The 'Nationality' of Lolita Fashion

12 THE “NATIONALITY” OF LOLITA FASHION Masafumi Monden In a Japanese magazine dedicated to street fashions, iconic fashion model Misako Aoki poses wearing calf-length Lolita dresses named “Marie Antoinette one-piece dress” or “Trianon chiffon one-piece dress,” decorated with lace, ribbons, flounces, and flared sleeves (Kera Maniax 2007: 136–139). The italicized Lolita here refers to a particular fashion subculture originating in Japan—the topic of this chapter—which is not unrelated, but distinct from connotations normally associated with the word Lolita. Derived from Vladimir Nabokov’s eponymous 1955 novel and its preadolescent heroine, seen by the older male narrator as a nymphet, the “Lolita” look typical in the United States, for example—generally characterized by highly eroticized adolescent or preadolescent girls—has stirred controversy in many Western societies. Lolita fashion, on the other hand, is characterized by images of women adorned in elaborate dresses with delicate fabrics, inspired by stylistic interpretations of early modern European clothing such as Rococo and Victorian dresses. The style thus exudes the look of European bisque dolls (Miller 2011: 25; Steele 2010: 34), yet one senses something odd about these Japanese “European” dresses. Lolita style also references various forms of contemporary popular culture, including Western Goth subculture, manga, anime and Visual-kei (Visual-Rock) music—a Japanese music genre popular in the 1990s, typified by musicians wearing elaborate make-up and hairstyles, with flamboyant, rather androgynous costumes (Miller 2011: 21). Although it is practiced by a small group of people, Lolita fashion has received substantial media and academic attention, perhaps because of its visually spectacular and eye-catching nature. Moreover, the presence of Lolita fashion has 3085-255-P3-012.indd 165 5/1/2013 11:16:10 AM 166 asia through art and anthropology increasingly been noted in locations worldwide. But why do people wish to dress in Lolita fashion? When discussing cultural flows within a transnational context, often the focus of debate is the issue of whether cultures tend toward unification or fragmentation (see, for example, Appadurai 1993; Nederveen Pieterse 2004). In this chapter, however, I am interested in whether flows of culture override or dissolve cultural differences in the places they reach, via an examination of Lolita fashion. The first section focuses on Lolita fashion in the Japanese context. Paying particular attention to its stylistic aspects, I examine one of the ways historical European clothing has been appropriated in Japan. The second section looks at the Lolita trend outside Japan by way of a textual analysis of an Anglophone online community for Lolita fashion lovers, EGL (Elegant Gothic Lolita) The Gothic & Lolita Fashion Community. In so doing, I explore how concepts such as local and global have been relativized or renegotiated in Lolita fashion. LOLITA AESTHETICS IN JAPAN In Japan, Lolita fashion emerged in the mid- to late 1990s. There is no clear definition of Lolita style; rather, it functions as a general term for a number of subtly different trends. These include Kuro-Loli (Gothic/Black Lolita); Ama-Loli (Sweet Lolita), which uses predominantly pastel shades; the slightly less elaborate Kurashikku-Lolita (Classical Lolita); and Panku-Loli (Punk Lolita), which could consist of a punk T-shirt with a frilly, tutu-like mini skirt (Monden 2008: 24–25). Lolita style sometimes includes characteristics from traditional East Asian dress, such as the Chinese cheongsam or Japanese kimono, while other minor variations include Guro-Loli (Grotesque Lolita) and even Ero-Loli (Erotic or Sexy Lolita). Orthodox Lolita fashion combines Black, Sweet, and Classical styles. It consists of a highly elaborate Victorian calf-length “little girl” dress hooped with layers of pannier, frilly knee-length socks, and Mary Jane or strap shoes—typified by Vivienne Westwood’s “Rockin’ horse ballerina.” The look is completed with intricate headdresses or bonnets. The relatively little-known status of this fashion changed when the film Shimotsuma Monogatari (known in English as Kamikaze Girls), an adaptation of the best-selling novel of the same title by cult novelist Novala Takemoto, became a Japanese box office hit after its release in 2004. The narrator and protagonist of the story is a seventeen-year-old Lolita girl, for whom the style represents a highly romanticized notion of the Rococo nobility, its fashion, and life philosophy. The style’s origins remain largely undecided. Some believe Lolita was first practiced by the fans of Visual Rock singers to impersonate their favorite stars (Monden 2008: 24). On the other hand, Mariko Suzuki (2003: 119) argues that Lolita may 3085-255-P3-012.indd 166 5/1/2013 11:16:10 AM have been modeled on children’s dresses, attracting girls and young women dissatisfied with the lack of frills and lace in mainstream fashions, or those who appreciated gothic subcultural elements and wished to dress in frilly clothes. This fashion, when practiced in its full-on form, is often accompanied by demure mannerisms by the wearer, such as walking in a ladylike fashion sporting a lace-trimmed parasol. Such behavior may also be partly due to the physical restrictions the style imposes on the wearer. Akinori Isobe (quoted in Pia 2004: 110), the owner of the renowned Lolita fashion brand Baby, the Stars Shine Bright (abbreviated as Baby), once admitted that the opulent use of lace and frills makes his garments both heavy and impeding. Echoing this impression, actress Kyoko Fukada, who wears Lolita garments (including some by Baby) in Kamikaze Girls, commented that they were not as physically impeding as she had expected (quoted in Pia 2004: 112). Women’s elaborate dresses in nineteenth-century Europe, by which Lolita style is partially inspired, have been perceived as symbolic of feminine oppression largely because of the restrictive nature of the garments. Some have argued that such dresses forced women to become living trophies of the peculiar strength of men, who (financially) clothed them, while also making them submissive to a male (sexual) gaze (see Veblen as cited in Carter 2003: 48). However, assuming these dresses merely endorsed feminine oppression is rather simplistic as clothes, whether men’s or women’s, may never have been completely functional or “natural” (Entwistle 2000: 158; Wilson 1985: 224). Moreover, the agency of the women concerned, in the act of dressing in such garments, should be considered (Steele 1985: 4). It has also been suggested that the large physical size of women so dressed may have also given the wearers a degree of power, visibility, and an awareness of their existence in society (Smith 1981: 55). Besides highlighting the important issue of fashion and gender, arguably these points are equally applicable to the case of Lolita style and its wearers at the turn of the twenty-first century in Japan. For some who wear this style, Lolita is not merely a choice of clothing, it also defines their identity and lifestyle (Godoy 2007: 144). Their fashion and demure body language are closely associated with their romantic views of privileged young women in the idle, aristocratic, elite social classes of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe (Marie Antoinette of France and Alice in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland are favorite reference points). This association is likely to have come from Japanese popular culture (e.g., girls’ manga), to which I return. To what extent does Lolita style actually embrace and appropriate styles of European historical dress, or more specifically what Valerie Steele calls “a nineteenthcentury French doll or jumeau”? (2010: 34). European women’s clothing itself did not gain ground in Japan until the Taishō period (1912–1926), when the “modern the “nationality” of lolita fashion 3085-255-P3-012.indd 167 167 5/1/2013 11:16:10 AM 168 asia through art and anthropology girl” and “garçonne” look emerged, and Western buildings and furniture styles also became prevalent in the country’s urban centers (Slade 2009: 101). Yet Lolita references an earlier period of European dress that incorporated cross-cultural elements, for instance, Chinoiserie textile designs and painted silks. Japonisme in dress also became notable in the early twentieth century in the work of such renowned couturiers as Madeleine Vionnet (1876–1975), before diminishing in the late 1920s and early 1930s (Mears 2010: 145–147). Fashion can thus be a useful means of investigating the flow of culture between geographically distant locations, with Lolita fashion but one example from our times. Close observation of Lolita style reveals that its incorporation of European fashion aesthetics has not necessarily been concerned with historical or stylistic authenticity. The manner in which historical accuracy gives way to aesthetic preferences in Lolita style is representative of Walter Benjamin’s philosophy of fashion. As Ulrich Lehmann summarizes it, “a particular style or stylistic element is taken from costume history and brought into present fashion to create reference and friction simultaneously, along with new commodities” (2010: 69). Lolita incorporates the ideas of certain aesthetic elements from historical European dresses, but its actual style is considerably contemporary. Moreover, the Europe apparently presented via this style might more precisely be described as a romanticized Europe that has never existed, which makes no attempt to offer a straightforward replication of dresses specific to certain periods. In this sense, it is a “transtexual” style, in which references to other texts or sources are deployed (Mackie 2009). This significantly highlights the agency of such a style. In addition to the aesthetic sensibilities conceptualized and romanticized by Lolita, we shall also see how Japanese understandings of historic European dresses have been influenced by Japanese popular culture. THE INTERWEAVING OF REALITY AND ROMANCE The saturation of lace and frills seen in the aesthetics of shōjo manga (Japanese girls’ comic books) and pop idols in the 1970s and 1980s was a likely precursor to Lolita fashion. Matt Thorn points out that, especially in the 1970s, aesthetic expressions of the “otome-chikku” (maidenesque) in shōjo manga “were heavily infused with a dreamy, 1970s-style femininity characterized by frilly cotton dresses, straw sun bonnets, herbal tea, and Victorian houses” (2001: 48). Japanese clothing brands such as Hitomi Okawa’s Milk (est. 1970), Isao Kaneko’s Pink House (est. 1972), and Megumi Murano’s Jane Marple (est. 1985) were founded during this period. These brands are considered part of the so-called Japanese Designer and Character (DC) brands, which boomed during the bubble years in the 1980s. DC brands, such as Rei Kawakubo’s Comme des Garçons, have wider consumer appeal than Lolita style, and 3085-255-P3-012.indd 168 5/1/2013 11:16:10 AM despite not identifying with the fashion, their somewhat romantic, girlish aesthetics are shared by later Lolita fashion brands such as Baby (est. 1988). The link between shōjo manga and Lolita aesthetics is indicated by the long-lasting popularity of Riyoko Ikeda’s comic book series The Rose of Versailles (Berusaiyu no bara, affectionately abbreviated as Berubara, 1972–1973), in which Marie Antoinette is portrayed as a tragic yet sympathetic princess adorned with lace and ribbons. The influence of shōjo manga on the individuals who dress in or create Lolita fashion is well noted. For instance, Fumiyo Isobe (Street Mode Kenkyukai 2007: 66), a designer and cofounder of Baby, acknowledges the influences of Yumiko Ōshima’s shōjo manga on her designs. Similarly, Yukari Ōba (Street Mode Kenkyukai 2007: 119), costume designer of Visual-kei band Malice Mizer (1992–2001), notes 1970s shōjo manga such as Berubara and the costumes of female pop idols in the 1980s as among her childhood inspirations. Moreover, it is not surprising that these precursors were themselves inspired by romanticized notions of Europe and princesses in the first place. How, then, have Japanese fashion designers sartorially translated and adopted such ideas? Baby’s “Gingham Check Creeping Rose Dress” (2010), for instance, exudes an air of the mid-eighteenth-century robe à la française (French dress) style, which was characterized by hooped petticoats known as panniers. To emphasize this aspect, “the skirt was open in front to reveal a decorative petticoat,” even an “ordinary” robe à la française “was highly decorated, made of patterned silks covered in ribbons, ruffles, furbelows, and lace” (Steele 1998: 35). Baby’s cotton dress has sleeve flounces and an overall design that emulates the frilled robe à la française, with a matching petticoat on which white lace trims separate the skirts into three parts, as if the petticoat were in front. Another Lolita dress, designed by Innocent World (est. 1998), is called the “Pompadour Bustle Jumper Skirt (Dress, 2010)”. Using a Rococo reference, “Pompadour” refers to Jeanne Poisson (1721–1764), known as the Marquise de Pompadour, a famous mistress of French king Louis XV, who was considered “the personification of the rococo in costume” (Ribeiro 1991: 331). Accordingly, the échelle of three detachable ribbons placed vertically on the bodice of this twilled cotton dress corresponds with “the three-dimensional ornamentation of the [eighteenth century French] dress that was an essential part of the rococo” (Ribeiro 2002 [1985]: 140). Combined with the classical rose patterns and the robe à la française-style skirt, these qualities bear resemblances to the dress the marquise wears in her famous portraits by François Boucher (e.g., 1756). The back of Innocent World’s dress, however, is bustled. Although it was not an invention of the Victorian period, the bustle became fashionable in Europe between 1882 and 1889 (Steele 1985: 65).1 The bustle in the Lolita dress thus references late nineteenth-century European dresses. Garments such the “nationality” of lolita fashion 3085-255-P3-012.indd 169 169 5/1/2013 11:16:10 AM 170 asia through art and anthropology as the Pompadour Bustle Dress are likely to be worn with added layers of separately sold cotton organdy or tulle pannier to better form and accentuate the bell shape, all of which reinforces the feeling of the robe à la française, thus thoroughly mixing the design’s temporalities. Judging from its appearance, a Lolita pannier might be described more precisely as a hooped petticoat of the twentieth century rather than the authentic eighteenth-century French garment. The knee-length of these dresses is not a style of the Ancien Régime, but possibly draws on a ballet skirt or a Victorian “little girl” dress (Rose 1989: 126–127). Further adding to this mix of appropriation and “trans-periodic” quality, one might argue that the Lolita dress’ silhouette is stylistically closer to a 1950s American formal gown—as immortalized by the prom dress—rather than to the eighteenth-century French court robe. While the 1950s American dress was popular at the same time in Japan, and again briefly in the late 1970s, Lolita style has rarely been considered in relation to 1950s American culture, either by Lolita brands or the community. Instead, the style is commonly correlated with historical Europe, reinforced by descriptive terms such as princess, maiden, and ballerina. Arguably, what is important for the style is the opulent feeling created through the emphatically hooped skirt, produced by wearing layers of filmy undergarments à la Marie Antoinette. In this sense, while the actual shape of the dress is considerably more contemporary, it aspires to the quintessence of rococo aesthetic sensibilities, namely “frills, ribbons and flounce” (Ribeiro 2002 [1985]: 136). The authenticity of historical European dresses has also been negotiated in terms of practicability suited to our time. While Lolita style’s elaborate qualities can impede the movement of the wearer, the calf-length dress, made of such fabrics as cotton or nylon, hooped with the (petticoat-like) pannier, is lighter, less restrictive, and more affordable than a long, full-length velvet, silk, or wool dress with a heavier crinoline. Such apparently functional concerns contrast with Lolita fashion’s avoidance of a lighter and more practical structure to craft and sustain the bell shape—such as the plastic hoops implemented in Vivienne Westwood’s Mini-Crini skirts (1986)—and is worthy of attention. The use of panniers can create a more opulent, aristocratic feel than plastic hoops. For aesthetic reasons, the layers of cotton tulle or nylon sheer bear a striking resemblance to a bell-shaped ballet skirt. Lolita style may therefore be a negotiation between the fashion aesthetics of early modern Europe and the kind of functionality appreciated at the turn of the twenty-first century. Rather than being unfamiliar with European sartorial history, Japanese designers have strategically referenced certain aspects of historical European dress, producing something new.2 Hence, transnational appropriation can be systematic and tactical rather than “chaotic” (Maynard 2004: 22). 3085-255-P3-012.indd 170 5/1/2013 11:16:10 AM Another notable characteristic of Lolita style is its emphatic display of sweet, almost infantile, girlish aesthetics. Lolita adds a shade of girlish style favored in Japan— notably a kawaii (cute) aesthetic—to a frilly European aristocratic dress form. The concept of kawaii is too diverse to fully explore here (McVeigh 2000: 135; Miller 2011: 24), but one archetypal quality of kawaii in fashion is when something is “deliberately designed to make the wearer appear childlike and demure” (Kinsella 1995: 229). Mixed with kawaii aesthetics, Lolita reinvents historical European dresses as something novel and girlish. The projection of the kawaii aesthetic as embodied by the shortened length of skirts, exemplifies a conscious, creative adoption of foreign cultural forms. The newness of this cute, infantile clothing style has also attracted a small yet firm number of followers outside Japan. Renowned Lolita brands such as Baby, metamorphose temps de fille (est. 1993), and Innocent World now accept online orders from international customers. Baby opened its first overseas store in Paris in 2007, followed by San Francisco in 2009. In 2010, Angelic Pretty (est. 1979 as Pretty) opened stores in Paris and San Francisco, followed by one in Shanghai in 2012. This indicates the fashion’s potential to reach overseas markets, although, as in Japan, these may be niches on the fringes of urban life. Moreover, these focused or limited locations may correspond to places where Japanese pop culture has become familiar and accessible. Nonetheless, the increased visibility of Lolita fashion, especially in urban Euro-American societies, forces us to question the style’s relationship to a Euro-American “Lolita” look. EROTICISM AND INNOCENCE Euro-American “Lolita” is not an established style, but a descriptive term for young girls who dress in a highly sexualized, mature way, or adult women looking infantile with such items as a short, high-waisted dress, known as a babydoll and a barrette (Merskin 2004). What is striking about this Euro-American “Lolita” look is that it not only includes the eroticization of preadolescent or adolescent girls, but also the infantilization of adult women. These effects are perceived as two sides of the same Lolita coin. For instance, the trend for mature-aged women to dress like prepubescent girls is perceived by some as operating exclusively for an unhealthy, objectifying male gaze (Durham 2008:119; Merskin 2004: 122). Consequently, these authors articulate the possibility that fashion such as Japanese Lolita style might be read as signifying the objectification and infantilization of women. Although stylistically different, wearers of Lolita style outside Japan, particularly in Euro-American cultures, are well aware of the sexual meanings people might infer the “nationality” of lolita fashion 3085-255-P3-012.indd 171 171 5/1/2013 11:16:10 AM 172 asia through art and anthropology from the name Lolita and from infantile fashion aesthetics. This point is highlighted in a newspaper article about the increased appreciation of the fashion in Brisbane, Australia (Dorfield 2010). While the twenty-three-year-old interviewee claims that the style has its own aesthetic standard of feminine beauty that allows the wearer to appear attractive without “being revealing,” some of the comments posted to the story online offered opposing views. For example, one individual left a comment saying that Lolita fashion is a “fetishist” style, as provocative and sexual as young women who dress “like strippers” (Dorfield 2010). This is not the only comment posted to the story suggesting sexual perceptions of fashions such as Lolita in Western societies. It is generally assumed that Lolita style and a girlish cuteness associated with it are largely “pre-sexual” despite the possibility of the style veering into the sexualized (Steele 2010: 48). One member of the shop staff at Baby in Japan who dresses in the style regularly, for instance, has said her initial motivation to dress in Lolita was a desire to wear cute, doll-like clothes (Godoy 2007: 144). Moreover, “[a]bstinence, girlishness and virginity”—albeit qualities often considered sexually desirable in various societies—have characterized this style in late 1990s Japan (Godoy 2007: 135) in contrast to the overt sexual connotations ascribed to Nabokov’s novel. It might, of course, appeal to certain fetishist tastes, and it is also possible for some women to deploy Lolita style to attract sexual attention, but this does not seem to be the aim for most Lolita wearers. Does the increased visibility of Lolita aesthetics abroad, particularly in Western cultures, have any impact on the local conception of cute, infantile, or girlish fashion? In the next section I turn to Lolita followers outside of Japan, paying particular attention to their perceptions of the fashion, and look at some of these issues in the context of the cultural globalization surrounding the style. LOLITA GOES GLOBAL: EGL THE GOTHIC & LOLITA FASHION COMMUNITY EGL The Gothic & Lolita Fashion Community is one example that alludes to the growing recognition of Lolita outside Japan.3 This English-speaking online community offers a place where participants from various global locations (predominantly Western) socially interact, discussing cultural and aesthetic issues related to Lolita style.4 To analyze the currency of Lolita fashion outside of Japan, I observed this community weekly for seven months, from November 2004 to June 2005, and have revisited the site several times since. Participants ranged in stated age from twelve to thirty-five years old, and were from more than fourteen different countries. While this is an analysis of the relatively active participants, the community in fact has 3085-255-P3-012.indd 172 5/1/2013 11:16:11 AM many more members who rarely participate in discussions yet visit and view the site. I participated in forums as an informed observer, in order to neither disturb nor influence discussions. My analysis of the community is informed by three questions. First, what are the main reasons the participants are attracted to this fashion? Second, how do they perceive the fashion in relation to the notion of sexualized Lolita? And third, where do they think the fashion comes from? Around 2005, Lolita was perceived by many participants as something new and alternative to their local fashion cultures, which were said to encourage young people to dress more casually. One American male participant commented admiringly: “GL is so beautifully feminine that it’s refreshing in a world overpopulated with the voleur [sic] tracksuit *gags*” (November 23, 2004). A number of comments followed lamenting the current mainstream trend of relaxed casual fashion, with one participant replying: “Track suits frighten me . . . People in LA (where I live) are TOO casual sometimes in my opinion. I mean, some kids in my school wear their pjs to school” (November 24, 2004). When the question of “Why are you interested in this type of clothing?” was asked by a participant, most answered that the appeal lies in its emphasis on femininity, cuteness, elegance, and elaborate detail. One U.S. participant summarized it: ‘It’s very feminine, very detailed . . . combines childlike cuteness and mature elegance, and when done well is excellent for showing off wonderful fabrics and laces” (January 22, 2005). These comments indicate that the participants who dress in Lolita style are not particularly fond of prevailing casual, untidy, or revealing fashion trends. Combined with a cultural preconception that perceives “cute” as girlish or infantile, and hence somewhat passive and unfavorable (Paechter 2006; Reay 2001), fashions with hyperbolic girlishness and sweetness are rarely popular in contemporary Western societies. In this sense, Lolita seems to provide an alternative to current fashions for those who admire opulently flounced dress styles. Although Lolita fashion suits the preference of the participants, the issue of prejudice toward individuals dressing in infantile clothing is frequently discussed. This seems to be at least partly due to the perception of an eroticized Lolita based on Nabokov’s novel, and its deviant sexual connotations.5 One Canadian participant, for example, commented: “Many people seem to think I look tarty or silly” (May 12, 2005). Another Canadian participant, answering the question “Is there anything you dislike about Lolita fashion?” noted: “I guess the name. Lolita. Whenever people hear it they assume I’m some sort of whore” (May 12, 2005). Many participants in the community strongly deny any direct correlation between Lolita fashion and the concept of a sexualized Lolita. One participant put it: “Most girls who wear the style are exactly the opposite as [sic] Lolita from the book by Nabokov” (May 12, 2005). This misconception of the fashion still seemed valid the “nationality” of lolita fashion 3085-255-P3-012.indd 173 173 5/1/2013 11:16:11 AM 174 asia through art and anthropology when I visited the site in 2010. When an Australian participant posted a link to Dorfield’s article about Brisbane’s Lolita, her entry attracted twenty-five comments, including some voicing strong opposition to the notion of the fashion being a form of fetish wear. These commentators defended the style’s intentions, one writing: “I personally think there’s probably a large difference in the number of men who would fetishize Lolita (not meant to be sexual) versus strippers (meant to be very, very sexual)—you can’t really compare the two” (November 5, 2010). Criticism of the Lolita concept assumes a direct correlation between the practice of adults wearing cute, infantile garments and pedophilic fantasies or pornography. However, this may be different in Japan, where the fashion emerged, and where the concept of kawaii is not restricted to the realms of children or women. Japanese people generally engage with the notions of (infantile) cuteness differently, for they are culturally allowed to appreciate the concept longer into adulthood than, for example, their American counterparts (Steele 2010: 45; White 1993: 126–127). Lolita style has attracted its share of criticism in Japan as well, but for different reasons. As Lolita wearer Momo Matsuura writes, criticism there has focused more on the flamboyant and infantile aesthetics the fashion manifests, which diverges from the mainstream, culturally more acceptable fashions. It has often been perceived as mirroring the wearer’s rejection of maturity and social conformity to the normative mode of femininity (Godoy 2007: 144; Matsuura 2007). In other words, Lolita fashion stirs criticism in Japanese society less because of its embodiment of infantile eroticization or fetishization, and more because it signifies a form of subversion and resistance to assumed norms. Whether it has been subject to less hostility in Japan depends on locations Lolita wearers can frequent without attracting undue attention. For instance, Harajuku—Tokyo’s Mecca for street fashion and youth culture—attracts Lolita fashion lovers, but this seems to simply confirm that the style remains a particularly urban subculture. It seems clear, however, that many participants in the EGL online community perceive Japan generally to be the place where Lolita fashion is most accepted by mainstream society. An English EGL participant in fact argued: “I would say Japan would probably be the only ACCEPTING place where you could run about and no-one blink twice. I’ve found the UK is probably the worst because we are a very reserved and set-in-our-ways country!” (January 30, 2005). This argument is reinforced by an Australian participant living in Japan who says: “In Japan there are guys who dress in EGL and hang out in Harajuku, but I don’t think the rest of the world would be too accepting,” and even young women who dress in Lolita “in most countries would get harassed” (January 29, 2005). As these posts indicate, Lolita followers tend to see Japan as the only society in which the freedom to dress in Lolita style in an everyday context is guaranteed. 3085-255-P3-012.indd 174 5/1/2013 11:16:11 AM It is also noteworthy that some North American participants in these communities say that although teenagers and young people who follow mainstream fashions in their own societies tend to dislike Lolita fashion, senior citizens and small children admire it. Here we might recall Fred Davis’s proposition that what a clothing style or fashion signifies “is highly differentiated in terms of taste, social identity, and persons’ access to the symbolic wares of a society” (1992: 8), a view seemingly shaped through the works of earlier writers such as George Simmel, Thorstein Veblen, and Pierre Bourdieu in his Distinction (1984). A Canadian EGL participant writes: “Most older adults, especially women, seem to like the way I dress” ( June 4, 2005). Another participant says: “Little girls LOVE it! ‘Cause pretty much we’re dressed like princess dolls to them” (June 3, 2005). These comments indicate that Lolita reception can depend on generation as much as location, and whether the visual is the prominent factor in appreciating the style. THE NATIONALITY OF LOLITA Whether or not Lolita is a specific variant of a nation-based (i.e., Japanese) fashion depends on participants’ interpretations. The online community generally treats Lolita brand clothing from Japan as authentic, with the majority of participants considering the trend Japanese, or at least Japan-oriented. As for which variant styles are included in the term Lolita, one participant argues: “It is the Gothic AND Lolita community, meaning it encompasses all of Japanese Gothic and Lolita fashion” (November 24, 2004). Some participants even express a concern that Lolita has been inappropriately interpreted by Westerners, as illustrated by an English participant’s comment: “westerners [sic], instead of bringing loli straight from Japan, decided to modify it a bit, so now it looks tarty and sort of kinky, which I believe Lolita clothing is trying to avoid” (May 12, 2005). However, the complex history of the fashion—inspired by eighteenth- and nineteenth-century European clothing, developed in Japan, and now reexported to Western countries, among other places—seems to provide the background for divergent interpretations. Several participants in fact raise objections to the common perception of Lolita as a Japanese fashion. For example, following a comment posted by a Dutch participant who raised objections to other Western participants’ incorrect interpretation of Lolita aesthetics, another participant claimed: “But the Japanese stole the style original [sic] from Europe, so what?” (May 12, 2005), to which a Canadian participant agreed: “True” (May 13, 2005). Furthermore, another participant denies the Japanese origin of the fashion, saying: “it isn’t an original fashion or Japanese fashion at all” (May 11, 2005). the “nationality” of lolita fashion 3085-255-P3-012.indd 175 175 5/1/2013 11:16:11 AM 176 asia through art and anthropology According to Ulf Hedetoft, the process of globalization and national identity can be understood as one where the “receivers” (participants) engage with the fashion as either Japanese or European culture, depending on their prior understanding of Lolita as being ether Japan-oriented or European-influenced (2000: 281–282). The sender (the “Japanese” fashion trend) has itself emerged from the hybridization of European fashion and a Japanese aesthetic, and is likely to become more diverse than monocultural. In this sense, it can be argued that for Western participants, Lolita seems to represent difference from, as well as affirmation of, their own cultures. CONCLUSION Despite the fact that Lolita style combines elements of historical European dresses, its doll-like hyperbolic cuteness, associated with the concept of kawaii, derives from Japan. The style’s references to early modern European dresses are highly romanticized and “trans-periodic,” and its numerous references to other texts or cultural products such as manga and Japanese popular culture make the style an example of the process whereby fashion recycles stylistic elements from the old to create the novel. The fashion’s appreciation of delicate aesthetics without overt sexualization has, in turn, attracted wearers outside of Japan. As a clear fusion of several European and Japanese cultural forms, Lolita illustrates the possibility of perceiving globalized cultural forms no longer as either/or, but as both/and, without relinquishing the possibility of alluding to specific cultures and contexts, and without denying individual agency. Wearers of Lolita may wish to identify with the Japanese aspects of the fashion at one point, and assumed or imagined European origins at another. It is clear that to these wearers, viewing the style through an either/or dichotomy elides its subtle power and dynamic entirely: Lolita aesthetic can be both European and Japanese, just as it continues to be adopted or adapted by other geographical and cultural locations. NOTES 1. In the 1770s, the robe à la polonaise, with the skirt bustled at the back, was considered practical. 2. For instance, Kumiko Uehara, a designer for Baby, says she studied European dress history at university and it benefits her designs (Street Mode Kenkyukai 2007: 69). 3. Lolita style has sometimes been called Elegant Gothic Lolita (EGL), especially in the initial stages of its introduction to the Anglophone West. 3085-255-P3-012.indd 176 5/1/2013 11:16:11 AM 4. This Internet community was created in the United States and the participants must use English to participate. Perhaps because of this requirement, many active participants are from North America, the United Kingdom, and Australia. 5. It should be noted that the Lolita character in Nabokov’s novel is seen as a nymphet only through the eyes of Humbert, and the sexual connotation associated with her is largely a misunderstanding that emerged after the novel was published. REFERENCES Angelic Pretty official website. [http://www.angelicpretty.com/]. Accessed September 30, 2012. Appadurai, A. (1993), “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy,” in B. Robbins (ed.), The Phantom Public Sphere, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Baby, The Stars Shine Bright official website. [http://www.babyssb.co.jp/shopping/baby/ onepiece/134317.html]. Accessed May 16, 2012. Bourdieu, P. (1984), Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Carter, M. (2003), Fashion Classics: From Carlyle to Barthes, New York and Oxford: Berg. Davis, F. (1992), Fashion, Culture, and Identity. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Dorfield, S. (2010), “Brisbane ‘Lolitas’ Change Fashion Landscape,” The Age, November 5. [http://www.theage.com.au/lifestyle/fashion/brisbane-lolitas-change-fashion-landscape20101105–17grh.html]. Accessed December 1, 2010. Durham, M. G. (2008), Lolita Effect: The Media Sexualization of Young Girls and What We Can do About it, Woodstock and New York: The Overlook Press. EGL The Elegant Gothic & Lolita A Live journal Community. [http://www.livejournal.com/ community/egl/]. Accessed 2004–2005, 2010–2012. Entwistle, J. (2000), The Fashioned Body: Fashion, Dress and Modern Social Theory. Cambridge: Polity Press. Godoy, T. (2007), Style Deficit Disorder: Harajuku Street Fashion Tokyo. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books. Hedetoft, U. (2000), “Contemporary Cinema: Between Cultural Globalisation and National Interpretation,” in M. Hjort and S. Mackenzie (eds.), Cinema and Nation, London: Routledge. Innocent World official website. [http://innocent-w.jp/shopping/093709/index.html] Accessed February 10, 2011. Kera Maniax (2007), 7/8 Special Issue. Kinsella, S. (1995), “Cuties in Japan,” in L. Skov and B. Moeran (eds.), Women, Media, and Consumption in Japan, Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. Lehmann, U. (2010), “Walter Benjamin” in V. Steele (ed.), Berg Companion to Fashion, London and New York: Berg. Mackie, V. (2009), “Transnational Bricolage: Gothic Lolita and the Political Economy of Fashion,” Intersections: Gender and Sexuality in Asia and the Pacific, 20. the “nationality” of lolita fashion 3085-255-P3-012.indd 177 177 5/1/2013 11:16:11 AM 178 asia through art and anthropology Maynard, M. (2004), Dress and Globalization, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Matsuura, M. (2007), Sekai to watashi to Lolita fashion (The World, Lolita Fashion and I), Tokyo: Seikyu-sha. McVeigh, B. J. (2000), Wearing Ideology: State, Schooling and Self-Presentation in Japan, Oxford and New York: Berg. Mears, P. (2010), “Formalism and Revolution: Rei Kawakubo and Yohji Yamamoto,” in V. Steele (ed.), Japan Fashion Now, New York: Yale University Press. Merskin, D. (2004), “Reviving Lolita? A Media Literacy Examination of Sexual Portrayals of Girls in Fashion Advertising,” American Behavioral Scientist, 48 (1): 119–129. metamorphose temps de fille official website. [www.metamorphose.gr.jp/]. Miller, L. (2011), “Cute Masquerade and the Pimping of Japan,” International Journal of Japan, November 20: 18–29. Monden, M. (2008), “Transcultural Flow of Demure Aesthetics: Examining Cultural Globalisation through Gothic & Lolita Fashion,” New Voices, 2: 21–40. Nabokov, V. (2006, first published 1955), Lolita, London: Penguin. Nederveen Pieterse, J. (2004), Globalization and Culture: Global Mélange, Maryland: Roman & Littlefield Publishers. Paechter, C. (2006), “Masculine Femininities/Feminine Masculinities: Power, Identities and Gender,” Gender and Education, 18 (3): 253–263. Pia, (ed.) (2004), Kyoko Fukada in Shimotsuma Story, Tokyo: Pia. Reay, D. (2001), “ ‘Spice Girls,’ ‘Nice Girls,’ ‘Girlies,’ and ‘Tomboys’: Gender Discourses, Girls’ Cultures and Femininities in the Primary Classroom’, Gender and Education, 13 (2): 153–166. Ribeiro, A. (1991), “Fashion in the Eighteenth Century: Some Anglo-French Comparisons,” Textile History, 22 (2): 329–345. Ribeiro, A. (2002 [1985]), Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789, New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press. Rose, C. (1989), Children’s Clothes since 1750, London: B. T. Batsford Ltd. Slade, T. (2009), Japanese Fashion: A Cultural History, Oxford and New York: Berg. Smith, B. G. (1981), Ladies of the Leisure Class, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Steele, V. (1985), Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age, NY and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Steele, V. (1998), Paris Fashion: A Cultural History (second edition), Oxford and New York: Berg. Steele, V. (2010), Japan Fashion Now, New York: Yale University Press. Street Mode Kenkyukai (ed.) (2007), Street Mode Book. Tokyo: Graphic-sha. Suzuki, M. (2003), “Gothic & Lolita wa kansai kara umareta (The Gothic & Lolita fashion was emerged from Kansai Region)” Yaso # Goth: 118–119. Thorn, M. (2001), “Shoujo Manga: Something for Girls,” Japan Quarterly, 48 (3): 43–50. White, M. (1993), Material Child, Berkeley: University of California Press. Wilson, E. (1985), Adorned in Dreams: Fashion and Modernity, London: Tauris. 3085-255-P3-012.indd 178 5/1/2013 11:16:11 AM ASIA THROUGH ART AND ANTHROPOLOGY 3085-255-00FM.indd i 5/1/2013 11:14:17 AM ASIA THROUGH ART AND ANTHROPOLOGY Cultural Translation Across Borders Edited by Fuyubi Nakamura, Morgan Perkins and Olivier Krischer With a Foreword by Howard Morphy LON DON • N E W DE L H I • N E W YOR K • SY DN EY 3085-255-00FM.indd iii 5/1/2013 11:14:17 AM Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DP UK 175 Fifth Avenue New York NY 10010 USA www.bloomsbury.com First published 2013 © Fuyubi Nakamura, Morgan Perkins, and Olivier Krischer, 2013 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Fuyubi Nakamura, Morgan Perkins, and Olivier Krischer have identified their rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Editors of this work. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury Academic or the editors. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: HB: 978-0-8578-5448-3 PB: 978-0-8578-5449-0 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Typeset by Apex CoVantage, LLC Printed and bound in Great Britain 3085-255-00FM.indd iv 5/1/2013 11:14:17 AM CONTENTS List of Illustrations Contributors Preface Introduction: Images of Asia across Borders Fuyubi Nakamura, Olivier Krischer, and Morgan Perkins 1 2 3 4 5 3085-255-00FM.indd v x xiii Foreword Howard Morphy Part I vii xv 1 Art, Location, and Travel Asian Artists as Long-distance Cultural Specialists in the Formation of Modernities John Clark 19 In and Out of Place: Tibetan Artists’ Travels in the Contemporary Art World Clare Harris 33 Imagining “Asian” Aesthetics in Colonial Hanoi: The École des Beaux-Arts de l’Indochine (1925–1945) Phoebe Scott 47 Coming Home: How “Re-entry” Shaped the Work of a Contemporary Woman Artist in Taiwan Natalie Seiz 62 Painting on Location: Lin Haizhong and Contemporary Chinese Ink Painting Morgan Perkins 77 5/1/2013 11:14:17 AM vi contents Part II Artists’ Voices 6 Catching the Moment, One Step at a Time Phaptawan Suwannakudt 7 Lifting Words, Floating Words Savanhdary Vongpoothorn 103 8 Typologic: Interactions between the Intellect and the Senses Chihiro Minato 111 Part III 95 Image, Representation, and Performance 9 Some Indian “Views of India”: The Ethics of Representation Christopher Pinney 10 Fragile Polyphony: Takeda Taijun’s Longing for Asia through the Landscape of Shen Congwen Barbara Hartley 134 Unframing the Nation: The Moving Image and its Parergon in Southeast Asia David Teh 150 11 123 12 The “Nationality” of Lolita Fashion Masafumi Monden 165 13 The Impossibility of Performing “Asia” Catherine Diamond 179 Index 3085-255-00FM.indd vi 195 5/1/2013 11:14:18 AM LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Plates Plate 1 Plate 2 Plate 3 Plate 4 Plate 5 Plate 6 Plate 7 Plate 8 Plate 9 Plate 10 Plate 11 Plate 12 Plate 13 Plate 14 Plate 15 Plate 16 Plate 17 Plate 18 Plate 19 Plate 20 Plate 21 Plate 22 Plate 23 3085-255-00FM.indd vii Goseda Yoshimatsu, Port-Yokohama, ca.1891. FX Harsono, Destruction, 1997. Keltse, I’m Here, 2007. Gonkar Gyatso, Shambhala in Modern Times. 2009. Gade, Diamond Series: The Hulk, 2008. Nortse, 30 Letters, 2010. Nguyễn Gia Trí, The Fairies, ca.1936–1939. Hou Shur-tzy, Border-Crossing/Diaspora—Song of Asian Brides in Taiwan (I). Kuei-hsiao and her child (A) (B), 2005. Yaji performance in Hangzhou, China, 2006. Phaptawan Suwannakudt, Nariphon III b, 1996. Phaptawan Suwannakudt, The Elephant and the Bush series #6, 2003. Phaptawan Suwannakudt, An Elephant Journey 1, 2005. “Objects of memory” in jars at a workshop of the Womanifesto International Residency Program, Sisaket, Thailand, 2008. Phaptawan Suwannakudt learning weaving from Mae Pan, Sisaket, Thailand, November 2008. Phaptawan Suwannakudt, Cast-off series, 2007–2010. Phaptawan Suwannakudt, My Mother was a Nun II (a) and (b), 1998. Phaptawan Suwannakudt, Three Worlds 9, 2009. Savanhdary Vongpoothorn, Bharva, 2007. The Buddhasimma at the Muang Khang temple in Champassak, Laos, 2005. Savanhdary Vongpoothorn, Lifting Words, 2011. Savanhdary Vongpoothorn, Gathering Leaves, 2011. Savanhdary Vongpoothorn working on Floating Words, 2005–2006. Savanhdary Vongpoothorn, Floating Words, 2005–2006, detail. 5/1/2013 11:14:18 AM viii list of illustrations Plate 24 Plate 25 Plate 26 Plate 27 Plate 28 Plate 29 Plate 30 Plate 31 Plate 32 Savanhdary Vongpoothorn, Floating Words, 2005–2006, detail. Savanhdary Vongpoothorn, Highland Mandala I-VI, 2000–2001. Chihiro Minato, Mothers of Letters, 2005–2007. Chihiro Minato, Mothers of Letters, 2005–2007. The Typologic exhibition at Nikkei newspaper building, Tokyo, 2009. Artist Masao Okabe making a rubbing of the Chinese characters on the signboard of the Commercial Press publishing house on paper, Taiwan, 2009. Chihiro Minato, Ri Xing Typography, 2012. Movie actors Dharmendra and Hema Malini in front of the Victoria Memorial, Calcutta, 1989. Swami Vivekananda in Chicago, ca. 1942. The publication of the color plates of works by Phaptawan Suwannakudt and Savanhdary Vongpoothorn is funded by the Australian Artists’ Grant, a National Association for the Visual Arts (NAVA) initiative, made possible through the generous sponsorship of Mrs. Janet Holmes à Court and the support of the Visual Arts Board, Australia Council for the Arts. Figures Abdul Latiff Mohidin, from PagoPago series, 1965. p. 28 Trần Văn Cần, Washing Hair, ca. 1943. p. 55 Hou Shur-tzy, Peek a boo series–Bananas, 1996. p. 70 Hou Shur-tzy, Peek-a-boo series–Body Bounding, 1996. p. 71 Lin Haizhong’s Qingbo Bridge studio in Hangzhou, 2006. p. 78 Painting demonstration during the exhibition Chinese Painting on Location: The Art of Lin Haizhong, SUNY Potsdam, 2012. p. 80 Figure 8.1 Chihiro Minato, Page-scape, 2012. p. 111 Figure 8.2 A letter of thanks to the movable type. Collection of Nikkei newspaper, 2009. p. 116 Figure 8.3 Chihiro Minato, Page-scape series at the Typologic 2012 exhibition. p. 119 Figure 9.1 Cabinet Card, ca. 1880. p. 124 Figure 9.2 Ujjain Darshan (Glimpses Inside the Mahakaleshvar Temple, Ujjain), 1992. p. 129 Figure 9.3 The god Murugan, ca. 1995. p. 131 Figure 10.1 Fenghuang (Shen Congwen’s hometown). p. 136 Figure 1.1 Figure 3.1 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 3085-255-00FM.indd viii 5/1/2013 11:14:18 AM Figure 10.2 Women at the riverbank of present-day Fenghuang. Figure 10.3 A small boat rocking upon the water in West Hunan. p. 140 p. 145 Table Table 1.1 The Asian Modern. p. 27 list of illustrations 3085-255-00FM.indd ix ix 5/1/2013 11:14:18 AM