WORD FORMATION AND NEOLOGISM IN THE CURRENT ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Západočeská univerzita v Plzni Fakulta filozofická Bakalářská práce WORD FORMATION AND NEOLOGISM IN THE CURRENT ENGLISH LANGUAGE Kateřina Fröhlichová Plzeň 2011 Západočeská univerzita v Plzni Fakulta filozofická Katedra anglického jazyka a literatury Studijní program Filologie Studijní obor Cizí jazyky pro komerční praxi angličtina - francouzština Bakalářská práce WORD FORMATION AND NEOLOGISM IN THE CURRENT ENGLISH LANGUAGE Kateřina Fröhlichová Vedoucí práce: PhDr. Eva Raisová Katedra anglického jazyka a literatury Fakulta filozofická Západočeské univerzity v Plzni Plzeň 2011 Prohlašuji, že jsem práci zpracoval(a) samostatně a použil(a) jen uvedených pramenů a literatury. Plzeň, duben 2011 ……………………… Poděkování: Tímto bych chtěla poděkovat vedoucí mé bakalářské práce PhDr. Evě Raisové za užitečné připomínky, vstřícný přístup po celou dobu konzultací a za čas, který mé práci věnovala. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................... 1 2 BASICS OF WORD-FORMATION ............................................... 3 2.1 Place of word-formation in the linguistic system ..................... 4 2.1.1 Transformational and generative stream .............................. 4 2.1.2 Approach of morphologists ................................................... 5 2.1.3 Lexicological point of view .................................................... 6 2.2 Subject of word-formation .......................................................... 7 3 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF WORD-FORMATION ................. 8 4 WORD-FORMATIVE PROCESSES IN ENGLISH ..................... 10 4.1 Compounding ............................................................................. 10 4.1.1 Primary and syntectic compounds ..................................... 11 4.1.2 Endocentric and exocentric compounds ............................ 12 4.1.3 Neoclassical compounds .................................................... 12 4.1.4 Classification according to the type of composition ............ 13 4.1.5 Classification based on determinant/determinantum sequence ..................................................................................... 13 4.1.6 Syntactic and asyntactic compounds ................................. 13 4.1.7 Classification based on semantic principles ....................... 14 4.2 Derivation (affixation) ................................................................ 14 4.2.1 Prefixation........................................................................... 15 4.2.2 Suffixation ........................................................................... 16 4.3 Conversion ................................................................................. 16 4.4 Back-formation ........................................................................... 17 4.5 Blending ...................................................................................... 18 4.6 Clipping ....................................................................................... 19 4.6.1 Back clipping ...................................................................... 20 4.6.2 Fore-clipping ....................................................................... 20 4.6.3 Middle clipping .................................................................... 20 4.6.4 Complex clipping ................................................................ 20 4.7 Acronyms ................................................................................... 21 4.8 Reduplication ............................................................................. 22 5 NEOLOGISM IN THE CURRENT ENGLISH LANGUAGE: ...... 23 TEORETICAL PART ....................................................................... 23 5.1 What is a neologism? ................................................................ 23 5.2 History of neologism ................................................................. 24 5.3 John Milton and his contribution to English vocabulary ....... 25 5.3.1 Who was John Milton? ....................................................... 25 5.3.2 Paradise Lost...................................................................... 26 5.3.3 Neologism in Paradise Lost ................................................ 26 6 NEOLOGISM IN THE CURRENT ENGLISH LANGUAGE ....... 30 PRACTICAL PART .......................................................................... 30 6.1 Neologism in sport .................................................................... 30 6.2 Neologism in fashion ................................................................. 32 6.3 Neologism in alimentation and life-style ................................. 33 6.4 Neologism in technology .......................................................... 35 6.5 Neologism in business and economy...................................... 36 7 CONCLUSION ............................................................................ 39 8 ENDNOTES ................................................................................ 41 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................... 46 9.1 Print sources .............................................................................. 46 9.2 Internet sources ......................................................................... 47 10 ABSTRACT ................................................................................ 52 11 RESUMÉ ..................................................................................... 53 1 1 INTRODUCTION This Bachelor´s thesis deals with the process of word-formation and appearance of neologism in the current English language. These two phenomena belong to the area of linguistics. Word-formation is a relatively young linguistic discipline which is generally considered as a confused area of study. Despite this fact, its obscure delimitation and place in the linguistic system caused its current position in the centre of interest of contemporary linguists. Any of word-formative processes can give rise to a neologism. An occurence of neologism is very closely connected with changes in social life, our lexicon is very sensitive to these changes. Every day in the English language, many new words are born for various reasons. Their stability in the language depends on many factors. However, the neologism has undoubtedly become a real phenomenom in the current English. This thesis attempts to provide essential information about wordformation from different points of view, to introduce word-formative processes which can cause a rise of neologism and to state some examples of neologisms which occur in the current English language. The thesis itself is composed of five main chapters. The first chapter is focused on basic information concerning word-formation: its ambiguous delimitation, a position of word-formation within the linguistic system according to generative stream of linguists, morphologists and lexicologists. The subject of word-formation is also examined. The second chapter describes a history of the study of wordformation. Herein, many important names and works are stated. Chapter three is dedicated to particular word-formative processes. The processes of formation of words by compounding, derivation, conversion, back-formation, blending, clipping, acronyms and reduplication are explained and exemplified. The fourth chapter deals with theoretical information about neologism: the explanation of this term, its history and division according to decades. 2 John Milton plays an important role in the field of neologism. He is considered as the greatest British word-maker. His life, a description of his masterpiece Paradise Lost and selected examples of his contribution to the English language by means of neologisms can be also found in this chapter. The last, practical part of the thesis provides selected examples of neologisms in the current English language. They are divided into five subgroups: neologism in sport, neologism in fashion, neologism in alimentation and life-style, neologism in technology and finally, neologism in business and economy. The main sources utilized for the theoretical part were An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation by Valerie Adams, A course in English word-formation by Pavol Štekauer and Rudiments of English linguistics by Stanislav Kavka and Pavol Štekauer. As regards the examples of neologisms, the first part was found in Paradise Lost by John Milton. The examples of neologisms from the current English were found on the Internet (The Guardian, The Telegraph etc.). Their explication was carried out through Macmillan English Dictionary for advanced learners, the web site The Oxford dictionaries and by means of Brave New Words: A Language Lover´s Guide to the 21st Century by Kerry Maxwell. 3 2 BASICS OF WORD-FORMATION A human language is distinguished by specific characteristics from which a creativity can be emphasized as the most important property for word-formation. This term creativity is defined as the capability of a native language speaker to build up and also comprehend new figures in his native language. In the majority of cases, it is reflected in our mental lexicon, where coinages are added on a regular basis. However, it is also obvious when it comes to formation of sentences. The creativity is considered as a headstone of word-formation, which at the present time has not a clear delimitation. [1] As it is outlined by the term, it deals with a process of formation of words. All processes, which are in relation with changing the form of a word, belong to this branch, although it concerns for example affixation, which is a matter of morphology. More generally, word-formation also involves proceeding of creation of new lexical units. A line between a morphological change of a word and formation of a coinage is sometimes obscure, as in the case of blending, which caused disagreement between linguists. Nevertheless, word-formative processes where are not any vaguenesses also exist. [2] Word-formation can be defined as a comparatively young linguistic discipline. Since the beginning of linguistics, scientists have not been interested in this branch, hence the position of word formation was somewhere on the edge of scientific research. However, certain matters or obscurities concerning word-formation were studied during preceding centuries, it did not concern a research regarding only this topic, the examination was practised against the background of more discussed issues such as general linguistic issues and particular grammatical ones. [3] In grammar, word-formation can be found as a brief summary at most in two chapters, by reason that it is difficult to make general 4 statements about a group of word-formative processes. In addition, due to its link with the non-linguistic world of things and ideas and its indefinable place between descriptive and historical studies, linguists have not been interested in the subject of this issue. [4] Regardless of the past, word-formation is nowadays a prime concern of all linguists who hold different views. The reason is the highlight it throws on other standpoints of language. In this branch, no single theory exists concerning this matter nor agreement on the methodology or basic theoretical facts. Due to these facts, it is a confused field. [5] The present-day position of word-formation in linguistics is distinguished by continual tendency to determine and strengthen its place and to improve its own methodology. [6] 2.1 Place of word-formation in the linguistic system The location of word-formation within the system of linguistics depends on the theory selected. In general, it can be conceived by three main conceptions. Issues are mostly discussed in the scope of morphology or lexicology in combination with lexical semantics. The latter scope is used particularly in Europe. [7] 2.1.1 Transformational and generative stream This group of linguists points out a resemblance between the process of word-formation and syntactic processes. So-called "father" of this stream, R.B.Lees and his descendents (they are called: transformationalist hypothesis) rely on syntagmatic principles of naming units and therefore as a central point can be considered the parallelism of word-formation with a syntagmatic nature of syntactic units. This hypothesis also explains motivated naming units as reduced sentences. In addition, it aims to set up an analogy between transformations which 5 result in new naming units and transformations leading to sentences. Linguists submit that word-formation as well as syntax are expressions of possibilty of a speaker to create a limitless number of combinations via a limited register of elements and rules. Basically, this stream claims that formation of sentences and words is characterized by identical primary principles. [8] Obviously, this approach is criticised by its opponents. They argue about character of basic units of naming units and sentences. In addition, they emphasize their different function - They claim that while the main task of naming units is to provide names for phenomena, objects, proprieties and background of extra-linguistic reality, the function of sentences is to compound these segments into logical and grammatical order and in that manner to describe different aspects of extra-linguistic reality. [9] Another argument can be the fact that sentences (in form of questions, statements or commands) in contrast to complex words depend on specific speech communication. [10] 2.1.2 Approach of morphologists The main argument for unity of word-formation and morphology (especially inflectional morphology) is using morphemes like key units and an important role of morphological categories (word-classes) in the process of analysing word-formation. [11] In addition, both branches can be considered as similiar due to these facts: Inflectional affixes as well as derivational ones may change word-classes and that inflectional and derivational morphemes are able to exchange their places. Among protagonists of this conception can be mentioned Rochelle Lieber, Wolfgang U. Dressler or Paul Kiparsky. [12] The conception of separation of word-formation from inflection (conjugation, declension in traditional grammar) is represented for 6 example by Hans Marchand, Mark Aronoff or Laurie Bauer. These linguists emphasize distinction between inflection, the main task of which is to modify complex words by morphosyntactic features and formation of new complex words in terms of word-formation. As another argument can serve a different position of morphemes. Derivational morphemes incline to be placed in front of inflectional ones. [13] To completely understand this matter, there are examples: a) derivation (type of word-formation) b) inflection player she speaks useless the gardeners untruthfulness is picking interview we arrived curiosity the children passivize Peter´s car terrorism Anna´s office [14] Thanks to these examples, further distinctions are evident. While derivation contains lexical meaning, inflection constitutes grammatical categories such as plural (gardeners), person (sleeps), tense (arrived) or case (Peter´s). Therefore, inflection is considered as a part of grammar and derivation is regarded as a part of word-formation. As mentioned above, derivational morphemes have not fixed position but their place is mostly in front of inflectional ones, on the contrary inflection is always expressed by suffixes. [15] 2.1.3 Lexicological point of view Close connections between word-formation and lexicology were observed by lexicologists. They maintain that lexemes which are produced within word-formative processes as well as unanalysable words (monemes) are included in the lexical system of language. [16] 7 The next term which is crucial as regards a relation between wordformation and lexicology is lexicon. In the past, lexicon was considered as a register of irregularities. This claim was later accompanied by findings that word-formative processes are also irregular. [17] As results from the above mentioned streams of linguists, views of the position of word-formation in the linguistic system and its relation to other linguistic branches are different. To close this matter, an independence of word-formation should be acknowledged. The same way as any other linguistic discipline, it has its distinct subject, scope and methods of research. Nevertheless, it is known that it is not possible to exist in so-called vacuum and due to this fact, the relation with other disciplines is obvious. [18] 2.2 Subject of word-formation To begin with, a connection with difficulties concerning the above mentioned position of word-formation in linguistic system and a complication of its relations should be emphasized. Word-formation does not examine all words of language. It focuses on motivated naming units which are treated as basic units of word-formation. However, it is not for its analysability, but for the reason of the word-formative relation. What is important, it is a motivation of one unit by another which allows including of processes like conversion, blending and back-derivation to wordformation despite their unary structure. On the contrary, unmotivated words are considered as a matter of lexicology. The term motivated naming unit is given priority to lexeme and to word due to the fact that the field of naming units also includes collocations and therefore it is wider. [19] In addition, word-formation engages in types of word-formative processes, word-formative structure as well as sign character of naming 8 units. It is also occupied by relation between motivated and motivating units and methodology of investigation of these phenomena. [20] Next subject of word-formation is a productivity of word-formative processes. This term stands for an ability of language to produce new naming units in case of need and requirement. It is not suprising that also this area is explained in a number of ways and that there is not a clear line between productive and unproductive processes. In general, it is argued that productivity depends on a degree of generality. In other words, a process is the more productive, the more general it is. [21] The distinction between productivity and creativity should be stated. While productivity is governed by generative grammar, creativity does not follow any grammar rules, it is a native ability of a speaker who spreads the language system in any (unpredictable) way. These both phenomena incite an increase in neologisms. Nevertheless, only productivity is discussed because creativity is unpredictable. [22] 3 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF WORD-FORMATION Interest in the matter of word-formation has undoubtedly always been connected with interest in language universally. A study of this matter was started by work of Panini. Panini was born about 520 BC in a town called Shalatula in today´s Pakistan. He is considered as a founder of the language and the culture of Sanskrit. [23] In his work, he offered a deep description of Sanskrit word-formation which was similar to the contemporary one. In seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, there was no noticeable progress following Panini. As has already been mentioned, linguists were not interested in this topic, therefore research works were carried out against the background of other linguistic issues. [24] The 20th century brought a turn-about in this matter. From the first works of this period should be mentioned: "Handbuch der Englischen 9 Wortbildungslehre" by Herbert Koziol published in 1937 (a brief overview of earlier studies) and the sixth volume of " A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles" by Otto Jespersen from 1942. In this work, Jespersen tried to provide a view from the outside of grammatical issue but his approach is still considered as historical. Nevertheless, any of these works have not signified an important change of interest in wordformation, linguists concentrated on grammatical matters. Representatives of American structuralism were focused on morphemes instead of words and transformational stream of linguists was interested in sentences, units larger than the word. [25] A fundamental breakthrough came in 1960 hand-in-hand with two important works which had an impact on further development of wordformation. It was "The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word Formation" by Hans Marchand and "The Grammar of English Nominalizations" written by R.B.Lees. [26] Hans Marchand provided in his work a great deal of precious theoretical information. According to him: "Word-formation is a branch of the science of language which studies the patterns on which a language forms new lexical items, words." [27] As a main subject of his book is considered a concept of word. It means that every word has to be composed of a significant and a signifie to be regarded as a motivated sign. An influence by Ferdinand Saussure is evident. In this period, wordformation represents processes which form through combination of existing lexical items and formatives (suffixes,prefixes). Only compounding and affix-derivation belong to this category. Nevertheless, Marchand assigned to the word-formation also formations which are not syntagmas (motivated signs). This fact led to embarrassment about his work. [28] As noted previously, Lees is so called "father" of transformational stream because he, as the first, tried to apply these methods on word-formation. 10 Publication of these two works caused an important change in perception of word-formation among linguists. They started to deal with this topic and the edition of these books came soon: "An Introduction to Modern English Word Formation" by Valerie Adams published in 1973, "English Word-Formation" written by Laurie Bauer from 1983, "Wortbildung und Semantik" by Dieter Kastovsky (1982), "Lexikologija anglijskogo jazyka" by A.I.Smirnitskij (1956) or "Word Formation in Generative Grammar" by Mark Aronoff (1976). Czech and Slovak linguists also contributed to this boom, namely Miloš Dokulil, Josef Filipec or Ján Horecký. [29] Although there is a dissidence in views and approaches, contemporary situation of word-formation can be characterized by rapid development and increasing interest of linguists in this field. What is the reason? According to Kastovsky: "Word-formation lies on the "crossroads" of different aspects of language - synchrony and diachrony, morphology, phonology, syntax and semantics. And this is what makes it very interesting and attractive." [30] 4 WORD-FORMATIVE PROCESSES IN ENGLISH 4.1 Compounding In the simplest and the most general way, a term compounding is explained as a word-formation which creates a word with new sense by attaching two or more words already existing. This process of compounding is considered as the most productive word-formative process in English. In addition, it is also defined as a recursive process. It means that a compound noun acts as one lexeme (noun) and the process of compounding can be repeated. It seems to be apparent that also a definition of compound and delimitation of its nature varies. According to 11 Radek Vogel: "A compound is a vocabulary unit constisting of more than one lexical stem (called word-formative base of word)". [31] On the other hand, Valerie Adams claims that "a compound word is usually understood to be the result of the fixed combination of two free forms that have an otherwise independent existence". [32] Nevertheless, most of definitions are not complete, they are predominantly too general. The vaguest line is between a compound, a collocation and syntactic groups. Their similarity is caused by lack of inflectional morphemes in English and by connection with analytic nature of this language. To understand it better, there is a comparison with one of inflectional languages - Slovak. If the compound is composed of two or more wordformative bases (initially independent words), none of compound elements involves inflectional morphemes. A compound is liable to inflection as a single unit. For example: slovotvorba ("word-formation") is considered as a compound. The reason is the left-hand word-formative base which exists without any inflectional morpheme. On the contrary, slovná tvorba ("creative writing") is considered as a syntactic group because of an inflectional morpheme in the first element. [33] Compounds can be divided into different subclasses and there are emphasized some of them. 4.1.1 Primary and syntectic compounds Another designation for this division can be non-verbal and verbal compounds. The first group is distinguished by absence of the verbal part in its structure: film-star, sunglasses, teapot, nail-varnish. On the contrary, syntectic compounds contain the verbal part which is derived by way of the suffix (-er, -ing, -ed) : firefighter, snow-covered, blue-eyed, never-ending. This category differs from primary compounds in its foreseeability and regularity e.g. snow-covered means covered with snow. Non-verbal constructions can have more meanings, they are 12 supposed to be idiosyncratic and hence, they can be stated in a wordstock. [34] 4.1.2 Endocentric and exocentric compounds Most English compounds have a two-part structure composed of determinant (modifier) and determinatum (head). While the head bears the basic sense of compound, the modifier specifies this meaning. In compound blackbird, the modifier is black and it is obvious that it is a kind of bird. In case of endocentric compounds, a determinant is hyponymy of its determinatum. In addition, both elements tend to be of the same word class. [35] Examples: door-knob, armchair, beehive. [36] Exocentric compounds have their semantic meaning outside the head, therefore it is not so transparent. For example, compound whitecollar does not refer to kind of collar or to something that is white and a determinant does not serve as a hyponymy to determinantum. [37] 4.1.3 Neoclassical compounds A category of neoclassical compounds deals with compounds whose main elements are "combining forms" as for example electro-, hydro-, bio-, mini-, tele-, -naut, -phile, -crat. These phenomena come from Latin or Greek and they can be confused with affixes but unlike them, they can be combined with combining forms themselves as well as with affixes. From this fact results that they can be independent wordformative electrolyte, bases cyclic, (metrology, holograph, bionomics, stereology, homophile, binary). technocrat, Functioning counterparts in form of independent words are characteristic for combining forms. As examples can be stated: kilo, photo, mini. These forms can be used as naming units, without any combination with another combining form or word-formative base. [38] 13 4.1.4 Classification according to the type of composition This division seems to be very simple. The first composition is made with an aid of connecting element that is called interfix: craftsman, speedometr, Czecho-Slovakia. Another type of composition which predominates in English is those without connecting element: blackbird, dustman, nightmare. [39] 4.1.5 Classification based on determinant/determinantum sequence According to this classification, compounds are split in two streams. Germanic type of compounds is distinguished by precedence of determinant ahead of determinantum. As it is apparent from the term, this kind of compounds is specific to Germanic languages and predominates in English. Examples are: spaceship, blackboard, greenhorn, tooth-paste, driving shaft. The latter type is called French and its occurrance in English is rather rare. In these compounds, determinantum preceeds determinant (pickpocket, spendthrift). [40] 4.1.6 Syntactic and asyntactic compounds Syntactic compounds are described as compounds whose constituent parts are gramatically related and their relation corresponds to a syntactic group. In case of blackbird, there is the same connection between substantive (bird) and motivating adjective (black) as well as in the syntactic group a black bird. In group of asyntactic compounds, such order and connection do not exist in contrast to syntactic ones, for example in fire-proof (proof against fire) or cry baby (the baby cries). [41] 14 4.1.7 Classification based on semantic principles Either constituent of coordinative compounds are semantically equal, therefore this compound can be a hyponym to both of its constituent parts. Coordinative compounds are in other words copulative compounds . Example: actor-manager (by this compound is understood a person who is an actor as well as a manager). On the contrary, subordinative compounds are formed by two elements-determining and determined one and this kind of compound is considered as a hyponym of its determinantum. Examples: pay-day, dance-floor. [42] 4.2 Derivation (affixation) In linguistics, derivation is defined as a word-formative process in which a derivational affix is added to the base of word for purpose of formation a new word. A term affixes is summary title for prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes as well as suffixes are bound morphemes. It means that they can not occur alone, they have to be attached to other morphemes. In this matter, derivation differs from compounding which combines free (independent) morphemes. [43] Most linguists dispute about no-use of the general term derivation, they support division into prefixation and suffixation because of their crucial difference. According to Hans Marchand, two main categories exist in word-formation. At first, a category where compounds and prefixations belong- an expansion. He explains the expansion as "a combination AB which is analysable on the basis B determined by A, with AB belonging to the same word-class and lexical class to which B belongs. All combinations whose determinata are independent morphemes (words) are expansions". [44] To understand, there is an example: unharmed and harmed are both adjectives and they also belong to the same lexical class. 15 On the contrary, suffixation is ranked with derivation because of bound morpheme in form of determinantum. In addition, all derivations are considered as a subsection of transposition. Transposition represents the use of a word in different function than it is common. For illustration: a noun has usually a function of head (determinantum) of attributive nominal constructions (a red hat). Providing that noun is used as a determinant, its function is shifted to unusal position. Although a distinction between derivation and inflection has been already mentioned in 2.1.2, it should be reminded that while derivation creates new words, inflection only develops new forms of the word already existing. [45] 4.2.1 Prefixation This process describes a formation of a word in terms of adding a prefix to a word base. It is claimed that majority of prefixes are classmaintaining. Among them, these groups can be distinguished: prefixes which are used uniquely with a noun base (archmonetarist, minicomputer, stepcousin, malnutrition), prefixes used exclusively with a verbal base (deboost) or prefixes destined only for an adjectival base (amoral, apolitical, extrasensory). Prefixes can be also divided into those which are attached to nouns and verbs (foreground, foretell, re-election, recycle, mislead, misfotune) or which are added to nouns and adjectives (incapacity, impossible, mid-morning, mid-Victorian, ex-president, exorbital). In addition, prefixes added to verbs and adjectives (circumscribe, circumstellar) or prefixes attached to nouns, verbs and adjectives (counterculture, counterdemonstrate, counterproductive, disbenefit, disambiguate, disbranch, co-author, co-articulate, co-equal) should be emphasized. The latter group of prefixes is class-changing (the house is ablaze => the ablaze house, becalm, befriend, entomb, ensnare, debark, disbar, non-stick, unhorse). [46] 16 4.2.2 Suffixation Suffixation consists in adding derivational suffix to a base of word in order to form a new word. These suffixes can modify syntactic category of a word. Examples of these derivational suffixes can be: noun from adjective: -ness (sad → sadness) verb from adjective: -ize (marginal → marginalize) adjective from noun: -al (education → educational) verb from noun: -fy (glory → glorify) adjective from verb: -able (understand → understandable) noun from verb: -ance (perform → performance) [47] 4.3 Conversion The word-formation called conversion or "zero derivation" is the process in which new words are created by changing its original grammatical form to another form without change in pronunciation or spelling. It is considered as a specific English feature which results from the disappearance of inflectional morphemes during the development of the English language and which represents a typical economization of expression in English. [48] To understand, there is an example: when the word phone is used in the following sentence as a noun: "Could you answer the phone, please? I am having a shower", this is probably its original and more common usage. But when the word phone is used in the sentence: "I would like to phone Mr. Collins but I do not know his phone number", it is used in a new syntactic function, namely, as a verb, and no change in spelling or pronunciation has been made. Disregarding the point of view of linguists who claim that conversion is just using a word in a syntactic function which is not characteristic of its word class, linguists can be divided into two groups. The first stream of 17 linguists assumes the determinant/determinantum structure of a complex word and maintains that conversion is a special type of derivation ("zero derivation") because of addition of an invisible morpheme, so-called "zero suffix". This suffix functions as an overt suffix. The latter approach emphasizes a clear distinction between derivation and conversion and it conceives conversion as an independent word-formative process. [49] As the most creative process is treated a noun to verb conversion: chair => to chair, eye => to eye, pocket => to pocket, bottle => to bottle, experiment => to experiment, salt=> to salt, noise => to noise, tent => to tent, widow => to widow, jail => to jail, manufacture => to manufacture, fiddle => to fiddle, order=> to order, host => to host. [50] The next form of conversion is a conversion from verb to noun: to alert => alert, to transport => transport, to approach => approach, to laugh => laugh, to call => call, to hope => hope, to visit => visit, to command => command, to rise => rise. This form of conversion is also denoted as a nominalization. Among other conversions, adjective to verb conversion (empty => to empty, green => to green) and a conjunction to noun conversion (up, down => (ups and downs) should be stressed. [51] 4.4 Back-formation Back-formation refers to the process of formation a new word by detaching a suffix-like element from the base of word. A verb laze is backformed from lazy in accordance with craze/crazy. Leonard Bloomfield, an American linguist, claimed that "back-formations were firstly coined from nouns ending in -tion and therefore verbs such as act, separate or affict can be connected with their source nouns - action, separation or affiction." [52] 18 Most back-formations in English are verbs. According to Pennanen, it is 87%. These back-formed verbs can be separated into different subgroups for example to verbs back-formed from nouns ending in er, -or, -our, -eur, -ar (broker => broke, babysitter => babysit, editor => edit, beggar => beg, usher => ush) or to verbs back-formed from abstract substantives ending in -ence, -tion, - sion, -is, -y, -ment, age, -ery, -asm (infraction => infract, television => televise, catalysis => catalyze, automation => automate). Verbs that are back-formed from adjectives (hazy => haze, lazy => laze, nasty=> nast) create next subgroup. The most productive is a section of verbs which are backformed from compound substantives (house-keeping => to housekeep, finger-printing => to finger-print, brain washing => to brain-wash, sea-bathing=> to sea-bathe, brain-storming => to brain-storm, fly-fishing => to fly-fish, air-conditioning => to air-condition, rush development => to rush-develop. [53] 4.5 Blending The term blending denotes a word-formative process which forms a new word by linking parts of two words, usually the beginning of one word with the end of the second word. Blends (also "portmanteau words" or "telescoped words") are formed by this process. The process of blending can resemble in a certain way the process of compounding. Nevertheless, there is at least one basic difference, namely, the new naming unit generated by blending is unalanalysable, there is no determinant and no determinantum. It is also important to perceive that blends represent a new meaningful quality, they are not only reduced forms of a combination of words. As well as conversion, blending represents another evidence of English overall tendency towards an economy of expression. 19 Blends are characterized by slang expressions or stylistically coloured words and that is why they can be found in newspapers, advertisements, as well as in the scientific and technical literature. Except the basic type of blending (the beginning of one word and the end of the second word) as for example: smog= smoke+fog, brunch = breakfast+lunch, motel = motor+hotel, chunnel = channel+tunnel, cattalo = cattle+buffalo, multiversity = multiple+university, other types of blending also exist. In one of them, both words overlap each other, namely, zebrass = zebra+ass, glasphalt = glass+asphalt, or guestimate = guess+estimate. In some blends, a reduced part of word can be considered as a suffix, for instance: -cide from autocide (automobile+suicide) occurs also in motorcide (motor+suicide). [54] 4.6 Clipping To begin with, it should be emphasized that following processes do not belong to the category of word-formative processes. These processes do not serve to form new words, they are reductions (shortenings) of complex words. This fact also signifies the already mentioned attempt at an economization of expression in the English language. According to Hans Marchand, clipping is explained as "a process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its part." [55] The meaning of an original word still remains as well as a word class. By this, it differs from back-formation. It is known that clippings can be found in the standard English language, although they are mostly slang-coloured. Due to the fact that formal changes can go with certain stylistic or social particularities, this matter should be dealt with by lexicology. [56] Clipped forms can be divided into four main groups. 20 4.6.1 Back clipping This type consists in removing the end of a word. In addition, it is treated as the most common form of clipping. Examples are: ad (advertisement), lab (laboratory), bike (bicycle), mike (microphone), gas (gasoline), gym (gymnasium), pub (public house), exam (examination), math (mathematics), doc (doctor), zoo (zoological garden), memo (memorandum). Clipping and subsequent suffixation can also occur: bookie (bookmaker), movie (moving picture), grannie (grandmother). [57] 4.6.2 Fore-clipping Fore-clipped forms remove the beginning of a word: phone (telephone), chute (parachute), bus (omnibus), fax (telefax), plane (aeroplane), coon (racoon), gator (alligator). This group is less numerous. [58] 4.6.3 Middle clipping The group of clipped forms, in which retains only the middle of a word, is rather rare. Examples are: flu (influenza), fridge (refrigerator), jams (pyjamas), tec (detective), shrink (head-shrinker). [59] 4.6.4 Complex clipping Naturally, compounds can be also clipped. As regards complex clipping, it is sometimes difficult to recognize a borderline between blends and clipped compounds. In the simplest way, a distinction rests in the fact, that forms which maintain compound stress are clipped forms, while those that hold a simple word stress are not. [60] As examples of complex clipping can serve: cablegram (cable telegram), shamateur (sham amateur), fanzine (fan magazine), spam 21 (spiced ham), trafficator (traffic indicator), op art (optical art), navicert (navigation certificate). [61] The process of clipping also intervenes first names and surnames: Fred (Frederick), Sam (Samuel), Elisabeth (Betty), Ray (Raymond), Ben (Benjamin), Nora (Leonora), Sherry (Sheridan). [62] 4.7 Acronyms Acronyms consist in abbreviation of words resulting in the initials letters which are used in a phrase or name. A determination of this group is not clear and that is why linguists can be divided into two main streams: into those who involve to this group abbreviations pronounced as a single word and linguists who include in acronyms also abbreviations pronounced by spelling. It is important to remind that acronyms, as well as clipping, are not word-formative process. They are mere formal changes which are formed in order to economize a speech. [63] In this work, the term acronym represents the both above mentioned views and the term abbreviation should be explained as a specific kind of shortening as for example pp instead of pages, e.g. instead of for example, kg instead of kilogram. These abbreviations are closely connected with the written language and they are highly common. [64] Acronyms pronounced as a word are as follows: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), SALT [solt] (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), BASIC (Beginners´ All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation). [65] On the contrary, acronyms based on a spelling pronunciation are as follows: BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), LED (light-emitting diode), OB-GYN (obstetrics and gynecology), TV (television). [66] 22 4.8 Reduplication A large number of words based on combination of two phonetically identical or resembling morphemes which is called reduplication appears in the English language. This combination can be composed of one free morpheme and its repetition or pseudomorphemes (fanciful sound clusters without meaning). Reduplication is interesting by its phonetic make-up and stylistic colour. Because of a combinatory nature of reduplication, this process can resemble the process of compounding. Nevertheless, their similarity is only marginal since compounds are based on the combination of meaningful morphemes. Reduplication is intended for an attainment of certain emotional effects and its another task is to emphasize some points of utterance. [67] Among reduplicated words, three groups can be distinguished. As first, reduplicative compounds. These pseudocompounds are based on one element that is repeated. This repeating yields an emphasis of semantic content. Examples are: tap-tap (knocking on the door), pompom (automatic quick-firing gun), blah-blah (nonsense), hish-hish (train). [68] Ablaut combinations constitute the second group. These reduplications are explained as binary forms which are composed of two morphemes - one basic morpheme and one pseudomorpheme which includes a different vowel: chit-chat (gossip), dilly-dally (loiter), shillyshally (hesitate), zig-zag (series of sharp turns or angles), ding-dong (said of a sound of a bell). [69] Finally, rhyme combinations. As flows from the title, the main feature of this type of reduplication is a rhyme. Combinations may consist of pseudomorphemes as well as morphemes. Examples are: hurry-scurry, super-duper, fuddy-duddy, popsy-wopsy. [70] boogie-woogie, hocus-pocus, loco-foco, 23 5 NEOLOGISM IN THE CURRENT ENGLISH LANGUAGE: TEORETICAL PART 5.1 What is a neologism? In the beginning, it should be emphasized that this term has not a clear delimitation. Some linguists treat a neologism as a totally new word that rises in the language as a result of the development of social life, culture, science and engineering and some of them incline to the opininon that new meanings of already existing words are also neologisms. According to Jaroslav Peprník, "a neologism is a new word or sense of a word." [71] Any of the above mentioned word-formative processes can give rise to a neologism. Due to the fact, that neologisms are closely connected with a contemporary life, they were shifted from the periphery to the centre of the language system. Before their entrance to everyday use, they have to be adapted by the general public which requires some time. [72] In the majority of cases, the author of neologism is unknown. However, in the case of utopia, it is obvious that the creator was Thomas More. The main source of neologisms are newspapers and magazines and naturally also the Internet. Reasons for formation of a coinage can be different. It should be a requirement to name a new invention, a new term (laser) or a patriotic tendency to change foreign terms to domestic ones (it is typical of the Czech language). An effort to increase the value of an occupation should be mentioned as another impuls. Examples are: dustman => sanitation engineer, caretaker => wardener, signalman (in the underground) => train controller. [73] In agreement with a suitability to the language, three types of neologisms can be distinguished. At first, unstable neologisms. They are at the beginning of their existence, they are still new and being 24 proposed to the public. Diffused neologisms which have already gained a certain audience but still have not achieved an acceptance constitute the second degree. The final group create stable neologisms which have achieved a full acceptance and so-called "stability" in the language. The evidence is their inclusion to print dictionaries. [74] 5.2 History of neologism In the preface of a book Fifty years among the new words by John Algeo, it is written: "Although the dictionary of new word is warmly welcomed by readers only in recent years, actually the compiling of English dictionary began with the collection of new word ever since 1604." [75] However, the real boom of neologisms began actually in the twentieth century. In 1992, The Oxford companion to the English language distributed neologisms according to decades: Examples from 1940s: acronym, atomic age, babysit, bikini, call girl, cold war, hydrogen bomb, nerve gas, genocide, radar, snorkel. from 1950s: automate, brainwashing, cosmonaut, discotheque, doit-yourself, hotline, LSD, overkill, parenting, scifi, scuba, sputnik. from 1960s: bionics, brain drain, cable television, disco, fast-food, microelectronics, microwave owen, postcode, sitcom, ZIP code. from 1970s: boat people, downsize, flexitime, hit list, junk food, shuttle diplomacy. from 1980s: cash point, kiss-and-tell book, road rage, telemarketing, yuppie. [76] 25 5.3 John Milton and his contribution to English vocabulary After reading an interesting article by John Crace, I have decided to include John Milton into my Bachelor´s thesis. This article was written in 2008 to commemorate his 400th birthday and to highlight his contribution to English vocabulary. 5.3.1 Who was John Milton? John Milton is treated as the greatest British word-maker. According to Gavin Alexander, lecturer of English at Cambridge university who organised the John Milton 400th Anniversary Celebrations: "Milton is responsible for introducing 630 words to the English language, making him the country´s greatest neologist, ahead of Ben Jonson with 558, John Donne with 342 and William Shakespear with 229." [77] A well-known English poet, John Milton was born in 1608 in London. He spent his early life with his parents in Cheapside, near St. Paul's Cathedral. In 1625, he was admitted to Christ's College in Cambridge but due to his argumentative character, he was excluded after an year. He returned to London for some time and he started to write his first poems. However, he finally came back to Christ´s College in Cambridge and he graduated in 1632. After that, he retired to his family house in London and he attended to private lessons and literary composition. [78] In 1642, John married Mary Powell. Although Mary Powell gave birth to their four children (Anne, Mary, John and Deborah), this marriage was not happy. The year 1652 has become a fatal year for him: he lost his sight and his only son John and his wife Mary died. The second Milton´s wife was Katherine Woodcock. Nevertheless, she also succumbed to illness. At the downhill of his life, he remarried Elizabeth Minshull who cared for him till his death of gout in 1674. John Milton was buried in the church of St. Giles in London. [79] 26 5.3.2 Paradise Lost Although Joh Milton wrote a lot of pieces including sonnets, poems, and prose for example History of Britain (1670), Samson Agonistes (1671), Poems, &c. upon Several Occasions (1673), Of True Religion (1673) and Paradise Regained (1671), he is more or less known only because of his masterpiece called Paradise Lost whose first edition was published in 1667, in ten books. [80] In the second edition from 1674, John Milton modified the structure of the poem into twelve books. Each book is also accompanied by its brief summary called "argument". It should be emphasized that during the writing of Paradise Lost, John Milton lost his sight. The masterpiece was finished by dictating of his work to secretaries. [81] Paradise Lost is written in a form of blank verse (there are no rhymes). It concerns a narrative poem whose main theme results from the Christian theology. The headstone of the story constitutes the story of Adam and Eve - their creation and expulsion from the Garden od EdenParadise. The story also tells about the origin of Satan and his followers in the battle against God. They were sent to hell and that is why they would like to revenge. Satan changed into a serpent and seduced Eve to eat the forbidden fruit. In books Xl and XII, Milton provides the summary of Genesis. He aimed at showing not only what caused fall of man, but also the consequences upon the world, both bad and good. [82] According to himself, the great theme in Paradise Lost is "to justify the ways of God to men. "[83] 5.3.3 Neologism in Paradise Lost This list includes selected neologisms from the poem Paradise Lost created by John Milton. 27 acclaim (noun) "Public praise for someone or something" [84] "Expression of enthusiasm" [85] "Their mighty Chief returned; loud was the acclaim: Forth rushed in haste the great consulting Peers, Raised from their dark Divan, and with like joy Congratulant approached him, who with hand Silence, and with these words attention, won: "Thrones, Dominations, Princedoms, Virtues, Powers." [86] arch-fiend (noun) "a chief fiend; Satan" [87] "With fixed anchor in his scaly rind Moors by his side under the lee, while night Invests the sea, and wished morn delays. So stretched out huge in length the Arch-fiend lay Chained on the burning lake." [88] dreary (adjective) "that makes you feel sad; dull and not interesting" [89] In this context, synonyms are: dull, gloomy,dismal. "Viewed first their lamentable lot, and found No rest. Through many a dark and dreary vale They passed, and many a region dolorous, O'er many a frozen, many a fiery alp, Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death." [90] 28 impassive (adjective) "not feeling pain" [91] "Deliverer from new Lords, leader to free Enjoyment of our right as Gods; yet hard For Gods, and too unequal work we find, Against unequal arms to fight in pain, Against unpained, impassive; from which evil Ruin must needs ensue." [92] jubilant (adjective) "feeling or showing great happiness because of a success" [93] "Angelic harmonies: The earth, the air Resounded, (thou rememberest, for thou heardst) The heavens and all the constellations rung, The planets in their station listening stood, While the bright pomp ascended jubilant." [94] moon-struck (adjective) "mentally crazed, supposedly by the influence of the moon" [95] "A lazar-house it seemed; wherein were laid Numbers of all diseased; all maladies Of ghastly spasm, or racking torture, qualms Of heart-sick agony, all feverous kinds, Convulsions, epilepsies, fierce catarrhs, Intestine stone and ulcer, colic-pangs, Demoniac frenzy, moping melancholy, And moon-struck madness, pining atrophy, Marasmus, and wide-wasting pestilence, 29 Dropsies, and asthmas, and joint-racking rheums." [96] pandemonium (noun) "the capital of hell; the name of capital of Satan and all his peers" [97] In present: "a very noisy and confused situation, especially one caused by a lot of angry or excited people = chaos" [98] "Meanwhile the winged heralds by command Of sovran power, with awful ceremony And trumpets sound throughout the host proclaim A solemn council forthwith to be held At Pandemonium, the high capital Of Satan and his peers." [99] self-esteem (noun) "the feeling that you are as important as other people and that you deserve to be treated well" [100] "For, what admirest thou, what transports thee so, An outside? fair, no doubt, and worthy well Thy cherishing, thy honoring, and thy love; Not thy subjection: Weigh with her thyself; Then value: Oft-times nothing profits more Than self-esteem, grounded on just and right Well managed." [101] terrific (adjective) "causing fear; very frightening" [102] Nowadays, it refers to an informal expression of something that is excellent, beautiful. 30 "The serpent, subtlest beast of all the field, Of huge extent sometimes, with brazen eyes And hairy mane terrific, though to thee Not noxious, but obedient at thy call." [103] stunning (adjective) "causing an astonishment, a bewilderment" [104] "At length a universal hubbub wild Of stunning sounds, and voices all confused, Borne through the hollow dark, assaults his ear With loudest vehemence." [105] 6 NEOLOGISM IN THE CURRENT ENGLISH LANGUAGE PRACTICAL PART In following chapters, selected examples of neologisms from different areas are stated. 6.1 Neologism in sport clogger (noun) "a footballer who habitually fouls other players when tackling" [106] "With Dutch cloggers Mark van Bommel and Nigel de Jong somehow still on the pitch at the end of the World Cup final, referee Webb was criticised for not dispensing enough justice." [107] onion bag (noun) "a goal net (used especially in the context of scoring a goal)" [108] 31 "4.20pm: I'm a bit bored of this whole Torres business, so I'm crossing my fingers and hoping that Carlo Ancelotti brings him on sharpish and he sticks one in the onion bag before the afternoon's out. Who's with me?" [109] silver goal (noun) "A method for deciding the outcome of elimination matches. The silver goal only comes into effect if the scores are level at the end of the 90 minutes. If a goal is scored during the first 15 minutes of extra time, and that team is still in the lead at half-time, the team wins the match. If the scores are level after 15 minutes, a second period of extra-time is played." [110] This term is used in the field of football. "(0-0 at 90 mins, Greece win on silver goal rule). Greece ripped up the form book by beating Euro 2004 favourites Czech Republic with a silver goal to face host nation Portugal in the final." [111] smash-mouth (adjective) "agressive and confrontial (a style of play)" [112] It is used mainly in rugby, American football or football. "Redskins running back Portis admitted: "We were hoping to go out and play our football, play smash-mouth football. Instead, we got smashed." [113] WAG or Wag (noun) "It is an acronym of Wife And Girlfriend which refers to the female partners of famous professional footballers. They have reputation for designer shopping by day and partying by night." [114] 32 "Coleen Rooney, wife of Manchester United star Wayne, never misses Ladies Day' on the Friday at Aintree's National meeting and the queen of the WAGs was, as ever, in position this year." [115] 6.2 Neologism in fashion baguette (noun) "a slim wide handbag with a short strap" [116] "Multicolored beaded baguette bag with double F logo on front and watersnake handle and closure. Fendi bag has an adjustable shoulder strap across top, a concealed magnetic closure, red satin lining and 'Limited Edition' bead embroidery on inside." [117] eVest, e-Vest or scott eVest ® (noun) "A waterproof jacket designed specifically to store different gadgets. It has pockets for example for mobile phone, PDA, MP3 player or laptop computer." [118] "The Scott eVEST is a modern, functional, hip jacket designed to carry, conceal and connect every and any tech gadget from PDAs to MP3 players. Version 2.0 is an update from the original Version 1.0 SCOTT eVEST that achieved extraordinary success in a short period of time by completely selling out." [119] phat (adjective) "an adjective to express admiration of various qualities, including being fashionable, intelligent, cool or sexy" [120] "The pregnant teen star, who is due to give birth this summer, was spotted in her home town of Louisiana wearing this Phat Lady top, carrying some baby gear from a car." [121] 33 tankini (noun) "a women's two-piece swimsuit combining a top half styled like a tank top with a bikini bottom" [122] "If you need proof of our lust for abs, consider the tankini. This vest-andpants style, which covers the stomach in the most neurotic fashion imaginable, is the least erotic beachwear known to womankind, a sexual no-man's-land for teenagers on holiday with strict parents and new mothers unwilling to bare their stomachs but desperate to fend off the full mum-on-holiday onepiece." [123] vanity sizing (noun) "the concept where a smaller-size label is placed on a larger-size garment, specifically in order to please the buyer" [124] "Jeans are being made with waists "six inches" wider than claimed on labels to con shoppers, it was revealed yesterday. The scam known as “vanity sizing” flatters customers into thinking they are slimmer than they really are." [125] 6.3 Neologism in alimentation and life-style babyccino (noun) "a drink of hot milk that has been frothed up with pressurized steam, intended for children" [126] "The babyccino is just one of too many adult luxuries pitched at nappyclad consumers for very adult reasons: it's an Australian marketing wheeze invented to make mothers spend more in cafes, not a charming Italian tradition." [127] 34 eton mess (noun) "a dessert consisting of a rough mixture of whipped cream, pieces of meringue, and fruit, typically strawberries" [128] "Whether Eton Mess would count as a regional speciality, I don’t know. It certainly did originate at our Prime Minister’s alma mater, Eton College, where records of the pudding go back to the 19th century." [129] locavore (noun) "a person whose diet consists only or principally of locally grown or produced food" [130] This word comes from North America. "Why do you grow herbs indoors? For most of us, it's a mundane yet symbolic act: that little pot of seedlings in damp soil on the windowsill tells the world that you're part of the grow-your-own movement, a locavore, a mini-allotmenteer, even if your two sprigs of parsley don't stretch to many meals." [131] orthorexia (noun) "a nervous condition characterized by an extreme obsession with healthy foods" [132] "Food faddism in California has reached new heights with reported outbreaks of 'orthorexia' - an enthusiasm for 'pure' eating that ranges from raw vegetable abuse to people who insist on ordering lunch in a particular colour." [133] salad dodger (noun) -a person who absolutely avoids healthy food [134] 35 "If we believe the food nazis we British are a nation of salad dodgers lusters after flesh, bingers on fried starch but only consuming vegetable matter at the point of a gun - which makes it all the more odd that this week we simply can't shut up about fruit." [135] 6.4 Neologism in technology hotspot (noun) "a place where a wireless signal is made available so that the Internet can be accessed" [136] "It's easy to set up and use (you charge it up, switch it on and, hey presto, autostereoscopic fun!), but the console has to be held in a steady position directly in front of the player; the effect is easily lost if you move just centimeters from the hotspot." [137] iPod (noun) "a small electronic device for playing and storing digital audio and video files" [138] "The human heartbeat could be used to power an ipod after scientists developed a tiny chip which uses the body's own movement to generate power." [139] podcast (noun,verb) "a multimedia digital file made available on the Internet for downloading to a portable media player, computer, etc." "make (a multimedia digital file) available as a podcast." [140] "Almost in a matter of months podcasting has become the "next big thing" in media, seized on by traditional publishers and broadcasters 36 searching for new ways to attract and retain audiences in the digital age." [141] WiFi, Wi-Fi, Wifi, Wi-fi or wifi (noun) "a networking system which provides wireless connection to the web (Wireless Fidelity)" [142] "Flip's devices were hampered because while they were the same size as a smartphone, they could not offer a number of features that smartphones or high-end "feature phones" could, such as uploads to online sites; but they didn't offer other features either such as Wi-Fi connectivity – though this was often hinted at by executives – or microphone sockets, which could have made them useful for some professionals." [143] wiki (noun) "a website or database developed collaboratively by a community of users, allowing any user to add and edit content" [144] "Two more mainstream companies have recently dived into the world of wikis. The first, technology magazine Wired, has dabbled in wikis before but the second, online store Amazon, is something of a surprise." [145] 6.5 Neologism in business and economy bottom-fishing (noun), bottom-fish (verb) "investing in low-priced shares that show prospects of recovery or in shares that are low-priced because of a general market decline in the hope of making a profit" [146] "Investors always want to "get in at the bottom." However, making big portfolio changes to try to catch the bottom can lead to costly false starts. 37 So if you are bottom-fishing, it is usually wise to start slowly with smaller portfolio additions (stocks) and build as the economy improves." [147] dead cat bounce (noun) "a temporary recovery in share prices after a substantial fall, caused by speculators buying in order to cover their positions" [148] "According to the "Dead Cat Bounce" principle, the economy should bounce back. After all, even dead cats will bounce when dropped. The Dow Jones is trading around 12,000 and the economy is growing, according to gains in the nation's gross domestic product." [149] glass ceiling (noun) "an unacknowledged barrier to advancement in a profession, especially affecting women and members of minorities" [150] "With women making up fewer than one in five of the 400 top chief executives surveyed, the findings suggest that women still face widespread sexism in the public sector workplace, with the "glass ceiling" still firmly in place." [151] permalancer (noun) "a long-term freelance, part-time, or temporary worker who does not have employee benefits" [152] This word is blended from pernament and freelancer. "A freelancer works on a contract basis and is “free” to decide which projects to accept; a temp is supposed to be exactly that: temporary. Yet when freelancers or temps move become permalancers, they’re often 38 toiling away in an office next to salaried employees, doing similar jobs without benefits, and staying for longer periods, sometimes years." [153] stealth tax (noun) "a form of taxation levied in a covert or indirect manner" [154] "South Africans face a steady rise in stealth taxes and the upcoming budget could shed light on what they will have to pay out in the years ahead, according to Billy Joubert, a director at professional services firm Deloitte." [155] 39 7 CONCLUSION The main objectives of my Bachelor´s thesis are to provide essential information about word-formation from different points of view, to introduce word-formative processes which can cause a rise of neologism and to state some examples of neologisms which occur in the current English language. The first three chapters deal with the theoretical background of wordformation which is as much as possible accompanied by examples. Despite the affection interrelationship, an by other independence linguistic of disciplines word-formation and should their be acknowledged. Word-formation has its distinct subject, scope and methods of research. Compounding, blending and derivation are considered as the most productive word-formative processes. During the process of searching for neologisms, this statement has been confirmed. The examples of compounding are: arch-fiend, moon-struck, smash-mouth, silver goal, vanity sizing, salad dodger or stealth tax. As examples of derivation can serve: orthorexia, phat or e-vest. Finally, the examples of blending are: tankini, WiFi, podcast, babyccino or permalancer. The two remaining chapters are dedicated to neologism. After reading an interesting article by John Crace, I have decided to include John Milton into my Bachelor´s thesis. According to him, John Milton is the greatest British word-maker who is responsible for introducing 630 words to the English language. In chapter 5.3.3, selected examples from his masterpiece Paradise Lost are stated. These examples from 1670´s serve as the contrast to the latter group of neologisms, the neologisms from the current English language. I divided them into five different subgroups: neologism in sport, neologism in fashion, neologism in alimentation and life-style, neologism in technology and finally, neologism in business and economy. As results from these examples, their main sources are journalistic texts. The 40 reason is that neologisms are often created by innovative journalists or ordinary people before they find a way to general public. Although the branch of word-formation and neologism is treated as an area where no single theory or basic theoretical facts exist, it constitutes a prime concern of all linguists who hold different views. The reason is the highlight it throws on other standpoints of language. 41 8 ENDNOTES 1. Yousefi, M. Word Formation Processes in English [online]. 2. Ibid. 3. Štekauer, P. A course in English word-formation, p. 4. 4. Adams, V. An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation, p. 3. 5. Bauer, L. English word-formation, p. 1. 6. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 4. 7. Kavka, S., Štekauer, P. Rudiments of English linguistics, p. 93. 8. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 4. 9. Ibid., p. 5. 10. Kavka, S., Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 95. 11. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 5. 12. Kavka, S., Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 94. 13. Ibid. 14. Plag, I. Word formation in English, p. 19. 15. Ibid., p. 19. 16. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 6. 17. Kavka, S., Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 96. 18. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 6. 19. Ibid., p. 7. 20. Ibid. 21. Katamba, F., Stonham, J. Morphology, p. 69. 22. Bauer, L. op.cit., p. 63. 23. O´connor, J.J., Robertson E.F. Panini [online]. 24. Bauer, L. op.cit., p. 2. 25. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 9. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid., p. 10. 30. Ibid. 31. Vogel, R. Basics of Lexicology, p. 17. 32. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 48. 33. Kavka, S., Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 100. 34. Ibid., p. 102. 35. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 56. 36. Bauer, L. op.cit., p. 30. 37. Yousefi, M. op.cit. 38. Kavka, S., Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 103. 42 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. Ibid., p. 104. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Kosur, H. Word formation: Derivation and back-formation [online]. Kavka, S., Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 105. Kosur, H. op.cit. Bauer, L. op.cit., p. 218. Yousefi, M. op.cit. Kavka, S., Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 107. Ibid. Kosur, H. Word formation: Conversion [online]. Ibid. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 85. Ibid., p. 87. Ibid., p. 90. Yousefi, M. op.cit. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 92. Yousefi, M. op.cit. Ibid. Ibid. Bauer, L. op.cit., p. 233. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 94. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid., p. 95. Yousefi, M. op.cit. Štekauer, P. op.cit., p. 97. Ibid. Ibid., p. 98. Ibid. Peprník, J. English Lexicology, p. 76. Ibid. Ibid., p. 77. Sayadi, F. The Translation of Neologisms [online]. Algeo, J. Fifty years among the new words, preface. Peprník, J. op.cit., p. 77. Crace, J. John Milton - our greatest word-maker [online]. 43 78. 79. 80. 81. Jokinen, A. Luminarium: Life of John Milton [online]. Ibid. Ibid. New Arts Library, Paradise Lost Study Guide-A brief overview [online]. 82. Ibid. 83. Milton, J. Paradise Lost, p. 2. 84. Macmillan, English dictionary for advanced learners, p. 9. 85. Free Online Dictionary for English Definitions [online]. 86. Milton, J. op.cit., p. 250. 87. Free Online Dictionary for English Definitions [online]. 88. Milton, J. op.cit., p. 12. 89. Macmillan, op.cit., p. 466. 90. Milton, J. op.cit., p. 48. 91. Free Online Dictionary for English Definitions [online]. 92. Milton, J. op.cit., p. 152. 93. Macmillan, op.cit., p. 835. 94. Milton, J. op.cit., p. 182. 95. Free Online Dictionary for English Definitions [online]. 96. Milton, J. op.cit., p. 283. 97. Free Online Dictionary for English Definitions [online]. 98. Macmillan, op.cit., p. 1081. 99. Milton, J. op.cit., p. 28. 100. Macmillan, op.cit., p. 1348. 101. Milton, J. op.cit., p. 200. 102. Free Online Dictionary for English Definitions [online]. 103. Milton. J. op.cit., p. 180. 104. Free Online Dictionary for English Definitions [online]. 105. Milton, J. op.cit., p. 57. 106. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 107. The Guardian: A history of the year in 100 objects [online]. 108. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 109. Burntone, S. The Guardian: Saturday clockwatch - as it happened [online]. 110. Talk Football Guide: The Silver Goal rule [online]. 111. BBC Sport: Euro 2004: Greece 1-0 Czech Rep [online]. 112. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 113. Chapman, N. The Sun: Steelers crush the Redskins [online]. 114. Maxwell, K. Brave new words: A Language Lover´s Guide to the 44 21st Century, p. 207. 115. Corner, T. The Guardian: the Observer: Melling Road [online]. 116. Maxwell, K. op.cit., p. 17. 117. Net-a-porter.com: FENDI beaded baguette bag [online]. 118. Maxwell, K. op.cit., p. 66. 119. 21stcentury.co.uk: Scott eVEST Version 2.0 [online]. 120. Maxwell, K. op.cit., p. 132. 121. The Sun: Jamie Lynn is one 'Phat Lady' [online] 122. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 123. Cartner-Morley, J. Extreme swimwear - how scared should we be? [online]. 124. Maxwell, K. op.cit., p. 200. 125. Spanton, T. Jeans bigger than labels say [online]. 126. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 127. Hinsliff, G. Budget: Family fun for £10 a week [online]. 128. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 129. Clay, X. Enjoy the sweet surprises of an Eton Mess [online]. 130. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 131. Perrone, J. Can plug-and-grow technology help you grow herbs? [online]. 132. Maxwell, K. op.cit., p. 130. 133. Jones, L. Yellow is not the only colour [online]. 134. Maxwell, K. op.cit., p. 153. 135. Hayward, T. Baring fruit [online]. 136. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 137. Stuart, K. 3D: a gamers' guide [online]. 138. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 139. The Telegraph: Apple iPod 'could be charged by the human heart' [online]. 140. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 141. Marriner,C. Publishers and politicians want a word in your ear [online]. 142. Maxwell, K. op.cit., p. 211. 143. Arthur, Ch. Cisco to close Flip camera unit as smartphones swallow its market [online]. 144. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 145. Richmond, S. The Amazon encyclopaedia [online]. 146. Free Online Dictionary for English Definitions [online]. 45 147. Lounsbury, J. Bottom-Fishing With Employment Data [online]. 148. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 149. Koch, B. Economist offers insights at First Federal Economic Breakfast [online]. 150. Oxford dictionaries [online]. 151. Parker, S. The glass ceiling [online]. 152. 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Available from: http://www.21stcentury.co.uk/technology/evest.asp [Retrieved 5 April 2011]. 52 10 ABSTRACT This Bachelor´s thesis deals with a linguistic topic - the topic of wordformation and neologism in the current English language. The thesis aims at providing essential information about confused area of study of wordformation, introducing word-formative processes which can cause a rise of neologism and last but not least stating some examples of neologism which occur in the current English language. The thesis consists of two main parts - the theoretical and the practical one. The first three chapters are concerned with theoretical information about the process of word-formation and its place within the linguistic system. Particular word-formative processes are also explained. The most productive processes are compounding, blending and derivation. The two remaining chapters are dedicated to neologism. At first, a theoretical background is provided. The practical part includes two lists of selected examples of neologisms which should serve to comparison. The fist one constitutes neologisms from Paradise Lost by John Milton. On the contrary, the second list provides the examples of neologisms from the current English language. 53 11 RESUMÉ Tato bakalářská práce se zabývá lingvistickým tématem, konkrétně tvorbou slov a neologismy (novotvary) v současném anglickém jazyce. Cílem této práce je poskytnutí základních informací týkající se nejasné vědní disciplíny tvoření slov, uvedení základních slovotvorných procesů, které mohou způsobit vznik neologismů a v neposlední řadě uvedení vybraných příkladů neologismů, které se vyskytují v současném anglickém jazyce. Tato práce se skládá ze dvou hlavních částí - z teoretické a z praktické. První tři kapitoly se zabývají teoretickými informacemi o procesu tvoření slov a o umístění této vědní disciplíny v lingvistickém systému. Jednotlivé slovotvorné způsoby jsou zde také vysvětleny. Nejproduktivnějšími procesy tvorby slov jsou skládání, slučování a odvozování. Zbývající dvě kapitoly se věnují novotvarům. Nejdříve je zde poskytnuto teoretické pozadí týkající se neologismů. Praktickou část tvoří dva seznamy vybraných příkladů neologismů, které by měly sloužit k porovnání. První seznam tvoří neologismy z díla Ztracený ráj od Johna Miltona. Naopak druhý seznam je tvořen neologismy ze současného anglického jazyka.