Obesity and food‐related content aimed at children on YouTube

Received: 1 April 2020 Revised: 8 June 2020 Accepted: 9 June 2020 DOI: 10.1111/cob.12389 ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE Obesity and food-related content aimed at children on YouTube Araceli Castelló-Martínez | Department of Advertising Communication and Social Psychology, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain Victoria Tur-Viñes Summary This article explores the intersection between advertising by food brands, practices on YouTube and child obesity. The objective is to analyse the communication fea- Correspondence Araceli Castelló-Martínez, Department of Advertising Communication and Social Psychology, University of Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, s/n. Social Science Building, 03690 Alicante, Spain. Email: [email protected] tures of marketing content by food brands targeting children on YouTube. The existing literature confirming the relationship between exposure to food advertising and actual consumption prioritizes television while largely ignoring the digital world. When children connect to the internet, watching videos on YouTube is their most common activity. We analyse and compare the advertising by food brands on regular Funding information Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities of Spain (EU), Grant/Award Number: CSO2016-74980-C2-2-R TV networks (traditional advertising) with videos by child YouTubers (influencing) in Spanish. An exploratory study is conducted by means of a content analysis of 304 videos, with 12 variables grouped into 2 categories: prevalence of ultra-processed vs healthy products in advertising, and marketing style. The results reveal marked differences in practices between brands and child YouTubers, along with the rise of hybrid media forms. The conclusions highlight the absence of advertising warnings in content targeting children. Changes are recommended to increase the responsibility assumed by these media spaces that exert such a huge influence on an audience as vulnerable as children. KEYWORDS advertising, brands, child, food, obesity, YouTube 1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N conditioning, family environment and cultural content) and endogenous factors. Ruvalcaba et al5 and Mussini and Temporelli6 identify 1.1 | Obesity and obesogenic factors the following as trigger factors: increased availability of industrial food products in general; lower costs of high-calorie processed foods with Obesity, and specifically child obesity, has become one of the big- additives and high quantities of fats, sugars and salt, in parallel with gest public health problems of the twenty-first century due to its the rising costs of fruit and vegetables7,8; increased consumption of 1 medical, economic and social effects. On a global level, the num- fast food and processed food outside of the home by a growing seg- ber of children and young people with obesity between the ages of ment of the population9; less time available for food preparation10; 2 5 and 19 has increased by 10 times in the past four decades. Over- and an increase in advertising of industrial foods that facilitate peo- weight and obesity are defined as an abnormal or excessive accu- ple's everyday tasks and work activities, reducing the amount of mulation of fat that poses a health risk, resulting from an imbalance energy they burn and increasing sedentary behaviour.11,12 Environ- between calorie intake and calories burned.3 The two concepts are mental factors are thus the primary cause of the development of obe- not synonymous. sity.13 At the risk of oversimplification, from an aetiological/genetic 4 Obesity has a complex combination of causes. The obesogenic standpoint human obesity appears to be less a metabolic than a system is affected by both exogenous forces (the media, social neurobehavioural disease because the major impact of genes on Clin Obes. 2020;e12389. https://doi.org/10.1111/cob.12389 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/cob © 2020 World Obesity Federation 1 of 10 CASTELLÓ-MARTÍNEZ AND TUR-VIÑES 2 of 10 human obesity is on hunger, satiety and food intake rather than metabolic rate or nutrient partitioning.14 In view of the literature cited above, the aim of this study is to identify elements or arguments in YouTube food-content aimed at children. Similar previous studies have only considered television. Qutteina et al15 point to the importance of researching the phenomenon in the digital environment, which is why we have chosen YouTube as an object of study. We compare the communication style of official videos made by food brands (advertising) and videos by child YouTubers with the most views (influencing). What is already known about this subject? • Obesity has a complex combination of causes: exogenous forces and endogenous factors. • Food advertising in traditional media such as television influences the consumption preferences and eating habits of minors. What this study adds? • Confirmation of the presence of negative communication features above the presence of positive trends on YouTube contents aimed at children. 1.2 | The food sector, its media content and household availability of ultra-processed foods • Evidence of strategies and media practices used in the online advertising of food products with low nutritional value, which have a negative influence on child obesity In Spain, the food and beverage sector represents 21% of the coun- prevention policies. try's manufacturing industry, with a business turnover of close to 98.3 billion euros.16 The current challenge faced by the sector is responding to new developments: a more aware consumer with a commitment to caring for the environment, animal welfare and To determine whether the situation of the market and its sectors healthy eating habits (preparation of handmade and organic foods, is reflected in the brands' media content, we posited the following with fewer additives, sugars, fats and preservatives).17 research question: More than half (53%) of all food products contain sugars; 25% of all products have more than 10 g of sugar for every 100 g of product RQ1: Do ultra-processed foods predominate over healthy foods in media content? and 64% of regularly consumed products are ultra-processed foods (minimal presence of natural ingredients and excessive saturated fats, salt and sugars), according to La Razón.18 High levels of sugar consumption are associated with obesity, cardiovascular risk factors, dia- 1.3 | Influence of media content about food on children betes and metabolic syndrome. Ultra-processed foods have intensive media exposure with From the perspective of cultivation theory,22 the media offer a vision a focus on overabundance and big servings, and they are typically of the world with specific values, and the intensity of audience expo- designed to be consumed as snacks rather than as regular meals. sure to those values correlates with an assimilation of and depen- All these factors encourage energy overconsumption, household dence on that worldview that affects consumer behaviour. Children's availability of ultra-processed foods and thus overweight and media consumption is prolonged and intensive, making them espe- obesity.19 cially vulnerable. Cultivation theory can easily be extrapolated to The response of children to food promotion is carried forward advertising content. into their communication and shopping behaviours.20 Recently, The influence of food advertising on children has been studied dietary patterns have been linked to the risk of obesity in young extensively.23,24 For television, the research confirms a clear influence children. Examining the association between dietary patterns, nutri- on consumer preferences, eating habits and, indirectly, on the general ent intake and obesity in a representative population of preschool prevalence of overweight and obesity among children.25,26 Dono- children in Australia, Shi et al21 identified three dietary patterns: hue27 demonstrated a direct connection between viewing of food the ‘traditional’ pattern was characterized by grains, fruit, vegeta- advertising, memory and consumption in children. Mussini and bles and red meat; the ‘processed’ pattern was characterized by Temporelli6 argue that advertising influences children's food choices, processed meats, snack foods and confectionary and the ‘health and consequently the weight of individuals. A study by Veerman et conscious’ pattern was characterized by eggs, fish, polyunsaturated al28 concludes that a reduction in exposure can reduce the prevalence margarines and low fat dairy products. The ‘traditional’ pattern was of obesity by an average of 16% in boys and 14% in girls. Chou et al29 positively associated with obesity but the association became non- estimated that the number of overweight children (aged 3-11) could significant after adjustment for energy and protein intake. How- be reduced by 18% if advertising by fast food chains were banned. ever, no association was observed between the other two dietary Halford et al30 and Boyland and Halford31 established a correlation patterns and weight status. between exposure to product advertising and the degree of brand It is clear that further research is needed on the relationship between these aspects. recognition and preference. Byrd-Bredbenner and Grasso32 argue that advertising has a direct influence on unhealthy eating habits in CASTELLÓ-MARTÍNEZ AND TUR-VIÑES 3 of 10 children. Reyes Pedraza et al33 suggest that children show clear signs establish42, p. 115. Features that make YouTubers appealing are of the persuasive effect of advertising for unhealthy product brands, enjoyment (62%), entertainment (56%), originality (56%), quality (46%) while Qutteina et al 15 measure the effect of media marketing (d = 0.22, P < .05) on unhealthy eating habits in adolescents. and learning (40%). On average, the recommendation of a YouTuber can attract an additional 6% of buyers to a category (individuals who Aktas34 found that 40.3% of children admitted that they would originally were not going to buy anything), which in relative terms rep- ask their parents to buy them products more when they were adver- resents a 27% increase in the size of the customer base. Consoles, tised. Clinical studies involving reduced exposure time to television toys and DIY are the categories where YouTubers have the greatest have found a significant reduction in calorie intake and the risk of potential to persuade. obesity.35 Considering all the scientific evidence, the WHO has con- Child YouTuber channels are characterized by a high level of pro- cluded that there is ample evidence that the marketing of unhealthy fessionalism, videos with elaborate post-production techniques and foods and sugary drinks is linked to child obesity.2 the inclusion of products advertised in an extremely natural man- In relation to content, Jiménez36 confirms that food advertising ner44,47, p. 9. ‘Media content based on influence is more effective strategies almost never involve rational arguments because the adver- than more traditional advertising because its design includes a non- tiser fears that children might associate the product with something advertising ‘authentic content’ that renders it more credible’48, p. they have to eat out of obligation rather than for pleasure. Instead, 1214. Products and their brands are integrated into the content of emotional arguments predominate37, p. 381. Moods and semantic child YouTuber videos in various ways: as one of the props in the fields associated with happiness, action, success and fun, among video (brand placement); in YouTuber-product interactions that dem- others, are also common in the discursive strategy of advertising for onstrate how to use them, and by associating them with positive emo- 38 products with low nutritional value that target children , p. 23. The tions channelled through an aspirational prism.48 energy the product provides after being consumed, contextualized in In relation to the content posted by child YouTubers and the an atmosphere of competition, is also a common message in food presence in their videos of food products and food brands, we posited advertising aimed at child audiences, along with contests, promotions the following research questions: and collectables. 39 To complete the study, we raised a series of questions related to The incentive that the consumer receives with the product purchase is thus the main selling tool, rather than the nutri- the media strategies of brands and advertising content: tional benefits the product itself offers.40 RQ2: Which food brands appear most often? RQ3: How are children presented? The various strategies (product/services; experience; useful infor- RQ4: What characterizes the communicative presence of prod- mation; identity; advertising) and their associated video formats have been studied by Costa-Sánchez.41 Child YouTubers are innovators in ucts and brands? formats such as unboxing, outdoor activities, challenges, tutorials, product analysis or storytelling.42 The choice of setting for the video (public or private) as discussed by Montes-Vozmediano et al43—‘the 2 | M A T E R I A L S A N D M ET H O D S intimacy of the private spaces of YouTubers and their personal narratives, where we meet each of the members of their family, generates The objective of this research was to identify the communication ele- a bond of emotional closeness (…)’44, p. 10—enhances the credibility ments or arguments in YouTube food-content aimed at children. We and naturalness of the message, which is a key factor in product compare the communication style of two types of content: official influencing. In our study, we will compare the behaviour of these pre- videos made by food brands (advertising) and videos by child viously researched variables. YouTubers with the most views (influencing). In response to the rise in obesity described above, in 2004, the 45 An exploratory qualitative-quantitative study was conducted Nutrition, Activity and Obesity Prevention based by the content analysis method. Firstly, we selected the Spanish Strategy). In 2005, the PAOS Code (Self-Regulation Code for Food and channels of food brands (n = 13) and child YouTubers (n = 15) with Beverage Advertising Aimed at Children, Obesity Prevention and Health) the most views and followers, according to Socialblade. Second, we was enacted in Spain, intended for the regulation of television content. identified the 1396 videos posted in 2019 on these channels: 238 For this study, we place the focus on YouTube, a media outlet that so far videos on the 13 food-brands' YouTube channels and 1158 videos on has been the subject of only limited research in this area. Video viewing the 15 child YouTuber channels. The final sample (see Table 1) con- is now one of the most common activities of small children, and YouTube sisted of 304 videos published by both types of channels in YouTube is the social network used most frequently by tweens and adolescents in 2019. These 304 videos are the ones, out of all the videos publi- WHO launched the (NAOS, 46 (58% aged 6-10 and 85% aged 11-15). shed in 2019 on the aforementioned channels, that feature or target children and include the presence of food products and/or food brands: videos on the official channels of the 13 Spanish food brands 1.4 | Child YouTubers and influencers featuring or targeting children (n = 82 videos), and videos by the 15 Spanish child YouTubers that feature food products and/or food YouTubers are influencers with the ability to create opinions (making brands (n = 222 videos). The data were extracted on January them attractive to brands) in the communities of followers they 13, 2020. Sample of YouTube channels Channel Type of content Creation date URL Subscribers Videos since creation Videos in 2019 Videos analysed Cumulative views of channel 1 Las ratitas Child YouTuber October 18, 2015 http://bit.ly/lasratitas 18 100 000 159 42 4 5 849 792 551 2 MikelTube Child YouTuber August 30, 2015 http://bit.ly/mikeltube-yt 5 250 000 689 99 15 3 160 062 304 3 The Crazy Haacks Child YouTuber March 9, 2015 http://bit.ly/the-crazy-haacks 3 540 000 636 102 31 1 320 711 747 4 Los juguetes de Arantxa Child YouTuber January 2, 2015 http://bit.ly/juguetes-arantxa 3 580 000 853 91 11 1 099 194 144 5 Las aventuras de Dani y Evan Child YouTuber January 22, 2015 http://bit.ly/aventuras-dani-evan 1 820 000 445 113 3 994 272 780 6 La diversión de Martina Child YouTuber January 5, 2015 http://bit.ly/ladiversiondemartina 3 860 000 303 65 10 849 828 248 7 Jugando con Aby Child YouTuber December 13, 2015 http://bit.ly/jugandoconaby 2 520 000 390 64 24 701 191 013 8 El mundo de Clodett Child YouTuber December 27, 2016 http://bit.ly/elmundodeclodett 2 400 000 261 73 15 552 071 204 TeamNico Child YouTuber November 4, 2013 http://bit.ly/los-mundos-de-nico 2 340 000 458 104 5 525 356 850 10 Juega con Adri Child YouTuber March 26, 2018 http://bit.ly/juegaconadri 1 940 000 114 73 41 465 342 764 11 Divertiguay Child YouTuber October 11, 2016 http://bit.ly/divertiguay-yt 2 220 000 570 118 32 456 502 768 12 Leotube Child YouTuber January 15, 2018 http://bit.ly/leotube-yt 1 450 000 79 56 4 346 709 452 13 Ladypecas Child YouTuber September 1, 2015 http://bit.ly/ladypecas 1 830 000 445 61 15 323 508 711 14 Pino y Ares Child YouTuber April 16, 2018 http://bit.ly/pinoyares 720 000 82 55 11 116 329 389 15 Juguetes MaryVer Child YouTuber June 9, 2010 http://bit.ly/maryver 250 000 522 42 1 90 538 590 16 Nestlé Spain Brand February 15, 2010 http://bit.ly/nestlesp 31 500 333 66 4 86 326 294 17 Casa Tarradellas Brand June 21, 2011 http://bit.ly/casatarradellas 22 400 175 37 2 38 685 413 18 Grefusa Brand August 31, 2012 http://bit.ly/grefusayt 22 300 68 7 4 11 032 332 19 Nocilla Brand February 9, 2012 http://bit.ly/nocillayt 14 400 24 9 8 10 650 427 20 Dino Aventuras Danonino Brand April 19, 2016 http://bit.ly/danoninoyt 11 500 27 2 2 6 738 653 21 The Phoskiters by Phoskitos Brand March 9, 2018 http://bit.ly/phoskitosyt 4400 98 37 37 5 657 407 22 Nesquik Spain Brand August 7, 2008 http://bit.ly/nesquiksp 3900 16 6 4 4 992 384 23 Kellogg's Spain Brand January 27, 2016 http://bit.ly/kelloggs-sp 24 ColaCao Brand June 25, 2007 http://bit.ly/colacaoyt 25 Hero Spain Brand March 11, 2013 26 Adams Foods Brand July 10, 2015 27 Dulcesol Brand October 7, 2015 http://bit.ly/dulcesol 653 87 25 2 831 662 28 Galletas Gullón Brand May 30, 2017 http://bit.ly/galletasgullon 389 23 14 5 165 638 1396 304 Note: Source: Socialblade and YouTube. 49 460 16 6 4 4 938 637 8150 203 13 8 4 685 506 http://bit.ly/hero-sp-yt 928 86 15 1 2 265 146 http://bit.ly/adamfoods 2570 25 1 1 1 891 355 CASTELLÓ-MARTÍNEZ AND TUR-VIÑES 9 4 of 10 TABLE 1 CASTELLÓ-MARTÍNEZ AND TUR-VIÑES TABLE 2 5 of 10 Congruence matrix: research questions, study dimensions and variables analysed Research question Dimension Study variable RQ1: Do ultra-processed foods predominate over healthy foods in media content? Food products and brands 11. Prevalence of healthy vs ultra-processed foods. 12. Food products on YouTuber videos. RQ2: Which brands appear most often? RQ3: How are children presented? 13. Number of brands. 14. Type of brand presence in YouTuber videos (visual, verbal, inclusion in title). Communication style 15. Presence of children. 16. Accompaniment of children. 17. Presence and type of reference group.50 18. Explicit food consumption by adults and children. 19. Video setting.43 20. Type of content.42 21. Communication strategy.41 22. Rational/emotional arguments. 23. Notice about commercial nature of content. RQ4: What characterizes the communicative presence of products and brands? Note: Source: prepared by authors. IMAGE 1 Promotion of calorie intake. Source: YouTube (http://bit.ly/youtubersmenores42 and http://bit.ly/youtubersmenores91) We analysed 47 hours and 41 minutes of video footage that met ‘Geez, artichokes… Barbecue wings!’ ‘Let's look at all the healthy all of the following selection criteria: presence (verbal or visual) of things we have here… I am heating super healthy’ (in an ironic tone food products or brands, and the presence of child protagonists/ while eating a pastry); ‘Food that fills you up: candy, chocolate, cook- actors/influencers. Table 2 shows the four research questions and ies…’ (El mundo de Clodett). their relationship to the 23 variables analysed. The study has provided Prepared meals (n = 58), fruit, vegetables and legumes (n = 41), information on two dimensions: food products and brands and com- confections and candies (n = 37), pastries, cakes and pies (n = 35), munication style. dairy products (n = 27) and french fries (n = 22) are the unbranded Two encoders participated in the study. The Kappa coefficient products identified most often in the sub-sample of child YouTubers. had an acceptable value (K = 0.96). Fast preparation of ultra-processed foods appears in two videos (Casa Tarradellas; Divertiguay) and convenience is referred to in one video on the Divertiguay channel (see Image 1). 3 | RESULTS 3.1 | RQ1: Do ultra-processed foods predominate over health foods in media content? 3.2 | RQ2: Which food brands appear most often? The presence of food brands is high in the overall sample (69.4%), Ultra-processed foods are present in 73.6% of the sample (N = 224), although in child YouTuber videos generic food products often appear with a higher percentage (79%) among the sub-sample of child without a recognized brand (42%; n = 93) as a justification for the YouTubers. The preference for these types of products over healthy content or a clear invitation for brand investment. In brand videos, the options is expressed in various ways: brand is of course present in all cases, with an average of 2.7 CASTELLÓ-MARTÍNEZ AND TUR-VIÑES 6 of 10 F I G U R E 1 Type of food and beverage brands mentioned. Source: prepared by authors based on YouTube appearances compared to 3.3 appearances per video in child YouTuber videos. The most common combination on children's chan- I M A G E 2 ‘Descubre los Finger Skates de Phoskitos by Salva!’ (Discover Phoskitos by Salva Finger Skates!’), from The Phoskiters by Phoskitos. Source: YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= brwgE14zfMM) nels is visual and verbal brand presence. In food brand videos, the most common case is the visual presence of a single brand, although Children appear accompanied by adults in 53% (n = 163) of the cases of co-branding were also identified (Adam Foods, Galletas total sample, although only in 18% of brand videos (in 10% of these Gullón and Grefusa). the adult is also eating the food product; many products are aimed at Looking more closely at the sub-sample of child YouTuber videos, families rather than exclusively at children). Adults have a prominent on all channels except for the Juguetes Maryver channel a total of presence in child YouTuber videos (67%; n = 148 videos), eating, par- 108 different food brands were identified, with 293 appearances. Of ticipating in challenges or talking to the children. Reference groups the 108, only 9 are beverage brands (with 30 appearances). Chocolate appear in 62.6% (n = 206) of the sample, with a bigger presence in the and chocolate derivatives represent the largest number of brands and sub-sample of child YouTuber videos (75.7%), the most common ref- appearances, followed by fast-food establishments, and confections erence group being the family (n = 139). The brand videos frequently and candies (see Figure 1). Two brands of cocoa powder (ColaCao and include scenes in the kitchen or of having fun with friends, and lexi- Nesquik) made a total of 19 appearances (9.5%). Then, 47.9% of the cally associate the actions with the product through neologisms based visual appearances of food brands fall into the high-calorie category: on the brand name. chocolate, confections/candies, French fries and pastries. In the sample as a whole, the most common setting is a private There was an average of 1.5 verbal references to food brands per space (69%; n = 209). In both sub-samples, challenges are the most video in the sub-sample of child YouTubers. In this sub-sample, each common type of content. Notable among the brand videos is the ‘The brand mentioned verbally appears an average of 2.4 times. The fol- Phoskiters by Phoskitos’ strategy with a hybrid format (‘Phoskitos is lowing nine brands account for 46.3% of all verbal references: looking for a Youtuber’ contest) featuring a youth imitating the style McDonald's (12), Coca-Cola (10), Oreos (9), ChupaChups (5), Lacasitos of a genuine YouTuber. The videos on this channel contain challenges (5), Actimel (4), Donuts (4), M&Ms (4) and Nutella (4). Fast-food estab- (the product does not appear) based on gifts that are included in the lishments make up the largest number of brands and verbal refer- product packaging, encouraging viewers to post their own videos. In ences, followed by chocolate and chocolate derivatives. The most child YouTuber videos, the challenges in which food products gener- frequently mentioned are beverages (3.8 references per brand) and ally appear (with or without reference to a specific brand) are varied: cookies (3.5 references per band). Chocolate is the most frequently ‘pause challenge’; ‘24-hour challenge’; ‘other YouTubers choose my repeated food type in video titles. Most of the titles of videos in the food’; ‘24 hours eating food of one color’; ‘truth versus lie with food’; sample share several common features: the inclusion of hashtags, ‘if you spell it, I'll buy it for you’; ‘I throw a dart and they buy me what- exclamation signs and appellative verbs. ever I hit’; ‘morning, afternoon or night-time routine’; and ‘ordering the same thing as the last customer’. 3.3 | RQ3: How are children presented? Children appear in all YouTuber videos and in 90.2% (n = 74) of brand 3.4 | RQ4: What characterizes the communicative presence of products and brands? videos. They are thus present in 97.4% (n = 296) of the total sample; they are shown eating in many cases (64.5%; n = 196) although less often in Based on the classification proposed by Costa-Sánchez,41 all the child brand videos (30.5%) (see Image 2) than in YouTuber videos (77%). YouTuber videos fall into the category of experience/testimony of CASTELLÓ-MARTÍNEZ AND TUR-VIÑES 7 of 10 I M A G E 3 Sponsorships in videos by The Crazy Haacks and LadyPecas. Source: YouTube (http://bit.ly/youtubersmenores161, http://bit.ly/ youtubersmenores172 and http://bit.ly/youtubersmenores20) child influencers/customers. However, we have needed to add a new simulates a traditional advertisement, with visual presence, verbal ref- category to classify most of the food brand videos (64%; n = 53) erences and even the insertion of the brand in the title in some cases, ‘added bonuses (gifts, merchandising, contests, collectables, etc.)’ as despite the fact that not all contain the commercial content message. this category was not included in the original model. This category is The YouTubers appear showing the product and, in some cases, a cap- followed by videos with product demonstrations (11), corporate social tion informs us that the video is the product of a collaboration or responsibility (9) and company news (3). All the food brand videos are sponsorship, including the brand logo, as can be seen in Image 3. clearly geared towards product/brand advertising. This is not the case The verbal references to brands are also reminiscent of a tradi- with the YouTuber videos, where food brands are mentioned verbally tional advertisement. On the channel Divertiguay, Daniela remarks: and featured in stories and challenges, but appear within a discourse ‘Hey, I love The Laughing Cow cheese sticks!’ Her mother agrees at the service of the story being told, even coexisting with the com- that ‘they are wonderful’ and that she loves them too. In the video, mercial content of other brands belonging to other sectors, such as Daniela also shows the brand's app, and part of the video is the toys, thereby blurring the advertising intention. game on the app. On The Crazy Haacks, in a video that refers to Food brands resort equally to rational and emotional arguments; Actimel yogurt, the siblings remark: ‘Have you seen Actimel's new the product is often associated with fun (‘a super adventure in each Star Wars edition collection? It's great!’ ‘And delicious!’ ‘Look how cup: Kellogg's Choco Crispies, fun by the bucketload’; ‘children are cool it is!’ The siblings describe the range of Star Wars products naturally irresistible’). Brands promote the family relationship (emo- being offered by Actimel and provide the link to the brand's tional argument), as illustrated by the Kellogg's Spain video showing website, which the user can find in the video description. It is nota- children saying that they would like to have breakfast with their par- ble how the commercial part of this video with the information on ents. Child YouTubers argue in support of food brands in only 13.5% Actimel is separated from the main video content; when they finish of the videos and in every case the appeal is an emotional one. the part where they talk about Actimel, they conclude: ‘Here's the In all the videos in the food brand sub-sample a notice about the video for you’. A similar approach appears in a Ladypecas video, inclusion of commercial content appears on screen. In the case of the which begins with an explanation of the Pez candy product before child YouTuber videos, of the 129 videos with some kind of presence commencing the main part of the video. of food brands, the message ‘includes commercial content’ appears in In other videos, the product is the main focus of the story or chal- only 30.2%. In the 10 videos that have visible brands, verbal refer- lenge, as can be seen in The Crazy Haacks with The Laughing Cow, or ences to brands, and brands in the title, only four include a commer- Jugando con Aby with Donettes. This last brand appears in two videos cial content notice. In the two cases where McDonald's appears in the by two different YouTubers (Jugando con Aby and Mikeltube), with all title (one with the brand visible and the other where it is not recogniz- three types of presence: visual, verbal and inclusion in the title. able), this message is absent. Of the 69 verbal references, 29% Another notable case is the American food establishment Foster's (n = 20) include this message, as do 31.3% (n = 15) of the videos in Hollywood in the video of the Halloween party at home in The Crazy which brands are visible. Haacks, where a waitress at the restaurant presents a Halloween- Only 4 of the 15 child YouTuber channels include the commercial themed dessert and shows how to prepare it in the YouTubers' information notice. On eight channels no video includes this message. kitchen. The message is integrated into the theme of the video and no Of particular note are two videos on the channel Las aventuras de indication is given of whether it is a case of sponsorship or collabora- Dani y Evan, in which the brand Kinder Joy appears on screen, is men- tion, although the inclusion of commercial content is flagged, as in all tioned verbally and is even included in the title; however, these videos the videos on this channel. do not include the commercial content notice, despite the fact that the protagonists' father shows the product and talks about it. YouTube thus appears to be a space for experimentation with branded content formulas, where brands can try out different adver- And yet, in 15 child YouTuber videos (11.6% of the 129 videos tising formats and children engage in practices that are not subject to with some form of brand presence) the placement of the product the strict regulations applicable to other media formats, like television. CASTELLÓ-MARTÍNEZ AND TUR-VIÑES 8 of 10 4 | DISCUSSION requirement for content created by influencers, which often involves a product promotion even though it may be spontaneous and not paid The findings of this study confirm that the strategies used to advertise for by the brand. There is an urgent need to establish international products with low nutritional value have a negative impact on child regulations for content created by children that feature products or obesity prevention policies, as they encourage children to consume brands, because child audiences need to understand whether there is such products, affecting their calorie intake, and to associate them an advertising intention so that they are not misled. The current use with positive emotions and experiences as a purchasing benefit, of such warnings is discretionary, and this should not continue to be supporting the conclusions of Jiménez-Morales et al.38 the case indefinitely. It is also necessary to raise awareness among The advertising content designed by food brands is less contro- child YouTubers, a school-age ‘semi-profession’ that is expanding versial than content made by children themselves on their YouTube exponentially, about the consequences of the influence they exert on channels. The presence of negative communication features (low their community and the responsibility they have when speaking to price, fast preparation, convenience, short cooking time, calorie intake other children, an audience whose learning processes are often based as a diet alternative, or sedentary behaviour) multiply per two the on the imitation of their leaders. presence of positive trends (environmentalism, animal welfare, hand- Food advertising occurs in a critical context of constantly made production or healthy eating habits). The negative features are questioned self-regulation and co-regulation, where advertising on more prevalent in child YouTuber videos, while having only an inci- social networks is treated with more laxity than it is on traditional dental presence in the brand videos. Healthy eating habits are also media like television. Paradoxically, social media platforms like promoted by the brands but receive minimal attention from the child YouTube are growing exponentially, while generalist television does YouTubers. All indications suggest that the media spaces created by not consider children to be a sufficiently interesting target audience. child YouTubers are controversial, as they are less responsible and For this audience, specifically child-themed television channels are reflect standards contrary to those applicable to brand media content, being created, many of which, to adapt to the new forms of media even though they target the same child audiences. The prevalence of consumption, are dispensing with linear programming of content and ultra-processed products, inadvisable for a healthy diet, is a serious transforming into something closer to YouTube: video-on-demand concern. These findings are original because the existing literature platforms, like Cartoon Networks, among others. More research is includes no comparisons of official brand advertising on YouTube with needed on food advertising in these new digital environments. media content made by child YouTubers on their channels. Videos targeting children on social networks, either made by chil- The brands are clearly more committed to promoting healthy life- dren themselves or promoted by brands, should include a hashtag or styles (walking for 30 minutes a day; eating breakfast every day; using warning that indicates that they are advertising. This measure would the stairs; exercising and maintaining a healthy diet). We see such enable both brands and YouTubers to be explicit about the nature of messages in captions in the videos of different food brands in adher- the media space, regardless of whether the advertising is paid for, ence to the sector's healthy habits awareness campaign in Spain compensated in kind or unpaid. The child's education should always (www.habitosdevidasaludables.com). However, in the videos by child be the priority, and their role as YouTubers should not interfere with YouTubers, there are hardly any proactive messages, which consti- this objective; that role should be chosen freely while preserving their tutes a regrettable waste of a format with a bigger influence on and integrity. This could be made public through a personal statement by greater credibility for children. the child YouTuber, accessible to the brands and to their community, This study confirms the findings of Jiménez,36 Remolar Franch37 where they explain that their choice is voluntary and that nobody has and Jiménez-Morales et al38 in relation to the prevalence of emotional pressured them to make it. Children who are subject to a contract arguments associated with enjoyment and entertainment. In nearly all should receive advice from specialized agencies to ensure compliance cases, the brands offer incentives for consuming their food products with the relevant legislation of each country. with other leisure or entertainment products (gifts, commodities, col- New media practices on social platforms, created by and/or lectables, personalizable objects, etc.). This might be said to be culti- targeting children, need further investigation. They are spaces based vating a ‘prize generation’ of children who have been made on influence, aimed at a vulnerable audience that frequently learns by accustomed by brands to receiving extra content. We may well won- imitation. This study reveals some troubling media practices associ- der what the consumer experience of these children will be like when ated with obesogenic issues. A responsible commitment is required they are adults and still expect ‘rewards’ from brands due to a practice from these spaces, with the decisive promotion of healthy eating that has clearly conditioned them to associate purchases with prizes. habits to combat the pandemic of obesity, and its associated patholo- The incentive obtained with the product purchase is thus the main gies, in a population as prone to high risk as children. selling tool, rather than the nutritional benefits it offers, as suggested by Fernández Gómez and Díaz-Campo.40 AC KNOWLEDG EME NT S Indications of the commercial nature of the content appears in all Martin Boyd (text translator). Both authors have collaborated equally, the official brand videos but in only one out of every three videos by substantially, in the conception and design of the study, data collec- child YouTubers. This indication is a legal requirement in the tradi- tion and interpretation. Likewise, they have equally collaborated in tional media (television, radio, etc.), but to date there is no such legal the writing of the article, its critical review, intellectual contribution CASTELLÓ-MARTÍNEZ AND TUR-VIÑES and final review. This research was funded by the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities of Spain (EU), grant number CSO201674980-C2-2-R. CONF LICT OF IN TE RE ST The authors declare no conflicts of interest. ORCID Araceli Castelló-Martínez Victoria Tur-Viñes https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5783-344X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8442-8068 RE FE R ENC E S 1. Lobstein T, Baur L, Uauy R. Obesity in children and young people: a crisis in public health. Obes Rev. 2004;5:4-85. https://doi.org/10. 1111/j.1467-789X.2004.00133.x. 2. World Health Organization (WHO). Report of the Commission on Ending Childhood Obesity; 2016. http://bit.ly/who-2016 3. Castro AM, Toledo-Rojas AA, Macedo-De La Concha LE, InclánRubio V. 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