Cathy Cantwell and Robert Mayer co-author much of our written output. The Academia.edu system does not allow a single page in two names, so this serves as our joint page.
Some years ago, Cantwell discovered that a substantial Dunhuang text, IOL Tib J 331.III, was repr... more Some years ago, Cantwell discovered that a substantial Dunhuang text, IOL Tib J 331.III, was reproduced verbatim within Nyang-rel Nyima Özer's (1124–1192) famous Treasure Text, Eightfold Buddha Word, Embodying the Sugatas (bKa’ brgyad bDe gshegs ’dus pa). This paper presents the main findings of an in-depth textual study of the core sections of the “’phrin las phur pa [Action Phurpa]” part of Nyang-rel Nyima Özer’s (Tib. Myang ral Nyi ma ’od zer) revealed corpus of the bKa’ brgyad bDe gshegs ’dus pa [The Eightfold Buddha Word, Embodying the Sugatas]. This suggests that at least this part of the Eightfold Buddha Word revelation represents the survival of an archaic form of practice on the tantric deity, Vajrakīlaya. Its six sections constitute a coherent whole covering complementary aspects of the tantric rituals, while the second section parallels in its entirety a text from the archaeological recovered manuscripts from a Library Cave in Dunhuang (IOL Tib J 331.III), which dates back over a century before Nyang-rel’s time. Here, a critical edition of that second section of Nyang-rel’s Action Phurpa is presented, taking account of all current extant versions, and supported by consideration of the accompanying materials found in the five other sections.
Dudjom Rinpoche's Vajrakīlaya Works A Study in Authoring, Compiling, and Editing Texts in the Tibetan Revelatory Tradition, 2020
It is often assumed that a revelation must be new and innovative, and that the point of a new sac... more It is often assumed that a revelation must be new and innovative, and that the point of a new sacred text must be to revitalize the heritage. Yet, in the Tibetan Nyingma Treasure Revelatory tradition, the ongoing vitality of textual production often has more to do with the fresh blessings rather than altogether novel content. This book is the first to analyse precise continuities and changes in comparing the new and the old, considering examples of the creation and development of tantric revelations, including further reworkings in subsequent generations. In doing so, the focus enlarges to encompass materials from the broader religious heritage, as well as from specific lineages of related visionary lamas. By identifying such exact linkages and departures, it is possible to answer questions both of how and why developments may occur, not limiting the purview merely to the individual stories of the virtuoso lamas producing the books, but looking also to the tantric communities of which they are a part. The case studies in the book stem from the prolific writings of the famous twentieth-century scholar-lama Dudjom Jigdral Yeshe Dorje Rinpoche, who contributed to numerous revelatory traditions of the past, as well as producing his own revelations. They concern a single tantric deity, Vajrakīlaya, the most popular Nyingma deity, whose tantras and ritual practices stem from the earliest formulations of Tibetan tantric Buddhism, and who is closely connected with the culture heros and founding fathers of the Nyingmapa. This particular focus gives us the opportunity to discover patterns in the creation of new tantric texts which have significance beyond the specific examples.
Follow URL link above for open access and downloadable dataset of all surviving 41 volumes and 16... more Follow URL link above for open access and downloadable dataset of all surviving 41 volumes and 16,071 pages of an endangered early 18th century manuscript edition of Tibetan 'Old Tantras' located at Sangs-rgyas-gling dgon-pa, Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Traditional catalogue (dkar chag), brief introduction, and related video materials also available. Images of folios available in PDF, RAW, and JPG. While the PDF versions are easy to download, the ZIP files are very large because they contain both the RAW and the JPG images.
PDF screen-grab in 1,539 pages of the detailed catalogue of The Rig 'dzin Tshe dbang nor bu Editi... more PDF screen-grab in 1,539 pages of the detailed catalogue of The Rig 'dzin Tshe dbang nor bu Edition of the rNying ma'i rgyud 'bum (2002-2003, Cathy Cantwell with Rob Mayer and Michael Fischer). The original website had live links and a great deal of further analysis not available to this screen grab, including codicology, artwork, etc, and was hosted at CSAC (University of Kent) in association with The British Library. Thanks to Matthew Kapstein and Jeff Wallman, the full website might reappear at TBRC. In the meantime, here is a screen-grab pdf of the catalogue, taken by Bruno Laine from our original website, which at least shows every title, chapter heading, and colophon, for every text.
Cantwell, C. and R. Mayer 2007 The Kīlaya Nirvāṇa Tantra and the Vajra Wrath Tantra: two texts from the Ancient Tantra Collection, Vienna, The Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. vi, 289 pages, plus editions of texts on cd (529 pages).
Cantwell, C. and R. Mayer 2008. Early Tibetan Documents on Phur pa from Dunhuang, Vienna, The Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. ix, 228 (A4 sized) pages, plus photographs of manuscripts on cd.
Tibetan Studies Volume II, Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften., 1997
Analysis, assessment, and discussion of the textual evidence for Tibetan compilation found within... more Analysis, assessment, and discussion of the textual evidence for Tibetan compilation found within a rNying-ma tantric scripture, the Phur pa bcu gnyis..
In: Proceedings of the 7th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Graz 1995. General Editor: Ernst Steinkellner. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
བོད་རིག་པའི་དུས་དེབ་།་Journal of Tibetology 26, 2022
Cathy Cantwell: Myang ral's twelfth century revealed corpus of the Eightfold Buddha Word, Embodyi... more Cathy Cantwell: Myang ral's twelfth century revealed corpus of the Eightfold Buddha Word, Embodying the Sugatas (bka' brgyad bde gshegs 'dus pa) became a template for Rnying ma practice focusing on the tradition's eight central tantric deities. In a previous article (2020a), I have suggested that the entire Action Phurpa (‘phrin las phur pa) section of the Eightfold Buddha Word is likely to pre-date Myang ral, and seems to preserve an archaic practice tradition. Here, I explore further Phurpa materials in the corpus which relate to the teachings on the Four Phurpas, or the Four Phurpa Materials (phur pa'i rgyu bzhi), alongside related teachings in the corpus of transmitted texts (bka’ ma) which were also part of Myang ral's heritage. The centrality of the Four Phurpa teachings in these texts may have influenced the later Vajrakilaya traditions, which generally put considerable emphasis on these teachings. I assess how the specific teachings on the Four Phurpas passed on by Myang ral in the revealed (gter ma) and transmitted texts (bka’ ma) relate to each other, and to other early sources on the Four Phurpas. It seems not only that some of the transmitted Eightfold Buddha Word texts of The Fortress and Precipice (rdzong 'phrang) cycle were very early, but one short instruction on the Four Phurpas is quite likely to derive from the historical Padmasambhava. Moreover, it draws upon an authoritative source which seems also to have made its way into texts within Myang ral's Embodying the Sugatas revelation dealing with the same topic. Finally, in considering the framing of Myang ral's Embodying the Sugatas as revelation, one effect of the new presentation is that King Khri srong Ide'u btsan,? who was supposed to have been the main original recipient of The Fortress and Precipice transmissions, but did not remain in the lineage, was brought back into centre stage in the transmission. For Myang ral was his rebirth, and key texts of the Embodying the Sugatas revelation are said to have come from the King's manuscripts.
This informal blog piece considers the fact that all kinds of magical practices and complex nāga ... more This informal blog piece considers the fact that all kinds of magical practices and complex nāga cults were prominent components of the cultural context in which any historical Nāgārjuna must have lived. Current scholarship suggests that engagement with nāgas in particular will have pertained a fortiori within the elite educated brahmanic and Buddhist monastic circles with which Nāgārjuna is usually associated in his earliest biographies. I present seemingly strong evidence for the distinctively Indian magical practice of añjana, inter alia connected with invisibility magic and also nāga beliefs, that seem not to have been discussed before, but which have been clearly preserved in the early Chinese biographical sources on Nāgārjuna. This calls into question a widely held Buddhalogical opinion that such passages were necessarily Chinese fabrications somehow connected with 'Chinese alchemy', thereby lending support to the incorrect notion that Nāgārjuna the 'rational Indian philosopher' could not simultaneously have been involved in Indian magic, despite the vast traditional literature claiming he was. I draw an analogy with the great physicist, mathematician, and government servant, Sir Isaac Newton, who, along with mathematics and physics, simultaneously pursued a deep and life-long interest in the study of alchemy, the Philosopher’s Stone, the Temple of Solomon, and the various other occult topics on which he wrote so much.
An entirely new and probably quite significant theory of the origins of rNying ma gter ma, summed... more An entirely new and probably quite significant theory of the origins of rNying ma gter ma, summed up in four pages. Or, at least one good reason why the early Tibetan translators, and Guru Chowang in particular, were rather better Indologists than we are.
In a volume to honour Leonard van der Kuijp, we propose a new theory of who Padmasambhava was, t... more In a volume to honour Leonard van der Kuijp, we propose a new theory of who Padmasambhava was, through the medium of a study of a Dunhuang tantric scripture and its commentary (a couple of printing gremlins are emended on the PDF).
This article presents one of the very earliest surviving texts on Vajrakīlaya, from the Fortress ... more This article presents one of the very earliest surviving texts on Vajrakīlaya, from the Fortress and Precipice compilation (rDzong ’phrang) nowadays preserved in the rNying ma bKa’ ma. Displaying a number of genuinely archaic features, this text claims to be transmitted through gTer bzhad rtsal (= gNubs Yon tan rgya mtsho), who is a student of rDo rje Yang dbang gter (= gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes). The teaching is one of the earliest, and possibly even the first to deal with the important topic of the Four Phurpas, around which most Phur pa teaching is presented and structured to this day. The teaching is presented in the voice of Padma Thod phreng rgyal po, who at the outset proclaims his identity with the deity Vajrakīlaya. The end of the text tells us that he wrote it at the rock cavern of Yang-le-shod. This article is dedicated to our esteemed friend and colleague, Dan Martin, who has done so much to illuminate the early history of Tibetan culture.
Produced in honour of my greatly esteemed colleague and friend Dan Martin, this paper demonstrat... more Produced in honour of my greatly esteemed colleague and friend Dan Martin, this paper demonstrates how Guru Chos dbang balanced Indian ideas with Tibetan ideas in his seminal gTer ‘byung chen mo. Finally, I translate 16 pages from the sDe dge Kangyur edition of the Āryavidyottamamahātantra. This particular passage details the discovery, opening, and re-closing, of magical portal-like Treasure Doors (gter sgo), and I suggest these Indian tantric traditions might have left an imprint on the later rNying ma gter ma traditions.
The eleventh to thirteenth centuries in Tibet witnessed the development of religious schools base... more The eleventh to thirteenth centuries in Tibet witnessed the development of religious schools based on the »New Transmissions« (gsar 'gyur) of Buddhist Tantras or the »Later Spread« (phyi dar) of Buddhism, in contrast to the »Early Transmissions« (snga 'gyur) of Tibetan Imperial times (seventh to ninth centuries CE). This period saw the beginnings of the system in which Buddhist monasteries became seats of religious and politico-economic authority throughout communities in Tibet. At the same time, in this culturally creative environment, followers of the »Ancient Transmissions« began to codify their textual heritage, resulting in the subsequent development of a rNying ma school, based especially on: i. the practice of the Inner Tantras (mahāyoga, anuyoga, atiyoga) and the Eight Sacred Word (bka' brgyad) tantric deity cycles; ii. the related textual corpus of scriptures known as the »Ancient Tantra Collection« (rnying ma rgyud 'bum); iii. popular accounts of and rituals connected with the early tantric masters and their spiritual and magical feats, and especially the cult of the tantric guru and »second Buddha«, Padmasambhava, together with his key disciples; iv. the traditions of revelation, in which revealers identified as rebirths of the tradition's cultural heroes continue to augment the textual heritage in each generation. Myang ral Nyi ma 'od zer was seminal to this development: himself a tantric revealer recognised as a rebirth of the emperor Khri srong lde'u btsan, he was responsible for a multi-volume revealed collection on the Eight Sacred Word deities, the Eightfold Sacred Word, Embodying the Sugatas (bka' brgyad bde gshegs 'dus pa); was central to the lineage of the transmitted texts (bka' ma) on the same deities; and produced the first full hagiography of Padmasambhava, while his immediate successors began the work of collecting the scriptures for the »Ancient Tantra Collection«, based on organising principles established in his work. This article probes how we should approach authority and authorship in this case. How far and in what sense should we consider Myang ral an »author« of the texts he revealed and why were the new claims to authority so compelling in this case? While Myang ral's involvement with vision and ritual rather than logical argument or debate clearly distinguish him from mediaeval Tibetan scholastics-even those within his own tradition of Early Transmissionsyet his impressive work in compiling and systematising the heritage from his mentors would suggest that the contrast may not be as extreme as it would first appear.
This paper considers the features of a seminal Revelation, the Secret Embodiment of the Lama (bla... more This paper considers the features of a seminal Revelation, the Secret Embodiment of the Lama (bla ma gsang 'dus), of the thirteenth century forefather of the Nyingmapa, Guru Chöwang (gu ru chos kyi dbang phyug, 1212-1270). The Guru Rinpoche meditative, ritual, and artistic traditions associated with the Secret Embodiment of the Lama (bla ma gsang 'dus) have lived on, not only in the continued practice of the Secret Embodiment of the Lama itself, but also within Revelations of lamas of subsequent generations. Here, the textual corpus, including its representation within the works of the seventeenth century, Terdak Lingpa (gter bdag gling pa, 1646-1714), is explored with reference to the Revelatory traditions of the Jewel Ocean (nor bu rgya mtsho) of Pema Lingpa (padma gling pa, 1450-1521), the Complete Embodiment of Enlightened Intention (dgongs pa yongs 'dus) of Dudul Dorje (bdud 'dul rdo rje, 1615-1672), and the Embodiment of Seven Revelations (gter kha bdun 'dus) of Dudjom Jigdral Yeshe Dorje (bdud 'joms 'jigs bral ye shes rdo rje, 1904-1987).
Some years ago, Cantwell discovered that a substantial Dunhuang text, IOL Tib J 331.III, was repr... more Some years ago, Cantwell discovered that a substantial Dunhuang text, IOL Tib J 331.III, was reproduced verbatim within Nyang-rel Nyima Özer's (1124–1192) famous Treasure Text, Eightfold Buddha Word, Embodying the Sugatas (bKa’ brgyad bDe gshegs ’dus pa). This paper presents the main findings of an in-depth textual study of the core sections of the “’phrin las phur pa [Action Phurpa]” part of Nyang-rel Nyima Özer’s (Tib. Myang ral Nyi ma ’od zer) revealed corpus of the bKa’ brgyad bDe gshegs ’dus pa [The Eightfold Buddha Word, Embodying the Sugatas]. This suggests that at least this part of the Eightfold Buddha Word revelation represents the survival of an archaic form of practice on the tantric deity, Vajrakīlaya. Its six sections constitute a coherent whole covering complementary aspects of the tantric rituals, while the second section parallels in its entirety a text from the archaeological recovered manuscripts from a Library Cave in Dunhuang (IOL Tib J 331.III), which dates back over a century before Nyang-rel’s time. Here, a critical edition of that second section of Nyang-rel’s Action Phurpa is presented, taking account of all current extant versions, and supported by consideration of the accompanying materials found in the five other sections.
Dudjom Rinpoche's Vajrakīlaya Works A Study in Authoring, Compiling, and Editing Texts in the Tibetan Revelatory Tradition, 2020
It is often assumed that a revelation must be new and innovative, and that the point of a new sac... more It is often assumed that a revelation must be new and innovative, and that the point of a new sacred text must be to revitalize the heritage. Yet, in the Tibetan Nyingma Treasure Revelatory tradition, the ongoing vitality of textual production often has more to do with the fresh blessings rather than altogether novel content. This book is the first to analyse precise continuities and changes in comparing the new and the old, considering examples of the creation and development of tantric revelations, including further reworkings in subsequent generations. In doing so, the focus enlarges to encompass materials from the broader religious heritage, as well as from specific lineages of related visionary lamas. By identifying such exact linkages and departures, it is possible to answer questions both of how and why developments may occur, not limiting the purview merely to the individual stories of the virtuoso lamas producing the books, but looking also to the tantric communities of which they are a part. The case studies in the book stem from the prolific writings of the famous twentieth-century scholar-lama Dudjom Jigdral Yeshe Dorje Rinpoche, who contributed to numerous revelatory traditions of the past, as well as producing his own revelations. They concern a single tantric deity, Vajrakīlaya, the most popular Nyingma deity, whose tantras and ritual practices stem from the earliest formulations of Tibetan tantric Buddhism, and who is closely connected with the culture heros and founding fathers of the Nyingmapa. This particular focus gives us the opportunity to discover patterns in the creation of new tantric texts which have significance beyond the specific examples.
Follow URL link above for open access and downloadable dataset of all surviving 41 volumes and 16... more Follow URL link above for open access and downloadable dataset of all surviving 41 volumes and 16,071 pages of an endangered early 18th century manuscript edition of Tibetan 'Old Tantras' located at Sangs-rgyas-gling dgon-pa, Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Traditional catalogue (dkar chag), brief introduction, and related video materials also available. Images of folios available in PDF, RAW, and JPG. While the PDF versions are easy to download, the ZIP files are very large because they contain both the RAW and the JPG images.
PDF screen-grab in 1,539 pages of the detailed catalogue of The Rig 'dzin Tshe dbang nor bu Editi... more PDF screen-grab in 1,539 pages of the detailed catalogue of The Rig 'dzin Tshe dbang nor bu Edition of the rNying ma'i rgyud 'bum (2002-2003, Cathy Cantwell with Rob Mayer and Michael Fischer). The original website had live links and a great deal of further analysis not available to this screen grab, including codicology, artwork, etc, and was hosted at CSAC (University of Kent) in association with The British Library. Thanks to Matthew Kapstein and Jeff Wallman, the full website might reappear at TBRC. In the meantime, here is a screen-grab pdf of the catalogue, taken by Bruno Laine from our original website, which at least shows every title, chapter heading, and colophon, for every text.
Cantwell, C. and R. Mayer 2007 The Kīlaya Nirvāṇa Tantra and the Vajra Wrath Tantra: two texts from the Ancient Tantra Collection, Vienna, The Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. vi, 289 pages, plus editions of texts on cd (529 pages).
Cantwell, C. and R. Mayer 2008. Early Tibetan Documents on Phur pa from Dunhuang, Vienna, The Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. ix, 228 (A4 sized) pages, plus photographs of manuscripts on cd.
Tibetan Studies Volume II, Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften., 1997
Analysis, assessment, and discussion of the textual evidence for Tibetan compilation found within... more Analysis, assessment, and discussion of the textual evidence for Tibetan compilation found within a rNying-ma tantric scripture, the Phur pa bcu gnyis..
In: Proceedings of the 7th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Graz 1995. General Editor: Ernst Steinkellner. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
བོད་རིག་པའི་དུས་དེབ་།་Journal of Tibetology 26, 2022
Cathy Cantwell: Myang ral's twelfth century revealed corpus of the Eightfold Buddha Word, Embodyi... more Cathy Cantwell: Myang ral's twelfth century revealed corpus of the Eightfold Buddha Word, Embodying the Sugatas (bka' brgyad bde gshegs 'dus pa) became a template for Rnying ma practice focusing on the tradition's eight central tantric deities. In a previous article (2020a), I have suggested that the entire Action Phurpa (‘phrin las phur pa) section of the Eightfold Buddha Word is likely to pre-date Myang ral, and seems to preserve an archaic practice tradition. Here, I explore further Phurpa materials in the corpus which relate to the teachings on the Four Phurpas, or the Four Phurpa Materials (phur pa'i rgyu bzhi), alongside related teachings in the corpus of transmitted texts (bka’ ma) which were also part of Myang ral's heritage. The centrality of the Four Phurpa teachings in these texts may have influenced the later Vajrakilaya traditions, which generally put considerable emphasis on these teachings. I assess how the specific teachings on the Four Phurpas passed on by Myang ral in the revealed (gter ma) and transmitted texts (bka’ ma) relate to each other, and to other early sources on the Four Phurpas. It seems not only that some of the transmitted Eightfold Buddha Word texts of The Fortress and Precipice (rdzong 'phrang) cycle were very early, but one short instruction on the Four Phurpas is quite likely to derive from the historical Padmasambhava. Moreover, it draws upon an authoritative source which seems also to have made its way into texts within Myang ral's Embodying the Sugatas revelation dealing with the same topic. Finally, in considering the framing of Myang ral's Embodying the Sugatas as revelation, one effect of the new presentation is that King Khri srong Ide'u btsan,? who was supposed to have been the main original recipient of The Fortress and Precipice transmissions, but did not remain in the lineage, was brought back into centre stage in the transmission. For Myang ral was his rebirth, and key texts of the Embodying the Sugatas revelation are said to have come from the King's manuscripts.
This informal blog piece considers the fact that all kinds of magical practices and complex nāga ... more This informal blog piece considers the fact that all kinds of magical practices and complex nāga cults were prominent components of the cultural context in which any historical Nāgārjuna must have lived. Current scholarship suggests that engagement with nāgas in particular will have pertained a fortiori within the elite educated brahmanic and Buddhist monastic circles with which Nāgārjuna is usually associated in his earliest biographies. I present seemingly strong evidence for the distinctively Indian magical practice of añjana, inter alia connected with invisibility magic and also nāga beliefs, that seem not to have been discussed before, but which have been clearly preserved in the early Chinese biographical sources on Nāgārjuna. This calls into question a widely held Buddhalogical opinion that such passages were necessarily Chinese fabrications somehow connected with 'Chinese alchemy', thereby lending support to the incorrect notion that Nāgārjuna the 'rational Indian philosopher' could not simultaneously have been involved in Indian magic, despite the vast traditional literature claiming he was. I draw an analogy with the great physicist, mathematician, and government servant, Sir Isaac Newton, who, along with mathematics and physics, simultaneously pursued a deep and life-long interest in the study of alchemy, the Philosopher’s Stone, the Temple of Solomon, and the various other occult topics on which he wrote so much.
An entirely new and probably quite significant theory of the origins of rNying ma gter ma, summed... more An entirely new and probably quite significant theory of the origins of rNying ma gter ma, summed up in four pages. Or, at least one good reason why the early Tibetan translators, and Guru Chowang in particular, were rather better Indologists than we are.
In a volume to honour Leonard van der Kuijp, we propose a new theory of who Padmasambhava was, t... more In a volume to honour Leonard van der Kuijp, we propose a new theory of who Padmasambhava was, through the medium of a study of a Dunhuang tantric scripture and its commentary (a couple of printing gremlins are emended on the PDF).
This article presents one of the very earliest surviving texts on Vajrakīlaya, from the Fortress ... more This article presents one of the very earliest surviving texts on Vajrakīlaya, from the Fortress and Precipice compilation (rDzong ’phrang) nowadays preserved in the rNying ma bKa’ ma. Displaying a number of genuinely archaic features, this text claims to be transmitted through gTer bzhad rtsal (= gNubs Yon tan rgya mtsho), who is a student of rDo rje Yang dbang gter (= gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes). The teaching is one of the earliest, and possibly even the first to deal with the important topic of the Four Phurpas, around which most Phur pa teaching is presented and structured to this day. The teaching is presented in the voice of Padma Thod phreng rgyal po, who at the outset proclaims his identity with the deity Vajrakīlaya. The end of the text tells us that he wrote it at the rock cavern of Yang-le-shod. This article is dedicated to our esteemed friend and colleague, Dan Martin, who has done so much to illuminate the early history of Tibetan culture.
Produced in honour of my greatly esteemed colleague and friend Dan Martin, this paper demonstrat... more Produced in honour of my greatly esteemed colleague and friend Dan Martin, this paper demonstrates how Guru Chos dbang balanced Indian ideas with Tibetan ideas in his seminal gTer ‘byung chen mo. Finally, I translate 16 pages from the sDe dge Kangyur edition of the Āryavidyottamamahātantra. This particular passage details the discovery, opening, and re-closing, of magical portal-like Treasure Doors (gter sgo), and I suggest these Indian tantric traditions might have left an imprint on the later rNying ma gter ma traditions.
The eleventh to thirteenth centuries in Tibet witnessed the development of religious schools base... more The eleventh to thirteenth centuries in Tibet witnessed the development of religious schools based on the »New Transmissions« (gsar 'gyur) of Buddhist Tantras or the »Later Spread« (phyi dar) of Buddhism, in contrast to the »Early Transmissions« (snga 'gyur) of Tibetan Imperial times (seventh to ninth centuries CE). This period saw the beginnings of the system in which Buddhist monasteries became seats of religious and politico-economic authority throughout communities in Tibet. At the same time, in this culturally creative environment, followers of the »Ancient Transmissions« began to codify their textual heritage, resulting in the subsequent development of a rNying ma school, based especially on: i. the practice of the Inner Tantras (mahāyoga, anuyoga, atiyoga) and the Eight Sacred Word (bka' brgyad) tantric deity cycles; ii. the related textual corpus of scriptures known as the »Ancient Tantra Collection« (rnying ma rgyud 'bum); iii. popular accounts of and rituals connected with the early tantric masters and their spiritual and magical feats, and especially the cult of the tantric guru and »second Buddha«, Padmasambhava, together with his key disciples; iv. the traditions of revelation, in which revealers identified as rebirths of the tradition's cultural heroes continue to augment the textual heritage in each generation. Myang ral Nyi ma 'od zer was seminal to this development: himself a tantric revealer recognised as a rebirth of the emperor Khri srong lde'u btsan, he was responsible for a multi-volume revealed collection on the Eight Sacred Word deities, the Eightfold Sacred Word, Embodying the Sugatas (bka' brgyad bde gshegs 'dus pa); was central to the lineage of the transmitted texts (bka' ma) on the same deities; and produced the first full hagiography of Padmasambhava, while his immediate successors began the work of collecting the scriptures for the »Ancient Tantra Collection«, based on organising principles established in his work. This article probes how we should approach authority and authorship in this case. How far and in what sense should we consider Myang ral an »author« of the texts he revealed and why were the new claims to authority so compelling in this case? While Myang ral's involvement with vision and ritual rather than logical argument or debate clearly distinguish him from mediaeval Tibetan scholastics-even those within his own tradition of Early Transmissionsyet his impressive work in compiling and systematising the heritage from his mentors would suggest that the contrast may not be as extreme as it would first appear.
This paper considers the features of a seminal Revelation, the Secret Embodiment of the Lama (bla... more This paper considers the features of a seminal Revelation, the Secret Embodiment of the Lama (bla ma gsang 'dus), of the thirteenth century forefather of the Nyingmapa, Guru Chöwang (gu ru chos kyi dbang phyug, 1212-1270). The Guru Rinpoche meditative, ritual, and artistic traditions associated with the Secret Embodiment of the Lama (bla ma gsang 'dus) have lived on, not only in the continued practice of the Secret Embodiment of the Lama itself, but also within Revelations of lamas of subsequent generations. Here, the textual corpus, including its representation within the works of the seventeenth century, Terdak Lingpa (gter bdag gling pa, 1646-1714), is explored with reference to the Revelatory traditions of the Jewel Ocean (nor bu rgya mtsho) of Pema Lingpa (padma gling pa, 1450-1521), the Complete Embodiment of Enlightened Intention (dgongs pa yongs 'dus) of Dudul Dorje (bdud 'dul rdo rje, 1615-1672), and the Embodiment of Seven Revelations (gter kha bdun 'dus) of Dudjom Jigdral Yeshe Dorje (bdud 'joms 'jigs bral ye shes rdo rje, 1904-1987).
Re-opening the discussion on the origins of the Buddhist and Bon gter ma traditions, with referen... more Re-opening the discussion on the origins of the Buddhist and Bon gter ma traditions, with reference to both indigenous and imported elements.
The great g.Yung drung Bon Treasure revealer and polymath, Khu tsha zla ’od reveal... more The great g.Yung drung Bon Treasure revealer and polymath, Khu tsha zla ’od revealed the root tantras of the Bon Phur pa tradition, most notably, the magnificent Ka ba nag po, which succeeded in integrating numerous indigenous Tibetan elements into an Indian Mahāyoga-style literary and doctrinal template. But was his approach to the senses here reproducing Tantric Buddhism, or was he (true to form), reproducing indigenous elements as well? In this paper, I argue that he did both: at a structural doctrinal level, his Ka ba nag po reproduced Tantric Buddhist understandings of the senses, while at the more surface level of sensory aesthetics and cultural imagery, his Ka ba nag po reproduced numerous indigenous forms as well.
Cathy Cantwell, "The Ceremony for Imbibing the Siddhis, with particular reference to examples fro... more Cathy Cantwell, "The Ceremony for Imbibing the Siddhis, with particular reference to examples from Nyang ral Nyi ma 'od zer's bKa' brgyad bde gshegs 'dus pa", Revue d'Etudes Tibétaines, no. 50, June 2019, pp. 150-165.
Originally published by LIRI in Nepal 2013, and reprinted by ZAS in Switzerland in 2016, this art... more Originally published by LIRI in Nepal 2013, and reprinted by ZAS in Switzerland in 2016, this article takes a different view to some previous authors on Padmasambhava. We argue (i) that Padmasambhava was already venerated and mythologised in those Dunhuang texts where he is mentioned, and (ii) that significant ritual themes do indeed continue from the Dunhuang texts onwards into later rNying ma Buddhism.
The Tibetan term, bcud len, "imbibing the essence juice", is considered an equivalent for the San... more The Tibetan term, bcud len, "imbibing the essence juice", is considered an equivalent for the Sanskrit term, rasāyana. But in Tibetan Buddhist ritual manuals, both terms occur, apparently with slightly different connotations. Practices classified as bcud len are frequently relatively short, and seem primarily designed for the use of individual yogis, usually as a subsidiary practice to complement their main tantric meditation. The production of bcud len pills which are said to sustain, rejuvenate and extend the life of the body, or even to bring immortality, is often an integral part of the practice. The term, rasāyana, is used in Tibetan transliteration (ra sā ya na), not as a title or classification for a specific ritual practice or recipe for pills, but rather to refer to the processes of alchemical transformation of substances within complex ritual "medicinal accomplishment" (sman sgrub) performances which are generally communal. In this case too, pills are produced, of the broader "sacred elixir dharma medicine" (dam rdzas bdud rtsi chos sman) type. This paper will consider a range of the practices, and of substances used in the sacred medicinal compounds.
The category of the Eight Principal Tantric Medicines (sman rtsa brgyad) is ubiquitous in tantric... more The category of the Eight Principal Tantric Medicines (sman rtsa brgyad) is ubiquitous in tantric sources, such as the regular medicinal cordial offerings (sman mchod) found in many tantric sādhanas. These substances form some of the key ingredients to be included in medicinal accomplishment (sman sgrub) practices, when sacred medicinal pills are compounded and consecrated in the course of a Major Practice Session (sgrub chen), conducted over a number of days. The category is referred to in early sources, such as in the works of the forefathers of the Nyingma school, the twelfth century Nyang ral Nyima özer (nyang ral nyi ma 'od zer) and the thirteenth century Guru Chöwang (gu ru chos dbang). In the revelations of the national saint of Bhutan, Pema Lingpa (padma gling pa, 1450-1521), we find a short pithy text relating to this classification: "A Key to the Eight Principal and Thousand Varieties of Medicines" (rtsa brgyad yan lag stong gi lde mig), which reiterates a revelation of the earlier Ratna Lingpa (ratna gling pa, 1403-1479). This article explores the text, and the themes which live on in later works and contemporary practice.
“Medicinal Accomplishment” (sman sgrub) practices for compounding and empowering medicinal pills ... more “Medicinal Accomplishment” (sman sgrub) practices for compounding and empowering medicinal pills have received some attention in studies of Tibetan medical traditions, although it is clear that in the contemporary medical context, their religious significance has been toned down. is paper examines an elaborate “Medicinal Accomplishment” ritual and its Buddhist meditative framing, as performed in a religious monastic context in Bhutan. It explores aspects of the practice, especially the transformations of the substances considered to be enacted through the meditative ritual and tantric accomplishment, raising the question of whether an important aspect of Tibetan medicine in the past may have been neglected in the contemporary focus on the active natural ingredients in Tibetan pills.
This is the first and so far only detailed philological re-assessment of the Tibetan sources cite... more This is the first and so far only detailed philological re-assessment of the Tibetan sources cited by Jacob Dalton in his book, Taming of the Demons: Violence and Liberation in Tibetan Buddhism. Cantwell calls into question several of Dalton's key readings.
History as a Challenge to Buddhism and Christianity, eds. Elizabeth J Harris and John O’Grady, EOS Press, 2016., 2016
A possibly controversial conference presentation, on various challenges presented by the modern d... more A possibly controversial conference presentation, on various challenges presented by the modern discipline of history to some of the most central traditional self-descriptive narratives of both Buddhism and Bon. With the benefit of historical hindsight, I suggest that in constructing such ideologically loaded narratives, both Bon and Buddhism have sometimes been driven by seemingly irresistable forces of political contingency to act against their own best long-term interests. pp169-190 in History as a Challenge to Buddhism and Christianity, eds. Elizabeth J Harris and John O’Grady, EOS Press, 2016.
A study of the Dunhuang text IOL Tib J 331.III, looking at its ritual instructions, and its relat... more A study of the Dunhuang text IOL Tib J 331.III, looking at its ritual instructions, and its relation to rNying ma'i rgyud 'bum texts.
A short blog reflection on Uḍḍiyāna, the tantric traditions of the Indian North West, and Treasur... more A short blog reflection on Uḍḍiyāna, the tantric traditions of the Indian North West, and Treasure revelation in Tibet
This paper begins the exploration of non-Indian avian iconography found only in rNying ma. Dunhua... more This paper begins the exploration of non-Indian avian iconography found only in rNying ma. Dunhuang and other early sources suggest a link between this non-Indian avian iconography, and the early tantric school of Padmasambhava. Its interesting similarities with non-Buddhist Himalayan religion is also examined.
Academic scholars are accustomed to understanding gter as sacred texts often associated with Padm... more Academic scholars are accustomed to understanding gter as sacred texts often associated with Padmasambhava, within a cult deriving historically from ancient imperial burials. Yet the great 13th-century Padmasambhava devotee Guru Chowang primarily understood gter, by definition, within a mundane framework, barely mentioning Padmasambhava at first, and with not a word about ancient tombs. Even more striking about Chowang’s understandings of gter are their widespread and continuing persistence, as suggested by recent ethnographies of Tibet’s territorial deity cosmologies. For rather than place ancient tombs at the centre of his analysis, Chowang looked to popular terrestrial deity cosmologies to provide a vehicle for Padmasambhava’s hidden teachings. This graft of Indian Buddhist notions of transcendent, spiritual, transmission onto mundane Tibetan territorial deity cosmologies still thrives to this day. Indeed, Tibetan scholars understood Indian Buddhism previously to have made a similar use of India’s nāga and yakṣa territorial deity cosmologies for the concealment and rediscovery of Buddhist teachings.
Intersectional Centre for Inclusion and Social Justice, Incise Guest Lectures, 2017
YouTube video of illustrated lecture on rNying ma rituals in Bhutan, of the bDud 'joms tradition,... more YouTube video of illustrated lecture on rNying ma rituals in Bhutan, of the bDud 'joms tradition, connected with healing.
Review of Alexander Gardner's The Life of Jamgon Kongtrul the Great. 2019, Snow Lion, Boulder, Co... more Review of Alexander Gardner's The Life of Jamgon Kongtrul the Great. 2019, Snow Lion, Boulder, Colorado. 506pp. Preface ix-xiii.
This is the first and so far only detailed philological re-assessment of the Tibetan sources cite... more This is the first and so far only detailed philological re-assessment of the Tibetan sources cited by Jacob Dalton in his book, Taming of the Demons: Violence and Liberation in Tibetan Buddhism. Cantwell calls into question several of Dalton's key readings.
Robert Mayer.
TGSS, MT 2017, 7th week: What can we know about early gter ma?
Oriental Institut... more Robert Mayer. TGSS, MT 2017, 7th week: What can we know about early gter ma? Oriental Institute, room, 317, 5pm, Handout 4: some Mahāyāna texts on nidhi/nidhāna
Asian Treasure Traditions Seminar Series, University of Oxford, 2019
The seminar is focused on the Tibetan treasure traditions within an interdisciplinary perspective... more The seminar is focused on the Tibetan treasure traditions within an interdisciplinary perspective, with the aim of coming to a better understanding of their possible origins. As Tibet sits at the crossroads of inter-cultural communication, it is important to understand the nature of South and East Asian influences on Tibetan traditions, as well as the extent to which indigenous traditions have been preserved. Moreover, since the treasure traditions are related to the anthropological problem of value, we aim to examine this dimension, in order to avoid the danger of confusing an anthropological universal with a cultural influence. Co-organised with Robert Mayer and Yegor Grebnev.
Wolfson College Oxford, Tibetan and Himalayan Studies Centre, 2019
The seminar is focused on the Tibetan treasure traditions within an interdisciplinary perspective... more The seminar is focused on the Tibetan treasure traditions within an interdisciplinary perspective, with the aim of coming to a better understanding of their possible origins. As Tibet sits at the crossroads of inter-cultural communication, it is important to understand the nature of South and East Asian influences on Tibetan traditions, as well as the extent to which indigenous traditions have been preserved. Moreover, since the treasure traditions are related to the anthropological problem of value, we aim to examine this dimension, in order to avoid the danger of confusing an anthropological universal with a cultural influence.
The highly mythologised founder of Tibetan Buddhism, Padmasambhava, was said to be native to Uḍḍi... more The highly mythologised founder of Tibetan Buddhism, Padmasambhava, was said to be native to Uḍḍiyāna, a geographical border region where Tibetan and Indian civilizations were in close proximity. But was he historical, or not? The earliest references discovered at China's Dunhuang caves describe him enriching Indian Tantric Buddhism with indigenous Tibetan symbols, deities, and ritual forms, to create a new Tantric Buddhism. If a Dunhuang text is to be believed, the initial flourishing of his following appears to have been concentrated along Tibet's southern borderlands, rather than in Tibet proper. The narratives describing Padmasambhava are also unique in Tibetan literature in the degree to which they attempt to straddle the boundaries of history and ritual. There is probably no one in the Tibetan imagination more consistently associated with the straddling of categories and borders than Padmasambhava, yet also no one in Tibetan religion who inspires more widespread devotion and confidence. In this sense, he resembles a chimera, as described by the anthropologist of Tibet, Charles Ramble.
[I am grateful to Stefan Mang and Peter Woods, for correcting an error on page 6.] The highly myt... more [I am grateful to Stefan Mang and Peter Woods, for correcting an error on page 6.] The highly mythologised founder of Tibetan Buddhism, Padmasambhava, was said to be native to Uḍḍiyāna, a geographical border region where Tibetan and Indian civilizations were in close proximity. But was he historical, or not? The early references discovered at China's Dunhuang caves describe him enriching Indian Tantric Buddhism with indigenous Tibetan symbols, deities, and ritual forms, to create a new Tantric Buddhism.
UKABS Annual Conference 2019, Khalili Lecture Theatre, SOAS, University of London Saturday 6 July... more UKABS Annual Conference 2019, Khalili Lecture Theatre, SOAS, University of London Saturday 6 July 2019
Panel abstract: Theories guiding contemporary thinking about gter ma have recently been subjected... more Panel abstract: Theories guiding contemporary thinking about gter ma have recently been subjected to intense scrutiny, not least by gter ma-focused research projects. As a result, currently relied-upon historical sources, and conclusions based upon them, appear increasingly open to question, while alternative sources of evidence, and perspectives, are emerging. This panel introduces a comprehensive, predominantly evidence-based, reconsideration of gter ma, emphasizing historical development of ideas about what gter mas and gter stons are, and how our scholarly perspectives on this are changing as we speak.
Michaelmas 2024 Term Card
Wednesdays On Zoom 5-6PM (GMT, London time)
https://bit.ly/treasurese... more Michaelmas 2024 Term Card Wednesdays On Zoom 5-6PM (GMT, London time) https://bit.ly/treasureseminar
6th November: Professor Veronica Strang, ISCA, University of Oxford "Deep Histories: the ground-waters of serpentine treasure guardians"
4th December: John Guy, Curator of South and Southeast Asian art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York "Do they think money grows on trees? Yakṣas, nāgās and nidhis"
The Treasure Seminar applies interdisciplinary academic approaches to the interrelated fields of hidden treasures and reveale d scriptures. While our focus is mainly on Tibet and its influential neighbours, we also consider comparative materials from further afield.
Treasure Seminar Term Card, Trinity Term 2024, 2024
Titles, abstracts, and Zoom links, for the upcoming (Summer 2024) inter-disciplinary and cross-cu... more Titles, abstracts, and Zoom links, for the upcoming (Summer 2024) inter-disciplinary and cross-cultural Treasure Seminar lectures, from the Asian and Middle Eastern Studies Faculty, University of Oxford, and the Tibetan and Himalayan Studies Centre, Wolfson College, University of Oxford.
The panel focuses on religion and the senses. If Tantric ritual in general is renowned for its di... more The panel focuses on religion and the senses. If Tantric ritual in general is renowned for its direct engagement with the senses, Tibet's religious traditions are the most uncompromisingly Tantric in all of Asia. It is therefore unsurprising that Tibetan religion has developed numerous and complex methods of engagement with the senses, which it understands as one of its primary soteriological methods, and an important aspect of Tibet's vast ritual repertoire. So far, very little work has been done to connect the exterior visible manifestations of ritual with the doctrinal and philosophical views underpinning it. This panel aims to broaden discussion of this topic.
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Books by Robert Mayer
Papers by Robert Mayer
In: Proceedings of the 7th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Graz 1995. General Editor: Ernst Steinkellner. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
In: Proceedings of the 7th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Graz 1995. General Editor: Ernst Steinkellner. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
pp169-190 in History as a Challenge to Buddhism and Christianity, eds. Elizabeth J Harris and John O’Grady, EOS Press, 2016.
TGSS, MT 2017, 7th week: What can we know about early gter ma?
Oriental Institute, room, 317, 5pm,
Handout 4: some Mahāyāna texts on nidhi/nidhāna
Wednesdays On Zoom 5-6PM (GMT, London time)
https://bit.ly/treasureseminar
6th November: Professor Veronica Strang, ISCA, University of Oxford
"Deep Histories: the ground-waters of serpentine treasure guardians"
4th December: John Guy, Curator of South and Southeast Asian art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
"Do they think money grows on trees? Yakṣas, nāgās and nidhis"
The Treasure Seminar applies interdisciplinary academic approaches to the interrelated fields of hidden treasures and reveale d scriptures. While our focus is mainly on Tibet and its influential neighbours, we also consider comparative materials from further afield.