What does emergency remote education tell us about home-schooling?

Journal of Educational Technology & Online Learning Volume 4 │Issue 2│2021 http://dergipark.org.tr/jetol What does emergency remote education tell us about home-schooling? Vildan Donmuş Kayaa * , Mehmet Eroğlu b a Fırat b Fırat University, Faculty of Education, Turkey. University, Faculty of Education, Turkey. Suggested citation: Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. (2021). What does emergency remote education tell us about home-schooling? Journal of Educational Technology & Online Learning, 4(2), 137-155. Article Info Abstract Keywords: The study aims to examine parents' opinions about Emergency Remote Education (ERE) during the pandemic and the feasibility of home-schooling in Turkey. The study uses a causal-comparative model. 654 parents took part in the study. ERE for Homeschooling Questionnaire developed by researchers is used to collect the data. Descriptive statistics, independent samples t-test, and ANOVA tests are used to analyse the data. The results of the study show that ERE during the pandemic is not effective enough. However, having someone at home to support the education of children can make ERE more effective. Parents have partial health anxiety about face-to-face education. Although parents have partially positive opinions about the feasibility of home-schooling, they also emphasize the need for support for home-schooling. As the parents' education level increases, both the challenges of home-schooling and the need for support for home-schooling decrease. Parents with low income have higher health anxiety than those with high income, and parents with low income need more support for home-schooling than those with high income. Parents who support their children's learning find ERE more effective and they find home-schooling more feasible. Parents who do not support their children's learning at home need more support for homeschooling. To practice home-schooling successfully, parents must have high level of education and must support their children's learning at home. Besides, institutions and organizations support parents for home-schooling. Home-schooling Emergency remote education Distance education Education during the pandemic Parents' opinion. Research Article 1. Introduction The Covid-19 epidemic, which spread rapidly all over the world after emerging in the Wuhan province of China, was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization. To minimize the spread of the Covid19 epidemic, all places, including schools where human-to-human contact may occur, were closed (Bozkurt et al., 2020; Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020; Doghonadze et al., 2020; Gupta & Goplani, 2020). COVID-19 is the greatest challenge for national education systems have ever faced last 50 years (Crawford et al., 2020; Daniel, 2020). Nearly 200 countries shut down schools with over 90% of these learners ranging from early years through higher education facing some sort of disruption to their education (UNESCO, 2020). Education politicians have moved from face-to-face learning to online and distance education to solve the emerging education crisis (Can, 2020). Distance education during the pandemic was called Emergency Remote Education (ERE) since distance education was switched to very quickly without the necessary preparations because of necessity (Bozkurt, et al., 2020). This emergency has been experienced all over the world and its educational effects have been felt by all stakeholders from * Corresponding author: Fırat University, Faculty of Education, Turkey. e-mail adresses: [email protected] Doi: http://doi.org/10.31681/jetol.891854 Received 5 Mar 2021; Revised 21 May 2021; Accepted 25 May 2021; ISSN: 2618-6586 . This is an open Access article under the CC BY license. Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 kindergarten to higher education. However, unlike other distance education, the ERE provided during this period mostly took place from home. ERE at home has caused families, teachers and students concern because families have to play a serious role in the education of their children. ERE at home has emerged as one of the alternative ways, as the global pandemic forced educators to find alternative ways to traditional face-to-face education. Although distance education is offered as an alternative to face-to-face education, the education in the process is a kind of experience of home-schooling practice. Homeschooling is one of the alternative education practices that offer opportunities to meet the students' qualified education needs by minimizing the risk of illness. Home-schooling is an issue that has been raised and discussed in many countries. Although homeschooling practices first appeared in America, there are home-schooling practices in many countries in Europe (Ole, 1995: as cited in Kartal, 2014; Petrie, 1995: as cited in Kartal, 2014). There are no legal regulations on home-schooling in Turkey, although home-schooling practices are spreading rapidly, many countries adopt a policy of providing education in schools, which guarantees the future and continuity of societies. However, the COVID-19 pandemic revealed obstacles to the sustainability of face-to-face education in schools. Educational practices have been reshaped as home-schooling is mediated by technology tools, education-businesses, and other institutions (Williamson, Eynon & Potter, 2020). In this process, alternative practices have been used within ERE at home in Turkey. One of them is separate TV channels that are rapidly established and broadcast for each educational level. Another is the Education Information Network (EIN) used by teachers, students, and parents before. Another is the Education Information Network (EIN) created by the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) in 2012 to ensure technology integration in education, which was previously used by teachers, students, and parents. During the pandemic process, the EIN has been used more comprehensively and intensively by the stakeholders. Another option was the use of applications that allow making live lessons faster, easier, and more smoothly. Applications such as Zoom, Teams, were actively used for online lessons. WhatsApp was also used to communicate teacher-parent / teacher-student. During the pandemic process, education took place at home as ERE, thus increasing the responsibilities of parents regarding the education of their children. For this reason, it is necessary to reveal the opinions of the parents about the ERE at home. There are few studies related to home-schooling in Turkey. Some of these studies are literature studies about home-schooling practices in different countries (Aydin & Pehlivan, 2000; Aydogan, 2007; Kaya, 2015; Sad & Akdag, 2010; Tasdan & Demir, 2010; Tosten & Elcicek, 2013) others are field survey (Oz, 2008). Some studies examine the views of stakeholders regarding the feasibility of home-schooling in Turkey (Dogan Kilic & Onen, 2012; Kartal, 2014; Korkmaz & Duman, 2014; Memduhoglu, Mazlum & Alav, 2015; Tasdan & Demir, 2013). Because there are no legal arrangements in Turkey regarding homeschooling, these studies, in which stakeholders' views on the feasibility of home-schooling are determined, are related to practice. However, the ERE practices during the pandemic enabled parents, who played an important role in their children's education, to experience home-schooling, albeit indirectly. In this context, the parents' views on ERE practices at home will provide both evidence for the feasibility of home-schooling and important inferences to educate politicians and researchers regarding future educational practices. 2. Literature 2.1. Concept of Home-schooling and Types of Home-schooling Home-schooling is a practice where individuals at the age of compulsory education take all or desired part of the responsibility for learning at their homes without going to public or private schools, and are the teacher's parents or those determined by the parents (Aydin, 2015; Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007; Hess, 2002, as cited in Farrell & Ryan, 2006; Kaya, 2015; Mulyadi, Rahardjo & Basuki, 2016; Reich, 2005; Sad & Akdag, 2010; Sumardiono, 2007). The teacher chosen by the parent can be another member of the family or a tutor. In home-schooling practices, where it is emphasized that education can 138 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 be much better than schools (Molsbie, 1996), learning and teaching are planned to a certain extent (Fields Smith & Williams, 2009). While homeschools are classified by Van Galen (1988) in two types as ideological and pedagogical mobility, Nemer (2002) added environmental mobility besides these. Families, who adopt homeschooling in terms of ideological mobility, sustain suitable home-schooling for their children because of the differences in their religious beliefs, cultural characteristics, world views, power balances, and social status (Nemer, 2002; Olivos, 2009). Families who adopt home-schools in terms of pedagogical mobility generally sustain home-schooling because of the inferior quality of education in schools. Families, who think that financial difficulties in schools will affect the quality of education (Nemer, 2002) aim to raise their children better and effectively. Families who adopt home-schooling in terms of environmental mobility prefer home-schooling because they are uncomfortable with the school environment (Nemer, 2002). 2.2. History of Home-schooling The history of home-schooling dates back to a few thousand years ago because in the periods when schooling was not developed, education was mostly carried out at home and in the family. Specially hired teachers provided the education, which was more for the rich groups. Also, the limited number of educational institutions educated a few people, as they had limited opportunities. However, with the industrial revolution, enormous masses of people have gained the opportunity of an education. For some ideological, pedagogical, and environmental reasons in the 20th century, the practice of home-schooling came back to the agenda. Some studies show the 1960s and some studies the 1980s as the beginning of home-schooling practices. The reason the 1980s were accepted as the beginning for home-schooling is that home-schools were legally accepted in these years. However, to better understand the practice of home-schooling, it has to be studied since 1960. Since there was no legal obligation in education in America until the 1960s, education was obligatory for families. However, after the 1960s, when education became a legal obligation, this responsibility of the family was given to schools (Kaya, 2015). Home-schooling has emerged as a necessity when the number of schools is limited in America (Lines, 1991: as cited in Aydin & Pehlivan, 2000). In this period, it is possible to say that home-schooling practices were far from contemporary home-schooling understanding, and were based on necessity. Until the early 1960s, home-schooling was not supported because it was an alternative to compulsory public schools (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007) and as a movement against the government. This home-schooling movement started under the influence of its theoretical traces concerning the liberal left (Tasdan & Demir, 2010). However, the number of conservative families trying to implement home-schooling is quite high. Even though the schools reached sufficient numbers after the 1960s, some traditional - conservative - groups preferred that their children continue their education at home (Lines, 1991: as cited in Aydin, & Pehlivan, 2000). While these conservative families maintained the same attitude in the 1970s (Isenberg, 2006), with the adoption of the "child-centred learning" philosophy, families who adopted this philosophy preferred their children to be educated at home (Lines, 1991: as cited in Aydin, & Pehlivan, 2000). In 1980, the supporters of homeschooling practices attempted to make home-schooling legal, but no positive results were achieved. In 1983, the national organization of the Home School Legal Defence Association (HSLDA) was established (Isenberg, 2007). Besides, home-schools were legally recognized in four states in the USA in 1983 (Vender, 2004). In the following years, many states except Texas accepted home-schools as legal (Nelson, 1985). With the legal acceptance of home-schools, the spread of practices related to homeschooling on the Internet sped up in the 1990s. Thus, home-schooling has been effective not only in traditionally conservative families but also in a large part of society (Stevens, 2001, as cited in Isenberg, 2006). In 1994, home-schooling became an alternative education that could be legally applied in all states of the USA (Howell & Sheran, 2008). In the following years, a rapid increase was observed in the number of families who preferred home-schooling (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007; Jackson, 2007). Home- 139 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 schooling has been practiced in many countries in Europe as well as in America and has become legal (Ole, 1995: as cited in Kartal, 2014; Petrie, 1995: as cited in Kartal, 2014). In Turkey, there are no legal regulations on home-schooling. However, as a non-governmental organization, the "Education Home and Home School Association", which was established in 2017, plans activities to meet the needs of both students and families. 2.3. Why home-schooling is preferred by families? The reasons home-schools are preferred by families vary. These reasons can be listed as follows: • Ensuring the physical safety of children (Mayberry et al., 1995; NHES, 2012; Princiotta, Bielick & Chapman, 2006), • Belief in the inadequacy of education that children receive at school and ensuring that they reach high academic standards at home (Mayberry et al., 1995; NHES, 2012 Princiotta, Bielick & Chapman, 2006), • Providing the religious and moral education of children (NHES, 2012; Princiotta, Bielick, & Chapman, 2006), • Having physical and mental health problems of the child (NHES, 2012; Princiotta, Bielick, & Chapman, 2006), • Children have different special needs (learning style, learning speed, etc.), (NHES, 2012; Princiotta, Bielick, & Chapman, 2006), • Families wanting to be together with children and supporting individual education (Mayberry et al., 1995; NHES, 2012; Princiotta, Bielick & Chapman, 2006), • Families not being able to allocate sufficient funds for their children's education at school (Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007; NHES, 2012). 2.4. Advantages and limitations of home-schooling It is possible to say that the primary reason for the spread of home-schooling is the benefits it provides. The benefits of home-schooling are parallel to why home-schooling is preferred. We can list the benefits of home-schooling and the factors in these benefits as follows: • Academic achievement: Studies conducted in many countries report that children who are educated at home are more successful than their peers who are educated in both public and private schools (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn., 2007; Rothermel, 2011). However, the education level of parents matters in children's achievement (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007; Ray, 2006). Accordingly, children educated at home by more educated parents are more successful than children educated by less educated parents (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007). However, in the comparison between children who were educated at home by parents with the same educational level and those who were educated at school, it was observed that children who were educated at home were more successful (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007). Also, one-to-one education enables their children to show high academic performance (Farrel & Ryan, 2006; Rothermel, 2011; Fields Smith & Williams, 2009). • Opportunity for students to gain certain values or beliefs (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007). • Opportunity to develop closer and stronger parent-child relationships (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007; Ray, 2006; Romanowski 2001). • Opportunity to interact with peers or adults in a more qualified way (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn., 2007; Ray, 2006; Rothermel, 2011). 140 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 • Not being affected by the negativities caused by the lack of discipline in public schools (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007). • Being able to be protected from negative peer behaviours (drugs, alcohol, premarital sexual intercourse, etc.) (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007). • The disappearance of the financial burden of public or private schools (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007; Ray, 2006). • Having a safer physical learning environment (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007). • It is easy and cheap to access many materials for teaching via the internet (Farrel & Ryan, 2006). • Providing a high level of self-perception without peer pressure is far from being compared (Farrel & Ryan, 2006; Ray, 2006). Home-schooling has advantages and limitations. We can list the limitations of homeschools as follows: • Home-schooling negatively affects the socialization of the child (Farrel & Ryan, 2006; Reich, 2005; Romanowski, 2001). • Families who practice home-schooling are not well-educated and inadequate for teaching qualification negatively affect the development of the child (Farrel & Ryan, 2006). • Home-schools require families to invest resources in terms of time, energy, money, knowledge, and skills (Green & Hoover Demsey, 2007). • If a parent does not have a job to take care of the child, it negatively affects the family economy (Farrel & Ryan, 2006). • Accreditation is one of the biggest problems of home-schooling (Aydin, 2015). • Home-schooling has an educational practice far from eliminating social inequalities (Apple, 2000; Crowson, 2000). • There are serious doubts that children who do not attend formal education institutions will grow up as good citizens (Lubienski 2000). 2.5. Aim of the Study The general aim of the study is to examine parents' opinions about ERE during the pandemic and feasibility of the home-schooling in Turkey. In this context, we seek answers to the following questions: 1. What are the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling? 2. a. Is there any significant difference among the level of the parents' opinions about ERE for homeschooling regarding their gender? 2. b. Is there any significant difference among the level of the parents' opinions about ERE for homeschooling regarding their education levels? 2. c. Is there any significant difference among the level of the parents' opinions about ERE for homeschooling regarding their partner's education levels? 2. d. Is there any significant difference among the level of the parents' opinions about ERE for homeschooling regarding their income? 2. e. Is there any significant difference among the level of the parents' opinions about ERE for homeschooling to support their children's learning? 141 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 3. Methodology The causal-comparative model is used in the study. Causal comparison is a research model that examines the causes and effects of a previously realized or existing event as it exists without intervention in its conditions (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2011; Sozbilir, 2014). 3.1. Sample The sample of the study is selected using two stage sampling methods. The first stage is the purposeful sampling method which comprises the parents whose children continue to be K-12 during the pandemic in Turkey. The second stage is the snowball sampling method. With this method, it is ensured that the parents, who are selected with purposeful sampling, conveyed the questionnaire to the parents with similar characteristics. Thus, the sample of the study comprises 654 parents. In the selection of parents taking part in the study, we try to represent different demographic characteristics in the sample. The sample of the study comprises parents living in 18 different provinces in Turkey. We show descriptive information about the sample in Table 1. Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the participants Variable Gender Employment status Education level Partner's education level Level of income The person who supports child learning at home Lesson support for the child Categories Female Male Unemployed Employee illiterate Primary-secondary school degree High school degree Associate/ bachelor degree Postgraduate degree illiterate Primary-secondary school degree High school degree Associate/ bachelor degree Postgraduate degree Low Medium High No Brother/sister Other No Yes N 469 185 350 304 23 260 137 193 41 18 274 144 184 34 285 259 110 527 121 6 380 274 % 71,7 28,3 53,5 46,5 3,5 39,8 20,9 29,5 6,3 2,8 41,9 22,0 28,1 5,2 43,6 39,6 16,8 80,6 18,5 ,9 58,1 41,9 72% of the parents taking part in the study are female and 49% are male. 54% of the parents are unemployed and 46% of them are employed. 3% of the parents are illiterate, 40% of them have a primary-secondary school degree, 21% have a high school degree, 30% have an Associate/ bachelor degree, 6% have a post-graduate degree. 3% of the partners are illiterate, 42% of them have a primarysecondary school degree, 22% have a high school degree, 28% have associate/ bachelor degrees, 5% have a post-graduate degree. 44% of parents have low income, 40% middle income, and 16% high income. 81% of the parents stated that there is no one at home to support their children's learning, and 19% stated that there is. 58% of the parents stated that they can teach at least one lesson to their children, while 42% cannot. 142 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 3.2. Data Collecting Tools The personal information form and the ERE for the home-schooling questionnaire are used to collect the research data. The ERE for home-schooling questionnaire developed by the researchers is used to determine the parents' opinion about the effectiveness of ERE and home-schooling. The item pool containing 25 items is created by the researchers in the first stage of the ERE for the home-schooling questionnaire development process. To ensure the content validity of the questionnaire, we consult the opinions of 4 experts on these items. Since the questionnaire includes items related to distance education, anxiety, and home-schooling, 4 experts studying distance education, anxiety, home-schooling, and curriculum evaluation are chosen. In line with the opinions of the experts, corrections were made in the items and a 20-item ERE for home-schooling questionnaire is created. To determine the comprehensibility of the questionnaire items, we consulted the opinions of two experts in the Turkish language. Besides, we took the opinions of 5 parents in the sample regarding the comprehensibility of the items. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) is conducted to determine the construct validity of the ERE for the home-schooling questionnaire. EFA, which is one of the multivariate analyses to test construct validity of measurement tools, is used to reveal structures of which structure is not known exactly because it comprises different components (Can, 2014). EFA is carried out using 654 data collected for the study and providing the prerequisites for factor analysis. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin's (KMO) coefficient is calculated as ".793". Bartlett's sphericity test (3252.064; p = .000) is found significant. This finding shows that the sample size is good enough for factor analysis (Buyukozturk, 2010). The principal components analysis method is used in EFA. In EFA, the following criteria (Buyukozturk, 2010; Cokluk, Sekercioglu & Buyukozturk, 2010) are considered in the extraction of items and in determining the factors: • Items in each factor must be coherent in terms of meaning and content, • Factor eigenvalues must be 1 or above 1, • The item in a factor must have a factor load of ".40" or more, • The gap between the factor loading values in the factor of the items and the factor loading values in the other factors must be at least ".10" and higher. The scree plot and the criteria mentioned above are considered to determine the number of factors. It is thought that the 5-factor structure is appropriate for the questionnaire. After the first two-factor analysis, one item in the scale (item 8) is eliminated because it is not meeting the criteria above. As a result of EFA, the ERE for home-schooling questionnaire comprising 19 items and 5 factors and explaining 56% of the total variance is obtained. In multi-factor measurement tools, the total variance explained should be over 30% (Buyukozturk, 2010). Therefore, it can be said that the total variance explained by the scale (56%) is sufficient. The factor loads of the items vary between ".417" and ".854". Considering that the factor load of an item on a factor should be a minimum of 0.32 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013), it can be said that the obtained factor loadings are sufficient. The content of the items is considered when naming the factors. In this context, factors are named as Effectiveness of ERE, Health anxiety, Feasibility of home-schooling, Challenge of home-schooling, and Need of home-schooling support. The total score is not calculated for the ERE for the home-schooling questionnaire, as the factors that occurred were prepared in a slightly correlated. In this context, the factors are seen as subscales. Cronbach's Alpha internal consistency coefficient is calculated to determine the reliability of the ERE for the home-schooling questionnaire because the Cronbach's Alpha coefficient shows how consistent the test items are in their entirety (Buyukozturk et al., 2010). The Cronbach's alpha coefficients of the scale are calculated ".79" for Feasibility of home-schooling, ".69" for Effectiveness of ERE, ".73" for Health anxiety, ".65" for Challenge of home-schooling, ".85" for Need of support for home-schooling, and ".80" for the entire scale. Kline (2011) states that the reliability coefficient is excellent around home-schooling 143 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 support ".80", sufficient around ".70", and insufficient under ".50". The results show that the ERE for home-schooling questionnaire is a valid and reliable measurement tool that can measure parents' perception of ERE for home-schooling. 3.3. Data Collection Processes and Ethical Issues Due to the pandemic, research data are collected using Google Forms. In this form, firstly, it is asked whether the parent have a child or children continue to be K-12 during the pandemic or not. The parent who answers "Yes" proceeds to the next step of the form. The parent who answers “No” cannot proceeds to the next step of the form and the form is terminated for that parent. Participation in the study is voluntary. Thus, the Google docs form created includes the voluntary informed consent form, personal information form, and questionnaire form for the participants. The Google form link is delivered to the parents using WhatsApp, e-mail, and social media tools. The data collected through Google Forms were downloaded and transferred to the statistical analysis program. 3.4. Data Analysis Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation), t-test, and ANOVA test is used in the analysis of the data. Before the analyses are carried out, it is checked whether the data met the prerequisites of the analyses to be conducted. The data should be at least in the range scale, show normal distribution, and assumptions of equal group variances should be ensured to use parametric tests such as t-test and ANOVA test (Can, 2014). To provide these assumptions, the data were reviewed and descriptive statistics are conducted to determine whether the items' skewness and kurtosis values are between "∓1 ", and whether z scores are between "∓3.28" (Cokluk, Sekercioglu & Buyukozturk, 2010; Field, 2009). Skewness and kurtosis values and z scores of the items are calculated. Besides, the distribution of the data is examined visually through histograms and P-P graphics. 96 data were excluded from the analysis. The analysis of the research is carried out using 654 data that met the prerequisites for the analyses to be conducted. 4. Findings In this section, the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling are compared separately in terms of their gender, education levels, partners' education levels, income, and supporting children's learning. R.Q.1. What are the levels of the parent's opinions about ERE for home-schooling? Mean and the standard deviation are calculated to determine the level of parents' opinion about ERE for home-schooling. The analysis results regarding the level of parents' opinion about ERE for homeschooling are shown in Table 2. Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the ERE Questionnaire for Home-schooling Factor Effectiveness of ERE N 654 Mean 2,31 Std. Deviation ,73 Health anxiety 654 2,74 ,86 Feasibility of home-schooling Challenge of home-schooling 654 3,29 ,77 654 2,45 ,70 The need for support for home-schooling 654 2,87 1,21 As seen in Table 2, the mean of parent's opinion about "Effectiveness of ERE" is M = 2.31 standard deviation SD = .73. This finding indicates that the effectiveness of ERE is strikingly low. In other words, parents point out that ERE applications do not meet the educational needs of their children. The mean of 144 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 parent's opinion about "Health anxiety" is M = 2.74 standard deviation SD =.86. This shows that parents have partial health anxiety regarding face-to-face education. The mean of parent's opinion about "Feasibility of home-schooling" is M = 3.29 standard deviation SD =.77. This finding shows that the parents' views on the practice of home-schooling are partially positive. But the mean of parent's opinion about "Need for support for home-schooling" is M = 2.87 standard deviation SD = 1.21. This suggests that parents need some support for home-schooling practice. The mean of parent's opinion about the "Challenge of home-schooling" is M = 2.45 standard deviation SD =.70. The findings show that the challenges of home-schooling for parents are low. In other words, parents think that they can overcome the difficulties they encounter in home-schooling practice. R.Q.2.a. Is there any significant difference among the level of the parents' opinions about ERE for homeschooling regarding their gender? Independent samples t-test is used to determine whether the level of parents' opinion about ERE for home-schooling differs significantly in terms of their gender. T-test results are shown in Table 3. Table 3. The Comparison of the ERE Questionnaire for Home-schooling Sub-Dimensions In terms of Gender Variable Sub-Dimensions Gender N Mean Std. Deviation p t Effectiveness of ERE ,876 -,155 ,000 3,536 ,747 -,322 ,578 -,556 ,025 2,247 Health anxiety Feasibility of home-schooling Challenge of home-schooling The need for support for homeschooling Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male 469 185 469 185 469 185 469 185 469 185 2,31 2,32 2,81 2,56 3,28 3,30 2,43 2,46 2,93 2,70 ,71 ,76 ,87 ,77 ,75 ,81 ,73 ,62 1,21 1,20 A significant difference is found in favour of mothers in the factors of "health anxiety" [t (652) = 3.536, p <.05] and "Need for support for home-schooling" [t (652) = 2.247, p <.05] in terms of gender variable. While the mean of mothers' health anxiety is M = 2.81, the mean of fathers is M = 2.56. While the mean of mothers' need for support for home-schooling is M = 2.94, the mean of fathers is M = 2.70. R.Q.2.b. Is there any significant difference among the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for homeschooling regarding their education levels? One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine whether the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling differ significantly in terms of their education level. The ANOVA results are shown in Table 4. Table 4. The Comparison of the ERE Questionnaire for Home-schooling Sub-Dimensions In terms of Education Level Variable Sub-Dimensions Effectiveness of ERE Health anxiety Feasibility of home-schooling Challenge of home-schooling Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Sum of square 2,003 341,678 343,681 4,529 476,608 481,137 3,387 387,803 391,190 14,968 145 df 4 649 653 4 649 653 4 649 653 4 Mean square ,501 ,526 F p ,951 ,434 1,132 ,734 1,542 ,188 ,847 ,598 1,417 ,227 3,742 7,867 ,000 Difference Groups *0>4, Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 The need for support for homeschooling Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total 308,694 323,663 85,654 876,418 962,072 649 653 4 649 653 ,476 21,414 1,350 15,857 ,000 1>2, 1>3, 1>4 *0>3, 1>3, 1>4, 2>3, 2>4 *0=illiterate, 1=Primary-secondary school degree, 2=High school degree, 3=Associate/ bachelor degree, 4= Postgraduate degree The ANOVA results reveal that the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling differ significantly in the "challenges for home-schooling" factor (F= 7,867; p=.000) in terms of their education levels. While the mean of illiterate parents regarding the difficulties of home-schooling is M= 2.68, the mean of parents with a postgraduate degree is M= 2.15. Besides, while the mean of parents with primary school degrees regarding the challenge of home-schooling is M= 2.60, the mean of parents with a high school degree is M= 2.37, a bachelor's degree M= 2.32, a postgraduate degree is M= 2.15. The other results revealed the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling differ significantly in the "the need for support for home-schooling" factor (F= 15,857; p=.000) in terms of their education levels. While the mean of illiterate parents regarding the need for support for home-schooling is M= 3.57, the mean of parents with a bachelor's degree is M= 2.57. Also, while the mean of parents with primary school degrees regarding the need for support for home-schooling is M= 3.14, the mean of parents with a high school degree is M= 2.37, a bachelor's degree M= 2.32, a postgraduate degree is M= 2.15. R.Q.2.c. Is there any significant difference among the level of the parents' opinions about ERE for homeschooling regarding partner's education levels? One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine whether the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling differ significantly in terms of the partner's education level. The results are shown in Table 5. Table 5. The Comparison of the ERE Questionnaire for Home-schooling Sub-Dimensions In terms of Partners' Education Levels Variable Sub-Dimensions Effectiveness of ERE Health anxiety Feasibility of home-schooling Challenge of home-schooling The need for support for home-schooling Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of square 5,287 338,394 343,681 3,374 477,763 481,137 1,270 389,921 391,190 14,057 309,606 323,663 86,272 875,800 962,072 df 4 649 653 4 649 653 4 649 653 4 649 653 4 649 653 Mean square 1,322 ,521 F p Difference Groups *1>2 2,535 ,039 ,844 ,736 1,146 ,334 ,317 ,601 ,528 ,715 3,514 ,477 7,367 ,000 *1>3, 1>4 21,568 1,349 15,983 ,000 *1>2, 1>3, 1>4 *0=illiterate, 1=Primary-secondary school degree, 2=High school degree, 3=Associate/ bachelor degree, 4= Postgraduate degree The results reveal the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling differ significantly in the "effectiveness of ERE" factor (F= 2,535; p=.039) in terms of partners' education levels. While the mean of illiterate parents regarding the effectiveness of ERE is M= 2.68, the mean of parents with a postgraduate degree is M= 2.15. 146 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 The other results revealed the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling differs significantly in the "challenge for home-schooling" factor (F= 7,367; p=.000) and the "need of support for home-schooling" factor (F= 15,983; p=.000) in terms of partners' education level. While the mean of parents with primary school degrees regarding the challenge of home-schooling is M= 2.60, the mean of parents with a bachelor's degree is M= 2.47 and a postgraduate degree is M= 2.24. Besides, while the mean of parents with primary school degrees regarding the need for support for home-schooling is M= 3.27, the mean of parents with a high school degree is M= 2.76, a bachelor's degree M= 2.46, a postgraduate degree is M= 2.35. R.Q.2.d. Is there any significant difference among the level of the parents' opinions about ERE for homeschooling regarding their income? One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine whether the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling differ significantly in terms of their income. The results are shown in Table 6. Table 6. The Comparison of the ERE Questionnaire for Home-schooling Sub-Dimensions In terms of Parent’s Income Variable Sub-Dimensions Effectiveness of ERE Health anxiety Feasibility of home-schooling Challenge of home-schooling The need for support for home-schooling Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of square 1,888 341,793 343,681 4,954 476,183 481,137 ,661 390,529 391,190 2,528 321,135 323,663 85,825 876,247 962,072 df 2 651 653 2 651 653 2 651 653 2 651 653 2 651 653 Mean square ,944 ,525 F p 1,798 ,166 2,477 ,731 3,386 ,034 ,331 ,600 ,551 ,576 1,264 ,493 2,562 ,078 42,912 1,346 31,881 ,000 Difference Groups Low>High Low>Medium Low>High The results revealed that the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling differ significantly in the "health anxiety" factor (F= 3,386; p=.034) in terms of their income level. While the mean of low-income parents regarding the "health anxiety" is M= 2.81, the mean of high-income parents is M= 2.56. The other results revealed the levels of the parents' opinions about ERE for home-schooling differ significantly in the "need of support for home-schooling" factor (F= 31,881; p=.000) in terms of their income level. While the mean of low-income parents regarding the need for support for home-schooling is M= 3.27, the mean of medium-income parents is M= 2.63, and high-income parents M= 2.87. R.Q.2.e. Is there any significant difference among the level of the parents' opinions about ERE for homeschooling to support their children's lessons? Independent samples t-test is used to determine whether the level of parents' opinion about ERE for home-schooling differs significantly to support their children's lessons. T-test results are shown in Table 7. 147 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 Table 7. The Comparison of the ERE Questionnaire for Home-schooling Sub-Dimensions to Support Their Children's Lessons Variable Sub-Dimensions Effectiveness of ERE Health anxiety Feasibility of home-schooling Challenge of home-schooling The need for support for homeschooling No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes N 380 274 380 274 380 274 380 274 380 274 Mean 2,24 2,41 2,73 2,74 3,14 3,49 2,48 2,38 3,01 2,66 Std. Deviation ,70 ,74 ,81 ,92 ,75 ,75 ,73 ,64 1,14 1,27 p ,003 t -2,955 ,935 -,082 ,000 -5,770 ,077 1,774 ,000 3,573 A significant difference is found in the factors of "Effectiveness of ERE" [t (652) = -2.955, p <.05], "Feasibility of home-schooling" [t (652) = -5.770, p<.05], and "Need of support for home-schooling" [t (652) = 3.573, p <.05] in terms of whether parents support their children's learning at home. While the mean of parents who supports their children's learning at home regarding the factor "Effectiveness of ERE" is M= 2.41, the mean of parents who do not supports their children's learning at home is M=2.24. In other words, parents who support their children's learning at home find ERE more effective than parents who do not supports their children's learning at home. While the mean of parents who supports their children's learning at home regarding the factor of "Feasibility of home-schooling" is M=3.49, the mean of parents who do not support their children's learning at home is M=3.14. In other words, parents who support their children's learning at home have a positive opinion regarding the feasibility of home-schooling than parents who do not support their children's learning at home. While the mean of parents who supports their children's learning at home regarding the factor of "Need for support for home-schooling" is M= 2.66, the mean of parents who do not support their children's learning at home is M=3.01. In other words, parents who support their children's learning at home need less support for home-schooling than parents who do not support their children's learning at home. 5. Result and Discussion The results of the study show that ERE is not effective, but parents have partial health anxiety about faceto-face education. Although parents have partially positive opinions about the feasibility of homeschooling, they also need support to overcome the challenges of home-schooling. Also parents' emphasis on the low challenges of home-schooling can be considered as an important evidence for the feasibility of home-schooling. Parents need support to cope with the challenges of home-schooling. In the study of Yurtbakan and Akyildiz (2020), parents state that ERE is partially sufficient, but its quality is low due to reasons such as short course time and lack of feedback. For this reason, parents prefer face-to-face training. There are other national and international studies showing the inferior quality of ERE (Cakin & Kulekci Akyavuz, 2020; Can, 2020). Also, the pandemic has shown that the open and distance education system in Turkey should be strengthened in terms of infrastructure, access, security, content, design, implementation, quality, legislation, and pedagogical (Can, 2020). It is expected that the quality of the ERE is low because of the rapid and unprepared transition to ERE. However, all education stakeholders have gained important experiences regarding ERE in this process. It is thought that these experiences of the parents positively affect their opinion on the feasibility of home-schooling, but it can be said that home-schooling has partial challenges for parents. Therefore, parents need support for home-schooling. Parents have more responsibilities for managing their children's learnings (Greenhow, Lewin & Staudt Willet, 2020) in this process. Therefore, parents having difficulties with balancing responsibilities, learner 148 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 motivation, accessibility, and learning outcomes (Garbe et al., 2020). However parents' health anxiety can make them more eager for their children to receive home-schooling. Because home-schooling ensures the physical safety of children (Mayberry et al., 1995; NHES, 2012; Princiotta, Bielick & Chapman, 2006). Therefore, parents strive to cope with these responsibilities. To fulfil these responsibilities, parents need support such as financial support, providing educational resources, providing information technology infrastructure (internet, tablet, computer, etc.), and educational consultancy support. Because Homeschooling requires families to invest resources in terms of time, energy, money, knowledge, and skills (Green & Hoover Demsey, 2007). Results of the study show that mothers have higher health anxiety and need more support for homeschooling. Mothers can be more sensitive about their children's health than fathers because of their nature. They think that face-to-face education poses a risk to their children's health during the pandemic. Because home-schooling ensures the physical safety and health of their children (Mayberry et al., 1995; NHES, 2012; Princiotta, Bielick & Chapman, 2006), mothers prefer home-schooling. It is thought that mothers' need for support for home-schooling is related to both the cultural and educational level of mothers. In the traditional Turkish family structure, the mother is more responsible for the care and education of the children (Ozensel, 2004; Yavuzer, 2003; Yorukoglu, 2004). Although this understanding has changed in recent years, its effect partially continues. As ERE increases the responsibility of parents (Garbe et al., 2020), the responsibility of mothers in the education of their children has increased even more. Besides, the mothers in the sample have a low level of education and most of them are unemployed. The low level of education causes mothers to have difficulties in supporting their children's learning. Also, it is known that families who practice home-schooling are not well-educated and inadequate for teaching qualification negatively affect the development of the child (Farrel & Ryan, 2006). Therefore, mothers with low education levels need more support for home-schooling. The results of the study show that as the education level of parents increases, both the difficulties of home-schooling and the need for support for home-schooling decreases. Because parents with a high level of education have more academic knowledge and experience, they can support their children's learning more. Therefore, they can contribute to students' learning-teaching processes. Another finding of the study supports this result. Another result of the study shows that as the education levels of partners decrease, both the challenges of home-schooling and the need for support for home-schooling increase. Also, as the education levels of partners increase, their opinions on the effectiveness of ERE become more negative. Parents prefer home-schooling to be with their children, to contribute to their education, and to provide them a better education (Mayberry et al., 1995; NHES, 2012; Princiotta, Bielick & Chapman, 2006). The education level of parents is very important to educate children because it is known that the education level of parents matters in children's achievement (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn., 2007; Ray, 2006). As the parents' education level increases, their knowledge and awareness of their children's education also increase. The fact that parents with a high level of education find ERE less effective can be evaluated in this context. The results of the study show that the education level of the parents is very important in the practice of home-schooling. The results of the study show that parents with low-income have higher health concerns than those with high-income and parents with low-income need more support for home-schooling than those with highincome. The education level of parents is an important determinant of their income level because the high level of education provides an advantage both in terms of job opportunities and high-income level (Alpaydin, 2008; Caliskan, 2007). Therefore, it can be said that parents with a high education level also have a high-income level. Parents with high income need less support for home-schooling, as their education level is also high. Because the education levels of parents matters in children's achievement (Basham, Merrifield & Hepburn, 2007; Ray, 2006) and home-schooling (Farrel & Ryan, 2006). As the education level of parents with low income is also low, they need more support for home-schooling. Higher health concerns of parents with low-income levels may be associated with both income level and 149 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 culture. Fathers generally work in families of parents with low income, and mothers are unemployment. This situation is the primary reason for the low-income level of the family. The unemployment of mothers is due to both their low educational level and cultural reasons (Ozaydinlik, 2014). According to the data of Turkish Statistical Institute (2020), the labor force participation rate of women with low education level in Turkey is quite low compared to women with high education level. The results of the study conducted by Yenilmez and Kilic (2018) also support this data. Since mothers with low income spend most of their days with their children, their bond with their children may be stronger. This bond may have made them more worried about their children's health. Also, the financial burden caused by the disease can worry low-income parents. However, this situation may have arisen only for the sample of the study. Results of the study show that parents who support their children's learning both find ERE more effective and home-schooling more feasible. Parents who do not support their children's learning need more support for home-schooling. Home-schooling provides opportunities for one-to-one education of children. Also, one-to-one education increases the academic performance of children (Farrel & Ryan, 2006; Fields Smith & Williams, 2009; Rothermel, 2011). However, parents should allocate more time for one-to-one education of their children and they should be educated enough about education because it is known that parent support has shown significant contributions to the achievement of learners in a virtual learning environment (Borup et al., 2014; Feng & Cavanaugh, 2011; Lee & Figueroa, 2012; Makrooni, 2019; Woofter, 2019). If parents do not have the competencies to support their children's education, they need specialists or someone to support their children's education. In this context, the result of the study shows that having parents to support the education of the children at home makes home-schooling easier. Also parents who contribute to the education of their children at home emphasized ERE more effectively. Since these parents supported the children's learning during the ERE process, they enabled to their children to learn better. This result of the study shows that supporting the education of the children in the ERE process is crucial for both the effectiveness of ERE and the feasibility of home-schooling. Therefore, parents must take roles and responsibilities as their children participate in online education while experiencing increasing instructional responsibility for their child's learnings (Liu et al., 2010). 6. Conclusion The study shows that ERE during the pandemic is not effective enough. But, having parents to support the education of the children at home can make distance and online education practices such as ERE more effective. Also the study shows that although parents have partial health concerns, their parents' opinions about the feasibility of home-schooling are positive. Parents' emphasis on the low challenges of homeschooling can be considered as an important evidence for the feasibility of home-schooling. But, the results indicate that parents need support for home-schooling to be feasible. Also parents with low educational and socioeconomic status need more support for home-schooling. This indicates that the education level and income level of parents are important for feasibility of home-schooling. The results of the study show that the parents' experience of the ERE process offers important opportunities for the practice of home-schooling. Because the responsibilities of the parents regarding the education of their children increased during the ERE process, they experienced home-schooling, although it was not planned. For this reason, parents have had experience of what is required for the successful implementation of home-schooling. Consequently, to practice home-schooling successfully, parents must have a high level of education, have support their children's education at home. Also institutions and organizations support parents for home-schooling practice. The support to be provided to parents for home-schooling should be diversified as financial support, expert/educator support, consultancy, technological infrastructure support. 150 Donmuş Kaya, V. & Eroğlu, M. JETOL 2021, Volume 4, Issue 2, 137-155 7. Limitations and Further Studies The study has limitations arising from both its sample and method. Therefore, the results obtained should be tested in larger samples and with different research methods. In this context, experimental studies should be conducted to determine the effectiveness of ERE. 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