11. 23. Op. cit. 24. Bowens et al, p.16. 25. Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, p.11. 26. Marx & Engels, Vol. 3, p.95. 27. Cornforth, p.19. 28. Han Starkenberg was wrongly identified as the addressee of the letter initially, who published it in 1895 without any mention of the addressee https://marx.org/archive/marx/w orks/1894/94_01_25.htm 29. Engels, On Historical Materialism, pp. 81-85. 30. Ibid. 31. Hill, p.33. 32. Lenin, Philosophical Notebooks Vol. 38, p.212. 33. Engels, On Historical Materialism, pp. 81-85. 34. Op. cit. 35. Bowens et al, p.17. 36. Engels, Anti-Duhring. 37. Cornforth, p.19. 38. Lenin, Philosophical Notebooks Vol. 38, p.189. 39. Stalin, p.15. 40. Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, p.11. 41. Op. cit., p.10. 42. Francis, Postmodernism, Phenomenology... 43. Jaspers, p.356. 44. Stalin, p.6. 45. Engels, Dialectics of Nature, p.63. 46. Afanasyev, Marxist Philosophy. 47. Ibid. 48. Lenin, “Great Beginning, p.421” in Lenin, Vol.29. 49. Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, p.12; Engels, Revolution & Counter-Revolution, p.187. 50. Marx & Engels, Vol. 3, p.95. 51. Bender, p.159. 52. Afanasyev, p.17. 53. Ibid., p.180. 54. Ibid., p.181. - 196 55. Ake, p.9. 56. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, p.73. 57. Marx, Capital Vol. 1, p.178. 58. Jaggar, p.54. 59. Ibid. 60. Marx & Engels, German Ideology, p.48-49. 61. Op. cit., p.55. 62. Ibid., p.54. 63. Ake, p.9. 64. Ibid., p.10. 65. Marx & Engels, German Ideology, p.43. 66. Op. cit., p.11. 67. Ibid. 68. Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, p.11. 69. Ibid. 70. Op. cit., p.13. 71. Stalin, p.10. 72. Op. cit., p.14. 73. Ibid., p.16. 74. Ibid. 75. Marx, Gotha Program, p.28. 76. Afanasyev, p.223. 77. Op. cit. 78. Op. cit., p.224. 79. Marx, Gotha Program, p.31. Chapter Three 1. Marx & Engels, Vol.1, p.302. 2. Afanasyev, p.72. 3. Lenin, Philosophical Notebooks Vol.38, p.212. 4. Engels, Anti-Duhring, p.86. 5. Lawhead, p.25. 6. Ibid, p.17. 7. Afanasyev, p.62. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid, p.63. 10. Ibid, p.64. 11. Ibid, p.133. 12. Marx & Engels, Holy Family, p.109. 13. Afanasyev, p.134. 14. Ibid, p.137. 15. Ibid, p.138. 16. Matt. 9:14-17; Mk. 2:18-22; Lk. 5:33-39. 17. Ibid, p.139. 18. Ibid, p.140. 19. Ibid, p.141. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid, p.142. An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Ibid, p.143. Krapivin, p.208. Ibid, p.209. Ibid, p.213. Afanasyev, p.150. Ibid, p.154. Chapter Four 1. Afanasyev, p.93. 2. Krapivin, p.161. 3. Op. cit., p.95. 4. Op. cit., p.165. 5. Op. cit., p.98. 6. Op. cit., pp.165-166. 7. Ibid, p.170. 8. Op. cit., p.103. 9. Op. cit., p.173. 10. Chimakonam, p.19. 11. Mao, On Contradictions, p.26 12. Krapivin, p. 175. 13. Engels, Dialectics of Nature, p.63. 14. Op, cit., p.177. 15. Afanasyev, p.113. 16. Ibid, p.112. 17. Krapivin, p.179. 18. Op. cit., p.114. 19. Marx qtd. in Afanasyev, p.120. 20. Afanasyev, p.120. 21. Ibid. 22. Krapivin, p.183. 23. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, pp.101-103. 24. Afanasyev, p.122. Chapter Five 1. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, p.74. 2. Ibid, p.71. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid, pp.71-72. 6. Ibid, p.72. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid, p.73. 10. Ibid, pp.85-86. 11. Ibid, p.86. 12. Ibid, p.75. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid, p.76. 15. Ibid, p.77. 16. Ibid, p.76. 17. Ibid, p.77. 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. - 197 - Ibid, p.77. Ibid, pp.77-78. Ibid, p.78. Ibid. Ibid, p.79. Ibid. Ibid, pp.78 & 80. Ibid, p.81. Ibid. Ibid, p.82. Marx, “Excerpts from James Mill’s Elements of Political Economy, p.265” in Marx, Early Writings. Ibid. Ibid, p.266. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid, p.267. Ibid, p.268. Ibid. Ibid, p.269. Ibid, p.270. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, pp.139-140. Op. cit., p.274. Ibid. Ibid, p.275. Ibid. Ibid, p.276. Ibid. Ibid, p.277-278. Bender, p.86. Plato, Republic. Nyerere, Ujamaa: Essays on Socialism. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, p.100. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid, pp.100-101. Ibid, p.101. Ibid. Ibid, pp.101-102. Ibid, p.102. Ibid, pp.102-103. Ibid, p.103. Feuerbach, Essence of Christianity, p.1. Op. cit., p.103. Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, pp.11-12. Op. cit., p.104. Diana-Abasi Ibanga, Ph.D 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. Ibid. Marx, Early Writings, p.276. Op. cit., p.107. Ibid. Ibid, p.105. Afanasyev, p.133. Op. cit., p.105-106. Ibid, pp.104-105. Ibid, pp.113-114. Chapter Six 1. Afanasyev, p.280. 2. Lenin 1963, p.397. 3. Op. cit. 4. Mao, On Practice, p.15. 5. Op. cit., p.296. 6. Ibid., p.305. 7. Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, p.12. 8. Engels, Revolution & CounterRevolution, p.187. 9. Ojukwu, p.35. 10. Lenin, Vol. 3, p.430. Chapter Seven 1. Lenin, “Great Beginning, p.421” in Lenin, Vol. 29. 2. Marx, Early Writings, p.274. 3. Afanasyev, p.239. 4. Marx, Poverty of Philosophy. 5. Op. cit., p.240. 6. Ibid, p.242. 7. Ibid, p.240. 8. Lenin, Alliance of the Working Class & Peasantry. 9. Op. cit., p.257. 10. Ibid, p.258. 11. Op. cit. (Great Beginning), p.421 Chapter Eight 1. Jaggar, p.77. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid., p.63. 4. Ibid. 5. Marx & Engels, German Ideology, p.51. 6. Engels, Origin of the Family, p.113. 7. Ibid. 8. Jaggar, p.65. 9. Ibid. 10. Engels, Origin of the Family, p.135. 11. Op. cit., p.66. 12. Op. cit., pp137-138. - 198 13. Marx, Capital Vol. 1, p.490. 14. Zaretsky, Capitalism, Family & Personal Life. 15. Jaggar, p.76. 16. Ibid., p.74. 17. Krapivin, p.163. 18. Zarentsky, Capitalism, Family & Personal Life. 19. Marx & Engels, German Ideology, p.51. 20. Marx, Capital Vol. 1, p.351. 21. See, Gotha Program; Capital Vol. 1; German Ideology. 22. Jaggar, p.69. 23. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, p.101. 24. Op. cit. 25. See, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts; German Ideology; Gotha Program. Chapter Nine 1. Rashid, p.445. 2. Wood 1980; Nielsen 1981; Young 1985. 3. Husanmi 1980; Reiman 1981; Elster 1985; Peffer 1990. 4. Marx, Gotha Program, pp.2526. 5. Ibid, p.26. 6. Ibid, p.28. 7. Ibid, p.31. 8. Ibid, p.28. 9. Ibid, p.30. 10. Ibid, p.32. 11. Ibid, p.27. 12. Ibid, p.30. 13. Ibid, p.31. 14. Mises, p.151. 15. Op. cit., p.31. 16. Rashid, pp.447-448; Elster, p.230. 17. Francis, Critique of Ujamaa…, pp.58 & 97. 18. Ibid, p.97. 19. Nyerere qtd. in Francis, Critique of Ujamaa…, p.59. 20. Nyerere, Ujamaa, p.130. 21. Husanmi, p.73. 22. Ikegbu & Francis, p.128; Ojong, Asira & Ibanga, p.4. 23. Nyerere, Ujamaa, p.38. 24. Nyerere, “Freedom & Unity, p.17” in Nyerere, Nyerere on Socialism. 25. Rashid, p.447; Elster, p.216. An Introduction to Marxist Philosophy 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Marx, Gotha Program, p.26. Ojong, Asira & Ibanga, p.5. Husanmi, p.73. Elster, p.230. Marx, Gotha Program, p.32. Chapter Ten 1. Afanasyev, p.56. 2. Marx, German Ideology, p.45. 3. Op. cit., p.156. 4. Mao, On Practice, p.5. 5. Ibid., p.5. 6. Ibid., p.1. 7. Hill, p.33-34. 8. Stalin, p.6. 9. Afanasyev, p.157. 10. Lenin, “Great Beginning, p.421” in Lenin, Vol. 29. 11. Mao, On Practice, p.1. 12. Afanasyev, p.158. 13. Ibid., p.158. 14. Ibid., p.159. 15. Op, cit., p.5. 16. Ibid., p.1. 17. Ibid., p.6. 18. Hill, p.34 19. Marx, Vol. 1, p.330. 20. Mao, On Practice, p.12. 21. Ibid., p.12. 22. Ibid., p.11. 23. Anele, p.430. 24. Op. cit., p.2. 25. Ibid., p.3. 26. Afanasyev, p.161. 27. Ibid., p.161. 28. Ibid., p.162. 29. Ibid., p.162. 30. Ibid., p.163. 31. Op. cit., p.4. 32. Ibid., p.3. 33. Ibid., p.10. 34. Ibid., p.3. 35. Marx & Engels, Holy Family, pp.141-143. 36. Op. cit., p.9. 37. Afanasyev, p.164. 38. Op. cit., p.5. 39. Ibid., p.4. 40. Ibid., p.11. 41. Ibid., p.11. 42. Ibid., p.16. 43. Op. cit., p.168. 44. Ibid., p.169. 45. Ibid., p.169. 46. Ibid., p.171. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. - 199 - Ibid., p.171. Op. cit., p.2. Op. cit., p.173. Ibid., p.160. Ibid., p.173. Chapter Eleven 1. Guaba, p.74. 2. Ibid. 3. Lenin, Vol. 1, p.574. 4. Afanasyev, p.332. 5. Ibid, p.334. 6. Ibid. 7. Marx, “Divorce Bill, p.308” in Marx & Engels, Vol. 1. 8. Marx & Engels, Holy Family, p.151. 9. Afanasyev, p.348. 10. Ibid, p.349. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid, p.350. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid, p.343. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid, p.344. 17. Toyo, p.483. 18. Op. cit., p.345. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Marx, “A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel Phil of Right, p.243-257” in Marx, Early Writings. Engels, Anti-Duhring, p.435. Afanasyev, p.340. Marx, Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts, p.103. Marx, “A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel Phil of Right, p.244” in Marx, Early Writings. Marx, “The Leading Article in No.179 of the Kolnische Zeitung, p.200” in Marx & Engels, Vol. 1. Afanasyev, p.341. Omoregbe, p.12. Ibid, p.12-13. 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