RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Submitted By. Sapthami M (JKP19006) JSS Law College, Mysuru Submitted To. Dr. N Vanishree Assistant Prfessor JSS Law College, Mysuru JSS LAW COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS) DEPARTMENT OF POST- GRADUATION UNDER KARNATAKA STATE LAW UNIVERSITY, HUBLI ASSIGNMENT WORK SUBMITTED TO PG DEPARTMENT OF LAW, JSS LC MYSURU. AS A PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE I SEMESTER LLM (BUSINESS LAW) 2019-2020 -1- DECLARATION: I, SAPTHAMI M, do hereby declare that this assignment work on “Methods of Data Collection” is the assignment undertaken by me in partial fulfilment of requirement for the master’s degree in law from JSS Law College (Autonomous), Mysuru under the proficient guidance and erudite supervision of Dr. N Vanishree Assistant Professor, JSS Law College. Place; Mysore Date; 24 -04-2020 (SAPTHAMI M) -2- CERTIFICATE This is to certify that, this assignment titled “Methods of Data Collection” submitted to JSS Law College (Autonomous), Mysuru is the bonafide work carried out by the student under my guidance and supervision. Place; Mysuru Date; 24 -04-2020 (Asst. Professor) -3- INDEX CONCEPT OF DATA COLLECTION…………………………………………..……….5 DATA COLLECTION IN LEGAL RESEARCH……………………………..............….6 TYPES OF DATA…………………………………………………………………..…….6 • Qualitative Data………………………………………………………………..….6 • Quantitative Data……………………………………………………………….....7 TECHNIQUES USED IN DATA COLLECTION ……………….....…..............…...…..9 • OBSERVATION……………………………………………………....……........9 • INTERVIEW………………………………………………………….……….....1 2 • QUESTIONAIRE………………………………………………………....…...…1 7 • SAMPLING………………………………………………………….....………..21 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………….....………............28 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………….....………........29 -4- COLLECTION OF DATA Concept Of Data Collection Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The instruments thus employed as means for collecting data are called tools. The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same. The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been posed. Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring. Techniques and Tools are the ways and means to conduct research and it could only be justified through the use of appropriate methods and techniques meant for it, and Thereby collected evidence is called data and the tools used for this are called data collecting devices or tools, which is a common phenomenon in the behavioural researches. These tools help to realise, analyse and interpretation of data related to research. A researcher needs many data gathering tools and devices which may vary in their complexity, design, administration and interpretation. Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You can have the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the required data you will be not be able to complete your project. Data collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough planning, hard work, patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the task successfully. Data collection starts with determining what kind of -5- data required followed by the selection of a sample from a certain population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument to collect the data from the selected sample. Data Collection in Legal Research – Data collection is the middle compartment between formulation of research problem and results of research. Supplying data for research purpose works to fuel for stimulating research process and in majority cases reward or frustration in research credited for quality of data, method, tools and techniques used for data collection. Researcher should be equally skilled in all process of research applied at varies stages. Data collection methods, tools and techniques should be highly standardised so that the data relevant to undertaken research can be easily visualise, relies and analyse. Such expectations cannot be simply materialise in applied and normative sciences. Law is a normative science, its sources of study are found in law books as texts of legal principles and elements have been searched in complex social variables. Therefore, research in the field of law maintain its own methodology, which includes basic patterns applied in other social science research with distinct features and approach inevitable in legal research. Legal Research process is performed between two common methods i.e., doctrinal and empirical methods. Following any one method out of two require distinct sources of data, nature of data and their collection methods vary from one two another. Over all approach of research (procedural and technical) changes with individual method likewise changing in techniques of data collection is also inevitable. TYPES OF DATA Data are organised into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative Data: Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal in nature. This means the data collected are in the form of words and sentences. Often (not always), such data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions of something. Qualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program and tend to use unstructured methods of data collection to fully explore the topic. Qualitative questions are open-ended. Qualitative methods include focus groups, group discussions and interviews. Qualitative approaches are good for further exploring the effects and -6- unintended consequences of a program. They are, however, expensive and time consuming to implement. Additionally the findings cannot be generalised to participants outside of the program and are only indicative of the group involved. Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being. Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are characterised by the following attributes they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants); they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be interviewed several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data; they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results); generally their findings are not generalisable to any specific population, rather each case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among different studies of the same issue. Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thoroughly, accurately, and systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and other suitable means. The data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research. The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad categories – In-depth interview Observation methods Document review. -7- Quantitative Data: Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed. Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Often (not always), such data includes measurements of something. Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’ of the program. They use a systematic standardised approach and employ methods such as surveys and ask questions. Quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are cheaper to implement, are standardised so comparisons can be easily made and the size of the effect can usually be measured. Quantitative approaches however are limited in their capacity for the investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences. It is important to note that for peer-based programs quantitative data collection approaches often prove to be difficult to implement for agencies as lack of necessary resources to ensure rigorous implementation of surveys and frequently experienced low participation and loss to follow up rates are commonly experienced factors. The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarise, compare, and generalise. If the intent is to generalise from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants. Typical quantitative data gathering strategies includeExperiments/clinical trials. Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day). Obtaining relevant data from management information systems. Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc). In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than in Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews -8- have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation. Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous. TECHNIQUES USED IN DATA COLLECTION The following are the important techniques used in empirical researchObservation Interview Questionnaire Sampling OBSERVATION Observation method of data collection deals with the recording of behaviour of the respondents or sampling units. In this technique researcher has to observe the required phenomenon by himself. By involving himself, researcher will be able to keep his eye on the entire activity for the accurate data and certain direct inferences. Observation provides an opportunity for empirical study that is first hands collection of facts and there is scientific precision in this method as facts and related information is collected in a natural situation. From observation, researcher can very well relate cause and effect relationship. Observation technique can be further classified as participating and non participating observation.Observation technique is rarely used in legal researches. C.A.Moser opines that “...In the strict sense observation implies the use of the eyes rather then of ear and the voice.” Prof. Giri cites Oxford Concise Dictionary where Observation has been explained as “An accurate watching, noting of phenomenon as they occur in nature with regard to cause or effect or mutual relations.” -9- Jahoda and Cook in his treatise has explained observation in very simple words by saying “Observation is not only one of the most pervasive activities of daily life, it is a primary tool of scientific enquiry,” P.V. Young in her book Scientific Social Survey and Research defines observation as – “Observation, a deliberate study through the eyes may be used as one of the methods for scrutinising collective behaviour and complex social institutions as well as the separate units composing a totality.” The purpose of observation technique is to study the existing phenomenon of human behaviour. Though, to control human behaviour is not easy, yet it is studied simply by control and uncontrolled observation. In uncontrolled observation, researcher, studies phenomenon without any interference in natural occurrence of phenomenon. Jahoda calls this observation as unstructured observation and P.V. Young call it simple observation. These observations are unguided, informal and independent observation. Uncontrolled observation is considered beneficial to research for following reasons – In uncontrolled observation natural and real phenomenon as to human behaviour is helpful in study. It consist objectivity. The dynamic social behaviour can be well understood by uncontrolled observation. Observation technique is considered vary important from hypothesis point of view. P.V. Young is of the view that the observed incidents have greater importance on research rather information received from other techniques. The object of observation is to study the complex social phenomenon, human nature, culture, pattern of human conduct. Use of Observational Method There are a variety of reasons for collecting observational data. Some of these reasons include – When the nature of the research question to be answered is focused on answering a how- or what-type question. When the topic is relatively unexplored and little is known to explain the behaviour of people in a particular setting. When understanding the meaning of a setting in a detailed way is valuable. - 10 - When it is important to study a phenomenon in its natural setting. When self-report data (asking people what they do) is likely to be different from actual behaviour (what people actually do). One example of this seen in the difference between self-reported versus observed preventive service delivery in health care settings. When implementing an intervention in a natural setting, observation may be used in conjunction with other quantitative data collection techniques. Observational data can help researchers evaluate the fidelity of an intervention across settings and identify when 'stasis' has been achieved. Observation technique can be classified on the basis of role of researcher’s participation in the phenomenon of observation as. Participant Observation - Here researcher himself being actively remains associated with other members of the group and observes behaviour and activities of the group of study. G.A. Lundberg says that “researcher actively keeps close relation with the observed group.” Prof. M.S. Gopal says that “in participant observation researcher in close relations of observe group studies the phenomenon more closely, correctly and comprehensively.” Quasi participant Observation – In this kind of observation researcher does not remains all present to study group activities. He has to believe on his fellow researchers of the phenomenon when he is not present. In quasi participant observations the researcher takes parts in festivals, sports, in group fooding etc. Non participant Observation – In this observation though the researcher remains present with observe persons but he studies their activities and behaviour as a neutral person. He does not take part himself in the group. He remains limited to the causes of observation, environment, population or social life of the observed group. Advantages and Disadvantages of Observational Method What and how you observe depends very much on your subject of study. Researchers who prefer more security from the beginning might consider systematic observation. This involves using an observation schedule whereby teacher and/or - 11 - pupil behaviour is coded according to certain predetermined categories at regular intervals. The strengths of systematic observation are – It is relatively free of observer bias. It can establish frequencies, and is strong on objective measures which involve low inference on the part of the observer. Reliability can be strong. Where teams of researchers have used this approach, 80% reliability has been established among them. Generalisability. Once you have devised your instrument, large samples can be covered. It is precise. There is no ‘hanging around’ or ‘muddling through’. It provides a structure for the research. The weaknesses are – There is a measure of unreliability. Qualitative material might be misrepresented through the use of measurement techniques. Much of the interaction is missed. It usually ignores the temporal and spatial context in which the data is collected. It is not good for generating fresh insights. The pre-specification of categories predetermines what is to be discovered and allows only partial description. It ignores process, flux, development, and change. There has been lively debate about the pros and cons of systematic and unsystematic observation. In general, systematic observation is a useful technique and can be particularly strong where used in conjunction with more purely qualitative techniques. INTERVIEW Interview is commonly accepted technique of data collection where researcher enters into face to face interaction with any person or group for the purpose of seeking certain information as to the facts, idea or observation relevant to his research. Components of the interview are the researcher, the interviewer, interviewee and the interview environment. Where Researcher or any other person in his behalf enter in the role of interviewer and other person whose opinion, behaviour and responses are observed logically for research objectives is called interview. Expected research data is synthesised from internal views of other person. - 12 - The purpose of the interview is to probe the ideas of the interviewees about the phenomenon of interest. Even terms abstractly related to the search are helpful, in that they may pull up documents that would otherwise not be found. Interview is the process to know the opinion, information or observations of other person through verbal and non-verbal conversation initiated for specific purpose and focused on certain planned content areas. This method is preferred if such information cannot be adequately observed by other methods without entering into conversation only. Information cannot be easily obtained by this method, because the process depends on the interest and attentiveness and personal qualities of the interviewee. Though, apparently, it seems verbal communication but it is not mere verbal communication between interviewer and interviewee. But, more then that, involving even the study of body language. Mead opines that, gestures, glances, facial expressions, pauses, even a flick of an eye or mere silence can speak more than verbal exchanges. Behaviour can be judged and attitude can be estimated based upon blush in the face, or laugh, visible happiness or anger. The term itself denotes it is inter viewing, an interpersonal interaction. Interviews can be – Structured, Semi-structure or Unstructured. Structured Interviews Characteristics of the Structured Interview The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of questions. The questions are created prior to the interview, and often have a limited set of response categories. There is generally little room for variation in responses and there are few open-ended questions included in the interview guide. Questioning is standardised and the ordering and phrasing of the questions are kept consistent from interview to interview. The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and friendly, but does not insert his or her opinion in the interview. - 13 - Self-administered questionnaires are a type of structured interview. When to Use a Structured Interview: Development of a structured interview guide or questionnaire requires a clear topical focus and well-developed understanding of the topic at hand. A welldeveloped understanding of a topic allows researchers to create a highly structured interview guide or questionnaire that provides respondents with relevant, meaningful and appropriate response categories to choose from for each question. Structured interviews are, therefore, best used when the literature in a topical area is highly developed or following the use of observational and other less structured interviewing approaches that provide the researcher with adequate understanding of a topic to construct meaningful and relevant close-ended questions. Recording Interviews: There are a range of ways to collect and record structured interview data. Data collections methods include, but are not limited to - paper-based and self-report (mail, face-to-face); telephone interviews where the interviewer fills in participants’ responses; web-based and self-report. Benefits: Structured interviews can be conducted efficiently by interviewers trained only to follow the instructions on the interview guide or questionnaire. Structured interviews do not require the development of rapport between interviewer and interviewee, and they can produce consistent data that can be compared across a number of respondents. Semi-structured Interviews Characteristics of Semi-structured Interviews The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview. The interviewer develops and uses an ‘interview guide’. This is a list of questions and topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a particular order. The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow topical trajectories in the conversation that may stray from the guide when s/he feels this is appropriate. When to Use Semi-structured Interviews: - 14 - Semi-structured interviewing, according to Bernard (1988), is best used when you won’t get more than one chance to interview someone and when you will be sending several interviewers out into the field to collect data. The semi-structured interview guide provides a clear set of instructions for interviewers and can provide reliable, comparable qualitative data. Semi-structured interviews are often preceded by observation, informal and unstructured interviewing in order to allow the researchers to develop a keen understanding of the topic of interest necessary for developing relevant and meaningful semi-structured questions. The inclusion of open-ended questions and training of interviewers to follow relevant topics that may stray from the interview guide does, however, still provide the opportunity for identifying new ways of seeing and understanding the topic at hand. Recording Semi-Structured Interviews: Typically, the interviewer has a paper-based interview guide that s/he follows. Since semi-structured interviews often contain open-ended questions and discussions may diverge from the interview guide, it is generally best to tape-record interviews and later transcript these tapes for analysis. While it is possible to try to jot notes to capture respondents’ answers, it is difficult to focus on conducting an interview and jotting notes. This approach will result in poor notes and also detract for the development of rapport between interviewer and interviewee. Development of rapport and dialogue is essential in unstructured interviews. If tape-recording an interview is out of the question, consider having a note-taker present during the interview. Benefits: Many researchers like to use semi-structured interviews because questions can be prepared ahead of time. This allows the interviewer to be prepared and appear competent during the interview. Semi-structured interviews also allow informants the freedom to express their views in their own terms. Semi-structure interviews can provide reliable, comparable qualitative data. Unstructured Interviews Characteristics of Unstructured Interviews The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview in that they have a scheduled time to sit and speak with each other and both parties recognize this to be an interview. - 15 - The interviewer has a clear plan in mind regarding the focus and goal of the interview. This guides the discussion. There is not a structured interview guide. Instead, the interviewer builds rapport with respondents, getting respondents to open-up and express themselves in their own way. Questions tend to be open-ended and express little control over informants’ responses. Ethnographic, in depth interviews are unstructured. Fontana and Frey (1994) identify three types of in depth, ethnographic unstructured interviews – oral history, creative interviews and postmodern interviews. When to Use Unstructured Interviews: Unstructured interviewing is recommended when the researcher has developed enough of an understanding of a setting and his/her topic of interest to have a clear agenda for the discussion with the informant, but still remains open to having his/her understanding of the area of inquiry open to revision by respondents. Because these interviews are not highly structured and because the researcher’s understanding is still evolving, it is helpful to anticipate the need to speak with informants on multiple occasions. Recording Unstructured Interviews: Since unstructured interviews often contain open-ended questions and discussions may develop in unanticipated directions, it is generally best to tape-record interviews and later transcript these tapes for analysis. This allows the interviewer to focus on interacting with the participant and follow the discussion. While it is possible to try to jot notes to capture respondents’ answers, it is difficult to focus on conducting an interview and jotting notes. This approach will result in poor notes and also detract from the development of rapport between interviewer and interviewee. Development of rapport and dialogue is essential in unstructured interviews. If taperecording an interview is out of the question, consider having a note-taker present during the interview. Benefits: - 16 - Unstructured interviews are an extremely useful method for developing an understanding of an as-of-yet not fully understood or appreciated culture, experience, or setting. Unstructured interviews allow researchers to focus the respondents’ talk on a particular topic of interest, and may allow researchers the opportunity to test out his/her preliminary understanding, while still allowing for ample opportunity for new ways of seeing and understanding to develop. Unstructured interviews can be an important preliminary step toward the development of more structured interview guides or surveys. Advantages and disadvantages of interview are following: Advantages: In this method information can be gathered from illiterate people too. There are no chances of non-response as the interviewer personally collects data. The collected data is very reliable since the interviewer tactfully collects the data by cross examining the responders. Disadvantages: The major disadvantages of interview are: There is a chance of bias. The informants may not answer some personal questions. It is a time-consuming process. Money and manpower requirements are very high. Some time the interviewers are involved in pressurising respondents to share their personal information. To study the topic of the research out of available instruments for research mainly questionnaire, interview and telephone/mobile phones have been used because these instruments were found suitable for data collection purpose. QUESTIONNAIRE A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton (1822 - 1911). Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as - 17 - much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardised answers that make it simple to compile data. As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question construction and wording that exist in other types of opinion polls. Types: A distinction can be made between questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables, and questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index. Questionnaires within the former category are commonly part of surveys, whereas questionnaires in the latter category are commonly part of tests. Questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables, could for instance include questions on – preferences (e.g. political party) behaviours (e.g. food consumption) facts (e.g. gender). Questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index, include for instance questions that measure latent traits (e.g. personality traits such as extroversion) attitudes (e.g. towards immigration) an index (e.g. Social Economic Status). Question Types: Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions that the respondent has to answer in a set format. A distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended questions. An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his/her own answer, whereas a closed-ended question has the respondent pick an answer from a given number of options. The response options for a closed-ended question should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished – Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options. Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options. Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options. Continuous (Bounded), where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale. - 18 - A respondent’s answer to an open-ended question is coded into a response scale afterwards. An example of an open-ended question is a question where the testee has to complete a sentence (sentence completion item). Question Sequence: In general, questions should flow logically from one to the next. To achieve the best response rates, questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive, from the factual and behavioural to the attitudinal, and from the more general to the more specific. There typically is a flow that should be followed when constructing a questionnaire in regards to the order that the questions are asked. The order is as follows Screens Warm-ups Transitions Skips Difficult Changing Formula Screens are used as a screening method to find out early whether or not someone should complete the questionnaire. Warm-ups are simple to answer, help capture interest in the survey, and may not even pertain to research objectives. Transition questions are used to make different areas flow well together. Skips include questions similar to ‘If yes, then answer question 3. If no, then continue to question 5’. Difficult questions are towards the end because the respondent is in ‘response mode’. Also, when completing an online questionnaire, the progress bars lets the respondent know that they are almost done so they are more willing to answer more difficult questions. Classification or demographic question should be at the end because typically they can feel like personal questions which will make respondents uncomfortable and not willing to finish survey. Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction: Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations of the population of interest. Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different answers. Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of possible answers. - 19 - Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item. Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives. Do not make assumptions about the respondent. Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational levels. Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation. Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like strawberries and potatoes?). Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an answer. Questionnaire Administration Modes: Main modes of questionnaire administration are Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the items orally. Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on paper. Computerised questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the computer. Adaptive computerised questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is presented on the computer, and based on the answers on those items, the computer selects following items optimised for the testee’s estimated ability or trait. Concerns with Questionnaires: It is important to consider the order in which questions are presented. Sensitive questions, such as questions about income, drug use, or sexual activity, should be put at the end of the survey. This allows the researcher to establish trust before asking questions that might embarrass respondents. Researchers also recommend putting routine questions, such as age, gender, and marital status, at the end of the questionnaire. Doublebarrelled questions, which ask two questions in one, should never be used in a survey. An example of a double barrelled question is, please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following statement - ‘I feel good about my work on the job, and I get along well with others at work’. This question is problematic because survey respondents are asked - 20 - to give one response for two questions. Researchers should avoid using emotionally loaded or biased words and phrases. Advantages of Questionnaires: Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way. Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its validity and reliability. The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package. Can be analysed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of research. When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to measure change. Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test existing hypotheses. Disadvantages of Questionnaires: To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc. Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation. There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being. There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in. The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation. People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone may be ‘poor’ to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged. Questionnaires are not among the most prominent methods in qualitative research, because they commonly require subjects to respond to a stimulus, and thus they are not acting naturally. However, they have their uses, especially as a means of collecting information from a wider sample than can be reached by personal interview. Though the - 21 - information is necessarily more limited, it can still be very useful. For example, where certain clearly defined facts or opinions have been identified by more qualitative methods, a questionnaire can explore how generally these apply, if that is a matter of interest. SAMPLING Meaning As the name suggests, ‘sampling’ is the procedure ‘to sample’ something. In layman terms, a sample is a part of a thing and it has the ability to display the qualities and features of the thing, of which it is a part. In other words sample is a part of a thing that acts as a specimen or an example for that thing. For example, before launching a new soft-drink in market the company wants to test consumer feedback for the product. The company may set up temporary vendors at an amusement park and let the consumers try the samples of soft drink to collect their feedback. Each of those soft drinks will be called as a ‘sample’. Sampling is the most important step in the direction of carrying out research, once the hypothesis and objectives of research are understood. Sampling is a vital procedure in quantitative research, wherein the researcher first identifies the population to be studied. However studying each and every item or member of the entire population is not only cumbersome and costly, but also wasteful of time. Therefore it is an accepted method to carve out a body of the items out of that population in such a way that the results derived from studying those items can be generalized to the whole population. This collective body of items that can be studied in lieu of studying the entire population is called a sample. Sampling is the method or technique that is used to draw out a sample, which reflects the qualities possessed by the population. Thus ‘sampling’ may be defined as a method of picking out a representative sample from the population to be studied, by using a definite technique. Technique is an essential thing while doing sampling because the sample that is taken must be appropriate in size as well as features, to be suitable for drawing inferences that can be generalized to the whole population. The first step in sampling is to determine the population to be studied. Then next step is to ascertain the qualities of the population that the researcher wants to study. On the basis of the qualities to be studied and the size of the population, the researcher can decide the appropriate proportional size of the sample. The qualities to - 22 - be studied will also give the parameters for choosing a sample from the population. As has already been said that the sample must be representative of the whole population, the researcher must ensure that the qualities of the population to be studied are seen in the sample also. Sampling comes into the picture from the point of research design itself. It helps in streamlining the path of research. Once the samples are fixed using a sampling technique, the collection of data from respondents becomes easier and cost-effective. The researcher can collect data from a portion of the population only, i.e. the sample, and at the same time he/she can generalize the results arrived at. Sampling is a step that has a bigger role in quantitative research than purely doctrinal research. Such a research in legal field is often called as ‘socio-legal’ research because the researcher examines the execution of legal principles in society. For example a socio-legal researcher wants to study the level of awareness of consumer rights among educated people in a city in Maharashtra, say Pune. Since Pune is a big city, he divides it into different areas and then proceeds to determine the number of people he will approach for data collection in each of those areas. He first finds out the latest census information about population in Pune and finds out a number that would proportionately represent the population.[1] The researcher in this example can also randomly choose the respondents for his questionnaires, like the members of his family or his friends, neighbours, colleagues, etc. However that will not establish the credibility of his research, because respondents chosen according to the researcher’s personal wish cannot yield results that can be called illustrative of the whole population. It is not possible to identify each and every unit to decide whether or not the unit should be part of the sample. It is also ineffective to just randomly choose any group of population units and label them as ‘sample’.[2] There are certain techniques that have been developed by researchers over time. There are also many practical and technical considerations to be kept in mind for choosing the sampling technique. These techniques and the intricacies associated with it will be dealt-with in this module later. First let us understand the meaning of some important terms that are associated with sampling and will be used frequently in this Module. Sampling Design - 23 - Before embarking upon the process of sampling, it is desirable to first draw a plan to do the same. The way a research design is framed prior to the research itself, a ‘sample design’ is framed before beginning to form samples for the research. There are many methods and techniques of conducting sampling, and a sample design serves to guide the researcher to choose the most appropriate sampling technique. Sample design is the light under which the further steps are taken. It is designed by the researcher, and so it is his discretion to put the guiding steps for the research. Below are given some indicative points that form part of a sample design. Objective of Study The foundational step in forming a sample design is to spell out very clearly the objectives of the research. The objectives also from part of the research design. This step assists the researcher to gauge the nature of sample that is required. Universe The objectives of the study once clearly defined, the researcher must now clearly define the universe that is proposed to be studied. The nature and characteristics of the population must be spelled out. Also the sampling units must be decided by the researcher in clear terms, including the characteristics that are required in the units. Sample Size Once the size of the universe is known, the researcher must delimit the size of the sample. A further reading into the sampling techniques further in this Module would offer a clear understanding as to how size can be decided prior to beginning sampling. Population Parameters The parameters, i.e. basic information of the population must be noted down by the researchers. This will also help in choosing the appropriate sampling technique. Parameters of the population include vital statistics like census figures, gender ratio, population figures according to region, etc. Budgetary and Time Constraints Every research, especially the ones conducted on individual level have time and budget constraints. It is beneficial for the research to accurately define these constraints, so that the sampling technique is chosen accordingly. Sampling Technique - 24 - The final step is to choose the appropriate sampling technique. Taking into consideration all the above steps in sampling design and after understanding the various sampling techniques discussed ahead, the researcher will be able to select the appropriate sampling technique accordingly. Purpose of Sampling A researcher often wonders the need for conducting sampling as opposed to conducting the study on the whole population. It would be much easier to select any number of respondents on a arbitrary basis, and call it our sample. Following a sampling procedure has some purpose. Let us now look at why we need to do sampling. Accuracy of Results Studying a smaller portion out of a large number of items offers better accuracy than conducting study on a huge population. The study not only gets conducted smoothly but also it is not troublesome to arrive at the results. The lesser the amount of data, the more are the chances of obtaining accurate results. Time efficient Sampling allows the researcher to conduct the research in a time-bound manner. Imagine the amount of work if a researcher has to map the entire India for his research, and collect responses from each and every citizen of India. Conducting study on a sample allows researcher to finish the work in shorter span of time than as compared to the whole population. Cost effective Cost-effectiveness is a primary incentive for researchers, as many researches are conducted by individuals, like researches conducted as partial fulfilment of course work in an academic institute. Sampling offers cost effectiveness in that the data to be collected is to be collected from a smaller portion of population. Convenience Most motivating reason for conducting sampling is because of the convenience it offers. Conducting the research on a sample is anytime convenient than conducting it on the entire selected universe. Research work is generally related to studying a large population. It is difficult to cover the entire population with each and every of its unit. Sampling enables us to conduct the research in a more focussed manner, by concentrating - 25 - on the sample rather than the whole chunk of population. A basic assumption in sampling is that the sample is representative of the entire population and so the results obtained from studying the sample can be generalised to the universe. Based on this assumption a researcher proceeds to study the sample in place of the whole ‘universe’. The following are the advantages or merits of conducting research on a sample than conducting it on the universe: A universe selected for study is generally composed of a large number of people (sampling units). Sampling reduces the number of people to be studied, while at the same time preserving the essence of the factors to be studied. The lesser the number of people to be studied, the more is the convenience of conducting the study. Imagine conducting a study to gauge response of general public of India to a newly introduced Bill in the Parliament. If the researcher goes on to collect responses from every nook and cranny of India it would take a large number of researchers to compile the data and finally a whole other set of people to compound the data and analyse. Sampling allows research to be conducted conveniently. It is easier to supervise lesser number of respondents, to conduct data collection from them, and also achieves better rate of responses. Sociological and socio-legal studies that are conducted empirically generally involve dealing with variables. Results of the study are obtained by drawing inferences from data analysis, which becomes complicated if the sample size is huge with a large number of units. Lesser number of subjects to be studied increases prospects of obtaining accurate results. Conducting research on a sample saves time and expenditure than conducting the same study on the whole universe of study. We can say it is cost-cost-effective and time-efficient. Large scale researchers require elaborate resources and field researchers that call for institutional sponsorship. Sampling encourages and incentivises individual researchers to conduct empirical researchers. Classification of Sampling Not all the units of the universe can be included in the sample. Researcher has to take care to include the units of the universe in the sample in a methodical manner. Sampling - 26 - provides for a chance of including the sampling units in the sample. The appropriate sampling technique for a study has to be chosen keeping in mind the advantages and disadvantages of the technique. There are various techniques to do sampling. These techniques are discussed in detail further in this Module. All sampling techniques may be classified based on the likelihood of the units to be selected in forming the sample. There are mainly three kinds of sampling. Let us understand these kinds as follows: Probability Sampling: Where the sample is chosen in such a manner that all the elements present in the universe have an equal chance of being represented in the sample, then it is called as ‘Probability Sampling’. The sampling techniques that come under ‘probability sampling’ are used in the cases where population is homogeneous. In probability sampling, all the units of the universe have an equal chance of being included in the sample; and when the population is homogeneous, there is no risk of missing out on any aspect of the population. For conducting probability sampling it is imperative to know the size of the universe and the complete list of units in it. Also the researcher must decide the size of the desired sample beforehand. Non-probability Sampling: In ‘Non-probability sampling’, all the units do not stand a chance to be included in the sample. Non-probability sampling does not guarantee representativeness. It is also called as ‘decisive sampling’ or ‘purposive sampling’ as the basis of sampling is the free will of the researcher. Purposive sampling is used where the size of the universe is unknown or indefinable. It is an oft repeated and established practice to use purposive sampling where the objective of research is qualitative analyses and descriptive or exploratory. Mixed Sampling: There are some sampling techniques which do not fall under the above two mentioned categories strictly. These techniques display some characteristics of a ‘probability sampling’ and some characteristics of a ‘nonprobability sampling’. Such sampling techniques may be called as ‘mixed sampling’. Principles and Precautions of Sampling Now that we have learnt the ways and techniques of doing sampling, it is imperative to also pay attention to some key cautionary points. These are the sampling - 27 - principles. These precautions are to be taken at some specific points during the sampling procedure. An essential tenet to be kept in mind is that the basic motive behind sampling is analysing the units in the sample and deduce results from the study, which can be generalised to the universe from which the sample was drawn. Sample is representative of the universe. Research conducted on the sample is for making inferences about the universe. Sampling technique should be chosen with care and caution, so as to obtain most appropriate sample for study. The following things must be borne in mind while choosing samples and sampling technique: The universe must be clearly defined. The sampling units must be distinct and independent of each other. A clearly chalked out sampling design ensures predetermined steps, and also encompasses planning for contingencies. Sampling must be done in an unbiased, objective and systematic manner. The objective of the research must be kept in mind while sampling. Arbitrary alterations must be avoided during sampling. Sample size must be chosen in accordance with the nature of study, i.e. qualitative or quantitative, and taking into consideration the size of the universe. The cost and time factor is an important influencing factor in research. It is advisable to not see these factors as an impediment to research, but to utilise them in the most efficient way possible. Ease of contacting the respondents is another important factor that is to be taken into consideration while sampling. Even with the advent of technology, care must be taken by the researcher that the selected respondents are source of objective, unbiased answers. It should also be ensured to maximum possible extent that the potential respondents are not being forced for participation in the research. Sampling errors must be avoided as much as possible. Conclusion - 28 - Thus , the most desirable approach with regard to the selection of the method depends on the nature of the particular problem and on the time and resources available along with the desired degree of accuracy Other than, more to above all this, much depends upon the aptitude and understanding of the researcher. As accordance to Dr. A.L. Bowley's comment that "in collection of statistical data common sense is the chief requisite and experience is the chief teacher. That is to say ability and experience is the key in collection of data. BIBLIOGRAPHY Internet references 1. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=20 2. ://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/3704/12/12_chapter%202.pdf 3. https://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-collection/ 4. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Syed_Muhammad_Kabir/publication/32584 6997_METHODS_OF_DATA_COLLECTION/links/5b3127b3a6fdcc8506cc9d4 8/METHODS-OF-DATA-COLLECTION.pdf?origin=publication_detail - 29 -