WORSHIP FROM THE CATACOMBS

WORSHIP FROM THE CATACOMBS Donald C. McNeeley Virginia Beach, VA INTRODUCTION What mysteries and more importantly what insights emanate from the catacombs of Rome, where the bones of saints and sinners rest in silent repose? Not wanting to cremate their dead due to their belief in a bodily resurrection, the early Roman Christians buried their dead in simple graves or in the burial vaults of sympathetic patricians. However, in the second century A.D. they began to excavate large-scale catacombs outside the city boundaries, along roads such as the Via Appia, as Roman law forbade burial within the city. The catacombs consist of vast systems of galleries and passages built on top of each other, several meters below the surface, with narrow steps descending as many as four stories. Burial niches (or loculi) were carved into walls (fig. 1) of the passages where the bodies were placed in stone sarcophagi. Besides burial, the catacombs were used for memorial services and celebrations of the anniversaries of martyrs. After Christianity became a state religion in the 4th century A.D., the practice of burial in catacombs slowly declined and was abandoned for the most part by the 10th century A.D. These structures were rediscovered beginning in 1578, after which Antonio Bosio (1650) spent decades exploring and researching them. He also discovered the first Jewish catacombs in 1602 (Finegan 1992: 325). Giovanni Battista de Rossi (1864–77) published the first extensive studies after his 1849 discovery of the Catacombs of Saint Callistus (fig. 2) along the Via Appia, where nine 3rdcentury A.D. popes were buried. Although catacombs containing the remains of persecuted Christians are well-known, older Jewish burial areas have also come to light (Weil 1992: 275, 381). Jewish, Christian and even Pagan tombs were sometimes built close together, suggesting that relations between these entities were not as bad as the literary sources often suggest (Stevenson 1978: 14). EARLY UNDERSTANDINGS The commonly held belief of early Christians hiding from imperial persecution, while conducting ecclesiastical rites within these subterranean passages has generally been rejected, as large numbers of decaying corpses would have made the air toxic. Also, the general locations of these structures would have been known to the Roman officials, making the catacombs a poor place for hiding. However, the persistence of this thought continues because the Roman catacombs easily evoke mystical visions of a martyred Roman subculture, visions that are not just recent phenomena. Early writers bolstered a belief in a Roman subculture that escaped into these “cities of the dead” and through their sacrifice, the survival of early Christianity was obtained. The veneration of these tombs has been noted by such luminaries as Jerome (Comm. Ezech. 40.5–13) (ca. A.D. 347–420), who recalled his visits with friends and fellow students to the catacombs while a young man studying in Rome. He carried a lifelong memory of the blackness of the passages that contained the bodies of numerous Christians, including martyrs and Apostles. It was the desire to somehow participate in the sufferings of the early Christian church that led many pilgrims to seek out and participate in trips to the catacombs following guides or Itinararies who described in accurate detail routes a pilgrim could follow in their desire to venerate a particular saint or martyr of the faith (Frend 1996: 11). This desire to vicariously share in the sufferings of the early church during the time of Pope Damasus I (A.D. 366–384) can be seen in his poem commemorating the Martyrs and Christians buried in the catacombs which was carved into marble and placed in front of his tomb: If you are looking for, know that here lies a host of the blessed. The venerable sepulchers enclose the bodies of the saints, but the royal palace of heaven carried off to itself their sublime souls. Here lie the companions of Sixtus who bear the trophies won from the enemy. Here the group of the elders who keep guard of the altars of Christ. Here the bishop who lived through the long peace. Here the holy confessors sent to us from Greece. Here the young men and children, the old men and their chaste nephews who preferred to keep their virginial purity. Here too, I, Damasus, confess I would have liked to have been buried were it not for fear of vexing the holy ashes of the Blessed (Pergola 1989: 26; Scaglia 1911: 100). The romantic notions of Jerome and Pope Damasus continue even today, where there is a desire to see more utilization of the catacombs by the saints of the Christian faith. This can be seen in a speech of Pope John Paul to the Pontifical Commission for Sacred Archaeology on 7 June 1996, where he noted that “by visiting these monuments, one comes into contact with the evocative traces of early Christianity and one can, so to speak, tangibly sense the faith that motivated those ancient Christian communities” (The Pope’s Speeches Concerning the Catacombs 2005). Again on 16 January 1998, at the assembly of the Pontifical Commission for Sacred Archaeology, the Pope stated that “while the catacombs Fig. 1. Niches in Catacombs (photo by depict the eloquent features of Christian life in the first centuries, W. Krewson). they are also a perennial school of faith, hope and charity” (The Pope’s Speeches Concerning the Catacombs 2005). It is these types of sentiments that can cause the data gathered from the catacombs to be misused. Catacomb data has been used in an attempt to prove that “the Church of the Martyrs” was the Roman Catholic Church and that the Eucharist and status of the Virgin as portrayed in the paintings decorating many of the richer tombs legitimize the teaching of the Catholic Church (Frend 1996: xvi). When seeking to understand the plethora of frescoes, artifacts, inscriptions, and drawings of the catacombs, one must be cognizant that while these artifacts may represent an understanding of the faith, liturgy, and worship from the time of the burial, they may just as easily represent an understanding of some cultural motif. An example of this is frescos of the “good shepherd” which could as easily represent a societal or cultural reference to a man carrying a sheep, a concept going back at least as far as tenth century B.C. Carchemish, as the image of Jesus as the Shepherd (Stevenson 1978: 99). Thus, it is not surprising that “good shepherd” representations are found on nonchristian sarcophagi. These representations would appear to be a reflection of the humanitas or philanthropia idea, not the Christian Good Shepherd (Stevenson 1978: 99). This is not to say, however, that some understanding of Christian culture from the catacombs cannot be developed; only that when the evidence is analyzed one must be careful about generalizations based on our own cultural or religious understanding. What follows is an analysis of various artifacts found in the catacombs that suggest an association with aspects of the worship practiced by early Christians residing in Rome. Aspects of the worship service such as prayer for the world, service to the world, and expressions of one’s confidence that God is in charge are outside the scope of this paper. Here, the focus will be on how the Word (Scripture) and the Meal (the Eucharist) were reflected in the artifacts of Christian culture as displayed within the catacombs. Fig. 2. Entrance to the Catacombs of St. Callisto (courtesy of Todd Bolen/Bibleplaces.com). Unfortunately, due to their traditional mind-set earlier investigators such as Wilpert (1903) and Marucchi (1903) found the origins of Roman Catholic beliefs and liturgy in catacomb art where other explanations were more convincing. Styger (1933) and others have questioned, among other things, whether the banquet scene in the little subterranean chapel in the Priscilla catacomb known as the Capella gracca should be associated with an early depiction of the Eucharistic sacrifice, and whether a young woman, age 25, kneeling before Christ and the apostles Peter and Paul, with her arms outstretched in supplication to a welcoming Christ, is to be construed as representing “the Mother of God praying to the Child Jesus” instead of the deceased’s entry into Paradise? However, while in some cases earlier analyses have been called into question, it is not to be denied that the artifacts from the catacombs can provide a means to evaluate the worship of the early church or that these artifacts reflect the understanding of the deceased on the subject and object of that worship, namely God. Catacomb artifacts in many cases assist in understanding worship since it was there that “some of the almost universal liturgical practices and sacraments of the Churches were being illustrated as early as the third century A.D.” (Frend 1996: 161). DEPICTIONS OF THE WORD The number of artistic depictions associated with the Bible in the catacombs are numerous. In one small self-contained catacomb discovered in 1955, 115 distinct fourth-century A.D. pictures represent the understanding of the deceased concerning their faith. Forty-one of these pictures represent Old Testament scenes, such as Adam and Eve being driven from the Garden, the life events of Joseph and Samson, the story of Phineas transfixing Zimri and Cozbi with his spear, and of Jacob blessing Ephraim and Manasseh, a depiction that is not seen in other catacombs. Representing the New Testament are thirteen scenes including Christ delivering the Sermon on the Mount to a large assembly of people, the resurrection of Lazarus (which is a prominent scene in the catacombs), and a curious painting of a soldier casting a lot into an urn hanging against a building (Ferrua 1960, cf. Frend 1996: 344; Stevenson 1978: 64, 85–89). The arts were often used, as a means to represent biblical scenes by early Christians as can be seen in the Dura Europa frescos, where the symbolic character of paintings selected from the Bible is evident, as well as representing “the liberation of the soul and its progress towards the refrigerium of paradise” (Frend 1996: 248). This type of artistic representation is more than just a simple depiction of Scripture. Indeed, it also represents a reflection of how early Christians understood their faith. As might be expected, an abundance of Christocentric depictions have been located within the catacombs. Frescos of Christ as the Good Shepherd (Scaglia 1911: 69; Stevenson 1978: 98; Fasola 1981: 22); symbols of Christ (fish, monograms) (Scaglia 1911: 52); Christ as a healer and miracle worker (Fasola 1981: 45); Christ as a Savior (Scaglia 1911: 52); and the Chi Rho monograms (Stevenson 1978: 88) are seen in the catacombs. These depictions represent Jesus as the object of worship or deal with specific characteristics of his nature. They include scenes which celebrate his miracles such as changing the water into wine at Cana, raising Lazarus from the dead, or healing the sick. It is interesting to note that in some of these scenes Jesus does not have a beard, which suggests a representation as a youthful god, a newcomer to the pantheon of gods that were acknowledged by the Romans (Crossan 2005). Other times he is depicted with a wand by which he performs a miracle (Stevenson 1978: 92). Nevertheless, it is Jesus as a performer of miracles that is being celebrated in these pictures, and as such represents the hope that he will also provide the saving grace and ultimate acceptance into that heavenly place where continued refreshment can be had at his Meal. This is especially evident in a number of scenes depicting the raising of Lazarus which has strong allusions to the coming resurrection of the Christian (Stevenson 1978: 92). Some catacomb frescos depict the New Testament story of Jesus and the Samaritan woman (Stevenson 1978: 101), stressing the life-giving nature of Christ. Sarcophagi reflect the same kind of artistic representations as the frescos. In some cases a summary of the gospel is depicted on them. For the men and women who were buried in the sarcophagi, there seems to be a hope that life beyond the grave was one of happiness because they had believed in Christ. Depictions such as the resurrection of Lazarus, the Good Shepherd, changing water to wine, the miracles of healing, and some Old Testament themes are frequently represented. The so-called Sarcophagus of the Child (Pergola 1989: 34) is a good example. The richly sculptured front is concisely illustrated with biblical scenes depicting Noah in the ark, a prophet holding the scroll of the divine law, Daniel in the lions’ den, a child praying between two saints, the miracle at Cana, the resurrection of Lazarus, and the sister of Lazarus at the feet of Jesus. On the center of the lid two little genii are holding a tablet; at both ends two ornamental faces are sculptured. While it is possible to attribute various meanings to the scenes, the impact of the Bible on the family of the deceased as reflected in their worship experiences is evident. This family desired to proclaim to all that came into the catacomb their hope in the risen Lord and Savior through the scenes depicted there. DEPICTIONS OF THE MEAL In the Cubicles of the Sacraments site (Scaglia 1911: 43; Fasola 1981: 22) depictions and symbols of the Eucharist and Baptism are found in abundance. In fact, in no other Christian cemetery are as many sacramental representations found as in this site within the Catacombs of St. Callixtus (Scaglia 1911: 143; Stevenson 1978: 90). While some may assume that this was a means by which the families of the deceased could recall the various times the sacraments were observed during their lifetimes; it seems more likely that they wanted to remind their love ones, and whoever else visited their tombs, that one day they would again be united if they shared the same means of salvation, a salvation that in some manner is related to the Meal. Whether the meals depicted within the catacombs are interpreted as funereal banquets, agape feasts, the Eucharist, or scenes of the heavenly banquet (Casey 2002: 6), the thrust of the scene is on a meal. Another example of the same focus can be seen in the Catacombs of Priscilla where a painting depicts an attendant blessing the bread and several other people participating in the meal, a theme that is apparent in other catacombs throughout the country as well (Scaglia 1911: 137– 39; Stevenson 1978: 91–92). The scenes from the various catacombs have a common thread: bread, fish, benediction, people being served, and the presentation of the meal. In addition, these pictures bring to remembrance the New Testament passages related to the multiplication of the bread and fish, the last supper, the meals with Lazarus and Simeon, and other such events. Sometimes, such as at St. Callistus, the scene shows Jesus laying his hands on the loaves and fishes as a benediction (Stevenson 1978: 94). At other times as in the catacombs of Priscilla, the person seated at the head of the table presents the bread while in the act of breaking it apart (Fasola 1981: 29). In some scenes, the presence of a chalice with the bread might suggest that what is depicted here is a Eucharistic banquet (Stevenson 1078: 95). However, there are other scenes with a Eucharistic flavor where the chalice is not present. Whether these scenes all depict the Eucharist is not important. Rather, their significance is in the fact that they are all expressions of a meal. The fact that the meal could have also been a celebration of the predeath and post-Resurrection meals that Jesus enjoyed with his disciples must be considered. In reality, many of the pictures that depict a meal seem to suggest that this aspect of worship was a remembrance of all the meal occasions described in the New Testament. EARLY CHRISTIAN WORSHIP The New Testament contains a number of clues concerning the worship practices of the early church. In Philippians 2:6–11 there is one of the earliest Christian hymns that proclaims Christ “who, though he was in the form of God, did not regard equality with God as something to be exploited, but emptied himself.” In Ephesians 5:14 there is another early hymn where the Christian is called a sleeper, which Byars (2000: 23) suggests might have been sung at the baptism of the new Christian: “Sleeper, awake! Rise from the dead and Christ will shine on you.” Creedal statements such as Ephesians 1:3, where Paul says: “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places in Christ,” may have been a liturgical formula recited in worship. Other worship characteristics such as offerings are mentioned in 1 Corinthians 16:2. The various roles that might be expected in a gathering of the early church are detailed in 1 Corinthians 14:26. However, it is in Acts 2:42 that a summary of the early church worship experience can be found. From here, one might suggest that worship was composed of two major events: the Word and the Meal. In this and other passages a basic order of worship emerges, an order that with some minor variations has endured through the centuries and is still used in modern worship services. It is a pattern that emerged from two primary roots: synagogue worship and the meal experience. Thielen (2000: 19) suggests that the early church fused together what happened in the synagogue (i.e., songs, prayer, Hagiographa, sermon) and what happened in the meal (i.e., the Lord’s Supper) to create this two-part order of worship. Further support for this two-pronged worship service is found in Luke 24:13–25, where Jesus leads a worship experience as two disciples of Jesus walk home from Jerusalem to Emmaus. In that experience Jesus brings together the two events of Word and Meal to create a liturgy of scripture and food that indicates the grace available to people (Saliers 1994: 38; Byars 2000: 27, 31). CONCLUSION Worship provides the means whereby God and humanity meet. This experience evoked a desire among some of the early Christians in Rome to attempt its imitation in the visual arts. Since the resultant artifacts are representative of that experience, it should be possible to evaluate the worship of the early church by an analysis of these remains. The catacomb artifacts provide a means to understand the early liturgical practices of the Church. The meal aspect of the worship experience seems to have had a powerful influence on these early Christians as reflected on numerous scenes within the catacombs. Another popular motif is scenes related to the teachings, healing, and miracles of Jesus, and the expectation for a life beyond the grave. These catacomb scenes provided a statement of hope and salvation on the part of the deceased and their families as well as a message that catechumens might well learn. The catacomb artifacts appear to be an outgrowth of the worship experience that the early church proclaimed to the culture around them; a culture that was at odds with what was being reflected here. While the frescos and sculptures presented here represent just a small number of the plethora that has come to light from the catacombs, they are representative of the whole. They underscore the understandings of those buried there concerning characteristics of Jesus as healer, savior, and redeemer. Also demonstrated here is the understanding of early church that the meal was more than a remembrance of Christ’s last meal before his death, but also a reminder that through the partaking of it they would come to know Jesus. REFERENCES Bosio, A. 1650 Byars, R P. 2000 Casey, D. 2007 Crossan, J. D. 2005 Fasola, U. 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