correctional system by literature review.docx

CORRECTIONAL SYSTEM IN AFRICA: EVIDENCE FROM LITERATURE REVIEW. SALMA R. FUNDI Abstract Correctional system is a very important aspect for rehabilitating prisoners and promotes behavioral change for social order of any country. The paper aimed to assess the African experiences on correctional systems based on review of secondary sources. It was revealed that, one of the roles of prisons is to provide an effective environment that reduces the risk of reoffending. Many offenders have education and skill levels well below the average and are more likely to be unemployed, which has an impact on their health and ability to find housing. The introduction of vocational education and training (VET) programs as part of prisoner rehabilitation offers opportunities for offenders to reduce this disadvantage, thereby increasing the likelihood of successful re-integration into the community and reducing the risk of reoffending. Among others, this paper recommends for adequate financing and community involvement on correctional system program in order to have effective rehabilitation and reintegration. Keywords: Correction system, Rehabilitation, reintegration . 1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION A prison sentence is intended as a deprivation of liberty. But, all over the world, it usually means a violation and deprivation of many other human rights as well, including the right to adult education. Access to adult learning is not only a basic human right. It is a crucial step towards the reintegration and the rehabilitation of prisoners. These and other issue were discussed at the workshop "Adult Learning for Prisoners" at the UNESCO's fifth International Conference on Adult Education held in Hamburg in July 1997. Former inmates spoke about their experiences. Their presentations revealed that adult learning in prisons should go beyond just training. The demand for learning opportunities in prisons was widely expressed. At the same time it was felt that this demand was not being met by appropriate provisions. The discussion looked into initiatives for improving learning possibilities in prisons. Future strategies and the issue of the right to adult education for inmates were raised. Most importantly, the workshop explored ways to continue and improve co-operation and networking among those involved in prison education (UNESCO's Fifth International Conference on Adult Education for Prisoners held July, 1997). One of the roles of prisons is to provide an effective environment that reduces the risk of reoffending. Many offenders have education and skill levels well below the average and are more likely to be unemployed, which has an impact on their health and ability to find housing. The introduction of vocational education and training (VET) programs as part of prisoner rehabilitation offers opportunities for offenders to reduce this disadvantage, thereby increasing the likelihood of successful re-integration into the community and reducing the risk of reoffending. the programs include the provision of pre-release/transition and employment programs the opportunity to be involved in meaningful prison work, the expansion of vocational training, and more access to advice about health services, education, training and housing prior to release. A Queensland study, based on over 1,800 people who returned to custody within three years, was undertaken of the links between prisoners' anticipation in the VET programs and their chances of returning to prison. It found that 32 percent of prisoners who did not participate in VET before their initial release returned to custody within two years, while only 23 percent of VET participants returned (Callan & Gardner 2007). The education programs offer literacy and numeracy courses as well as higher-level qualifications, such as VET diplomas and university degrees. The courses can be completed within the prison or through distance learning. The completion rate was found to be over 80 prevent. The high completion rate was attributed to undertaking a risk assessment and looking at the sentence management plan to determine the educational and VET program needs of offenders, offering the courses as modules, having dedicated training workshops, promoting the employment opportunities provided by the training, recognizing the achievement of students who completed a course. Prisoners believed that as well as providing technical skills, the course also improved their communication and organizational skills, all of which would help them find employment and re-integrate into the community upon release. Barriers to undertaking or completing VET courses include the need for prisoners to undertake offending behavior programs and their desire to earn money through paid prison work. Other factors were short sentences (under 12 months) and long waiting lists for course, being transferred to another centre without much notice or being released early. There also exists, amongst some custodial staff, the view that prisons are primarily places of correction, not training. These barriers can be overcome by arranging for courses to be help at time that did not conflict with behavior management courses or paid work opportunities, through consultation with sentencing and releasing authorities, and through cultural and structural change (Callan & Gardner 2007). It was stressed that in many countries, including industrialized and ones, human rights abuses in prisons are still common. Prisoners are denied access to the most basic services such as education, personal hygiene, health and nutrition. Advocacy for the education of prisoners is therefore difficult, but vitally necessary The International Legal Framework Most countries have signed and ratified the international and regional human rights legal instruments which ensure better detention conditions for prisoners. These include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), the African Charter on Human and Populations Rights, the Convention against Torture and other Degrading Treatments, the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners(1955), (Compendium of United National 1992) Rules and Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners Adopted by the UN Provision shall be made for the further education of all prisons capable of profiting thereby, including religious instructions in the countries where this is possible. The education of illiterates and young prisoners shall be compulsory and special attention shall be paid to it by the administration. So as practicable, the education of prisoners shall be integrated with the educational system of the country so that after their release they may continue their education without difficulty (Compendium of United Nations; 1992). Article 77 Standard Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners. Adopted by the first United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, held at Geneva in 1955. Condition shall be created enabling prisoners to undertake meaningful remunerated employment which will facilitate their reintegration into the country's labour market and permit them to contribute to their own financial support and to that of their families; however Article 8 Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners Adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly and 14 December 1990. In spite of the existence of international and regional frameworks, there is a lack of an international body to ensure the enforcement of international laws. In many countries including Tanzania, national laws have not been adapted to the international rules and principles concerning the treatment of prisoners. No national policies designed to implement the provisions of ratified covenants and treaties. In many countries there are no laws on the administration of penitentiary services (Compendium of United Nations; 1992) In others, numerous bills and amendments lay unapproved, gathering dust. In particular, there is a widespread lack of provision for the education of adult prison inmates. The situation; detention condition in prisons hardships endured by prisoners are numerous. Inadequate infrastructure and the lack of space are major concerns. Children are separated from adults and detained in separate wings. Hygiene is precarious, and basic sanitation services are scarce. In many countries detention centres exist that were built during the colonial period. These centres are old and badly maintained. Prisons are overcrowded, and the separation of women from men is often not enforced. Equipment and furniture are minimal. Health care for inmates is not provided on a regular basis owing to lack of personnel and medicines. Prisoners very often lack basic sanitary necessities including soap. even food is a problem, and relatives often have to bring it from outside. Given this situation, it is not difficult to understand why governments do not view the right to education for prisoners as a priority(Compendium of United Nations:1992). 1.2 AFRICAN EXPERIENCE ON CORRECTIONAL SYSTEM The slight data that exists on concerned custodial correctional system in Africa is subjected to poor infrastructure, overcrowded conditions, rough treatment and suffering. It is known that many custodial correctional system on the continent do certainly suffer from these problems, it is not amazing that there is very dialogue on what these correctional instruments can do better to help facilitate change in the prisoners with a view to helping them lead crime-free lives after their release. However, rehabilitation and reintegration of prisoners is recognized as one of the key functions of the correctional system all over the world including countries of Africa. Local instruments refer to it is as one of the important aspects to consider in the treatment of offenders. It is, for that reason, important to realize what rehabilitative efforts are occurring in Africa and what impacts they have on the successful reintegration of offenders. This chapter outlines some of these activities ,but does so recognizing that only limited literature with slights information exists about rehabilitation in most parts of the Africa and that unyielding conclusions cannot be draw some lessons for correctional science in rehabilitation practice. Lastly, it poses the constraints facing most prisons in Africa. Although the chapter starts with an impression of rehabilitation, drawing on various literature in the develop world to provide a common understanding of what is meant by rehabilitation and rehabilitation and reintegration, as well as to outline what is understood as necessary for effective interventions under correctional system. African percipective on concepts related to correctional service In Africa societies, the aim of imprisonment punishment is not only to stop offending and reoffending, yet if viewed through the preventive lens of incarceration, but also to send a strong message about society`s public dissatisfaction of an offence. Imprisonment sentence, which deprives a person of liberty, is very accepted by most African societies with a perception to represent ultimate penalty and the strongest mark of disapproval. In addition to this, there are several others functions that a sentence of imprisonment fulfils. These includes: Retribution, or just deserts , imposes a symbolic punishment , in this case imprisonment on offender for a crime that has been committed. The term of imprisonment is meant to be proportionate to the crime or extent of harm inflicted. Deterrence intend to prevent the commission or decommission of crime through threat of the negative outcomes that may result from the commissions of crime. Yet, research has not proven any significant impact of deterrence on crime levels. Incapacitation aims to prevent crime through rendering the offender incapable of committing furthers crime by is removal from society and incarceration in prison. However, this theory fails to take into account the possibility of committing further acts of crime within the prison community. Rehabilitation is a planned intervention which aims to bring about change in some aspect of the offender that is thought to cause the offender`s criminality, such as attitudes, cognitive processes, personality or mental health. A broad definition of rehabilitation refers to social relations with others , education and vocational skills, and employment. The intervention is intended to make the offender less like to break the law in the future, or to reduce 'recidivism' (Cullen & Gendreau 2000). Reintegration is the process by which a person is reintroduced into the community with the aim of living in a law-abiding manner. Reintegration also refers to active and full community participation by ex-offenders. Preparation for reintegration can occurs in prison. Rehabilitation and reintegration are sometimes used interchangeably in the literature. Note Rehabilitation and Reintegration are said to be very potential of a prison sentence to change a person`s behaviour pr top have an impact on the factors that lead to crime of the decommission of crime. Rehabilitation has been emplacing with the belief that human behaviour is the product of antecedent caused that can be identified and that therapeutic measures can be employed to effect positive changed in the behaviours of the person subjected to treatment (Rabie & Mar`e 1994). In terms of this approach, a prisoner is regarded as having malfunctioned, or as being ' diseased', and capable of being 'treated' or 'cured' usually by a range of professionals within the criminal justice system. Rehabilitation treatment programmes can include educational and vocational training, individual and group counseling, and medical treatment. The rehabilitation to some extent made a comeback in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when studies using meta-analytical techniques indicated that some of rehabilitation programmes may be effective under certain conditions (see Layton Mackenzied 2000; McGuire 2000). These studies reveal that the recidivism rate is in average 10 percentage points lower for prisoners going through treatment programmes though sometimes the reduction in recidivism may be a s high as 25 per cent ( Cullen & Gendreau 2000: 110). Based on these studies , there is developing consumers that programmed and services that have the following features work best (McGuire 2000): The programmes must be base on an explicit and well- articulated model of the cause of crime such as : Risk assessment: Interventions should be targeted towards specific risk categories. Studies have also indicated that programmed provided for high- risk groups are most effectives (Andrews et al.2001). Criminogenic needs: the prisoners should be assessed to determined dynamic risk factors such as attitudes, criminals associations, skills deficits, substance abuse , or self control issues which are related to offending. Responsivity: More effective methods are those which are active and participatory. Structure interventions should have clear objectives. Methods: The most effective methods are drawn from cognitive-behavioural approaches that focus on the interrelationship between through , feelings and behaviour. Programme integrity: Programmed should be delivered by appropriately trained staff who are able to deliver the intervention in its designed format. Martinson (2001) also argued that recent approached to rehabilitation view prisoners in relation to their families , communities and socio-economic backgrounds and have a focus that is broader than the psychosocial. This argument has been supported by Social Exclusion Unit in Britain which has identified a number of risk factors prevalent in the offending population. These same risk contribute to the likelihood of a released prisoner reoffending, and these factors can be exacerbated by the imprisonment experience. The Social Exclusion Unit outlines these factors and how prison - based interventions can target treatment and the creation of skills and awareness, and facilitating community reintegration. These risk factors are mutually reinforcing and need to be addresses in an integrated manner. (SEU 2002). The risk factors identified are: One factor recognized by the Social Exclusion Un it is the dominance of low levels of education among prisoners. In prison, existing skills can be bettered or become outdated, and thus the existing educational coursed may be interrupted. Prison- based education and training programmes is required to give prisoners skills needed to gain employment. Another risk factor is employment. Many prisoners are unemployment at the time of arrest. In addition, imprisonment results in the loss or interruption of employment. Imprisonment could provide the opportunity to gain practical experience and set up contacts with potential employers. Moreover is drugs and alcohol risk factors, as 60 to 70 per cent of offenders in the UK as well as worldwide used drugs prior to their imprisonment. Drugs are often available in prison and habits may become entrenched. Prison could be an effective place to obtain drug treatment. Mental and physical health is another risk factor, with over 70 per cent of prisoners suffering from mental and the prison environment. Prison could provide the opportunity for proper diagnosis and treatment. Attitudes and self-control risk factor, among some prisoners my reinforce negative attitudes and behaviour. Prison rehabilitation programmed could help to improve prisoners' thinking skills and anger management to help mitigate this factor. Imprisonment may also strengthen experiences of institutionalization and deeply structured regimes, or a lack of activity, which can demage prisoners ability to think or act for themselves. On the other hand, prison could provide a place to develop positive life skills. Housing risk factor can be lost on entry, and non-payment of rent could have knock-on effects for the prisoner`s family if the particular prisoners was a beard winner of the family. Appropriate empowerment to family from professional social worker is needed to access housing rent. Prisoners are released without sufficient financial means to tide them over until they become re-established. Therefore rehabilitation programmes in prison could help them to access financial support on their release. The final risk factors is the impact on families, as imprisonment can damage positive links to families and contribute to financial instability among family members. On the other hand, prison could give families an opportunity to have input into the prisoner`s rehabilitation needs, to deal with poor family relationships and to stabilize financial needs and concerns, as mentioned above. Note. Building on these ideas is the newly evolving notion of 'correction science'. This is a community - oriented approach which shifts the emphasis from the individual to the community to which the offender returns, with the aim of building capacity and enlisting community resources to assist in reintegration. This approach requires operational changed to facilitate the provision of a continuum of care from imprisonment through to release and case management, balancing supervision with support and building partnerships with all stakeholders (Borzycki 2005). Most of the above discussed rehabilitation programmed ideas have been developed and researched in the Western World. In analyzing their importance and may be its application and impact in the countries of Africa, it is very important to start observing our African correctional instruments as an expression of the intent continent. b) Analysis of african instruments trend on correctional steps A number of African instruments established to deal with the rehabilitation and reintegration of prisoners, such as Kampala Declaration on Prison Conditions in Africa, adopted in 1996, they document outlining rights for prisoners in Africa. Instead of listing determined goals for prisoner rehabilitation, the Declaration set a more realistic agenda for Africa stated facing the high levels of overcrowding and under-resourcing prevalent on the continent. The Kampala Declaration made several recommendations, which include the following: that the detrimental effects of imprisonment should be minimized so that prisoners do not lose their self-respect and sense of personal responsibility; that prisoners should be given the opportunity to maintain and develop links with their families and the outside world, and that prisoners should be given access to education and skills training in order to make it easier for them to reintegrate into society after their release. However, even where such programs exist in Africa it shows they have short comings. In a way many prison training programs are not linked with the regular education system outside the prisons. As a result, the transition from one to the other is hard to make. Adult education programs in prison seldom give information on the rights of individuals. Little or no attempt is made to promote creativity. Little attention is paid to the personal biographies of prison inmates. A serious problems is the inadequate of a national curriculum in prisons training. Consequently, when prisoners change prisons , they are confronted with an adult learning system which is completely different from the one they have previously been exposed to. There is nevertheless a general consensus that adult education for prisoners is a fundamental step towards their social reintegration. The important consideration for the development of successful policies under thus instruments is to have education practices that stress personal development should be advocated for prison inmates. Notwithstanding the fact that the situations of African prisons had seen little improvement by the time of the next pan- African seminar held in Burkina Faso, in 2002, then the Ouagadougou Declaration on Accelerating Penal and Prison Reform in Africa was established to promote effectives rehabilitation in African prisons. The Ouagadougou Declaration recommended promoting the reintegration of offenders into society. In doing so, it proposed that every stated should prepare plan of action by making sure greater efforts to use the period of imprisonment, or other sanctions, to develop the potential of offenders and to empower them to lead a crime-free life in the future. This, it stipulated should include rehabilitative programmes focusing on the reintegration of offenders and contributing to their individual and social development. The Plan of Action accompanying the Ouagadougou Declaration is addressed to governments and criminal justice agencies as well as to NGOs and associations, and it is meant to serve as an inspiration for concrete action. The Ouagadougou Declaration recommended , the state Plan should outlines the following strategies of promote rehabilitation: Promoting rehabilitation and development programmes during the period of imprisonment or non-custodial sentence schemes; Ensuring that unsentenced prisoners have access to these programmes; emphasizing literacy and skills training linked to employment opportunities. Promoting vocational training programmed certificated to national standards; emphasising the development of existing skills; Providing civic and social education; Providing social and psychological support with adequate professionals; Promoting contact with the family and community; Sensitizing families and communities in preparation for the reintegration of the person into society and involving them in rehabilitation and development programmes; Developing halfway housed and other pre-release schemes, and extending the use of open prisons under appropriate circumstances. The above outlined recommendations are reflecting broad range of approached that can be used in reducing the criminality of released offenders and facilitating their entry into society. It placed more emphasis on those skills that would assist with re-entry, such as the development of vocational and literacy skills. The Plan support to the prisoners while in prisons, but also in accepting them back into their lives. The idea here is that rehabilitation should facilitate the development skills, as well as to social and psychological support from professionals. The remarkable points of the Plan of Action is that even un sentenced prisoners should have access to the programmes outlined, including rehabilitation and development programmes. This is contrary to convention, which holds that prisoners should only be engaged in 'rehabilitative' efforts once they have been found guilty of a crime. The Plan of actions promoted the use of less restrictive regimes for prisoners, particularly open prisons. Furthermore was Central, Eastern and South African Heads of Correctional Services (CESCA) instrument which was drafted as African Charter on Prisoners` Rights. This was to have been presented to the UN`s African member states in 2002, and from there to the UN`s bodies, but for unexplained reasons it did not make its way onto the agenda. Although the Charter sets out minimum standards for the treatment of prisoners. In a section dealing with the rehabilitation of prisoners (paragraph 14,) the draft Charter provides that: programmes for physical and social rehabilitation and reintegration of prisoners into the community shall be provided : rehabilitation progrannes shall involved as far as possible, NGOs to run schemes in prisons, in cooperation with the prison administration; and approved religious bodies shall have free access to prisoners to dispense spiritual welfare to them. But gain this drafted charter does not comprises the depth of the Ouagadougou Declaration, It elevates the role of religious workers and spiritual services to a central place in the visions for rehabilitation services. c) Influences of african the above instruments on legal and policy frame works. The establishment of mentioned instrument had a lot of influences on any policy process of any African country. However m a conducted survey of prison services in African compiled in preparation for the second Pan African Conference on Penal and Prison Reform, held in Ouagadougou in 2002, found that of the 27 counties responding to the survey, 11 had introduced new legislation since 1996, and some had presumably been influenced by the Kampala Declaration. Others indicated that they were in the process of reviewing legislation (PRI 2003). Given the dire prison conditions in many African countries, it is perhaps not surprising or inappropriate that only eight countries listed the improvement or introduction of rehabilitation and developmental programmed as best practices since 1996. Most of the focus has been targeted towards introducing human rights standard, appropriate training for prisons officials, and the improvement of prison conditions by various mechanisms. These proved that there slight influenced on the legislative or policy frame works of some countries. For stance in Benin, which was still operates according to a decree of 1975, under which no explicit rehabilitative aim is provided ( pers. Comm., Penal Reform International representative, September 2005). Nevertheless, it does have a Centre for the Welfare of Juveniles young Adolescents in Aglanbanda; one of the Centre`s responsibilities is to rehabilitate young offenders ( ACHPR 2000c). Cameroon is another country without an apparent policy concerning rehabilitation (RODI 2004). The reasons behind most of African countries have emerged from a colonial history in the past half- century, and some of them are still acting in terms of the colonial legislation and policies. Even while under the colonial regimes in some counties, one of the express aims of imprisonment was rehabilitation and the prison systems were often used to obtain labour for the growing industries. The influence of adopting western legislation continues influencing the correctional science in Africa, which often reflects European legislation of the late nineteenth and early twentieth the countries. Information about correctional science is not very accessible for most countries in the region, and there is even less readily available information on legislation and policy frameworks. However, there is some information that indicates that many countries have included rehabilitation explicitly in the objectives for the prison service. For example in Botswana Prisons Services outlines that one of the purposed of the prison system is : the training and rehabilitation of all classes of sentenced prisoners in such skill and social behaviour as may be necessary to effect change in their social resettlement into the community on their release as law-abiding members of the community (PRS REPORT 2001:) While in Uganda has also recently reconceptualised its prison services. According to the Uganda Prison Service Policy Document, 2000 and Beyond, their mission is to encouraged and assist prisoners in their rehabilitation , reformation and social reintegration as law-abiding citizens (pars, comm., Foundation for Human Rights initiative, Kampala, Uganda, August 2005). Furthermore is in 1998, whereby South Africa revises its legislation to bring it in line with international human rights principles and correctional norms. The establishment of Correctional Services Act No.111 of 1998, which was properly brought into effect only in 2004, identified that the purpose of the correctional system is to contributed to maintaining and protecting a just peaceful and safe society, and instrumental in this is 'promoting the social responsibility and human development of all prisoners and persons subject to community corrections' (Section 2). While the Act was careful to avoid the term 'rehabilitation' and to frame the objectives in terms of minimum responsibilities, in 2005 the correctional services ushered in a more expansive set of objectives as set out in the White Paper on Corrections in South African (DCS 2005). The particular document outlines a 20 - year vision of South Africa in which rehabilitation forms the basis of all activities of correctional services. In terms of this document, the responsibility of the Department of Correctional Services (DCS) in first and foremost to correct offending behaviour in a secure, safe and humane environment, in order to facilitate the achievement of rehabilitation and avoidance of repeat offending. This creates a greater responsibility on the correctional services to ensure that prisoners do not reoffend after being released. On the other hand, while acknowledging that the purpose of penal legislation is to punish and to rehabilitate offenders, one senior official from Tanzania left that the emphasis was more on the punitive side. This is perhaps, a reflection that whilst there are policy discussions about reframing imprisonment and transforming prisons, the day-to-day reality remains definitely locked into a punitive approach. It is also a reflection of the constraints faced in operating in severely overcrowded and under -resourced facilities The situation of african prisons Yet, once African countries seek to bring about the correctional science or development of rehabilitation to prisoners, the realities facing the prison system often make any attempts very difficult. Most literatures of African countries reviewed for the purposes of this chapter are subject to high levels of overcrowding and inadequate resources and facilitated. Extreme conditions of overcrowding, resulting in inadequate sleeping space, a lack of proper sleeping, a lack of ventilation and lighting, were some of the factors mentioned in many of the reports of the African Commission`s Special Reporter on Prisons and Detention in Africa. Concern was also raised about excessive and inappropriate discipline and punishment, labour, and paltry access to medical treatment. Another problem often mentioned is that the prison systems fail to separate prisoners sentences for serious crimes from those convicted of less serious.7 These factors have an impact on the mental a and physical health of a prisoners and fail to create an environment conducive to rehabilitation. Overcrowding also has a negative impact on the staffing and management of a prison. This has proved by UK`s Chief Inspector of Prisons in his 2001/02 Annual Report: Prison overcrowding is, however, undoubtedly making it more difficult to build sustain progress [with assessing prisoners and placing them in appropriate programmers]. It is more difficult to get prisoners out of cell [sic] and into activities. Frequent prisoner movement makes the completion of courses and skilled- based qualifications much more difficult. (cited in Steinberg 2005:15). These concerns are severely illustrated on the African prison. The literature showed that in one prison in the Central African Republic inmates were not allowed out of the congested and poorly ventilated cell at all for fear that they would escape (ACHPR 20000b) In many African countries, the prisons are understaffed and few personnel have received training that helps them to understand their role in terms of facilitating offender development and reintegration. In South Africa was in past 10 years quoted as stating: ' Correcting inmates is an extraordinary responsibility (that) needs extraordinary citizens. I don`t have extraordinary citizens as yet, at the moment we have got people that have got a matric and have got on criminals record. ' He up and throw staff had no respect for prisoners and still believed that they 'must lock them up and throw away the key'( Pretoria News 29 September 20058). In addition, most countries in Africa have no, or inadequate, numbers of professional staff, such as social workers, psychologists, educators and vocational trainers. In addition, the rehabilitation or reformation of prisoners is often viewed very narrowly , so that the provision of schooling, training or work opportunities is often seen as the full extent of rehabilitation, even when no others psychosocial aspects are catered for. When programmed and facilities are available in prisons, they are most often targeted towards juvenile offenders and female offenders , which may be as a result of donor agendas in respect of these marginalized groups. In Namibia criminal rehabilitation works to reduce criminal recidivism. The success of rehabilitation depends on manner the programs are arranged over since reception of the prisoner in prison. The offender is assumed treated and the services or programs used are designed to positively reinforce pro-social behavavior but how do we approach this methodology?. In the first five years after independence of Namibia, the Correctional Service concentrated in creating work opportunities for its inmates (Correctional Forum, Vol 1.2007) The Correctional Service of Namibia tried to break the Prisoner's idleness that breeds boredom and resultant to trouble-making and lack of self-esteem. Therefore started to look for land where inmates could work on and in the few workshops where Prisoner's labour could be utilized. Whereby the Service could manage to get Divunda rehabilitation centre in Kavango region and Farm Scott in Tsumeb, but this was not enough, as they discovered that work only, may not be the only method of changing inmates, altitude against criminal activities. it should be accompanied with appropriate effective intervention programme. This is more philosophical approach in which we diagnose the criminogenic needs or problems of an offender and then put on the correct therapy. That is where the expert expertise of the specialized staff comes in, social workers, educationalists, psychologists, criminologists to do the intake assessment and prepare correctional programme and offer the programme to the offender (Correctional Forum, Vol 1 of 2007). With the assistance of the working partners such as Correctional Service of Canada, the Correctional Service of Namibia has been working with them form 1999 in the new approach. Currently they are having two joint projects with Canadian running, namely, the Pilot Project on Unit Management and the Offender Management System. The Pilot Project on Unit Management started in April, 2005 at Windhoek Central Prison with 431 inmates selected on the basis of their risks and were placed in five units. Unit management is very important vehicle for rehabilitation as it is the best practice in prisoner's management whereby each contact and action by staff is designed to promote security and custody, prisoner rehabilitation and provision of constructive prison environment. However, the Correctional Service of Namibia have conducted an evaluation on this Management Unit and found out that it was running very smoothly (Correctional Forum, Vol 1 of 2007). Constraints in implementation of the rehabilitation programs in Namibia; Constraints and setback: Undeniable, lack of resources and inadequate of funding can be singled in the operations of the Namibian Prison Service. This major problem which has an impact on all our ambitious programs that they worked out. Their strategic plan which spells out their road map of implementation of the Policy document and Mission Statement is yet to be realized. Almost the big junk of the budget goes to wage bill and Prisoner's basic needs. Nature of the Namibian work as indicated earlier, they do not have control on the people who are brought to us in terms of their numerical presence and their movement on transfers and appearance to courts (Correctional Forum, Vol 1 of 2007). However, the number of imprisoned people and the length of prison sentences in Uruguay has sharply increased since 19995 following a national crackdown on crime. problems of overcrowding in some prisons and the general lack of resource and funding have been exacerbated after the annual rate of imprisoned people per 100,000 inhabitants doubled from 110 to 220 between 1995 and 2005. A demographic look at the Uruguay's prison population reveals that more than 60% of imprisoned people are under 30 years old and many have received little or inadequate schooling. A study was commissioned in 2007 to investigate the education levels of people deprived of their liberty across Uruguay, 5,781 individuals were interviewed across the country, which represents over 80% of Uruguay's total prison population. The results revealed that 40% of prisoner had not completed their primary education and 31% had only completed their primary education and then left the formal education system (Rangel & Hugo 2009). Difficult economic circumstances in 20002 left Uruguay with high poverty incidence rates and led the way to the formation of a National Social Emergency Plan (PANES,), which was set up in 2005 in the wake of a change of government. The Ministry for Social Development (MIDES) was created in that same year with the objective of brining the plan forward and formulating, executing, supervising and evaluating the policies and strategies in the fields of youth, women and the family, the elderly, the disabled and social development. To address the educational needs of the section of the population previously excluded from their basic education, the Ministry of Education and Culture (Ministerial de Education y Cultura-MEC) and the National Administration of Public (Administration Nacional de Educacion Publica-ANEP) jointly undertook the initiative to conduct educational projects inside of prison institutions on a variety of topics and with many different objectives( health, family life, vocational training, literacy skills, social reintegration, etc). Following the introduction of the Humanisaztion of the Penitentiary System Act No 17,897) in 2005, which placed significant emphasis on the benefits of education in prison environments, the scope of education in prisons began to find a stronger source of support and subsequently started to enlarge. Since being established in 2007, the Support Commission for Education in Prisons (CAEC) has been committed to achieving wider and better quality educational coverage in prison across the country, by means of workshops, course and literacy programmes for the imprisoned people (Rangel & Hugo 2009). One of the fundamental objectives of the penitentiary system is to work towards the rehabilitation and eventual reinsertion into society of people who are imprisoned. Under the scope of these aims, prison education functions as a means to improve the conditions of imprisonment and represents the stage prior to active rehabilitation. As part of the overarching national Education Programme for Young People and Adults, educational programmes and activities were established in prisons to achieve the following aims: Strengthen the links and intensify engagement with organizations and institutions connected to the prison population in order to coordinate activities and avoid overlapping or negatively affecting existing efforts, Extend educational coverage to every prison in the country, Promote the provision of training for prisons staff, particularly those connected either directly or indirectly to teaching in the establishment, Develop and implement a distinctive training programme for teachers working in prisons to empower them to face the particular characteristics of prison population and their environment, make sure that education in prison promotes self-reliance and autonomy with the end objective of enabling the prison population to reintegrated into society harmoniously, Investigate how the activities which are offered can be improved and optimized by means of a survey of the imprisoned people and construct an area to support the introduction and implementation of Humanisation of the Penitentiary System Act, which allows sentences to be reduced in exchange for studying (Rangel & Hugo 2009). As the prison education system in Uruguary is made up of a variety of projects run by private organizations and public authorities, coordination is of key importance and is carried out by the Support Commission for Prison Education (CAEC). The commission comprises of members of the Ministry for Education and Culture (MEC), the Department of Education and Further Education in the National Trust for Current and Released Prisoners (PNEL), the Parliamentary Commissioner, the National Administration of Public Education (ANEP) and an advisor with pedagogical experience specifically in prison education and who is appointed by the committee members (Rangel & Hugo 2009). The Commission is charged with the task of anlysing the policies and educational practices in prisons, coordinating actions to improve education methods and conditions, supporting the training of prison staff, particularly those with direct or indirect teaching role, coordinating the links between public and private institutions in order to achieve maximum educational coverage across the country, and maintaining contact with regional and international organizations with similar objectives. Rather than a passive, administrative role, the Commission actively engages with all those involved (teachers, imprisoned people and prison staff). Such interaction has brought to light the hidden reality of life behind bars whilst exposing new topics and concerns for discussion in the area of education and society (Rangel & Hugo 2009). Non-formal education in the prisons utilises both formal and non-formal teaching approaches, with possibilities to attend literacy class, continue with primary or secondary education, access vocational training and take part in workshops, theatre groups, and so on. Activities are planned and carried out with the intention of supporting the development of skills, encouraging groups communication and reforming the outlook and social behavior of the imprisoned people. A pilot project was developed by a team of education professionals and introduced in the men's prison of the city of Canelones. After consulting a selection of prisoners on their interests and preferences for the workshop, Uruguayan Carnival was adopted as the central theme. On preparing the session, literacy and self-directed learning were woven carefully into the curriculum by the team of professionals (Rangel & Hugo 2009). The aspect addressed during the workshop were the social self and environment, language development and communication, art and culture (music groups and carnival), history and geographical reviews of similar cultural expressions. The workshop participants were encouraged to deal with standard aspects of life as well as their own experiences, writing and speaking about the reality of their situations and the topics of freedom, hope and time. During the workshops, the participants developed their reading, writing and general communication skills through the embedded literacy components in the programme (Rangel & Hugo 2009). Despite having been planed for only 20 participants, by the third meeting 27 prospective learners had joined the workshop and, in order to guarantee the educational quality of the sessions, no additional participants were admitted. All of the participants completed the four-month long course with full attendance. Originally intended to consist of three meeting a week each lasting three hours, the teachers reported that it was impossible to restrict the meetings to less than four hours at time due to the magnitude of participation and the scope of interest in the topics (Rangel & Hugo 2009). During the workshop, a space was created where dialogue and debate could flourish and the large diversity of the participants and their cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds could be taken into consideration. Playing and fundamental role in engaging the participants, the flexible curriculum encouraged them to use their practical skills and inquisitiveness and fostered the growth of qualities central to the process of lifelong learning. The design, methodologies and foundation of learning to learn strategies were employed in order to encourage the development of the participants' autonomy and self- empowerment. As a result of the use of this approach, participants became actively involved by asking questions on job-related topics. The teachers were able to support the participants by bringing information and holding readings on workers' rights, resulting in the establishment and evolution of an area of meaningful interaction between the teachers and learners (Rangel & Hugo 2009). The pilot programme and its workshop structure formed the no-formal education programme, Programa Aprender Siempre (Always Lean Programme), which is directed at people over the age of 20 and offers short educational courses. Dealing with many different themes, the programme has since been introduced both inside and outside of prison establishments. In many prisons, music or theatre groups have been formed often with the support of paid and voluntary workshop instructors. Such occurrences have all been resoundingly successful, with many resulting in the production of shows for the public either in the prisons or in public halls. In 2005, the largest prison in Uruguay, with half of the country's prison population, was not equipped with classrooms and, across the country, there were only 9 teaching positions in 5 out of 27 prison establishments. Four years later, in 2009, the position had risen to 51 covering 25 prisons; a marked improvement, arising from the recognition of the right to education for all and the beneficial effect of education in limiting the number of reoffenders (Rangel & Hugo 2009). Over the last few years, the prison education system has been growing positively in both the capital city and rural regions, with much wider educational coverage offered in prisons across the country than in former times. Nowadays, the majority of the prisons feature areas dedicated to primary level teaching and the Uruguayan literacy programme, "En el pais de Varela; you si puedo", has been introduced in several prisons with positive results. The percentage of the prison population engaged in education programmes has more than quadrupled form 5% in 2005 to 29% in 2008. Bearing in mind the rise in the number of prisoners, this achievement is not to be taken lightly and reflects concerted efforts to implement effective and attractive educational strategies for the prison population. . The establishment of knowledge environments in Uruguayan prisons has fostered great interest for learning among the prisoners and incited the growth of informal offshoot projects. Adapting the educational content and context even further, such projects make the education process more relevant, engaging and effective and set up the foundations for successful lifelong learning. Beginning as a small imitative, chess is one such activity which has been well received and successful in its aims to engage offenders and establish valuable learning environments. In one prison where it has been played for over two years, more than one quarter of the prisoners have started to play chess and monthly tournaments are held. Initially introduced and played during the workshops at the prison, the activity has been taught as often to family members as to other prisoners and has become a feature of daily life in the prison. Having learned chess in prison, one former prisoner began to teach the game to children at his local church shortly after completing his sentence(Rangel & Hugo 2009). In several prisons, a number of alternative educational programmes have emerged from ideas and contributions of the prisoners, promoting self-directed learning and relying on both non-formal and formal methods of education. The results from such participatory projects have been promising, particularly with regard to qualitative achievements (the enrichment of dialogue, between management of interpersonal relationships, the reinforcement of identities, the reconstruction of a new subjectivity empathy, critical and creative thinking, etc). The success of the carnival project became evident through the predictably high level of participation and was then substantiated with the unforeseen results it provoked. Two of the main achievements were a website was constructed for the families of participants, above all, for their children, with poems and letters for them from the prisoners, and the production of a CD with lyrics and illustrations from the group. The learning experience, support for empowerment and feelings of accomplishment which the project bought about had a high emotional impacts on everyone involved in the project. After 2005, some of the greatest challenges to prison education have arises from governance of the prison system itself, including overcrowding in prisons, lack of budgetary and extra-budgetary resources and the lack of a national unified prison structure. It has been noted that many prison areas, which may have formerly had another, sometimes educational, use, have been reallocated to accommodate more prisoners. Such challenges persist to this day and hamper the quality and quality of education which can offered in prisons. In interviews with the prison population, the challenges to prison education form their perspectives were revealed as a lack of didactic material, the limited available time for training and the lack of specialised programmes (Ranger & Hugo 2009) Overcoming the view of many people across all areas of administration (government, prison staff, teaching staff, etc) that prison education is a marginal task carried out by volunteers is an additional challenge, particularly when facing the often conflicting background, objectives and priorities of the prison staff and authorities. The report resistance of prison staff to escort offenders to the classrooms has been recorded in a report on prison education in Uruguay from 2010. Tackling this issue is necessary in order to enhance the status of the staff working in educational positions and to guarantee the fulfillment of the prisoner's right to basic education. In spite of the successes of the Support Commission, further coordination and promotion of education are needed on the level of national planning and across all area of government. The challenge at hand is reaching all the relevant parties dealing with imprisoned people and making sure that the value of prison education is recognized. As late as 2009, a new prison was opened in Uruguay which had been constructed without incorporating education areas into its design, highlighting the necessity to promote a higher prioritization of prison education on a wider scale (Rangel & Hugo 2009). The progress made in prison education since 2005 has been very beneficial for Uruguayan society, for the promotion of lifelong learning and the protection of the right to education for all. Though there are NGOs supporting projects in the area of prison education, the continuation of the prison education programme relies strongly on government funding and coordination. The continuing recognition of achievement and support by the government suggests that the shift in policymaking towards increased levels of education in prisons will be sustainable. However, it must be appreciated that more discernible results and advances can only be achieved through substantial prison reform, a deepening and widening of the programme and strong coordination and promotion of the existing projects. The flexible curriculum and heterogeneity of the programme allow the course content to be adapted to fit in with the participants, their interests and respective situations. Having such flexible features, the programme can be run repeatedly, requiring only a change in theme to maintain interest and to focus on new areas of learning. Given that it is possible for imprisoned people to pursue formal education qualifications whilst serving a sentence in Uruguay, the education programmes can lead to the reinsertion of learners into formal education and the acquisition of national qualifications (Rangel & Hugo 2009). In Burkina Faso prisoners can choose t take general education or vocational training courses. Literacy courses are offered in the national language in three prisons of the coutnry. In other French is offeerd. Prisoners are able to enroll for high school education. They can also choose between different vocational traders such as carpentry, weaving, knitting, tailoring or other handcrafts (Gibons,1993). There are also agricultural and farming projects in prisons in which prisoners grow rice and raise sheep, cows, pigs and poultry. This contributes to the subsistence needs of prisoners. Unfortunately such examples do not reflect the situation of prisons the world over. In many countries, such as Vietnam for example, prisoners are prohibited from enrolling for a training course, learning foreign languages or reading books on foreign cultures. Dictionaries are often confiscated and prisoners are still compelled to read books on Marxism. All prison inmates, including the old and disabled, are forced to work (Gibons, 1993). . From all mentioned situation in African prisons it is important to know that programs for rehabilitation of prisoners should give the satisfaction of the physical needs of the individual prisoners. Namibia Prisons service undertakes this initiative which has led them to successful rehabilitation programs. d) Divergence of developed and developing world on correctional system Existing African regional instruments and even the legislation and policy framework of some African countries support the ideas of rehabilitation approach as researched and tested in the developed world but also advocate for the use of innovative ingredients suited to the local environment. The Ouagadougou Declaration on Accelerating Prison and Penal Reform in Africa makes specific reference to rehabilitation in prison by proposing greater effort to use the period of imprisonment, or other sanction, to develop the potential of offenders and to empower them to lead a crime-free life in the future. rehabilitative programs focusing on the reintegration of offenders and contributing to their individual and social development are stipulated in the Action Plan which, at the same time promotes the use of less restrictive regimes for prisoners, like open prisons. while the Ouagadougou Plan of Action emplhasizes the vital link of community involvement in rehabilitation, the CESCA also drafted an African Charter on Prisoner's Rights which highlights programs for physical and social rehabilitation and reintegration of offenders and involvement of Civil Society, Non-Governmental Religious and Community-Based organization. However, the ability of Civil Society groupings to render services to prisons is dependent on whether the Prisons Services or staffs are prepared to grant them access to prisons. A survey of NGO's providing services in African prisons revealed that access for most NGO's was heavily restricted. But some countries recognise the importance of Civil Society involvement in prison work. South Africa, for example sees corrections as societal responsibility, where the involvement of other government departments, social institutions and civil society organizations and private individuals is deemed essential (Mboya, 2012). Rehabilitation services which are provided by civil society organizations include education and training of prisoners, counseling, life skills, social services, awareness programs, religious care and services, craft making and sports, arts and cultural activities. Since the work of rehabilitation and reintegration needs to continue after release, civil society organizations also offer support to released prisoners through training, finding employment and offering interim financial or material support. Other offer counseling and education around HIV and AIDS. A Workshop of Restorative Justice held in 2004 from several African countries, including Tanzania identified good practices in offender rehabilitation and reintegration (Mboya, 2012). These included the need for better coordinated activities between civil society services providers to avoid duplication and to encourage sharing of information, Providing vocational training to industry standard and issuing certificate that are independent of the prison administration, Encouraging restorative justice practices, including victim compensation, Preparing prisoners for release, involving local organizations (churches, traditional leaders) in the reception of prisoners on release, and help alleviate the stima of imprisonment, Assisting offenders with work opportunities and finding housing and working with Civil Society Organizations to promote alternative to imprisonment to reduce levels overcrowding. As seen earlier, most of our knowledge about the impact of rehabilitation programs comes from studies in the developed world. It is only more recently that some organizations in Africa are beginning to write up their interventions with offenders, with most of this taking place in South Africa. These programs have been informed by the International theory but adapted to the realities experienced by prisoners as well as influenced by the existing policy environment. The good thing is that these few studies are showing positive results on the participants in meeting the expected outcomes Therefore, addressing prisoners' rehabilitation in a narrow sense cannot yield better output unless myriads of social-economic problems to be encountered after release are as well as addressed. supporting prisoners after their sentence would help to solve their social-economic problems hence lead them to a decent life (Mboya, 2012). The africa perception on rehabilitation and reintegration Reflecting the outline of the Plan of Action to the Ouagadougou Declaration it shows that most African countries focus on vocational training, education and spiritual development rather than on the psychosocial aspects and behavioural aspects of rehabilitation, which may be linked top the lack of professional staff in many of these countries. For example in Tanzania , where rehabilitation is much understood to include the correction of offending behaviour. Human development and the promotion of soicla responsibilities and values, opportunities are limited to vocational and occupational training, with limited educational opportunities for young prisoners (pers. Comm. Assistant Commissioner of Prisons [ACP], Tanzania Prison Service, 6 November 2006). The degree of emphasis on rehabilitation also varies according to country but may, perhaps, be measured according to prisoner involvement in relevant activities. For stance in Zimbabwean Commissioner of Prisons, 70 per cent of convicted prisoners are engaged in rehabilitation activities that include only literacy classes, skills training and church services and counseling ( pers, comm., 12 October 2005 ). In most African access to rehabilitation programmes for unsentenced prisoners is not possible rather than the programmes traditionally target only sentenced prisoners who are deemed to have acknowledged responsibility for their crimes. Up till now in African many prisoners spend long periods awaiting trial. At the very extreme end, the reviewed literature showed it is possible for some offenders waiting for a trial for more than five years. For example one woman in a Benin prison who had been awaiting trial for 18 years ( ACHPR 2000c). Pre- trial prisoners also represent a large proportion of the imprisoned population. Prisoners awaiting trial constitute over 50 per cent of the prison population in 39 per cent of countries of the region. In Mozambique, 79 per cent of all inmates are awaiting trial prisoners (International for Prison Studies 2006d). These emphases on pre-trial period could be used for the development and skills training of prisoners. Although there are few countries, however , that make services and developmental or work opportunities available to pre- trial or unsentenced prisoners. For example in South Africa, Section 16 of the Correctional Services Act No. 111 of 1998 provided that the Department of Correctional Services may provide development and support services to unsentences prisoners or when it does not, should inform prisoners of services available from other agencies and put them in touch with such agencies although its not in their mission statement SITUATION OF LITERACY TRAINING AND EDUCATION AMONG AFRICAN PRISONER The majority of prisoners throughout the Africa come from the most disenfranchised sectors of the community, where they often have a low level of educational attainment and access, and low levels of literacy. Therefore Prison-based education and literacy programmes is very important, however, education is limited in most African prisons or are available only to a small percentage of the sentenced prisoner population. For example literature reviewed shows schooling is available in some Uganda prisons, but prisoners complained that access to higher education was lacking. No school or educational programmed existed at Masindi Prison, despite the fact it eas cited as a model prisons, More example is in Benin whereby education classes are available only at a juvenile facility, while Maputo Central Prison in Mozambique provided academic and vocational training to prisoners. In the latter case, education is made available to students up to grade seven, but young adults are given preference in access to classes (ACHPR 1997c). In Tanzania Primary School education is provided at one facility for young prisoners in who have not yet completed this education, and those who successfully graduate from the school may be released by presidential pardon so that they can complete their secondary education at schools in the community (pers. Omm., ACP of Tanzania Prison Service, 6 November 2006). In some rare Countries, Long-term prisoners may be helped to receive distance education at secondary or tertiary level. For example in South Africa, Section 19 of the Correctional Services Act No. 111 of 1998 make it a legal requirement for prison services to provide education programmes to all prisoners who are the age at which they would be subject to compulsory education , and older children should be given access to educational programmes. Section 41 (2) of the Act states that sentenced adults who are illiterate may also be compelled to undergo literacy training and may also have the right to participate in other available training progammes. The un rules in vocational skill training and its reflection to African countries The UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (SMR) provide that vocational t raining should be prisoners and that this should prepare prisoners for life after release, so that skills taught should be similar to those that are applicable outside of the primary purpose of making a profit for the prison out of prison labour. Even though here are few opportunities for vocational training for prisoners in Africa, more prisoners are involved in this kind of training than in academic or literacy training. This possibly due to vocational training`s close relationship to useful prison labour. In some countries, work is a compulsory part of the sentence, and sometimes inmates are sentences to hard labour. In these circumstances, the rehabilitative objectives are not always clear.11 Most of the countries referred to in this chapter offered some form of vocational training in various skills. For example in Kenya, training was available in carpentry, masonry, tailoring and agriculture while in Gambia, some prisoners were sentences to hard labour on farms, which generated revenue for the prison (RODI 2004 and ACHPR 1996b). Furthermore in South Africa, where skills development is a national priority, the Department of a labour provided R13 million for occupational skills training, benefiting approximately 9 per cent of the prison population during the 2003 academic year. Vocational skills training were also made available to prisons in terms of which prisoners are assessed and issued with qualifications by the Sector Education and Training Authority . Such skills training included were building ,metal and electrical trades. Twenty-five percent of the sentences prisoners were also involved in production workshops and agricultural activities aimed at supporting the development of their employment-related skills (DCS 2004:32-33). In Tanzania, prisoners serving long-term sentences nay receive vocational training at a prison training college. The country boasts that over 6000 prisoners took various trade tests in a 25- years period. On return to prison they can practice their building skills as part of the Prisons Building Brigade, which carries out building contracts. In addition, approximately 52 per cent of convicted prisoners participate in agricultural training and 24 per cent in industrial works. However, these programmes exclude female prisoners , those convicted of life sentences, and those awaiting the execution of the death penalty ( pers. Comm., ACP of Tanzanian Prison Service, 6 November 2006). In Benin prisoners often receive financial benefits from their work in prison, though this is not always directly from the prison services. NGOs have helped some inmates to establish tailoring shops or barber shops in the prison, where they can apply their trade to other prisoners. Other prisoners run market gardens, to basket weaving or set up small stalls to sell commodities in prison. These activities are encouraged by the authorities in the hope that the prisons may learn a useful trade. They also reflect the recognition by the authorities that they are unable to provide for the basic subsistence needs of the prison community. In Ethiopia, prisoners-run committees allocate plots to prisoners so that they can run profitable small businesses. The communities also run a cooperative shop whose profits are used to buy basic necessities for the prison. Prisoners are paid for their work on prison farms, though the bulk of their earning are paid to them on release ( ACHPR 2004b). Professional, social and psychological support This involves the rehabilitation programmes which are can change the criminogenic causes of offending from trained professionals. These include programmes which target cognitive- behavioural functioning, substance abuse, psychosocial dysfunction, and the development of new attitudes. Social workers are also needed to facilitate reintegration into the community, particularly through re-establishing contact with the family and dealing with family difficulties. Many African prison regimes have recognized the importance of qualified social workers and other professional staff but all are still understaffed. Correctional science p have recognized the need for a more holistic approach to dealing with offending that goes beyond the cognitive-behavioural approach. This holistic approach involves integrated collaboration across a number of different agencies and includes aspects such as substance abuse and mental health. In relation to young offenders, it focuses on developing a family and community- centred approach to reintegration (Koodoruth n.d). For example in Mauritian Four welfare officers are employed to assist with the process across the country. With its small numbers of prisoners, the country has pioneered various approached to rehabilitation and treatment in the region. Its Lotus Centre, situated within a high- security prison, offers treatment and rehabilitation of prisoners who are drug addicts. The centre uses a combination of treatment methods, including chemical treatments, relaxation , counseling, yoga and occupational therapy. Headed by a medical officer and staffed by 11 officials and a nurse , it accommodates a maximum of 25 prisoners. Building on the success of the project, the prison administration has plans to create other treatment centers for other categories of inmate. Botswana has a rehabilitation officer who heads the rehabilitation division. This includes adult education, chaplaincy, industries and social work. The social work unit addresses the social, emotional and behavioral problems of prisoners, including counseling services and home visits for those experiencing problems in their homes (Frompong 2001). South Africa also has a commitment to providing needs-based psychological services to prisoners in order to improved their mental health and emotional well-being and to promote their rehabilitation and reintegration. In 2006, however , there were only 37 fully qualified psychologists employed in the prisons, with a ratio of one psychologist to 4 062 prisoners . There were more social workers, at the ratio of 1 : 342, who provided a range of programmes to prisoners , including programmes for drug and alcohol dependence, trauma, sexual problems, aggression management and life skills (DCS 2006c: 123). However, unless the numbers of staff are increased, South Africa will experience difficulties in implementing its plan of staff are sentenced, prisoners and develop a needs-based sentence plan that deals with all their educational, skills development, psychosocial and reintegration needs, as set out in the 2005. White Paper on Corrections in South Africa (DCS 2005). In addition, prisons often accommodate a substantial number of prisoners suffering from mental health disorders, ranging from stress disorder to serious personality or conduct disorders. 13 In the absence of sufficient institutions providing for the mentally ill, prisons are often responsible for their treatment and well-being. This was raised as a particular problems in Namibia, where there is a shortage of psychiatric staff in hospitals in the country. According to the Special Rapporteur, mentally ill prisoners, especially in the interior, had been a psychiatric only once or twice and sometimes it had been five years since the last visit. There were also delays in conducting legal assessments of accused prisons to determine their status for trial, resulting in many mentally ill patients languishing in police stations for ling periods of time (ACHPR 200). Importance of prisoners contacting with outside society Since most prisoners with be released into the community from which came, it is essential that their community and family ties are maintained and encourage while they are in prison. The family and the community each has an important role in welcoming the prisoners back into the community, normalizing him or her after the institutionalizing experience for imprisonment providing shelter and food, and offering support while the ex-offender attempts to procure gainful employment, Incarceration, however, often serves to break or damage these important relationship. Although the prisons in most countries researched did provide for regular visits to prisoners, the duration of these visits was often too short and visits were arbitrarily permitted. In many placed, it was apparent that prisoners could not receive visit unless a bribe was paid to correctional officials. Many prisoners do not receive visits because relatives live some distance from the prisons, and travel is costly and time consuming. In order to facilitate visits by distant relatives, the Namibian authorities have relaxed the regulations to allow for longer visit which may occur less frequently. Despite this, prisoners complained that this relaxation was not always fairly applied. In one prison, staff shortages were cited as a prison why visit were sometimes restricted (ACHPR 2001d). Prisoners are mostly allowed to write and receive letters. This right of access, however, is greatly prejudiced by the poor literacy rates among prisoners. Literature showed that in Namibia indicated that, due to staff shortage , they were not always able to allow prisoners to make or receive phone cells. Access to radio , television and newspaper is another form of maintaining contact with society. Prisoners in many countries, however, complained of a lack of access of these resources. Here again, the role of social workers is important to help facilitate contact with the community and to reintegrate prisoners after their release. Rules 41 and 42 of the UN SMR provide that prisoners shall have access to religious practitioners of their choice, that they should be able to attend services of that person, and that they should be able to satisfy the needs of religious life. Religious workers also play an important role in the spiritual and moral development of prisoners, as well as in providing ongoing guidance and support. In some countries, religious organizations provide support and materials for education training and work opportunities. They may also provide an important link between the family and the prisoner, The role of meditation and yoga, as spiritual practices, has been found to be beneficial in countries such as Mauritius (Ragobur n.d) and Senegal, Religious ministries and bodies are productive in Africa, as they are elsewhere in the world. They are often more visible in the prisons and have greater access than non-faith-based services providers. While they do provide badly needed contact with the outside world, as well as range of services, supplies and support, they come with a particular religious agenda. Their acceptance by the prison authorities indicates greater faith in rehabilitation as measured through religious conversion rather than through dealing with the many other risk factors associated with offending. Role of civil society in supporting prisoners rehabilitation The Ouagadougou Declaration and Plan of Action civil society groups to visit prisons to provide social support and to work with offenders, in assessing them with pre- release and reintegration programmes. In many African countries, it is civil society groupings that take up some of the slack in the prison service and provide services to prisoners that the system does not have the capacity or resources to fulfill. It is also often these groupings that develop , test and run the innovative approaches to rehabilitation in the prisons which sometimes find their way into mainstream practice. The ability of NGOs and other civil society groupings to render services, however, is dependent on whether the prison services are prepared to grant them access to prisons. A survey of NGOs providing services in African prisons reveled that most NGOs` access was heavily restricted. Permission was sometimes granted by the heads of prisons while, in other cases, permission had to be obtained from a higher authority, such as the responsible minister. In some countries it was particularly difficulty permission which, even if granted, was often arbitrarily withdrawn (Dissel 2002). Sometimes of African countries recognize the importance of civil society involvement in prison. For example in South Africa literature shows that, the DCS sees corrections as a societal responsibility, in which the involvement of other government departments, social institutions, civil society organizations and private individuals is deemed essential (DCS 2005). However, NGOs still complain about the difficulty of gaining access to prisons Some organization form a partnership with one particular prison, while others have more extensive provincial or national programmes. Many of the civil society interventions are run by religious organizations. Some organizations are involved in human right work-monitoring, educating and giving direct assistance or legal advice to prisoners. Others are involved in work directed at the rehabilitation and reintegration of offenders. However, there are still few organizations in Africa which provide services to prisoners. For instance, Zimbabwe lists only two civil society organizations providing prison- related services ( pers. Comm., Commissioners of Prisons, Zimbabwe Prison Services, 12 October 2005). The various rehabilitation, social provided by NGOs which includes: the education and training of prisoners, counseling, social services, religious care and services, awareness propgrammes, craft making, life skills and sports, art and cultural activities, as well as assistance with the resettlement of offenders after release. Services are often targeted at one sector of the prison population-often women or children and young prisoners. There is argument that, increasingly, NGOs is all about trying to strengthen the impact and effectiveness of their interventions. A recent conference attended by prison administration and NGOs in Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya, identified good practices in offender reintegration. These practice included: Better coordinating of activities between civil society services providers to avoid duplication and to encourage sharing of information Providing vocational training to industry standard and issuing certificates that are independent of the prison administration. Encouraging restorative justice practices , including victim compensation Preparing prisoners for release Involving local organizations (churches , traditional leaders) In the reception prisoners on release and so helping alleviate the stigma of imprisonment: Assisting offenders with work opportunities and finding housing and Civil society organizations working to promote alternatives to imprisonment to Reduce levels of overcrowding ( RODI 2004). Reintegration into the community Definitely the most challenge for much African correction system lies in the period immediately after release of prisoners when they attempt to reintegrate prisoners into the community and re-establish their lives. Inevitably, when people are released from prison, the socio-economic circumstances that existed prior to their arrest continue to exist, as do their lack of job-related skills and work opportunities in the community. They are also burdened with the stigma of their incarceration, and thus often find it even more difficult to find employment. Therefore, the work of rehabilitation and reintegration needs to continue after their release. There are several NGOs which offer support to released prisoners through training, finding employment, and offering interim financial support. Others offer counseling and education, particularly about HIV and AIDS. The impact of rehabilitation services on prisoners Prisons are not the best institutions in which rehabilitation may take place, and they do not produce the best results. The available information tends to suggest that African counties are, on the whole, not succeeding in contributing to the reduction of repeat offending through the use of imprisonment. Although only 7 per cent of those of the Namibia prison population sentenced in one year are recidivists (ACHPR 2001d: 11),19 in Mauritius there us a recidivism rate of between 61 per cent and 74 per cent among male prisoners and between 47 per cent and 67 per cent for female.20 While these is no empirical evidence of the extent of recidivism in South Africa, estimates put the recidivism rate at between 66 per cent and 94 percent (Muntingh 2001: 54). While these figures are high, they are also an indication that rehabilitation has not been a focus in these countries nor has it been achieved. Even when states have accepted the vision of rehabilitation, they have, perhaps , been consumed by more urgent concern, such as daily living conditions is prisons perhaps, been consumed by more urgent concerns, such as daily living conditions in prisons. Given these enormous odds, the project of rehabilitation is an ambitious one for the continent. Although the ultimate aim of rehabilitation is to make offenders less likely to reoffend on their release from prison, the intervention also aims to have an impact on offenders` attitudes and behaviours that impact on reoffending and on their social interaction with others. As researchers Mathews and Pitts have noted: [1]t is necessary to move away from a zero-sum conception of or rehabilitation and from the notion that the aim of rehabilitative programmes is to turn bad people into good people or committed criminals into law abiding citizens. The aims of rehabilitative programmes must be more diverse and more modest. They need to be designed to achieve a number of different objectives at a number of different levels, since even gains at the margins are gains. (quoted in Lomofsky & Smith 2003: xiv) Even in terms of this modest frameworks, not much literature on how success is rehabilitation is in Africa, how it is measured, and what contributes to successful rehabilitation is available on the continent. Much of knowledge is about the impact of rehabilitation programmes comes from studies in the developed world- the US, the UK, western Europe and Australia. Only more recently have some regional organizations begun to write up their interventions with offenders, with most of this taking place in South Africa. Greater collaboration between the two sectors can bring about amore cohesive and integrated approach to rehabilitation that tackles all the risk factors of offending. REFERENCES Burney, E. (1979) Magistrate, Court and Community, Heinemann London D.Whynes. 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The Gambia, Mali Mozambique, Central African Republic, Uganda, Malawi, Cameroon, Namibia, South African and Ethiopia, available at <http://www.penalreform.org/>. Moshoeshoe Monare, Our prisons aare in a mess. Available at <http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?art_id=vn 20050929061036528C729375 &set sf=>, accessed on 10 October 2005. . High Commissioner for Human Rights, Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatments of Prisoners, adopted by the First United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, held at Geneva in 1995, and approved by the Economic and Social. Council by its Resolution 663 C (xxiv) of 31 July 1957 and 2076 (LXII) of 13 May 1997, Rules 71 and 72. For example, the Zambia Penal and Constitution allow for prisoners to be sentenced with or without hard labour. They may also be placed out with a public or private company or state corporation for work purposes. In this case it provided that prisoners should be paid for their labour, but state resources do not allow for it. See the initial report of the Republic of Zambiato the ACHPR, available at  <http://www.achpr.org/english/state_reports/40_Zambia%20initial%report_Engl.pdf>, accessed on 18 October 2006. Mauritius Prison Services, available at <http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/prisons/menuitem.c9a355ecf9be5d2ff4a9e75b0bb521ca/>,accessed on 18 October 2006. in the Senegalese penitentiary system, available at <http://www.istpp.or/rehabilitation/14.html>, accessed on 10 October 2005. See for example the website of the International Network of Prison Ministries, available at <http://prisonministry.net/directory/categories/africanpm/index.htm>, accessed on 18 October 2005. Mauritius Prison Service website, available at <http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/prisons/menuitem.afd6bdec4142042ff4a9e75b0bb521ca/#Richelieu%20Open%20Prison>,accessed on 18 October 2006. Decree No. 39.997 of 29/12/54 Decree No. 39.997 of 29/12/54 Among those sentences during 2000,11.8 percent of the population were termed second offenders while 7.0 percent were said to be recidivists Statistics for the period 1999 to 2001. See Koodoruth (n.d.). Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za 177 43