FOOD CROPS Agro-Ecology and Modern Agro-Techniques

FOOD CROPS Agro-Ecology and Modern Agro-Techniques _____________________________________________________ Binayak P Rajbhandari, PhD Gopal Datt Bhatta, MSc Ag © authors Any part of this publication may be reproduced in any form for educational or non-profit use only with appropriate acknowledgement. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic, mechnical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise for resale or other commercial purposes without the prior written permission of the copyright owners. First published 2008 Price NRs 380 ISBN 978-9937-2-1092-8 Published by Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences & Technology, (HICAST), Kathmandu, Nepal, [email protected], URL://www.hicast.edu.np/ Printed in Nepal by Heidel Press, Kathmandu Citation Rajbhandari, B.P. and G. D. Bhatta. 2008. Food Crops: Agro-Ecology and Modern Agro-techniques. Kathmandu, Nepal. Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology. p. 266. CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES 5 LIST OF FIGURES 6 PREFACE 7 GENERAL (by BP Rajbhandari) 9 Introduction 9 The role of agriculture in reducing hunger and improving livelihoods 10 1.2.1. Environmental Concerns of agriculture 11 1.2.2. Research and development 13 1.2.3. Food production and consumption patterns: Prospects for research and development 17 CEREALS AND PSEUDOCEREAL 21 Rice (by BP Rajbhandari & GD Bhatt) 22 Maize (by BP Rajbhandari) 51 Wheat (by BP Rajbhandari) 63 Barley (by GD Bhatt) 72 Millets (by BP Rajbhandari) 81 Pearl millet 84 Foxtail millet 85 Proso millet 87 Finger millet 89 Buckwheat (by BP Rajbhandari) 97 GRAIN LEGUMES (by BP Rajbhandari) 108 General 108 Importance of grain legumes in human nutrition and agriculture 108 Area, production and yield of grain legumes 110 General botany of grain legume crops 111 Biological nitrogen fixation 115 Yield formation in grain legume crops 119 Major grain legume crops 127 Lentil 127 Soya bean 134 Chickpea 143 Pigeon pea 155 Lathyrus 165 Broad Bean 171 Beans 178 Mung bean 180 Black gram 182 Cowpeas 187 Field beans 193 OILSEED CROPS 198 Mustard and rapeseed (by BP Rajbhandari) 201 Groundnut (by BP Rajbhandari) 208 Sunflower (by BP Rajbhandari & GD Bhatt) 226 Safflower (by BP Rajbhandari) 236 Sesame (by GD Bhatt) 241 REFERENCES 247 INDEX 261 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Agricultural production and their calculated per capita shares in Nepal (2003/04) Table 2 Average Annual Growth in Global per capita consumption of various food items (%) Table 3 Average annual share of arable and permanent land used for harvest (%) Table 4 Worldwide annual average growth in food production (%) Table 5 Area, production and yield levels of major cereal crops in 1986/87 and 2002/03 Table 6 Distribution of area and production of rice in Nepal by ecological belt Table 7 Characteristics of three sub-species of Asian rice Table 8 Recommended varieties of rice and their major characteristics Table 9 Mineral removal by 1 MT of rice harvest Table 10 Distribution of area and production of maize by continent Table 11 Distribution of area and production of maize in Nepal by ecological belt, 2004/05 Table 12 Recommended varieties of maize and their major characteristics Table 13 Area, production and yield of wheat in Nepal by agro-ecological regions Table 14 Recommended varieties of wheat and their major characteristics Table 15 Area and Production of Barley in Nepal by Development Region 2004/05 Table 16 Recommended varieties of barley Table 17 Distribution of area and production of finger millet in Nepal by development region 1998/99 and 2004/05 Table 18 Distribution of area and production of finger millet in Nepal by ecological belt Table 19 Recommended varieties of finger millet Table 20 Protein content of various grain legume seeds (dry weight basis) Table 21 Grain legumes grown in major agro-ecological zones of Nepal Table 22 Area, production and yield levels of major grain legume crops in 1986/87 and 2003/04 Table 23 Bacterial strains in relation to genera and species of legume crops Table 24 Rhizobia groups of important legumes Table 25 Recommended varieties of soya bean with their crop duration, yield and ecological belts for cultivation Table 26 Variations among varieties of P. vulgaris Table 27 Plant oil groups and the oils belonging to them Table 28 Production and percentage of different oil crops in the world Table 29 Distribution of area and production of oil seed crops in Nepal by development region Table 30 Classification of Indian rape and mustard Table 31 Recommended varieties of rapeseed and mustard Table 32 Intra-specific taxa in cultivated groundnuts with distinctive morphological characters Table 33 Crop geometries recommended for groundnut in different states of India LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Growth in area, production and yield of major cereal crops expressed in percentage (1986/87 -2002/03) Figure 2 A schematic diagram showing the relationship of yield formation with temperature regime in a dry climate Figure 3 Indigenous method of maize cobs storage Figure 4 Drawing showing inoculated cell of nitrogen fixing nodule Figure 5 Percentage distributions of oil crops by global annual production PREFACE Being an agrarian country, Nepal has to depend primarily on agricultural development to solve the persistently increasing problems of unemployment, hunger, poverty, food security and livelihoods of its population, particularly residing in rural ares. Furthermore, it has to increase its agricultural production also because this is the major sector contributing to GDP substantially and earning some foreign currency. The possibility of expanding crop area has already been explored. Obviously, growth in food crops production is possible only through the extensive use of improved varieties and proper implementation of the modern integrated crop-, soil-, nutrient- and pest- management techniques comprehensively paying due consideration to the fragile ecological conditions of our agro-ecosystems, and our richness in water resources as well as plant/animal gentic resources and biodiversity. Production of competent and committed agriculturists and development workers to take leadership responsibility in this sector has indeed become a new challenge for changing the face of Nepal. This book is an attempt of the authors to contribute in addressing this challenge. This book consists of four chapters. The first chapter presents some insights on the role of agriculture in reducing hunger, and improving livelihoods and food security in rural areas. Attempt has also been made there to highlight the environmental concerns of agriculture as well as its research and development needs and prospects. The second chapter is devoted for the cereal and pseudo-cereal crops. The third and fourth chapters deal with the grain legumes and oilseed crops, respectively. The second, third and fouth chapters of the book contain latest scientific and technical information relevant to importance, origin and distribution, botanical and physiological aspects, agro-ecological peculiarities and various modern agro-techniques of 24 food crops that include cereals and pseudo-cereal, gain legumes and oilseed crops grown in Nepal. Under grain legumes, attempt has been made to elaborate the topics like biological nitrogen fixation and yield formation in grain legumes. We are hopeful that the book will be useful for the students, teachers, and extensionists as well as farmers, researchers and development workers. The references section has a list of 195 latest, authoritative literatures on all crops and aspects covered. This book has been compiled based on the lectures delivered by the senior author during 1986 to 2007, and his books "Grain Legumes of Nepal," and "Groundnut: Biology and Production Technology". Some parts are based on the lectures delivered by the co-author during 2004 to 2007. Research findings and reviews published in various forms have been extensively used in the text. Information of food crops varieties released and recommended by Nepal Agricultural Research Council during the last four decades has been incorporated in the appropriate section. We would like to acknowledge all the authors listed in the references whose publications helped to bring the book in light in this shape and contents. We would also like to thank Mr. Sreeram Pokharel, the Senior Administartion and Finance Officer of Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, for showing generosity to publish this book in a short time period. Mr Kshitiz Adhiraj, who designed the cover of the book, Ms Saraswati Pandey and Ms Puja Shrestha, who shouldered the responsibility of computer work deserve special thanks. 8 December 2008 Binayak P Rajbhandari Kathmandu Gopal Datt Bhatta I GENERAL 1.1 Introduction The global community today has been confronting an enormous task of stimulating economic growth in rural areas, where 75 percent of the very poor currently reside; and ensuring nutritional security of the world population that is growing in size and evolving in consumption patterns, without intensifying environmental degradation, mitigating social inequity, or adverse consequences for human and animal health as well as population of beneficial insects and soil microorganism. This is a challenge; and it is not only great but also urgent. Today the primary problem for the nearly 800 million chronically undernourished people is access to enough quality food - a basic human right. Yet, unless we act now, within the next few decades we will almost certainly find ourselves unable to produce agricultural products (cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, industrial crops, and milk, meat, fish, and forest products) sufficient to meet the demand of the increased population. Meeting this demand will require both productivity increases and product diversification to ensure broad-based economic growth capable of improving the livelihoods of the resource poor households particularly in developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. It has been estimated that over the next 5 decades, the global population will increase to 8-10 billion, requiring further advances in scientific knowledge across a broad range of agricultural endeavors — developing more productive food and commodity cultivars, improving nutritional quality of crop and livestock products, reducing food and commodity yield losses due to pests and diseases, ensuring healthy livestock, developing sustainable and responsible fisheries and aquaculture practices, optimizing the use of forests, managing water more efficiently, protecting and improving land productivity, and conserving and managing biodiversity. Food crop production as a science and technology has been facing the above mentioned challenges. The challenge is more serious in developing countries of the South because of poor access of small farmers- the mainstream food producing population groups- to productive resources, modern technology/inputs and relevant information, financial assistance, government subsidies and more rewarding market both in the country and abroad. Today food crop production technology has to keep one eye on the degrading agro-ecological conditions and depleting biodiversity while on another side it has to increase production per unit area and time to feed the persistently growing population. It has been widely accepted today that small farmers can increase their production per unit area and time employing agro-ecological principles and employing biologically intensive farming techniques. In other words, integrated system approaches concerning plant nutrient management, pest management and crop management are the best options that the small farmers in the developing countries should follow to address the problems of hunger, poverty, food/nutritional security, sustainable livelihoods and conservation of natural ecological bases including biodiversity. The natural ecological bases for farming include cropland or soil, agro-forestry, water, indigenous knowledge and technology, and so on and so forth. 1.2 Role of Agriculture in Reducing Hunger and Improving Livelihoods Advances in agricultural science and technology have historically played a critical role in alleviating hunger and rural poverty. Agricultural practices in place today came about through increased scientific and technological knowledge that led to mechanization, improvements in cultivars and management practices, and improved plant nutrient and crop protection technologies. These practices resulted in both increased food supplies and higher incomes. In most developing countries, the Green Revolution resulted in reduced cereal prices; wheat yields in India quadrupled and rice yields in Indonesia tripled. Many farmers benefited, but not all and Africa was largely by-passed. Particularly resource poor small farmers who cannot afford for purchasing inputs are not in a position to benefit from these technological innovations even today. In India and China, the incidence of rural poverty declined as agricultural growth and the purchasing power of rural households rose. Agricultural growth can also generate income and employment growth within the non-farm economy. For example, in Asia for each dollar of additional income created in agriculture, another $0.50 to $1.00 of additional income is generated in the local non-farm economy. Obviously, agriculture has crucial role in reducing hunger, poverty and social injustice. This is the sector that deserves special emphasis for improving livelihoods and livng standard of the people living in this planet. 1.2.1 Environmental concerns of agriculture Agricultural productivity and production largely depends on the elements of ecology. Depletion of ecological base or environmental devastation has direct impact on agricultural productivity. Major environmental elements of ecology include soil, climate (temperature, rainfall or availability of water, solar radiation), and biodiversity. Agriculture is that branch of science and technology, which human mind and hands have been making use of for the nutrition, livelihoods and progress of human kind in this globe. However, the food demand growth caused by expanding populations and shifting consumption patterns necessitates future food production increases. As available arable land is limited, these food production increases have to be gained through technology improvement. The need for modern agricultural technologies, however, must be balanced against legitimate concerns about environmental sustainability. Empirical evidence has demonstrated that negative effects on the environment from inappropriately applied technologies can translate into ecological degradation, productivity losses, and threaten human and animal health. In one word, sustainability of agricultural production depends on the sustainability of ecology and its environmental factors. Today agriculture has to address some serious environmental concerns. Some of these concerns include the following: Soil Soil is the basic element rather foundation of agriculture. About 98 percent of the world’s food energy and 93 percent of all dietary protein come from land yet about 25 percent of the world’s agricultural land area is degraded. Agricultural land degradation is particularly high in the developing world – e.g., Central America (75%), Africa (20%) and Asia (11%). Obviously, prevention of soil degradation, revitalization of degraded soil, conservation of soil and its fertility, and sustainable soil management are some of the important issues that modern agriculture has to address. Climate Increased variability and long-term changes in climate has been hampering farmers’ adaptive efforts. Heat waves, heavy rainfall, floods and droughts are the major climatic issues that the farming communities have been facing as a challenge. These variabilities and changes in climate have been projected to increase. Rainfall is likely to decrease in water scarce regions. Productivity is therefore projected to decrease in the tropics and sub-tropics, i.e. developing countries for almost any degree of warming. Water In most agro-ecosystems, water is the most limiting growth factor during most years. It has been estimated that the world’s largest food producers may well reach limits for water extraction within two generations. One-third of the world’s population today lives in areas under moderate to severe water stress. It has been estimated that by 2025, almost two-thirds of the population will live in water-scarce regions in developing countries. Irrigation uses about 70 percent of the water available for agriculture, industries and households; and about 70 percent of irrigation water is wasted in run-off or inefficient irrigation systems. These are serious concerns for agricultural productivity and environment. Biodiversity About 7,000 plant species have been cultivated and collected for food by humans during the last 12,000 years. Today, only about 15 plant species and 8 animal species supply 90 percent of our food. FAO estimates that about three-quarters of the genetic diversity found in agricultural crops have been lost over the last century. Agriculture is the largest single cause of habitat conversion on a global basis. Climate change as well as fragmentation and conversion of ecological systems are leading to the loss of wild relatives. Of the 6,300 animal breeds, 1,350 are endangered or already extinct (Scherf 2000). Agricultural biodiversity "hotspots" tend to be in the developing world, while modern commercial varieties based on the plant and genetic resources for food and agriculture from these hotspots tend to be developed and marketed by developed countries. A major issue in international multilateral negotiations is therefore the creation of a fund for the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. Agricultural biodiversity conservation generates several types of benefits, which are realized by different groups in society over time. The nature and distribution of benefits is an important basis for prioritizing, designing, and financing conservation programmes. Maintaining a high level of agricultural biodiversity has been reported to have high use values to farm populations in highly heterogeneous and marginal production areas; and many of these areas will also likely be significant providers of option and existence values from in-situ conservation. An important means of achieving efficient and equitable agricultural biodiversity conservation is identification of areas with high potential productivity gains to be made from increasing and enhancing the diversity available to the farmers, as well as those which are likely to provide the highest option values of conservation and targeting those for priority under conservation funding. These concerns are just a tip of the iceberg. The challenges faced by modern agriculture to feed the ever growing population include reshaping its research and development agenda at local, regional and global scale. 1.2.2 Research and development General In developing agriculture-prime countries, even the modest growth in agricultural output can significantly stimulate the national economy. The unprecedented increases in food production by developing countries in the second half of the 20th century were driven by significant public agricultural research expenditures by the governments and donors. Between 1961 and 1985, investments in public research in developing countries grew at 6 percent annually. However, it declined over the past decade and more emphasis has been placed on institutions, policies, markets and trade issues. On the other hand, private sector investments in agricultural science and technology have increased. Advances and improvements such as enhanced nutritional value of crops, improved pest and disease resistance, vaccine delivery, improved water management and decreased harvest and post-harvest losses, may help increase productivity and stimulate economic growth, especially in the light of projected environmental changes. Yet, to what extent are they possible, and if they are possible, what are the associated social and ecological costs and what is an acceptable framework for analyzing the risks and costs associated with different technologies and practices given enormous resource disparities? Most importantly, public acceptability of any technological path will be critical to ensure that investments generate the desired returns of reducing hunger, improving rural livelihoods and conserving the natural resource base. The importance of public acceptability of agricultural technologies is evident in several contemporary contentious debates. Agricultural research needs to be directed toward environmental issues such as climate change, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation and water pollution versus farm-level technologies for improving crop, fisheries, forestry and livestock production. Biotechnology, which has been around for thousands of years, has recently become a particularly contentious issue with the advent of modern biotechnologies such as transgenic. Proponents of transgenic technology point to successes such as reduced need for pesticides in the production of Bt cotton, and state that adverse human health and environmental consequences can be avoided through risk management and biosafety procedures. Opponents argue that the trials that produced these results are limited in time and space and thus the risk assessments underestimate the risk potential, because insufficient information exists to quantify longer-term risks. Proponents of a second Green Revolution generally argue that developing countries should opt for an agro-industrial model that relies on standardized technologies and ever-increasing fertilizer and pesticide use to provide additional food supplies for growing populations and economies. In contrast, a growing number of farmers, NGOs, and analysts propose that instead of this capital- and input-intensive approach, developing countries should favor an agro-ecological model, which emphasizes biodiversity, recycling of nutrients, synergy among crops, animals, soils, and other biological components, and regeneration and conservation of resources. Bio-intensive farming system (BIFS), permaculture, and bio-dynamic farming are some of the approaches based on agro-ecological principles. It is argued here that agro-ecology—a science that provides ecological principles for the design and management of sustainable and resource-conserving agricultural systems—offers several advantages over the conventional agronomic or agro-industrial approach. It has a number of reasons. First, agro-ecology relies on indigenous farming knowledge and selected modern technologies to manage diversity, incorporate biological principles and resources into farming systems, and intensify agricultural production. Second, it offers the only practical way to restore agricultural lands that have been degraded by conventional agronomic practices. Third, it provides with an environmentally sound and affordable way for smallholders to intensify production in marginal areas. Finally, it has the potential to reverse the anti-peasant bias of strategies that emphasize purchased inputs as opposed to the assets that small farmers already possess, such as their low opportunity costs of labor. Nepal in focus Being an agricultural country with 3,091,000 hectares of crop land and 1,030,000 arable lands with diverse agro-ecological zones and about 70 percent population engaged in agriculture for livelihoods, Nepal has good potential to achieve economic growth through agricultural research and development. During the last one and half decade total production of major cereal crops (rice, maize and wheat) has increased by above 50 percent after deducting the possible increase due to area expansion (cf. Table 5). However, Nepalese agriculture is characterized by low-productivity subsistence farming; and it has not been able to materialize its full production potential. Recent statistics of the government has revealed that Nepal might be a food sufficient country, provided the productions are distributed in a socially just manner (Table 1). As per statistics of 2003/04, the empirical daily per capita share of cereals, pulses, vegetables and fruits in Nepal is 867; 31; 210; and 58 gram, respectively. These figures indicate that Nepal is a food sufficient country, and has not to rely on other contries for staple food items. But the reality is that nearly one third populations do not have access to their shares. Food security being a Human Right, the state government should take the responsibility of equitable distribution of food to all citizens. Owing to globalized economic system, Nepal has been importing agricultural products from all over the world; and it has very little products to export that meet international standard. The government has not been found serious in making appropriate plan and programmes for agricultural and agro-industrial development and food quality assessment. About one third of the populations are struggling hard for their livelihoods and meeting their daily needs. Hunger, poverty, unemployment, and social security are the major challenges Nepali people have been facing for the last few decades. It is partially in the shoulder of agronomists, horticulturists, animal scientists and other agriculturists to work for addressing these problems and challenges. The time has come that agriculturists should take lead in private sectors as well to address the national challenges of making Nepal a food secure and prosperous country. Table 1. Agricultural productions and their calculated per capita shares in Nepal (2003/04) Particulars Cereal Pulses Vegetables Fruits Milk Meat Egg (000) Fish Annual production (MT) 7746352 265360 1890100 511397 1231853 208412 575565 39947 Annual per capita share (Kg) 312.3 11 76 21 50 8.4 23 1.6 Daily per household share (g) 5059 173.4 1234.34 334 804.67 136 0.38 26 Daily per capita share (g) 866.7 30.67 210 58.33 138.67 23.33 0.064 4.33 Source: CBS (2001) Note: Calculations based on Total population= 24797059; Total household number= 4253220 With increasing evidence and awareness of the advantages of agro-ecology, it has not spread more rapidly and multiplied and adopted more widely. Clearly, the state is not serious enough to these technological or ecological issues. Major changes are imperative in policies, institutions, and research and development agenda to make sure that agro-ecological alternatives are adopted, made equitably and broadly accessible, and multiplied so that their full benefit for sustainable food security and poverty reduction can be realized. Subsidies and policy incentives for agro-ecological approaches must be introduced, and institutional structures, partnerships, and educational processes must change to enable the agro-ecological approach blossom. In addition, participatory, farmer-friendly methods of technology development and extension must be incorporated. The challenge is to increase investment and research in agro-ecology and scale up projects that have already proven successful, thereby generating a meaningful impact on the income, food security, and environmental well-being of the population, especially the resource poor farmers yet untouched by modern agricultural technology. Food production and consumption patterns: prospects for research and development Economic growth, demographic change, urbanization, and global media and marketing have stimulated change and diversification in food consumption patterns globally. The shifting pattern is evident in increasing demand for high-value foods relative to cereals and pulses in most developing countries. Dietary changes toward processed and ready-to-eat foods are accompanied by changing, generally lower, levels of physical activity as occupations shift to service sector jobs, especially in urban areas. In cities, more people work further away from home and eating at a restaurant or food stand is faster, more convenient, and often more economical than shopping for and preparing what are probably healthier meals at home. In these settings, consumers in developing countries come to experience some of the problems as well as the benefits that consumers in industrialized countries experience. This combination of changes to consumption patterns and lifestyle are collectively referred to as the “nutrition transition,” and are closely related to sharp increases in overweight, obesity, and associated chronic disorders like heart disease, hypertension, and diabetes. The shifting pattern is evident in the higher growth in per capita consumption of high value foods relative to cereals and pulses in most developing countries. Per capita consumption of cereals and pulses contracted during the 1990s, while annual vegetable consumption grew 3.7 percent, fish and seafood consumption grew 2.2 percent, and fruit and meat consumption grew between 1 and 2 percent (Table 2). Regionally, between 1982 and 2002, East and South Asian countries saw per capita consumption of vegetables and fruits rising quickly. Meat, milk, eggs, fish, and seafood consumption grew more slowly, but still increased more than staples consumption. In 2002, East and Southeast Asia exhibited the highest per capita consumption of vegetables in the developing world at 64 kilograms per person per year, and the highest consumption of fish and seafood at 26 kilograms per person per year. In 2003/04, the annual per capita share of vegetables in Nepal was 76 kilogram per year (cf. Table 1). Increases in consumption of high-value food products were particularly high in China, where between 1962 and 2002 per capita intake of vegetables grew 4.9 percent, fruit 8 percent, and meat 8.7 percent. In 2002, the Latin American and Caribbean region enjoyed the highest annual per capita consumption of fruits in the developing world at 102 kilograms per person, the highest meat consumption at 61 kg, and the highest milk (113 kg) and eggs consumption. In Nepal, the annual per capita share of fruits and meat was only 21 and 8 kilogram, respectively (Cf. Table 1). The transition towards functional foods with particular nutritional qualities in developed countries also offers an opportunity to farmers in developing countries to enhance their incomes. Many developing countries host vast reservoirs of biodiversity that can be tapped in response to the nutrition transition towards functional foods (World Bank 2006). Table 2. Average Annual Growth in Global per capita consumption of various food items (%) Food item 62-71 72-81 82-91 92-02 62-02 Cereal (excluding beer) 0.5 0.8 0.4 -0.4 0.3 Pulses -2.0 -1.5 -0.3 0.0 -1.0 Vegetables -0.3 0.8 1.4 3.7 1.5 Fruits (excluding wine) 1.5 0.5 0.8 1.8 1.2 Milk (excl. butter) & egg 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.6 0.2 Meat 1.8 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.3 Fish, Seafood 2.0 0.8 1.0 2.2 1.4 Source: FAO (2005) Note: Consumption is measured in kilograms. Data for fish and seafood are up to 2001. The FAO definition of vegetables includes root crops such as potatoes and sweet potatoes. Since these items are almost staples for some countries, the definition overstates the share of the non-staple food. Agricultural production has responded strongly to shifting food consumption patterns, with an increasing share of arable and permanent land used for vegetable and fruit production. Almost all of this increase is occurring in developing countries (Minot and Roy 2006). The share of the arable land used for vegetable and fruit cultivation has remained stable in the developed countries, but has increased markedly in most developing regions as reflected in table 3. The share of land used for cereals and pulses production declined in developed countries and in Latin America, but remained constant or slightly increased in Asia and Africa, implying that fruits and vegetables have replaced other crops (Table 3). The growth in grain production declined from over 4 percent annually in the 1960s to less than 1 percent (0.7) in the 1990s. The production of high-value agricultural commodities in contrast has grown between 2 and 5 percent annually over the last 40 years, with the exception of milk, which grew between 1 and 2 percent (Table 4). Smallholder production that answers the growing demand for high value food sources may positively affect the producer’s consumption by raising income. Although a direct positive relationship between increased income and improved nutritional outcomes is empirically questionable, higher incomes may have important indirect effects. Table 3. Average annual share of arable and permanent land used for harvest (%) Agricultural item and region (period in years) Region 1962-71 1972-82 1982-91 1992-02 1962-02 Cereals (a) 48.4 49.5 47.6 45.0 47.6 Africa 38.9 37.2 40.0 44.7 40.3 East & SEA 54.4 55.1 53.8 53.8 54.3 Lat Amer.and Caribbean 35.4 35.1 33.8 29.4 33.3 South Asia 60.2 62.7 63.4 62.2 62.1 Developed countries 43.1 44.8 42.5 38.1 42.0 Pulses (a) 4.8 4.3 4.5 4.5 4.5 Africa 5.9 5.5 5.7 7.9 6.3 East & Southeast Asia 2.2 2.5 2.7 3.6 2.8 Latin America Caribbean 5.7 5.7 6.1 5.0 5.6 South Asia 13.0 12.8 12.9 12.1 12.7 Developed countries 2.0 1.4 1.7 1.4 1.6 Fruits (excluding melons) (a) 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.1 2.5 Africa 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.2 3.7 East & Southeast Asia 2.5 2.8 3.2 3.7 3.1 Latin America Caribbean 2.2 2.7 3.6 4.1 3.2 South Asia 1.1 1.2 1.6 2.1 1.5 Developed countries 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 Vegetables (including melons) (a) 1.7 1.7 2.0 2.6 2.0 Africa 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.2 1.8 East & Southeast Asia 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.4 3.1 Latin America Caribbean 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.2 South Asia 1.9 2.3 2.7 2.9 2.4 Developed countries 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 Source: FAO (2005) Notes: (a). Data correspond to world average In South and Southeast Asia, diversification into high-value food commodities led to the development of innovative supply chains, opening new prospects for augmenting income, generating employment, and promoting exports (Barghouti et al. 2005; Pingali 2004; Deshingkar et al. 2003; Pokharel 2003; Wickramasinghe et al. 2003; Goletti 1999). Table 4. Worldwide annual average growth in food production (%) Items and year 1962-71 1972-81 1982-91 1992-02 1962-02 Cereals (excluding beer) 4.1 2.4 1.5 0.7 2.1 Pulses 0.6 - 0.2 2.9 0.4 0.9 Vegetables 1.7 2.7 3.2 5.2 3.2 Fruits 3.4 2.1 1.8 2.8 2.5 Milk (excluding butter) and egg 1.5 1.8 1.4 1.3 1.5 Meat 3.9 2.9 2.9 2.7 3.1 Fish and seafood 5.4 1.4 2.8 2.9 3.0 Source: FAO (2005) Note: Production is measured in metric tones. Vegetables include root crops such as potatos and cassava. Fish and seafood data pertain to 1962-2001. Food security moreover improved in regions where agricultural diversification took place in favor of horticulture, animal husbandry, and aquaculture (Barghouti et al. 2005). The shift in Chinese production has been particularly dramatic. China reduced the share of arable land in cereals by half between 1975 and 2002, while grain productivity almost doubled. The share of land used for fruit production has increased from 2 percent in late 1970s to 6 percent in 2002. Similarly, for vegetables, land usage has risen from 3 percent in mid 1970s to 13 percent in 2002. China produced 47 percent of total world vegetables production (in volume terms) in 2002, while its share in fruit production was 15 percent in 2002. The shifting consumption patterns and increasing demand for high-value food crops have also opened new prospects for research and development in agriculture sector. PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 9