Data Gathering Techniques in Communication Research

Data Gathering Techniques in Communication Research By Abasifreke Idiong Department of Communication Arts University of Uyo PMB 1017 Uyo, Akwa Ibom State [email protected] +234 8175380510 Introduction Researchers engage in an activity that permeates all aspects of human endeavour. The aim is generally to advance knowledge, promote progress and foster meaningful human existence. The act of enquiry is itself as old as civilization and it is common to hear people apply the term research to diverse human activities; from the student who browses the Web or visits the library for a term paper, to the newsman who pores through volumes of data to unravel a crime. There are several methods of doing research. Research may be conducted experimentally – observation under controlled conditions or non-experimentally – through observation without controlled conditions (Okwechime, 2016). Thus, research is not entirely the preserve of academics. The major difference, though, between academic research and other approaches at discovering knowledge is in the method of investigation. Nwagbara (2006) advances reasons for failure in one’s quest for knowledge to include utilizing a wrong procedure, skipping, overlooking, or completely ignoring the required steps, which renders the investigation unscientific. One of such steps borders on data sourcing and collection. Data constitute the live-wire of every research process and is indeed a pointer to the empirical foundation of the exercise. Nwabueze (2008) likens the role of data in research to that of blood in the human being. The data gathering stage is very crucial in that it is the time that the researcher is really implementing his research plan or design. The success recorded at this stage holds far-reaching ramifications for every other part of the report. For instance, the quality of data gathered will determine whether or not the research objectives are addressed, as well as form the basis for testing research hypotheses. Any successful research exercise is thus anchored first on an appropriate and meaningful data gathering. This is because before data are presented or analyzed later in the research report, they should have been first collected. Nwabueze (2008) agreed no less when he averred that researchers must arm themselves with the right data in order to provide dependable solutions to problems in society. This chapter takes the student beyond the rudimentary library and secondary sources of data, into the major firsthand methods of obtaining data for empirical researches. Meaning of Research Research is a process of proffering solutions to problems through the careful collection, analysis and interpretation of relevant data. Nwabueze (2006, p.87) defines research as a systematic way of gathering facts or information relevant for providing answers to difficult questions or for solving specific problems. Human society is replete with problems of varying decrees which call for dependable solutions both for the advancement of knowledge and the betterment of the society, at large. Unfortunately, there is yet no single method of research that has been found most acceptable and universal for every situation. However, the method of enquiring in academic circles that guarantees the most dependable solutions to problems is the scientific method. The scientific method of research is a systematized, rigorous, investigative process. It is empirical and verifiable and it is not done haphazardly. This method demands that the research work be planned and that the results arrived at should be a product of some scientific process. Though the scientific method remains the most popular today, because of its highly formalized and objective process of arriving at what appears to be the most reasonable explanations for happenings, there is no guarantee that the conclusions from a scientific study would offer the best answer to the problem being investigated. However, it remains the one method that is certain to produce related results if studies are replicated, regardless of the changes in the researcher and the conditions under which the original study took place. It is also the best method for making generalizations and predictions. Meaning of Data Data simply refers to information or facts obtained using an empirical or scientific method. It is information which has not undergone statistical treatment. The process of gleaning or gathering data is called data collection. Nwabueze (2006) defines data simply as referring to facts, figures, information or compilation of observations made in the field in the course of a research work. Ewurum (1998) sees data as the inputs or raw materials of statistical investigation. Data refers to facts of all kinds – information, ideas, observations, reports, experiences and graphics, which can be presented in figures, charts, tables, maps, models, etc. They are pieces of information relevant to a given research study which can be analysed and from which inferences or conclusions can be drawn. Agbo and Ugwu (2015) identified tangible and intangible data. Data are tangible when they are concrete, but non-tangible when they are not concrete, but conceivable or perceived. Data can also be organized or unorganized. They are said to be organized when they are raw. Data are raw when they are not organized numerically or treated statistically. Data collection or mining is rigorous and time consuming. In fact, the bulk of time and resources utilized in the course of a research project is spent on data gathering and collation. This is so because the testability or otherwise of a study’s research questions, hypotheses and generalizations is anchored on finding appropriate data. Furthermore, the acceptability of a research report depends to a large extent on the competence displayed by the researcher in collecting relevant data. The researcher is therefore expected to set up a research design which is capable of providing necessary and relevant data for finding solutions to the problem under investigation. To achieve this, the researcher must devote a considerable amount of time to sampling, since it is not always possible to study the entire population, especially where the population is large. Data and data collection are very crucial to the researcher and his study. Utmost care should be accorded this stage of research in order to give impetus to the research questions or hypotheses, and to draw inferences and arrive at acceptable conclusions. One way to achieve this is to ensure that both the data to be collected and the tools for their collection are appropriate to the research problem and thrust of the study. Sources of Data Two main sources of data have been identified: primary and secondary. Primary sources are the main sources of data. Agbo and Ugwu (2015) say primary sources are data collected firsthand by the researcher or his paid agent from original sources, for the user’s express purpose or for solving a problem at hand. Primary data are usually fresh from the field, not yet used by another person, but generated by the researcher for his research work. Such data are usually obtained using survey instruments like interviews, and questionnaires, and planned experimental observations or recordings of official transactions. Examples include data archives, government documents, census materials, radio and television ratings, and voter registration lists. Secondary sources of information are also called supportive data. They are data obtained secondhand from published or recorded sources and used for a purpose different from that of the agency that initially collected or published the data (Agbo and Ugwu, 2015). They are usually collected quickly, easily and relatively inexpensively. Resource persons, information from textbooks, journals, and the Internet, are some examples of secondary sources of data collection. The authors also identified two general sources of secondary data: internal data sources available within an organization, and external sources of data that are developed outside the firm. Examples of internal sources include: accounting records, sales records, past researches, special audits and reports. Common examples of external sources of secondary data include publications from recognized governmental agencies like the CBN, non-governmental bodies, and industrial organizations. Data typology and Classification Data have been grouped into two broad classes: stage-oriented and state-oriented classifications. The first classification concerns itself with when the data was generated. It views data in terms of their freshness, or whether they had already been in existence as “cold data” (Nwabueze, 2008). The state-oriented approach refers to a classification by “nature” of the generated data, that is, whether they are quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative data refer to information that do not contain statistics or figures but consists of written records, interview transcripts and diary notes of observed behaviour that are analyzed qualitatively. Qualitative data are used most frequently in participant observation studies, and remain the most appropriate method for most ethnographic studies. Generally, qualitative studies do not emphasis numbers, and research questions are used most frequently than hypotheses, which gives room for flexibility in the matter of sampling, instrumentation and data collection. Quantitative data, on the other hand are reported through analyses, inferences and numerical comparisons. Researchers ferret out various kinds of information in the course of a research study. Such information include facts (demographic, psychographic, sociological and behavioural), intentions, motives, opinions, knowledge and perceptions. Methods of Data Gathering Data gathering / collection stage of the research project is otherwise called the field work. It is the stage where the researcher actually moves into the field. The researcher at this point makes contacts with the research respondents or subjects to elicit the required information using some appropriate techniques or instruments. Information could be gathered directly form respondents or indirectly from documents and records, in the case of content analysis. However, some planning is essential before the researcher embarks on collecting data. Again, since data gathering involves a great deal of tedium in reaching out to the respondents, a lot of energy and patience is needed to succeed at this stage. There are five steps in the process of quantitative data collection. This process involves more than simply gathering information; it includes inter-related steps. It involves the steps of determining the participants to study, obtaining permissions needed from several individuals and organizations, considering what types of information to collect from several sources available to the quantitative research, locating and selecting instrument to use that will net useful data for the study, and finally, administering the data collection process to collect data (Creswell, 2012). This is not a task for the unprepared. There are also different tools and techniques for collecting data which the researcher can draw from, and they vary in their complexity, purpose, design, administration and interpretation. Though some of them respond to specific types of research activities, it is common to find modern researchers employing a combination of two or more of these techniques in a given a research endeavour. This unit treats the major methods of data collections. Documentary and Library Research Library research remains the most common means of data gathering for most research project students. In fact, there is almost no research work that is completely devoid of the researcher perusing some archival materials, either in public or private repositories or libraries. Documentary research as it is also called involves the use of documents such as letters, essays, autobiographies, books, reports, journals and other printed matters for investigation. All such documents constitute a secondary source of data available to the researcher. This is usually the case when researchers are reviewing related literature, where they are to familiarize themselves with opinions, concepts, theoretical foundations and previous studies conducted in an area. The library provides a dependable repository for achieving these. Again, library research is important considering the fact that many empirical investigations aim not necessarily at generating new hypotheses, but in replicating or mining and analyzing data from documented previous studies and comparing findings. However, there is the need to sound a note of caution, particularly to beginning library researchers, who may find themselves quickly overwhelmed by information overload, if they do not adopt an efficient strategy for separating the wheat from the chaff. The challenge becomes far graver for library researchers who visit e-libraries where files are archived in electronic databases. What such researcher need is a method that quickly identifies all articles relevant to their topic and aligns them for easy access. One way to achieve this is for the researcher to familiarize himself with the library research tools available in the library. Most college libraries house a wide variety of indexes that researchers can find useful. These include PsychInfo (a computerized database for searching psychological journals, books and book chapters) and hard copy editions of Psychological Abstracts, as well as Science Citations Index, the Social Science Citation Index, and host of other indexes. In addition, many libraries now have their card catalogs on a computer system that might include a way to electronically search scientific and popular publications (Bordens and Abbott, 2002). Bordens and Abbott (2002, p.72) offer the following as a basic strategy for performing library research: 1. Find a relevant research article (you can do this by consulting the reference sections of textbooks or other books or tracking down an article using a periodical index or computerized database). 2. Use the reference section of the article you found to locate other articles (inspecting the titles of articles can give you some insight into the terminology used by researchers in an area). 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each relevant article identified until you can find no more. 4. Use one of many indexes available in your library to identify more recent articles. 5. Repeat the entire process as you find more and more recent articles. Observation Observation is a technique that involves a systematic watching and recording of the behaviour and characteristics of people, objects or phenomenon (Okafor, 2002). This method of data collection demands that the researcher actually records what really happens, while it is happening, though he may not be expected to seek information directly. However, one decision the researcher will have to make early is whether to conduct his observations using participant observation – in which case, he acts as a functional member of the group, or using non participant observation – in which case, he observes as a non-member. Another point to consider is whether to conduct the observations overtly (the group members know that you are conducting research on the group) or covertly (under cover). However, when done overtly, both participant and non-participant observations carry the possibility of stimulation and, threaten external validity. The researcher can, however, minimize this by choosing to observe covertly. A third consideration in scientific observation is in upholding the objectivity and empiricism required for the exercise, particularly when the events are viewed from the inside and the observer could be tempted to arrange for some things to happen. These can be addressed by the observer training his co-observers and ensuring that the highest level of professionalism is adhered to. A final concern has to do with the timing and recording of observations, considering the fact that observation researchers could watch people at home, office, at the playground, in order to record exactly what happens. Again, this should be handled with tact. Questionnaire A questionnaire is a prepared question format eliciting information on certain constructs, concepts or phenomenon under investigation. It is a research instrument containing carefully deigned questions for the respondent to fill personally thereby providing data for the study (Udontre, 2004). There are two types of questionnaires namely: the structured questionnaire and unstructured questionnaire. The structured questionnaire is constructed with a set of close-ended questions providing respondents with multiple choice answers to choose from. The unstructured questionnaire is constructed with open-ended questions, to which the respondents are expected to provide answers. Some questionnaires are designed using the Likert scale format – a five-point scale of two extremes that measures respondents’ disposition towards an issue. Whichever one or a combination of these is adopted for data collection, the questionnaire items should address the research questions of the study, which should logically relate to the central theme or thrust of the study. A first step at ensuring this is for the researcher to clearly define the topic of his study. Doing so in a clear and concise manner will yield results that can be interpreted unambiguously. Aside gathering data to address the thrust of the study, the questionnaire should also elicit demographic and psychographic particulars of respondents, including age, sex, income, occupation, educational attainment, attitudes, dispositions and opinions – where necessary. Interview The interview is a data collection method in which oral information is elicited from an individual. In this method, the researcher talks to his participants face-to-face or directly, in the participant’s home, office or in any suitable place. The main distinction between the interview and the questionnaire is that in the interview questions are verbal whereas the questionnaire comes in a printed form and demands that responses be presented in written form. The researcher who decides to utilize the face-to-face interview as a means of gathering data has to keep several things in mind. First, he has to decide whether or not to use a structured or unstructured interview. In a structured interview, you ask prepared questions. This is similar to the telephone survey in that you prepare a set of questions in advance and simply read the ordered questions to your participants. In the unstructured interview, you have a general idea about the issue to discuss. However, you do not have a predetermined sequence of questions. This method is highly flexible and best suited for collecting qualitative data. Focus Groups The focus group affords a researcher the opportunity to understand and glean facts about audience attitudes, behaviour and knowledge about certain issues of interest. Wimmer and Dominick (2000) note that in focus group discussion about 6-12 people of similar backgrounds are typically interviewed simultaneously with a trained moderator leading the respondents in a relatively unstructured discussion about the focal topic. In some cases, the focus group serves as a pilot study for gathering preliminary information for a research project, to help develop questionnaire items for survey research, to understand the reasons behind a particular phenomenon, to see how a group of people interpret a phenomenon or to test preliminary ideas or plans (Wimmer and Dominick, 2000). Conclusion This paper has emphasized the fact that gathering quality data remains pivotal to any scientific research endeavor. It has also dissected the major data gathering methods to which the researcher can avail himself. Researches succeed or fail largely at the point of data collection. This is so because without the right techniques, instruments and population, the researcher cannot get much done in terms of answering the study’s research questions, and making inferences, conclusions, recommendations and even generalizations that are intellectually binding and acceptable. References Agbo, B. and Ugwu, B. (2015). Introduction to research methods. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex Publishers. Bordens, K. S. and Abbott, B. B. (2002). Research design and methods: a process approach, 5th Ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research, 4th Ed. Boston: Pearson. Ewurum, U. F. (1999). Business statistics. Unpublished Lecture Material. Department of Management, University Of Nigeria, Enugu Campus. Nwabueze, C. D. (2008). 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