Palm Uses in Northwestern South America: A Quantitative Review

Bot. Rev. (2011) 77:462–570 DOI 10.1007/s12229-011-9086-8 Palm Uses in Northwestern South America: A Quantitative Review Manuel J. Macía1,5 & Pedro J. Armesilla1 & Rodrigo Cámara-Leret1 & Narel Paniagua-Zambrana2 & Soraya Villalba3 & Henrik Balslev4 & Manuel Pardo-de-Santayana1 1 Departamento de Biología, Área de Botánica, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Calle Darwin 2, ES– 28049 Madrid, Spain 2 Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Campus Universitario, Cota Cota calle 27, Casilla 10077—Correo Central, La Paz, Bolivia 3 Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AE, United Kingdom 4 Department of Biological Sciences, Ecoinformatics & Biodiversity Research Group, Aarhus University, Build. 1540, Ny Munkegade 114, DK–8000 Aarhus C, Denmark 5 Author for Correspondence; e-mail: [email protected] Published online: 24 June 2011 # The New York Botanical Garden 2011 Abstract A thorough review concerning palm uses in tropical rainforests of northwestern South America was carried out to understand patterns of palm use throughout ecoregions (Amazonia, Andes, Chocó), countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia), and among the different human groups (indigenous, mestizos, afroamericans, colonos) that occur there. A total of 194 useful palm species, 2,395 different uses and 6,141 use-reports were recorded from 255 references. The Amazon had the highest palm use, whereas fewer, but similar uses were recorded for the Andes and Chocó. Ecuador was the most intensively studied country. Most palms were used for human food, utensils and tools, construction, and cultural purposes. Indigenous people knew more palm uses than mestizos, afroamericans and colonos. The use of palms was not random and the main uses were the same throughout the studied ecoregions and countries. Palms satisfy basic subsistence needs and have great importance in traditional cultures of rural indigenous and peasant populations in our study area. Arecaceae is probably the most important plant family in the Neotropics, in relation to use diversity and abundance. Resumen Se realizó una revisión exhaustiva de los usos de las palmeras en los bosques tropicales lluviosos del noroeste de América del Sur para comprender los patrones de uso de las palmeras por ecorregiones (Amazonia, Andes, Chocó), países (Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Bolivia) y entre los diferentes grupos humanos (indígenas, mestizos, afroamericanos, colonos) existentes. Se registraron 194 especies de palmeras útiles, 2,395 usos distintos y 6,141 registros de uso a partir de 255 referencias. La Amazonia tuvo el uso más alto de palmeras, mientras que en los Andes y el Chocó se encontraron menores usos aunque similares. Ecuador fue el país que se estudió más intensamente. La mayoría de las especies se usaron para alimentación humana, utensilios y herramientas, construcción y usos culturales. Los Palm Uses in NW South America 463 indígenas conocieron más usos de palmeras que los mestizos, afroamericanos y colonos. El uso de las palmeras no fue al azar y los usos principales fueron los mismos en todas las ecorregiones y países estudiados. Las palmeras cubren necesidades básicas de subsistencia y tienen una gran importancia en las culturas tradicionales de las poblaciones indígenas y campesinas rurales en nuestra área de estudio. Arecaceae es probablemente la familia de plantas más importante del Neotrópico, en relación a su diversidad y abundancia de usos. Keywords Arecaceae . Ecosystem Services . Indigenous Communities . Livelihood . Plant Valuation . Quantitative Ethnobotany . Tropical Rainforest Palabras clave Arecaceae . Servicios de los Ecosistemas . Comunidades Indígenas . Subsistencia . Valoración de Plantas . Etnobotánica Cuantitativa . Bosque Tropical Lluvioso Introduction The great and quantitatively dominant ethnobotanical importance of palms (Arecaceae) in comparison to other botanical families in tropical American forests is well documented (Prance et al., 1987; Pinedo-Vasquez et al., 1990; Phillips & Gentry, 1993; Galeano, 2000; Macía et al., 2001; Lawrence et al., 2005). Palms have great cultural and economic importance among rural indigenous and peasant populations in tropical America (Schultes, 1974; Bodley & Benson, 1979; Balick, 1984; Balslev & Barfod, 1987; Balée, 1988; DeWalt et al., 1999; Galeano, 2000; Macía, 2004; Paniagua-Zambrana et al., 2007; Brokamp et al., 2011), and numerous studies have described their essential role in covering basic needs for human subsistence, such as for food and house construction (López-Parodi, 1988; Morcote-Ríos et al., 1998; Coomes & Burt, 2001; Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003; Macía, 2004; PaniaguaZambrana et al., 2007). Their great importance is closely related to their ecological, morphological, physiological and bromatological characteristics. Palms are conspicuous and abundant in many different tropical forest types (Henderson et al., 1995; Macía & Svenning, 2005; Balslev et al., 2011) and they are distributed in all forest strata and soil types (Kahn & de Granville, 1992; Kahn & Henderson, 1999; Vormisto, 2002b; Balslev et al., 2010a; 2011). Palms have distinctive morphological and physiological characteristics: they have straight and generally un-branched stems, large pinnate leaves, a vascular system with living cells throughout the plant’s lifespan, they produce many adventitious roots, and are highly durable (Balick, 1984; Tomlinson, 2006). Their fruits and seeds contain starch, essential amino acids, and oils that are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (Balick, 1984; Balée, 1988; Moraes et al., 1996; Olvera-Fonseca, 2004). Their extensive use and relatively well known taxonomy have facilitated their utilisation as model organisms for analysing the influence of ecological and socioeconomic variables on interrelations between humans and plants in tropical American ecosystems (Uhl & Dransfield, 1987; Henderson, 1995; Henderson et al., 1995; Borchsenius et al., 1998; Moraes, 2004; Govaerts & Dransfield, 2005; Dransfield et al., 2008; Galeano & Bernal, 2010). Several studies have shown that 464 M.J. Macía et al. humans tend to use to a higher degree those species that are widespread and conspicuous (Ruokolainen & Vormisto, 2000; Byg et al., 2006). However the most used species are not always the same as those with greatest ecological importance (Boom, 1986). Moreover, higher species diversity in one region does not necessarily imply a greater use by the local population (Byg et al., 2007). The most abundant species in an ecosystem are often used, although with different intensities, and some of the more important species are managed to obtain a better use of their products (Paniagua-Zambrana, 2005; Byg et al., 2006; Bernal et al., 2011). Palms are used more by human groups which have more limitations in their access to markets (Byg & Balslev, 2004; Macía, 2004; Byg & Balslev, 2006; Byg et al., 2007; Paniagua-Zambrana et al., 2007). Recent studies have shown that indigenous people usually posses greater ethnobotanical knowledge than other human groups (Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003; Byg & Balslev, 2004; De la Torre et al., 2008). Despite the large number of publications on traditional use of palms in tropical America, at a local or regional scale, comparative studies presenting a general vision of the use of palms at a larger geographical scale, and comparing use patterns in different biogeographic regions, habitats, countries or human groups, have not been done so far. Here, we present an exhaustive revision of the use of palms in north-western South America, where an effort has been done to compile existing bibliographical references at the local scale and of limited diffusion. The specific aims of this compilation are: (a) to quantitatively evaluate the use of palms in north-western South America, comparing different ecoregions (the Amazon, Andes and Chocó) and countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia); (b) to compare palm use patterns in different ethnobotanical usecategories and subcategories; (c) to analyze differences in the use of palms among different human groups (indigenous, mestizos, afroamericans and colonos) and compare the knowledge between different indigenous groups; and (d) to identify the most important palm species for the local populations living in the tropical forests of the study region. Methods Study Area We compiled ethnobotanical information for palms occurring in the Amazon and Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, and the Chocó of Colombia and Ecuador (Fig. 1). The Amazon ecoregion was defined as the lowlands to the east of the Andes up to 1,000 m elevation (Renner et al., 1990; Jørgensen & León-Yánez, 1999). Data for species existing in all broad forest types were included: both welldrained terra firme forests and floodplain forests, and poorly-drained swamp forests. The Andes ecoregion was defined as the montane forests on both slopes of the Andes above 1,000 m, including the forests of the inter-Andean valleys of Bolivia with lower precipitation (Beck et al., 1993). The Chocó ecoregion was defined as the area of humid forests along the Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador. Palm Uses in NW South America 465 Ecoregions Chocó Andes Amazon 8 Ethnic groups per country 17 Colombia: 1: Andoque, 2: Awá, 3: Bora, 4: Coreguaje, 5: Cubeo, 6: Curripaco, 7: Desano, 8: Emberá, 9: Guayabero, 10: Huitoto, 11: Makuna, 12: Miraña, 13: Muinane, 14: Nukak, 15: Piapoco, 16: Puinave, 17: Sikuani, 18: Siona, 19: Tikuna, 20: Tukano, 21: Waunan, 22: Yucuna. Ecuador: 2: Awá, 18 : Siona, 23: Achuar, 24: Chachi, 25: Cofán, 26: Huaorani, 27: Quichua, 28: Secoya, 29: Shuar, 30: Tsáchila. Peru : 3: Bora, 10: Huitoto, 23: Achuar, 28: Secoya, 31: Aguaruna, 32: Asháninka, 33: Cashibo, 34: Chayahuita, 35: Cocama, 36: Ese Eja, 37:Matsé, 38: Matsigenka, 39: Ocaina, 40: Omagua, 41: Orejón, 42: Shipibo-Conibo, 43: Yagua, 44: Yanesha. Bolivia : 36: Ese Eja, 45: Araona, 46: Chacobo, 47: Leco, 48: Mosetene, 49: Quechua, 50: Sirionó, 51: Tacana, 52: Trinitario, 53: Tsimane, 54: Yuracaré. 21 15 16 14 9 6 5 Colombia 2 4 18 25 18 27 28 28 10 26 10 27 24 2 30 Ecuador 1 12 13 10 3 41 3 10 39 23 29 23 40 31 20 7 11 22 19 43 35 37 34 33 42 Peru 44 32 36 51 46 38 36 45 36 Bolivia 51 53 48 47 52 50 54 49 N 0 100 500 km Fig. 1 Map of the study area in north-western South America showing ecoregions (Amazon, Andes, Chocó), countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia) and indigenous groups where palm ethnobotanical data were recorded Bibliographical Search and Data Organization A thorough bibliographic revision was performed to search for international and national publications for each of the four countries, including ethnographical publications with data on the uses of palms, when species identification was clear. 466 M.J. Macía et al. Three categories of publications were selected. The first included publications based on original data gathered from fieldwork, including scientific papers, books, monographs, book chapters, and graduate, masters and doctoral theses. The second category included review publications for which we checked that data had not been previously published, in order to avoid duplication of information. The third type included publications based on herbarium material which included ethnobotanical information that was not included in any publications (Borchsenius et al., 1998; Moraes, 2004; Moreno Suárez & Moreno Suárez, 2006). A database was constructed in Microsoft Access. For each publication, the following information was included (when available): scientific name of the species as it was published, country, ecoregion, human group, assignation to categories and subcategories of use, plant part used, and vernacular names. To unify the nomenclature of the scientific names, the world checklist of palms was followed (Govaerts & Dransfield, 2005; Govaerts et al., 2006). The only exception was Ceroxylon peruvianum, which was recently described (Galeano et al., 2008), and therefore was not included in the checklist. The three broad habitat types in the Amazon ecoregion were lumped because most bibliographical references did not specify which of the three regions they referred to. Four human groups were recognized: (a) Indigenous, original population of a particular geographic region; (b) Mestizo, population of mixed origin, born from a father and mother of different race, generally white-indigenous; (c) Afroamerican, population of black race descendant of African slaves brought to America; in the study area they only live in the Chocó of Colombia and Ecuador; and (d) Colono, native to an ecoregion different to the one where they presently live due to recent migrations (e.g. Andean people living in the Amazon). Those use-reports where no indication of human group was mentioned were classified as “Not identified.” The Ecuadorean Quichua and Shuar indigenous groups living in the transition between the Amazon and the Andes ecoregions were considered Amazonian groups because the majority of existing literature referring to them is from that ecoregion. Mixed populations of two or more indigenous groups were considered as a single group for analysis, but were not computed as a different ethnic group. All uses recorded from the literature were classified in 10 ethnobotanical categories that were further divided into subcategories (Table 1). When the ethnobotanical information was not classifiable within the previous subcategories, it was assigned to the subcategory “Other”. In the Medicinal and Veterinary category we also used the term “Not Specified” when a medicinal use description contained insufficient information to assign the use to one of the described subcategories. The vernacular names of all palm species cited in the bibliography were compiled, independent of the existence of ethnobotanical information. Data Analysis All data analysis were performed at the species level and thus the ethnobotanical information obtained for infraspecific taxa (i.e., subspecies or varieties) were lumped into the corresponding species. Ethnobotanical data recorded only at the genus level (460 use-reports) were excluded from the analysis, and seven references recorded palm uses only at this level (Acosta-Solis, 1948; Forero, 1980; Tournon et al., 1986; Salick, 1989; Fujisaka & White, 1998; Vásquez, 2000; Bussmann & Sharon, 2006). Palm Uses in NW South America 467 Table 1 Description of use categories and subcategories in the present review Use category Animal Food Construction Cultural Uses Environmental Uses Fuel Human Food Medicinal and Veterinary Use subcategory Description Fish Bait Bait for fishing Fodder Food for domestic animals Wildlife Attractant Palms that provide food for mammals and whose location constitutes preferential areas for hunting Bridges Materials to bridge watercourses Houses Houses and other constructions such as temporary camps, animal yards Thatch House thatching and other constructions Transportation Canoes, rafts, oars and other materials for sealing Other Uses not classifiable within the previous subcategories, for example stems used as posts for telephone lines and gutters to transport water Clothes and Accessories Articles of clothing and accessories such as hats Cosmetic Beauty products, including perfumes, oils, shampoo, and other hair care products Dyes Dyeing of diverse materials (vegetables) and as body paint Personal Adornment Necklaces, bracelets, earrings, armbands, pectorals, anklets Recreational Musical instruments, toys, ashes as additives to the consumption of tobacco and coca leaves Ritual Uses related to myth-religious aspects, including festivals and feasts, construction of coffins, to drive away feared animals, sorcery Other Uses not classifiable under the previous subcategories Agroforestry Palms that are part of agroforestry systems with different management degrees Fences Delimitation of properties, barriers Ornamental Palms cultivated for ornamental purposes Soil Improvers Fertilizers, edaphic protectors and agents against soil erosion Firewood Wood to make fire Fire Starter Combustion starters Lighting Lamps, torches and candles Other Uses not classifiable within the previous subcategories, for example for waterproofing canoes Beverages Elaboration of unfermented or fermented drinks Food Edible, generally with little preparation Food Additives Ingredients used in the preparation and processing of foods Oils Edible fats Blood and Cardio-vascular System Anemia, cardiovascular problems and ailments, cardiac diseases, varicose veins, hypertension, hypotension, haemorrhoids Cultural Diseases and Disorders Ailments or disorders of magic-religious origin recognized by a specific culture, like mal aire 468 M.J. Macía et al. Table 1 (continued) Use category Use subcategory Description Dental Health Caries, tooth pains, fillings, dental hygiene Digestive System Carminative, colics, flatulence, emetic, indigestion, purgative, gastric or intestinal ulcers, diarrhea, laxatives, liver and vesicular disorders, hepatitis (‘bad air’), arrebato (‘outburst’), susto, huaraña Toxic Utensils and Tools Endocrine System Diabetes General Ailments with Unspecific Symptoms General ailments like body pains, general discomfort, weakness, headache, fever Infections and Infestations Malaria, leishmaniasis, measles, antihelminthic, louse, fleas, chiggers, scabies Metabolic System and Nutrition Obesity, weight loss Muscular-Skeletal System Rheumatism, twists, fractures, sciatic, lumbalgia Nervous System and Mental Health Migraine, mental disorders, epilepsy, paralysis, nervous disorders Poisoning Snakebites, scorpion stings, rays, spiders, insects Pregnancy, Birth and Puerperium Gestation, haemorrhage, childbirth, postnatal, lactation, abortive, postpartum Reproductive System and Reproductive Health Menstruation, fertility, venereal diseases, prostrate, impotence, menopause, aphrodisiacs, contraceptives Respiratory System Flu, cold, loss of voice, bronchitis, pneumonia, expectorant, cough Sensory System Eye infections, cataracts, loss of sight or smell, deafness, ear infection Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue Acne, boils, eczemas, burns, extraction of spines stuck on the skin Urinary System Diuretic, kidney stones, urinary incontinence, urinary infections, cystitis Veterinary Treatment of diseases or ailments for domestic animals Not Specified Medicinal use or with pharmacological properties, but with insufficient information to assign to one of the described subcategories Other Uses not classifiable within the previous subcategories, for example tumours, cancer, anaesthetic Fishing Fish poison Hunting Poison for hunting Domestic Utensils Baskets, fans, hammocks, bags, domestic furniture, air freshener Hunting and Fishing Tools Bows, arrows, blowpipes, harpoons, fishing nets, hunting traps Labour Tools Agricultural or domestic tools like spinners, machetes and lubricants of these materials Rope Manufacturing of ropes and moorings Wrappers Wrappers for materials and foods Palm Uses in NW South America 469 Table 1 (continued) Use category Other Uses Use subcategory Description Other Uses not classifiable within the previous subcategories, for example insect repellents Miscellaneous Uses not classifiable within the previous categories. Indirect use of palms: insect larvae feeding on rotting stems used as food, medicine or bait To analyse the uses of palms in different ecoregions, countries and human groups, the term “palm use” for a given species was defined as the use associated to a use category and use subcategory for a specific plant part. To analyse the abundance of palm uses, the term “use-report” was defined as the palm use described previously in one bibliographical reference. To quantify the relative importance of the different use categories, the percentage of useful species for each category with respect to the total number of species used per ecoregion or country was used. In the case of the use subcategories, the percentage of useful species in each subcategory with respect to the total species used in the associated category was used. To have an estimation of the ethnobotanical knowledge that exists in both different countries and ecoregions with respect to the total number of palm species, the percentage of useful species was calculated following the catalogue of Pintaud et al. (2008). To have an estimation of the number of indigenous groups with ethnobotanical information with respect to the existing total number of indigenous groups in the study area, the percentage of indigenous groups was calculated following Lewis (2009). In these latter calculations, the linguistic variants for the denomination of the same indigenous group were not considered. To identify the most important useful species in each ecoregion, the Relative Importance (RI) index was calculated: RI=NUC+NT, where NUC=number of use categories in which a given species is used, divided by the total number of use categories of the most versatile species; NT=number of total use subcategories in which the cited species is found, divided by the total number of use subcategories that the most versatile species obtained (Bennett & Prance, 2000; Albuquerque et al., 2006). The maximum RI value that a species could obtain was 2. This index values the importance of the different species as a function of their versatility, without considering data relative to the number of bibliographic citations (Cartaxo et al., 2010). Results Palm Use by Ecoregions and Countries A total of 194 useful palm species (representing 63% of the potentially existing species in north-western South America), 2,395 different uses, and 6,141 use-reports were found in the revision of 255 bibliographical references, including 95 palm use 470 M.J. Macía et al. monographs (Table 2; Appendix). The average (± SD) number of different uses per species was 12.3 (± 18.7) although great variability was observed between different species. Ethnobotanical information was recorded for 54 indigenous groups, which represents 49% of the total indigenous groups living in the study area (Lewis, 2009; Fig. 1). The Amazon was the ecoregion with the highest values in all the variables compared: 134 useful species (90% of those potentially present), 82% of total different uses, 84% of total use-reports, an average (± SD) of 14.7 (± 20.0) uses per species, and 81% of total bibliographic references found (Table 2). Ethnobotanical information was found for 48% of all indigenous groups living in the area. Comparing the Amazon ecoregion in each of the four countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia) independently also gave the highest values in all the variables analysed (Table 2). The highest number of useful species, different uses and bibliographical references was found in the Peruvian Amazon, but the number of uses per species was the lowest there. In the Ecuadorean Amazon we found both the highest percentage of useful species and the highest percentage of indigenous groups studied, while the lowest percentages for these variables were found in the Amazon of Colombia and Peru. In the Andes and Chocó ecoregions similar results were found for many of the studied variables, including number of palm uses, percentage of useful species, and number of bibliographic references (Table 2). However, even if the Andes ecoregion was slightly more diverse in useful palm species than the Chocó ecoregion (68 vs. 52), the average of different uses per species was highest in Chocó (6.7 vs. 5.1), where we found a higher number of use-reports (569 vs. 439). In general, the Andes was the second ecoregion in relative importance for Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, whereas in Colombia the Chocó was more important than the Andes. The Andean region of Bolivia was the best studied of the four countries since in the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru no information was recorded for any indigenous group. Colombia was the country with the highest number of useful palm species (105) and the highest number of indigenous groups for which ethnobotanical information about palms has been published (23), although the proportion of indigenous groups studied with respect to the total groups for the country was moderate (49%), and inferior only to Peru (Table 2). However, in Colombia the percentage of useful species in relation to palm species richness was the lowest of the four countries (48%), as was the average number of uses per species (7.8±10.1). Colombia was the country with the second lowest number of bibliographical references referring to palm uses, but the number of different palm uses and use-reports was comparatively high, only surpassed by Ecuador. In Ecuador, the number of useful species found was slightly lower than for Colombia (103 vs. 105). Nonetheless, it was the country with the highest values for many of the variables compared: the highest number of different uses (936), usereports (2010), percentages of useful species in relation to the palm species richness of the country (79%), percentage of indigenous groups studied (83%) and number of bibliographical references (81), including 31 palm monographs (Table 2). Peru had intermediate values for most analyzed variables (Table 2). It was the country with the second highest proportion of useful species relative to the total palm species number in the country (76%), and also with respect to the number of Country/Ecoregion Useful species Palm uses Palm use-reports Average±SD of palm uses per species Percentage of useful species/Potential total species Indigenous groups with ethnobotanical information (Percentage of indigenous groups with info/Total indigenous groups) Bibliographical references (Palm monographs) All countries 194 2,395 6,141 12.3±18.7 63.2 54 (49.1) 255 (95) Amazon 134 1,972 5,144 14.7±20.0 89.9 47 (47.5) 202 (69) Andes 68 344 439 5.1±6.0 52.7 2 (28.6) 40 (27) Chocó 52 347 569 6.7±7.3 49.0 5 (83.3) 38 (20) Colombia 105 814 1,429 7.8±10.1 47.5 22 (48.9) 63 (20) Amazon 70 615 1,049 8.8±10.6 67.6 19 (48.7) 41 (12) Andes 18 35 39 1.9±1.2 19.8 − 6 (5) Chocó 38 225 341 5.9±5.7 43.2 3 (75.0) 25 (11) Ecuador 103 936 2,010 9.1±11.9 79.4 10 (83.3) 81 (31) Amazon 62 676 1,494 10.9±12.3 91.2 7 (87.5) 59 (17) Andes 52 240 295 4.6±5.3 82.5 – 20 (12) Chocó 30 167 228 5.6±5.2 44.6 3 (75.0) 13 (10) Peru 96 785 1,390 8.2±10.1 75.6 18 (38.3) 74 (28) Amazon 93 772 1,369 8.3±10.1 87.7 18 (38.3) 70 (26) Andes 4 19 21 4.8±3.4 9.1 − 4 (2) 47 (22) Bolivia 62 655 1,348 10.6±14.7 73.8 11 (61.1) Amazon 54 603 1,267 11.2±14.6 85.7 10 (58.8) 41 (17) Andes 13 77 84 5.9±6.7 43.3 2 (100) 11 (9) 471 Total number of species in each ecoregion and country was obtained from Pintaud et al. (2008), and total number of indigenous groups from Lewis (2009) Palm Uses in NW South America Table 2 Palm uses in the Amazon and Andes ecoregions of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, and in the Chocó ecoregion of Colombia and Ecuador 472 M.J. Macía et al. bibliographical references with information on palm uses (74). And while it was the country with the second highest number of indigenous groups with published ethnobotanical information about palms (18), the percentage of indigenous groups studied (38%) was the lowest of the four countries. Bolivia had the lowest values in most of the analyzed variables except for the average number of uses per species, which was the highest of the four countries (10.6±14.7) (Table 2). The percentage of useful species in relation to the total palm species richness in the country (74%) and the percentage of indigenous groups with published ethnobotanical palm information (61%) were the second most important. Concerning the published bibliographical references, a great number of palm use monographs were registered compared to other countries. Palms in Different Use Categories and Plant Parts Used In general, the use categories and subcategories with most useful species were the same as those with most use-reports. The main exceptions to this were (a) the Agroforestry subcategory in the Environmental Uses category, where the number of use-reports was frequently higher than the number of species found (e.g. overall 48% of the species and 53% of the use-reports; in Colombia 48% vs. 94%), as well as (b) in the Firewood subcategory in the Fuel category (e.g. in Colombia, especially in the Chocó ecoregion, 88% of the species and 94% of the use-reports). Therefore, to facilitate the interpretation of data in Table 3, only percentages of useful species for different use categories and subcategories are shown. The main uses of palms in north-western South America were in the categories Human Food (70%), Utensils and Tools (66%), Construction (63%) and Cultural Uses (56%) (Table 3). The categories Animal Food (37%), Medicinal and Veterinary (35%), Environmental Uses (35%) and Fuel (22%) had the lowest numbers of useful species. In the initially proposed Toxic category, there were no use-reports. All parts of the palms had some ethnobotanical use, although the most used parts among all use categories (except in Construction) were fruits, stem and leaves (Table 4). For 9% of the use-reports, the plant part used was not indicated. At the ecoregion level, the percentages of palm uses were higher in the lowlands (the Amazon and Chocó) than in the Andes for the majority of the use categories (Table 3). In the Amazon, the relative importance of the different use categories was similar to the general pattern previously described, with the only exception of Medicinal and Veterinary palms, which were more important than Animal Food (46% vs. 43%). The Chocó ecoregion had the same pattern of palm use as the Amazon, except in the Environmental Uses category, which was more prevalent (35% vs. 29%). In the Andes, the general pattern of palm use described above was also found, but with some notable exceptions: the Construction category had greater relative importance in the Andes compared to the lowlands, the Environmental Uses category, such as in Chocó, had more relevance than in the Amazon, and the Utensils and Tools category was less important in the Andes than in it was in the lowlands. At the country level, the categories Human Food, Construction, Utensils and Tools and Cultural Uses were, in this order of importance, the ones that presented the highest percentages of useful species, except in Colombia, where Utensils and Tools was the most important category (62%) and Human Food occupied the fourth Palm Uses in NW South America 473 Table 3 Percentages of useful palm species by different use categories and subcategories in tropical forests of north-western South America, broken down by ecoregion and country. Total percentages of each category (in bold) were calculated relative to the total useful species registered for each ecoregion and country. The percentages for the different subcategories were calculated relative to the total useful species registered in each of the categories by ecoregion and country Use category/Subcategory Total Ecoregion Country Amazon Andes Chocó Colombia Ecuador Peru Bolivia Human Food 69.6 76.9 57.4 61.5 52.4 64.1 75.0 67.7 Food 95.6 95.1 97.4 93.8 96.4 95.5 94.4 90.5 Beverages 41.5 44.7 25.6 34.4 32.7 37.9 34.7 40.5 Oils 20.0 20.4 10.3 34.4 27.3 13.6 12.5 33.3 Food Additives 8.9 10.7 5.1 6.3 10.9 4.5 4.2 Utensils and Tools 65.5 73.9 32.4 57.7 61.9 58.3 56.3 53.2 14.3 Domestic 77.2 81.8 86.4 53.3 64.6 75.0 81.5 90.9 Hunting and Fishing 55.9 63.6 27.3 46.7 63.1 65.0 48.1 39.4 Labour Tools 17.3 17.2 4.5 20.0 9.2 20.0 13.0 9.1 Wrappers 13.4 16.2 4.5 − 7.7 15.0 13.0 9.1 Rope 11.8 9.1 9.1 13.3 13.8 10.0 9.3 Other 34.6 26.3 18.2 66.7 43.1 30.0 16.7 24.2 12.1 Construction 63.4 70.1 48.5 55.8 56.2 63.1 67.7 56.5 Thatch 83.7 86.2 87.9 82.8 76.3 86.2 83.1 80.0 Houses 63.4 60.6 57.6 58.6 44.1 47.7 66.2 62.9 Transportation 8.9 7.4 3.0 13.8 5.1 7.7 6.2 2.9 Bridges 8.1 8.5 3.0 3.4 1.7 4.6 6.2 5.7 Other 21.1 25.5 3.0 17.2 32.2 4.6 9.2 20.0 Cultural Uses 55.7 59.0 42.6 34.6 55.2 48.5 37.5 50.0 Ritual 49.1 40.5 62.1 61.1 44.8 56.0 16.7 51.6 Recreational 45.4 57.0 13.8 33.3 60.3 20.0 25.0 41.9 Personal Adornment 39.8 50.6 6.9 16.7 32.8 50.0 25.0 32.3 Cloth and Accessories 34.3 36.7 24.1 27.8 22.4 24.0 36.1 48.4 Cosmetic 25.0 32.9 13.8 11.1 10.3 26.0 33.3 48.4 Dyes 9.3 8.9 3.3 16.7 3.4 10.0 8.3 Other 9.3 12.7 − − 5.2 8.0 13.9 12.9 6.5 Animal Food 36.6 42.5 20.6 19.2 20.0 44.7 23.9 35.5 Wildlife Attractant 71.8 78.9 42.9 50.0 76.2 91.3 30.4 63.6 Fodder 38.0 31.6 57.1 50.0 19.0 21.7 26.1 50.0 Fish Bait 26.8 29.8 − 20.0 28.6 10.9 52.2 9.1 Medicinal and Veterinary 35.1 45.5 16.2 23.1 27.6 31.1 34.4 33.9 Digestive System 55.9 54.1 54.5 33.3 31.0 37.5 63.6 42.9 Respiratory System 38.2 39.3 18.2 16.7 20.7 31.3 18.2 47.6 General Ailments with Unspecified Symptoms 33.8 37.7 − 8.3 6.9 18.8 42.4 47.6 Infections and Infestations 30.9 32.8 18.2 − 20.7 15.6 42.4 9.5 Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue 26.5 27.9 27.3 8.3 6.9 21.9 12.1 38.1 474 M.J. Macía et al. Table 3 (continued) Use category/Subcategory Total Ecoregion Country Amazon Andes Chocó Colombia Ecuador Peru Bolivia Muscular-Skeletal System 22.1 23.0 9.1 8.3 10.3 12.5 15.2 33.3 Poisoning 19.1 21.3 9.1 − 24.1 3.1 9.1 Reproductive System and Reproductive Health 16.2 14.8 18.2 25.0 6.9 9.4 21.2 19.0 23.8 Cultural Diseases and Disorders 14.7 13.1 18.2 25.0 10.3 12.5 3.0 19.0 Blood and Cardio-Vascular System 11.8 9.8 − 16.7 6.9 3.1 9.1 14.3 Urinary System 8.8 8.2 27.3 8.3 13.8 6.3 6.1 14.3 Pregnancy, Birth and Puerperium 8.8 9.8 18.2 − 3.4 12.5 12.1 9.5 Dental Health 7.4 8.2 − − 6.9 6.3 3.0 9.5 Endocrine System 7.4 8.2 − − − − 9.1 9.5 Nervous System and Mental Health 7.4 6.6 9.1 − − 9.4 6.1 − Metabolic System and Nutrition 4.4 4.9 − − 3.4 − − 9.5 Sensory System 4.4 1.6 9.1 8.3 − 6.3 − 4.8 Veterinary 2.9 3.3 − − − − 3.0 4.8 Not Specified 35.3 36.1 36.4 25.0 27.6 43.8 24.2 33.3 Other 5.9 6.6 − − − 6.3 6.1 Environmental Uses 34.5 29.4 36.8 34.6 25.7 32.0 25.0 37.1 − Ornamental 62.7 57.5 68.0 55.6 48.1 66.7 37.5 52.2 Agroforestry 47.8 57.5 40.0 33.3 48.1 39.4 70.8 52.2 Fences 34.3 37.5 36.0 22.2 18.5 27.3 41.7 43.5 Soil Improvement 4.5 7.5 − − − − 8.3 4.3 Fuel 22.2 24.6 17.6 9.6 16.2 27.2 7.3 14.5 Firewood 72.1 84.8 58.3 40.0 88.2 75.0 42.9 88.9 Fire Starter 23.3 21.2 16.7 20.0 11.8 21.4 28.6 11.1 Lighting 18.6 9.1 25.0 40.0 − 21.4 − Other 9.3 12.1 − − − 10.7 28.6 − Other uses 22.7 29.1 8.8 17.3 21.9 14.6 28.1 14.5 22.2 position (52%) (Table 3). In Colombia and Peru, the greater relative importance of the Medicinal and Veterinary category was notable compared to Ecuador and Bolivia, although the latter country had the highest percentage of use-reports for this category. The categories of Animal Food and Environmental Uses had varying importance in the different countries, without a recognizable pattern. Finally, the categories of Fuel and Other Uses were the least important in all countries. Human Food. Palm uses in the different subcategories of Human Food were similar for all ecoregions and countries (Table 3; Appendix). Over 90% of the species were Plant part Human Food Utensils and Tools Construction Cultural Animal Food Medicinal and Veterinary Environmental Fuel Other Uses Total Fruit 60.6 2.4 − 13.7 76.5 23.8 1.1 7.8 6.0 25.1 Stem 0.8 30.0 36.1 7.7 0.9 4.0 20.7 52.3 64.7 18.1 Entire leaf 0.1 20.2 53.4 17.6 4.3 4.5 5.2 21.9 1.3 16.7 Seed 11.6 4.4 − 17.4 5.2 11.6 2.9 7.8 8.2 7.9 Palm heart 19.5 0.5 − 3.1 2.2 9.4 0.4 − − 7.1 Root 0.2 3.2 − 2.5 − 31.3 − − 0.4 3.9 Entire plant − − − 7.4 − 0.4 65.3 − − 3.6 Spear leaf − 10.6 0.1 8.3 − − − 0.8 4.7 3.1 Petiole − 5.1 0.5 1.3 − 0.2 − 0.8 0.9 1.2 Leaf rachis − 4.8 0.2 1.3 − 0.2 − − − 1.1 Leaf sheath − 3.1 − 0.5 − 0.2 − 3.1 0.9 0.8 0.7 Bract − 1.7 − 3.5 − − − − − Inflorescence 0.3 0.7 − 2.9 0.9 1.0 0.4 − − 0.7 Flower 0.6 − − 0.6 0.9 2.4 0.4 − − 0.5 Spine − 0.4 − 1.3 − 1.4 − − 0.4 0.4 Infructescence <0.1 0.2 − 0.3 − 0.2 0.4 − − 0.1 Not specified 6.3 12.6 9.7 10.5 9.1 9.4 3.3 5.5 12.5 9.0 Palm Uses in NW South America Table 4 Percentages of use-reports for the different palm parts used in each category in tropical forests of north-western South America 475 476 M.J. Macía et al. used as food or snack and more than 25% were used to prepare fermented or unfermented drinks, such as leche or chicha especially in the Amazon. Preparation of oils for human consumption was very important throughout the study region, though most prominent in the Chocó (34%) and Bolivia (33%). The use of palms for food additives was more prominent in the Amazon (11%) compared to other ecoregions, and at the country level in Bolivia and Colombia (14% and 11%, respectively). The palm parts most often used in this category were fruits (61%), palm heart (20%) and seeds (12%) (Table 4). Utensils and Tools. In all ecoregions and countries, most species (77%) were used to make several objects for domestic use, such as hammocks, fans, carrying bags, baskets or mats (Table 3; Appendix). The second most important activity was the construction of tools for hunting and fishing (56%), including bows, arrows, harpoons and different types of traps, although this category had lower importance in the Andes (27%). The manufacturing of tools for cultivation in their fields (chacras or chagras) and homegardens was more important in the lowlands than in the Andes, especially in Ecuador (20%). The use of palm leaves for wrapping food or other objects was mostly recorded in the Amazon of Ecuador and Peru. Rope manufacture was less important, but uniform, for all ecoregions and countries, except in the Colombian Andes and Chocó. The subcategory Other uses had high values because many use-reports simply described the use as ‘handicrafts’ or ‘ivory’ (for instance, the use of Phytelephas seeds which were also used as handicrafts), and therefore could not be precisely assigned to a particular subcategory. The most important palm parts used for utensils and tools were the stem (30%), leaves (20%) and immature spear leaves (11%) (Table 4). Construction. In this category, most species (>76%) were used for thatching houses and for temporal sheds in all ecoregions and countries (Table 3; Appendix). In second place was the use of palms in the construction of different house parts, such as beams, walls, floors or materials for the roof. The use of palms for construction of canoes was particularly relevant in the Chocó (14%) and the Amazon (7%), and for construction of bridges in the Amazon (9%). In the subcategory Other Uses, many use-reports only mentioned ‘construction’, which is a general term, for which reason the use could not be assigned with precision to a particular subcategory. The most used palm parts were the leaves (53%) and the stem (36%) (Table 4). Cultural Uses. The most important cultural use in all ecoregions and countries was for ritual purposes, including festivals and feasts, particularly in the Andes (62%), and among the countries in Ecuador (56%) and Bolivia (52%) (Table 3; Appendix). In the Amazon (57%) and particularly in Colombia (60%), the recreational use of palms for the manufacture of musical instruments and toys, and for the preparation of ashes from several palm parts to be used in the traditional consumption of tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and coca leaves (Erythroxylum coca) were of great importance. The use of palms for personal adornment, such as necklaces, bracelets, armbands, pectorals or earrings, had great importance in the Amazon (51%), and at the country level in Ecuador (50%). In the manufacture of cloth and accessories, like hats or buttons, and in the preparation of cosmetics, the highest importance was recorded in the Amazon, and at the country level in Bolivia (37% and 48% for the first Palm Uses in NW South America 477 subcategory and 33% and 48% for the second, respectively). The use of palms to produce natural dyes was minor, but it was registered in all ecoregions and countries, and was of particular importance in the Chocó (17%). The most used palm parts were the entire leaves (18%), seeds (17%), and the fruits (14%) (Table 4). Animal Food. The highest percentage of species used for Animal Food were used as wildlife attractant for hunting (72%), particularly in the Amazon (79%), and among the countries in Ecuador (91%) and Colombia (76%) (Table 3; Appendix). However, in the Andes and Chocó the use of palms as fodder had greater importance (57% and 50% respectively), and particularly in Bolivia (50%). The use of palms as fish bait had high values in the Amazon (30%) and in Peru (52%). The fruits were clearly the palm part most used (77%), followed by the seeds (5%) and leaves (4%) (Table 4). Medicinal and Veterinary. Medicinal uses were found in all the proposed subcategories and were especially important in the Amazon, where the highest percentages were recorded for most subcategories (Table 3; Appendix). The highest percentage of medicinal species (56%) was registered for the treatment of ailments of the digestive system (e.g. stomach pains and diarrhoea), particularly in the Andes and the Amazon (55% and 54%, respectively) and, among the countries, for Peru (64%). The treatment of respiratory ailments, in particular colds and catarrh, were very important in the Amazon (39%) and Bolivia (48%). The use of palms to treat general common ailments of nonspecific character, such as headaches, general discomfort and body pains, was the subcategory with the third highest percentage of useful species (34%) in particular in the Amazon, and among the countries in Peru and Bolivia. Similarly, the treatment of infectious and parasitic diseases was most prominent in the Amazon (33%) and in Peru (42%). The percentages of palms used for skin and subcutaneous ailments were higher in the Amazon and Andes than in the Chocó, and among countries its use was highest in Bolivia (38%). The treatment of ailments and injuries of the muscular-skeletal system such as traumatisms, bone fractures, dislocations or sprains were more relevant in the Amazon (23%) and in Bolivia (33%). Palms were also used as antidotes against snakebites, scorpion stings and ant bites and stings, especially in the Amazon (21%), and in Colombia and Bolivia (24% in both cases). The percentage of palm species used for treating diseases of the reproductive system and for sexual health was higher in Chocó (25%) than in the other ecoregions, and among countries in Peru and Bolivia. Palms were also used to treat less well defined diseases, such as aire, evil eye, and arrebato, especially in the Chocó (25%) the Andes (18%), and in Bolivia (19%). For the treatment of blood and cardiovascular system ailments, the highest percentage of species was reported for the Chocó (17%) and in Bolivia (14%). The percentage of species used in both diseases and ailments of the urinary system, like cystitis, and the treatment of problems relating to pregnancy, birth and puerperium was highest in the Andes in both cases (27% and 18%, respectively). For the treatment of dental problems, diseases of the endocrine system, metabolic and nutritional problems, and for veterinary use, medicinal palm species were only reported in the Amazon, and the greatest percentage was registered in Bolivia (10% in all cases, except in the subcategory Veterinary Uses which was 5%). For treating diseases and ailments of the nervous system, mental health and sensory system, the highest percentage of 478 M.J. Macía et al. useful species was found in the Andes (9% in both cases) and in Ecuador (9% and 6%, respectively). The subcategory Other Uses included species with medicinal uses which could not be assigned to a described subcategory, for example for the treatment of cancer, hernia, or when the nature of an illness was not specified. The most used plant parts in popular medicine were the roots (31%), fruits (24%) and seeds (12%) (Table 4). Environmental Uses. The main use in the category Environmental Uses was as ornamental plants for all ecoregions and countries except Peru, with special importance in the Andes (68%) and among the countries in Ecuador (67%) (Table 3; Appendix). The use of palms in agroforestry systems with different degrees of management ranked second, particularly in the Amazon (58%) and in Peru (71%), where it was the most important use. The use of palms as natural barriers and to delimit properties was used in all ecoregions and especially in Bolivia and Peru. The use of palms to improve soils was only registered in the Amazon of Peru and Bolivia. In this category the whole plant (65%) and the stem (21%) were mostly used (Table 4). Fuel. The majority of the species were used for firewood in all countries and ecoregions, especially in the Amazon (85%) and among the countries in Bolivia and Colombia (89% and 88%, respectively) (Table 3; Appendix). The palms had notable importance as fire starters and as torches, candles, and lamps, particularly in the Chocó. Within the subcategory Other Uses, the use of palm leaves for burning and water-proofing canoes was important in the Amazon, particularly in Peru. The predominant parts used were the stem (52%), leaves (22%) and the fruits (8%) (Table 4). Other Uses. The highest percentage of useful palms in all ecoregions and countries was related to the use of the larvae of the Rhyncophorus palmarum (Coleoptera) for human food (66% of total species), medicinal use, and as fish bait (Table 3; Appendix). These larvae develop mainly in rotting palm stems. The remaining uses are miscellaneous. The plant parts mostly used were the stem (65%), seeds (8%) and fruits (6%) (Table 4). Palm Uses by Different Human Groups Indigenous groups clearly used palms more prominently than other human groups. They presented the highest palm use values: number of useful species (129), different uses (1,555), use-reports (3,713), and higher average number of uses per species (12.1±16.7), although they were also the best studied human group (166 bibliographical references) (Table 5). The Amazon was the ecoregion with the highest values in all countries and for all human groups, except for the mestizos in Ecuador. In the Chocó, the indigenous groups recorded higher values for all variables compared to the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador, although in Ecuador the differences between these ecoregions were small. The mestizos were the second human group in terms of palm use values (Table 5). The Amazon was the ecoregion with the highest values, with the exception of Palm Uses in NW South America 479 Table 5 Use of palms by different human groups in tropical forests of north-western South America. For some ecoregions and countries no data was available Human group/ Country Ecoregion Indigenous Total 129 1,555 3,713 12.1±16.7 166 Colombia All ecoregions 74 574 926 7.8±9.8 48 Amazon 59 513 823 8.7±10.3 37 Andes 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 Chocó 26 87 102 3.3±2.9 13 All ecoregions 78 770 1,704 9.9±11.9 67 Amazon 59 656 1,448 11.1±12.2 57 Andes 23 95 109 4.1±3.0 10 Chocó 24 110 149 4.6±3.8 8 Peru All ecoregions/ Amazon 47 278 402 5.9±5.8 29 Bolivia All ecoregions 33 397 716 12.0±13.3 30 Amazon 32 385 694 12.0±12.2 28 Andes 3 25 25 8.3±11.0 3 Mestizo Total 49 215 304 4.4±4.5 30 Ecuador All ecoregions 15 28 30 1.9±1.8 4 Amazon 5 6 5 1.0±0.0 2 Andes 11 24 25 2.2±2.0 3 All ecoregions 35 163 239 4.7±4.5 22 Amazon 34 155 226 4.6±4.1 20 Andes 2 11 13 5.5±4.9 2 All ecoregions 10 35 35 3.5±2.1 4 Amazon 9 29 29 3.2±2.1 3 Andes 2 6 6 3.0±1.4 1 Afroamerican Total 24 82 90 3.4±2.7 7 Colombia All ecoregions/ Chocó 23 77 84 3.3±2.4 5 Ecuador All ecoregions/ Chocó 3 6 6 2.0±1.7 2 Colono Total 15 56 61 3.7±2.7 12 Colombia All ecoregions/ Amazon 10 33 33 3.3±1.6 3 Ecuador All ecoregions 8 14 14 1.8±1.0 7 Amazon 6 9 9 1.5±0.5 5 Andes 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 Ecuador Peru Bolivia Useful species Palm uses Palm usereports Uses±SD per species References Chocó 1 4 4 4.0±0.0 1 Peru All ecoregions/ Amazon 4 9 9 2.3±0.5 1 Bolivia All ecoregions/ Amazon 2 5 5 2.5±0.7 1 Not identified Total 170 1,166 2,012 6.9±10.1 86 480 M.J. Macía et al. Table 5 (continued) Human group/ Country Ecoregion Useful species Palm uses Palm usereports Uses±SD per species References Colombia All ecoregions 82 293 393 3.6±3.9 21 Amazon 51 173 199 3.4±3.3 11 Andes 18 35 39 1.9±1.2 6 Ecuador Peru Bolivia Chocó 29 113 156 3.9±3.1 12 All ecoregions 61 242 273 4.0±5.0 18 Amazon 19 36 43 1.9±2.7 6 Andes 38 155 160 4.1±4.6 9 Chocó 16 63 74 3.9±5.0 9 All ecoregions 87 531 750 6.1±6.9 30 Amazon 85 523 742 6.2±7.0 28 Andes 2 8 8 4.0±2.8 2 All ecoregions 56 382 596 6.8±8.0 18 Amazon 48 340 543 7.1±8.2 15 Andes 10 47 53 4.7±5.3 7 Ecuador, where the Andes had a greater importance. Peru was the country with the highest number of bibliographical references. No use-report was found for mestizos in the Chocó ecoregion or Colombia. A greater number of useful palms were registered for the afroamericans, when compared to colonos (Table 5). Colombia reported higher values than Ecuador for all the variables analyzed, and these values were similar to those registered for the Colombian indigenous groups of the same ecoregion, despite having a lower number of references. The colonos presented the lowest values of all groups compared in all countries, except for the average number of uses per species, which was slightly higher than for afroamericans (Table 5). Most information was registered in the Amazon, and among the countries in Colombia and Ecuador. Finally, it is worth mentioning that for all ecoregions and countries very high values were registered for unidentified human groups, since the bibliographical information was not precise. Curiously, they registered the highest number of useful species (170) (Table 5). Palm Uses by Indigenous Groups Ethnobotanical information concerning palms was found for 54 indigenous groups: 47 in the Amazon ecoregion, two in the Andes, and five in the Chocó (Fig. 1; Table 2). There was great variation in the ethnobotanical knowledge of palms for the different indigenous groups, and the greatest knowledge was observed in Ecuador for all three ecoregions (Table 6). In general, the most studied indigenous groups were also those with the greatest observed ethnobotanical knowledge. For example, for some indigenous groups (e.g. Quichua, Huaorani or Shuar in Ecuador) many Palm Uses in NW South America 481 Table 6 Use of palms by the different indigenous groups living in the tropical forests of north-western South America Indigenous group Country Useful species Palm uses Palm usereports Uses±SD per species References Quichua (also in Andes) Ecuador 44 243 387 5.5±6.8 23 Huaorani Ecuador 43 337 500 7.8±6.8 13 Shuar (also in Andes) Ecuador 40 186 305 4.7±4.7 15 Muinane Colombia 36 183 183 5.1±3.8 2 Secoya Ecuador/Peru 29 93 105 3.2±2.1 6 Cofán Ecuador 26 99 127 3.8±2.8 5 Cocama Peru 25 59 59 2.4±1.4 2 Tacana Bolivia 23 205 262 8.9±8.1 5 Siona Colombia/ Ecuador 22 39 40 1.8±1.9 4 ShipiboConibo Peru 20 55 63 2.8±1.5 4 Tikuna Colombia 19 77 80 4.1±2.7 5 Tsimane/ Mosetene Bolivia 18 108 121 6.0±2.9 3 Amazon Cubeo Colombia 18 45 46 2.5±2.8 4 Achuar Ecuador/Peru 18 41 49 2.3±1.4 7 Huitoto Colombia/ Peru 17 62 62 3.6±3.6 9 Chayahuita Peru 17 26 26 1.5±0.9 1 Miraña Colombia 16 63 67 3.9±2.9 4 Matsigenka Peru 16 31 31 1.9±1.0 1 Nukak Colombia 15 120 168 8.0±5.2 3 Bora Colombia/ Peru 14 58 66 4.1±2.9 10 Matsé Peru 14 36 36 2.6±1.5 1 Chacobo Bolivia 13 36 37 2.8±1.5 2 Quechua/ Tacana Bolivia 12 73 73 6.1±3.3 1 Aguaruna Peru 11 36 40 3.3±2.0 2 Yucararé/ Trinitario Bolivia 10 69 69 6.9±3.4 2 Andoque Colombia 10 28 28 2.8±1.3 2 Yucuna Colombia 10 20 20 2.0±1.1 4 Puinave Colombia 9 18 18 2.0±1.4 4 Yagua Peru 9 15 15 1.7±0.9 3 Ese Eja Bolivia/Peru 9 14 14 1.6±0.7 2 Tsimane Bolivia 8 39 43 4.9±3.9 5 Mosetene Bolivia 7 26 29 3.7±2.3 4 482 M.J. Macía et al. Table 6 (continued) Indigenous group Country Useful species Palm uses Palm usereports Uses±SD per species References Siona-Secoya Colombia/Ecuador 6 11 11 1.8±0.8 2 Bora-OcainaHuitoto Peru 5 21 21 4.2±2.0 1 Sirionó Bolivia 5 16 26 3.2±4.9 3 Orejón Peru 5 7 7 1.4±0.9 2 Guayabero Colombia 3 18 18 6.0±1.7 1 Curripaco Colombia 3 8 8 2.7±2.9 2 Yuracaré Bolivia 3 8 9 2.7±2.1 3 Ocaina Peru 3 5 5 1.7±1.2 2 Omagua Peru 3 4 4 1.3±0.6 1 Yanesha Peru 2 8 8 4.0±2.8 2 Asháninka Peru 2 3 3 1.5±0.7 1 Desano Colombia 2 2 2 1.0±0.0 1 Makuna Colombia 2 2 2 1.0±0.0 1 Piapoco Colombia 1 2 2 2.0±0.0 1 Trinitario Bolivia 1 2 2 2.0±0.0 1 Tukano Colombia 1 2 2 2.0±0.0 1 Cashibo Peru 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 Coreguaje Colombia 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 Sikuani Colombia 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 Araona Bolivia 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 Andes Leco Bolivia 2 24 24 12.0±12.7 2 Quechua Bolivia 1 1 1 1.0±0.0 1 Awá Colombia/ Ecuador 18 74 84 4.1±3.4 8 Chachi Ecuador 15 70 87 4.9±3.5 6 Tsáchila Ecuador 13 27 28 2.1±1.1 3 Emberá Colombia 6 9 9 1.5±1.2 2 Waunan Colombia 1 8 8 8.0±0.0 1 Chocó useful palm species, different uses and use-reports were found, but this may be because they were particularly well studied (≥13 bibliographical references per group). However, other indigenous groups (e.g. Muinane of Colombia or Cocama of Peru) also had many useful palm species, different uses and use-reports, but these were described in just two bibliographical references. A total of 1,933 vernacular palm names were registered (including orthographic variants), corresponding to 178 palm species. Of these names, 33% were in Spanish (158 species) and 67% in different indigenous languages (130 species). Palm Uses in NW South America 483 Outstanding Useful Palm Species by Ecoregions In general, the species with the highest relative importance values also had the highest number of palm uses, use-reports and bibliographical references (Table 7). Five species were found as the most important in all three ecoregions: Bactris gasipaes, Iriartea deltoidea, Oenocarpus bataua, O. mapora and Socratea exorrhiza. In the Amazon ecoregion, the most important genera were Astrocaryum, Attalea, Oenocarpus and Phytelephas, each with more than one species with the highest relative importance whereas in the Chocó three of them, Attalea, Oenocarpus and Phytelephas, were among the most important. In contrast, in the Andes the genera Ceroxylon, Oenocarpus and Parajubaea were the most important. In the Amazon and Chocó ecoregions, the most versatile species were used in all countries, but in the Andes the most important species did not have such a broad geographical range of use, with the exception of Bactris gasipaes, which was registered in all four countries. Discussion Arecaceae is probably the most important plant family in the Neotropics, in terms of use diversity and abundance. Palms are widely used for a great number of purposes throughout all ecoregions and by all human groups in north-western South America. The use of palms has been documented in several monographs with local or national scope (e.g. Balslev & Barfod, 1987; Bernal, 1992; Borchsenius et al., 1998) and in numerous ethnobotanical studies with diverse indigenous groups (e.g. Boom, 1986; Kronik, 2001; Macía, 2004), mestizos (e.g. Mejía, 1988; Stagegaard et al., 2002; Balslev et al., 2008), afroamericans (e.g. Galeano, 2000), and colonos (e.g. Flores Paitán, 1998). The present quantitative revision underlines the great importance of comparative ethnobotanical studies at a regional geographic scale, and call attention to many different uses and species consistently shared between different human groups across the western Amazon, the Chocó and the Andes ecoregions. The use of palms is not random since their main uses are the same in different ecoregions and countries: palms are mostly used for human food, for manufacture of objects and utensils of domestic use, and for the construction of houses. This underlines their fundamental role in satisfying basic subsistence needs of rural indigenous and peasant population of north-western South America, in the same way that previous studies have demonstrated the importance of palms on local scales (Galeano, 2000; Narváez et al., 2000; Gertsch et al., 2002; Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003; Macía, 2004; Paniagua-Zambrana et al., 2007). Palms also have great importance in different cultural practices, which also confirms at regional scales the results of previous papers showing the cultural importance of palms for some ethnic groups in South America (Schultes, 1974; Bodley & Benson, 1979; Gertsch et al., 2002). The enormous importance of palms in the Amazon can be explained by two complementary factors. On the one hand, their high species diversity allows access to a wide array of potential resources (Begossi, 1996; De la Torre et al., 2009; Brokamp et al., 2011), and on the other hand, the great diversity of 484 M.J. Macía et al. Table 7 Useful palms with high relative importance value index in different ecoregions of tropical forests of north-western South America Species per ecoregion Relative Importance Palm uses Palm usereports Countries References Amazon Bactris gasipaes 2.0 76 414 C, E, P, B 109 Euterpe precatoria 2.0 89 358 C, E, P, B 91 Oenocarpus bataua 2.0 107 544 C, E, P, B 117 Attalea phalerata 1.9 78 227 P, B 28 Mauritia flexuosa 1.9 95 381 C, E, P, B 101 Attalea maripa 1.7 61 136 C, E, P, B 31 Iriartea deltoidea 1.7 70 283 C, E, P, B 79 Oenocarpus mapora 1.7 50 175 C, E, P, B 51 Socratea exorrhiza 1.7 63 236 C, E, P, B 69 Astrocaryum chambira 1.6 60 255 C, E, P 68 Astrocaryum murumuru 1.6 53 103 C, E, P, B 24 Attalea butyracea 1.6 37 85 C, E, P, B 26 Astrocaryum aculeatum 1.5 39 65 C, P, B 17 Phytelephas macrocarpa 1.5 35 118 C, E, P, B 47 Phytelephas tenuicaulis 1.4 30 72 C, E, P 18 Bactris gasipaes 2.0 34 45 C, E, P, B 8 Oenocarpus bataua 1.6 22 38 E, B 6 Iriartea deltoidea 1.4 18 24 C, E 4 Attalea phalerata 1.3 21 21 B 1 Wettinia maynensis 1.3 17 26 E 5 Socratea exorrhiza 1.1 10 15 E 3 Ceroxylon echinulatum 1.0 8 14 C, E, P 4 Oenocarpus mapora 1.0 10 12 E 2 Ceroxylon ventricosum Andes 0.9 7 7 E 1 Parajubaea sunkha 0.9 16 16 B 3 Phytelephas aequatorialis 0.9 8 8 E 2 Prestoea ensiformis 0.9 9 9 E 1 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum 0.8 9 11 C, E, B 6 0.8 12 13 B 3 Parajubaea torallyi Chocó Cocos nucifera 2.0 30 48 C, E 11 Bactris gasipaes 1.6 24 46 C, E 13 Wettinia quinaria 1.6 20 32 C, E 13 Astrocaryum standleyanum 1.4 27 54 C, E 18 Iriartea deltoidea 1.4 17 32 C, E 14 Euterpe oleracea 1.3 17 40 C, E 12 Oenocarpus bataua 1.2 18 36 C, E 15 Phytelephas aequatorialis 1.2 14 20 E 5 Palm Uses in NW South America 485 Table 7 (continued) Species per ecoregion Relative Importance Palm uses Palm usereports Countries References Oenocarpus mapora 1.1 14 20 C, E 8 Attalea colenda 1.0 12 21 C, E 8 Socratea exorrhiza 1.0 14 21 C, E 10 Manicaria saccifera 0.9 10 20 C 9 Attalea cuatrecasana 0.8 10 13 C 5 Geonoma cuneata 0.8 8 10 C, E 5 Phytelephas seemannii 0.8 7 13 C 7 Synechanthus warscewiczianus 0.8 7 8 E 5 Country abbreviations C Colombia, E Ecuador, P Peru, B Bolivia indigenous groups favours a highly distinctive ethnobotanical knowledge (Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003). Although the Amazon was clearly the best studied ecoregion, ethnobotanical studies (that include palms) have so far only been conducted among less than 50% of the remaining indigenous groups. Likewise, in the Andes and the Chocó, ethnobotanical knowledge of palms is even more restricted, and for more than 50% of the species in both ecoregions, no uses have been documented. We found that Ecuador is the best studied of the four countries in all ecoregions. There, and to a lesser degree in Bolivia, the percentage of useful palm species and the percentage of indigenous groups with documented palm uses were higher, which indicates that the use of palms is comparatively better documented than in Peru and Colombia. The high average number of uses per species recorded in Bolivia could be explained by the higher number of palm monographs from that country. Following this thinking, Peru and Colombia would be less known in palm ethnobotany than the two other countries. In Peru, the high number of indigenous groups for which we do not have ethnobotanical information underlines that the available data on palm uses remains incomplete. In Colombia a very low percentage of useful species was recorded, even though it is the country with the highest species richness. All this points to the need for more studies to complement the ethnobotanical knowledge on palms in all three ecoregions, but particularly in the Chocó where a great richness of potentially useful species has been reported (Galeano & Bernal, 2010). Previous studies suggested that indigenous people possess a greater knowledge about the uses of palms than mestizos or colonos possess in north-western South America (Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003; Byg & Balslev, 2004; Byg et al., 2007) and our paper reinforces this conclusion. This is the result of a complex set of interactions between diverse factors, including: (a) historical ones, since a long occupation of a territory facilitates the development of extensive ethnobotanical knowledge, (b) cultural ones, based on hundreds of years of orally transmitted traditional ecological knowledge, and (c) economic ones, in particular by the 486 M.J. Macía et al. reduced degree of access to markets which mean they use palms for subsistence and are not able to purchase palm products substitutes (Alcorn, 1981; Balée, 1994; Byg & Balslev, 2004; Byg et al., 2007; Paniagua-Zambrana et al., 2007). Moreover, indigenous knowledge is highly differentiated, even between ethnic groups that occupy nearby geographical areas and share similar resources such as palms (Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003), or medicinal plants (Shepard, 2004; Collins et al., 2006). In general, the best studied indigenous groups had a richer and more diversified ethnobotanical knowledge. But, not only the number of publications existing for each group is important, so is the existence of monographs on palms that contribute to a greater degree to the number of useful species and different uses. This again underlines the need for more ethnobotanical studies focusing on palms, as information is nonexistent for over 50% of the indigenous groups in north-western South America. The traditional knowledge of mestizos should not be undervalued, since it is equally diverse and even complementary to that of indigenous groups in several use categories (see also De la Torre et al., 2008). Frequently, mestizos have a long settlement history, which allow them to develop a profound ecological knowledge in their environment, which may be similar to those of various indigenous groups. In our study, the number of palm uses for mestizo people could probably be higher, because many publications do not mention explicitly the human group studied, and it is likely that many of these publications refer to mestizos. The Colombian afroamericans, who have been better studied than the Ecuadorean afroamericans, had a similar level of knowledge of palms as did indigenous groups in the Chocó ecoregion. This can be explained by the group´s long history of residence and their prolonged contact with indigenous people in this region (Mendoza et al., 1995). Some palm species have an enormous importance due to their large number of different uses. This uneven distribution in their uses has also been registered in previous studies (Campos & Ehringhaus, 2003; Macía, 2004; Byg et al., 2006; Paniagua-Zambrana et al., 2007; Balslev et al., 2010b). Such species are often trees that are relatively abundant in the different habitats, due to their wide ecological amplitude (Ruokolainen & Vormisto, 2000; Byg et al., 2006; Balslev et al., 2011). The preference for certain uses can be interpreted as the result of a number of factors, including easy accessibility to the species, larger quantities of resources available, and the potentially greater sustainability of their use under minimum management (Byg et al., 2006; Bernal et al., 2011). These multi-use species play a fundamental role in the local subsistence strategies and represent key cultural species (Garibaldi & Turner, 2004; Balslev et al., 2010b). The unequal number of bibliographic references and monographs that refer to the different variables analyzed (ecoregions, countries, human groups, indigenous groups, and palm species), certainly limits the strength of the conclusions that can be drawn. Nevertheless, the variables with higher use-reports showed a more intense and diversified use of palms. As a result of the experience gained in this palm use revision, we suggest a more precise ethnobotanical data collection that would include: (a) making an effort to identify plants to the species level; (b) writing vernacular names carefully and indicating the language in each case; (c) gathering information from different uses as Palm Uses in NW South America 487 completely as possible in order to subsequently classify uses within at least two levels of utility (category and subcategory); (d) noting the plant part used for each different use; (e) specifying the human group and/or ethnic group from which the information was gathered; (f) obtaining detailed geographical information of the study area, including forest types or habitats; and lastly, (g) in the case of medicinal species, writing precisely the medicinal indication, mode of preparation and ways of administration for each case. Acknowledgements We kindly thank Joaquina Albán, Rodrigo Bernal, Roxanna Castañeda, Lucía de la Torre, Gloria Galeano, Eva Ledezma, and Laura Mesa for their assistance in searching for bibliographical references, Bob Allkin, Bill Baker and Anders Barfod for their help in the construction of our database, and Patricia Balvanera, Rodrigo Bernal, Jamie Nicole Cotta, and Lucía de la Torre for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. This study was funded by European Union, 7th Framework Programme (contract no. 212631) for which we are grateful. Henrik Balslev also acknowledges support from the Danish Council for Independent Research - Natural Sciences (grant no. 10–83348). Literature Cited Acero-Duarte, L. E. 1979. Principales plantas útiles de la Amazonia colombiana. Editora Guadalupe, Bogotá. Acosta-Solis, M. 1948. Tagua or vegetable ivory—a forest product of Ecuador. Economic Botany 2: 46– 57. ——— 1952. Las fibras y lanas vegetales en el Ecuador. 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Universidad El Bosque, Cundinamarca. Appendix Palm uses by useand categories and subcategories in tropical forests of north-western South America Palm uses by different usedifferent categories subcategories in tropical forests of north-western South America Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd. ex Mart. AnFood Fodder Lf Am B Ni 124, 177 Cultur Cloth and accessories Cosmetics Agroforestry Ornamental Firewood Beverages Food Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, An B B B B B B B, C I Ni C, I Ni Ni Ni C, I, Ni 131 124 13, 131 13, 177, 182 177 177 13, 48, 50, 107, 131, 177, 179, 182 Food additives Oils Digestive system Respiratory system Sensory system Beverages Lf Sd Ep Ep Fr, Sd Rt, St Fr, Ph, Rt, Sd, St Fr Fr, Sd Rt Fr Fr Sd Am Am, An Am Am Am An B B, C B B B E Ni I, Ni Ni Ni Ni M 182 107, 131 177 124 124 243 Food Recreational Other Ornamental Beverages Food Ph Fr, Sd, St St Ep Sd Fr, Sd An E Am, An, Ch B, C, E Am B Am, An, Ch B, C, E Am B Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P M A, I, Ni I Ni I I, Ni 243 3, 14, 204 14 19, 107, 177 161 14, 19, 29, 75, 107, 161, 182, 204 Environ Fuel HuFood MedVet Aiphanes grandis Borchs. & Balslev HuFood Aiphanes horrida (Jacq.) Burret Cultur Environ HuFood 499 Scientific name Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix 500 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Aiphanes linearis Burret Aiphanes tricuspidata Borchs., M. Ruíz & Bernal Aiphanes ulei (Dammer) Burret Aiphanes verrucosa Borchs. & Balslev Aiphanes weberbaueri Burret Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Food additives UtenTool Domestic HuFood Food UtenTool Hunting and fishing Sd St Sd St An Am An Ch C B C E Ni I Ni I 29 14 107 70 Cultur HuFood MedVet Ritual Food Blood and cardiovascular system Cultural diseases and disorders Nervous system and mental health Respiratory system Skin and subcutaneous tissue Not specified UtenTool Hunting and fishing Constr Thatch Sp, St Fr, Ph Sd Am Am, An Am E E E I I I 72, 160 17, 23 174 Rt Am E I 160 Rt Am E I 160 Ph, Rt Ph Am Am E E I I 160, 174 38 Rt Sd, St Lf Am Am An E E E I I M 72 27, 160 243 HuFood HuFood Food Beverages Food Fodder Fr Fr Fr, Ph Lf An An An Am E E E B M Ni Ni Ni 243 44 44 182 Cultur Cloth and accessories HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Lf Fr, Sd Lf Am Am Am B B B Ni Ni Ni 182 177, 179, 182, 197 177, 182 AnFood Use subcategories M.J. Macía et al. Allagoptera leucocalyx (Drude) Kuntze Use categories Scientific name Use categories Ammandra decasperma O.F. Cook Constr Cultur Aphandra natalia (Balslev & A.J. Hend.) Barfod Use subcategories Thatch Cosmetics Personal adornment Environ Ornamental HuFood Food MedVet Digestive system UtenTool Domestic Other AnFood Fodder Constr Cultur Environ Fuel HuFood Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Personal adornment Ritual Agroforestry Fire starter Beverages Food Oils UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Lf Pt, Sl Sl Fr, Sd Fr, Sd Fr Lf, Ls Fr, Sd Infl Am Am Am Ch Am Am Am, Ch Ch Am E E E C E E C, E C E I I I A I I I, Ni Ni Ni 71, 72, 160 69, 72 72 208 69, 71, 160 160 29, 160 112 39 Fr St Lf Sd Lr, St Ep Ls Fr, Ph, Sd Fr, Ph, Sd Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, An Am, An E P E, E E E, E E, E, Ni Ni I, Ni I I C, I, Ni I I, Ni I, Ni Fr Lf, Lr, Ls, Pt, Sd, Sl, St Lf, Lr, Ls, Ns, Sl, St Ls, Pt Sd Am Am E E, P I I, Ni Am E, P I, Ni 39 24 16, 24, 27, 33, 36, 39, 160, 250 120 38, 120 39, 41, 164 38 24, 27, 44, 120, 216 16, 22, 24, 27, 36, 39, 41, 44, 120, 139, 160, 164, 169, 174, 212, 250 120 16, 22, 24, 27, 38, 39, 41, 120, 160, 164, 167, 174, 183, 212, 250 24, 33, 38, 39, 120 Am Am E E Ni I, Ni 39 39, 183 P P P P 501 Rope Other Plant parts Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 502 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Archontophoenix alexandrae (F. Muell.) H. Wendl. & Drude Asterogyne martiana (H. Wendl.) H. Wendl. ex Drude Astrocaryum acaule Mart. Astrocaryum aculeatum G. Mey. Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Other Environ Miscellaneous Ornamental Ls, Sd, St Ep Am Ch E, P E I, Ni I 16, 36, 39, 120 19 Constr Thatch Lf An C Ni 107 HuFood AnFood Food Fish bait Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Recreational Ritual Ornamental Firewood Beverages Food Fr Fr Fr, Ns St Lf Lf, Ns, Sl Ns, Sd, Sl Ns, Ph, Sl Ns Ns Lf, St Fr Fr, Ph, Sd Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am B B B, B, C B, C C C C C P B, Ni I I, Ni I, Ni I I, Ni I I I I I Ni I, Ni Fr Ph Ph Fr, Sd Lf, Ns, Sd, Sl Lf, Ns, Sl, St Lf, Sl Sl Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am B C C B, B, B, B, C 182 37 124, 181 181, 182 102 117, 151, 177, 213 47, 51, 102, 151 47, 151, 181 47 151 181 249 37, 51, 102, 104, 124, 151, 177, 181, 182, 213, 240 213 151 151 213, 228 37, 47, 51, 104, 117, 151, 181, 224 37, 47, 51, 117, 151, 181, 182 181, 213 52 Constr Cultur Environ Fuel HuFood Oils Digestive system Infections and infestations Respiratory system UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Rope Other MedVet C C C, P C, P C C, P C, P C Ni I I I, Ni I, Ni I I, Ni Ni M.J. Macía et al. Use categories Scientific name Astrocaryum chambira Burret Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Other AnFood Constr Miscellaneous Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Other Cloth and accessories St Fr St Lf Ns Lf, Ns, Pt, Sl Am Am Am Am Am Am C C, E C, P E, P C, P C, E, P I C, I I, Ni I, Ni I, M I, M, Ni Personal adornment Fr, Lf, Sd, Sl, Sp Fr, Ph, Sl Lf, Lr, Sl Ns Ep Sl Lf, St Fr Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd Am C, E, P C, I, Ni Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, An C, C, C, C, E C, P C, I, Ni I C, I C, I I I I, Ni C, I, M, Ni Fr, Rt Fr, Ph, Rt Lf Ph Sp Am Am Am Am Am P E, P P P E 151, 224 46, 63, 66, 72, 110, 120, 155 24, 46, 102 24, 160 55, 79, 88, 166 24, 29, 33, 46, 54, 55, 78, 92, 120, 133, 153, 160, 165, 166, 220, 253, 254 1, 33, 46, 54, 55, 60, 85, 102, 119, 133, 160, 212, 220, 253 1, 33, 46, 133, 187 119, 155, 160, 174 53, 101 54, 55, 88, 101, 120, 244 160 46, 63, 66 24, 26, 88, 159 7, 9, 24, 26, 27, 44, 46, 53, 55, 60, 62, 63, 66, 71, 72, 73, 78, 80, 85, 89, 101, 119, 120, 136, 139, 145, 154, 155, 160, 165, 166, 167, 183, 187, 207, 212, 216, 234, 249, 250 24 24, 60 168 82 160 Cultur Environ Fuel HuFood MedVet Recreational Ritual Other Agroforestry Fire starter Firewood Beverages Food E E, P Ni I, Ni Ni I I 503 Digestive system Infections and infestations Musculo-skeletal system Respiratory system Skin and subcutaneous tissue E E P E, P Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 504 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Ns Lf, Lr, Ls, Ns, Ph, Pt, Sl, Sp Am Am C C, E, P I C, I, M, Ni Am C, E, P I, Ni Rope Lf, Lr, Ns, Ph, Pt, Sl Lf, Sl Am C, E, P I, Ni Other Other Miscellaneous Lf, Ns, Sl Ns, Sl, St Am Am C, E, P C, E, P I, Ni I, M, Ni Constr Fuel HuFood UtenTool AnFood Houses Fire starter Food Hunting and fishing Wildlife attractant St Fr Fr, Ph, Sd St Fr Am Am Am Am Am B, P P P B B I, Ni Ni M, Ni Ni I 53, 55 1, 7, 9, 19, 24, 27, 29, 33, 38, 46, 54, 55, 60, 63, 72, 78, 85, 92, 102, 110, 119, 120, 123, 133, 139, 147, 153, 154, 155, 160, 165, 166, 167, 174, 183, 187, 190, 193, 194, 207, 212, 217, 220, 234, 250, 253, 254 1, 7, 24, 27, 33, 46, 54, 85, 92, 119, 120, 133, 139, 155, 160, 165, 174, 220, 254 26, 27, 33, 46, 54, 92, 120, 145, 155, 160, 183, 254 9, 24, 53, 59, 73, 88, 116 24, 46, 55, 62, 63, 66, 71, 78, 80, 123, 159, 160, 174, 244 75, 76 159 153, 167 50 42 Constr Cultur Houses Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Ritual Fire starter Beverages Food Cultural diseases and disorders St Lr Sd Ph Sd Ph Ph Sp Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am B B B B B B B B I I I I I I I I 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 Not specified UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Astrocaryum chonta Mart. Astrocaryum gratum F. Kahn & B. Millán Fuel HuFood MedVet M.J. Macía et al. Plant parts Scientific name Astrocaryum gynacanthum Mart. Astrocaryum huaimi Mart. Astrocaryum huicungo Dammer ex Burret Use categories Musculo-skeletal system Skin and subcutaneous tissue UtenTool Domestic AnFood Wildlife attractant Constr Houses Cultur Recreational Fuel Firewood HuFood Food MedVet Respiratory system UtenTool Domestic Other Miscellaneous Cultur Personal adornment Constr Houses Cultur Environ HuFood Astrocaryum jauari Mart. Use subcategories Other Cloth and accessories Agroforestry Beverages Food Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Rt Sp Am Am B B I I 42 42 Lr Fr, Ns St Ns, Ph Lf, St Fr Lf Ns St Fr St Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am B C B C C C C C C B P I I Ni I I I, Ni I I I Ni I, M, Ni 42 46, 181 182 104, 151 46, 181 46, 51, 104, 151, 181, 226 228 151 46 182 35, 100, 165, 192 Ns Sl Ep Fr Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd Am Am Am Am Am P P P E B, E, P I Ni I I I, M, Ni Sl Pt Sl Fr, Ns, Sd Fr St Am Am Am Am Am Am P E P C, E, P E, P P I, I I I, I, I, 88 165 88, 100 89 27, 37, 77, 88, 100, 123, 136, 165, 207, 240 35, 165, 207 27 88 19, 24, 35, 38, 151, 224 62, 72, 153 24, 35, 234 M, Ni Ni M M, Ni 505 UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other Miscellaneous AnFood Fish bait Wildlife attractant Constr Houses Plant parts Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 506 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Thatch Other Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Recreational Firewood Beverages Food Lf Ns Lf, Pt Fr, Sd Ns St Fr, Ph Fr, Ns, Sd Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am P P P C, E C E P C, E, P Ni M M I I I Ni I, M, Ni MedVet Digestive system UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other Miscellaneous Cultur Cloth and accessories Ph Lf, Lr, Pt Ns, Sl, St Sl, St Pt Am Am Am Am Am P C, P C, P E, P P Ni I, M, Ni I, M I, Ni M 24 166 153, 166 19, 102 151 72 24 9, 24, 38, 62, 72, 136, 151, 165, 166, 167, 249 24 24, 35, 102, 153, 165, 166 151, 234 9, 24, 62 153 HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Constr Thatch Transportation HuFood Food MedVet Reproductive system and sexual health UtenTool Domestic UtenTool Domestic AnFood Fish bait Fodder Wildlife attractant Sd Pt Lf St Fr, Sd Ns Am Am Am Am Am Am P P P P P P Ni M Ni I Ni Ni 167 153 250 116 167, 250 229 Sl Lf Fr, Ph Fr Fr Am Ch Am Am Am P C B, P B B, E M Ni I, Ni Ni I, Ni 234 92 14, 24 182 19, 124 Cultur Fuel HuFood Astrocaryum javarense (Trail) Drude Astrocaryum macrocalyx Burret Astrocaryum malybo H. Karst. Astrocaryum murumuru Mart. M.J. Macía et al. Use subcategories Scientific name Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Constr Houses Ns, St Am B, C, E, P I, Ni Thatch Other Cloth and accessories Cosmetics Personal adornment Ritual Fences Ornamental Beverages Food Lf Ns Lf, Sl Fr Fr, Sd, Sl, Sp Ns, Sd St Ep Fr, Ph, Sd, St Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am B, C B, B, B, B, P B B, B, Sp Am B I 9, 14, 19, 24, 102, 161, 179, 182, 197, 233, 237 14, 24, 124, 174 53 161, 220 19, 174, 213, 237 14, 102, 131, 161, 182, 197, 220 131, 233 24 213 161, 213, 216, 237 9, 14, 19, 24, 53, 161, 174, 177, 179, 182, 197, 206, 212, 213, 216, 230, 233, 237 161 Ph, Sp Rt, St St Ph, Rt, St Am Am Am Am B, P P P P I, Ni Ni Ni Ni 24, 161 24 24 24 Ph Am P Ni 24 Fr, Sp Am B I 5, 161 Ns Fr, Lf, Lr, Ns, Sl Am Am B, P B, E, P M, Ni I, Ni 190, 197 14, 24, 161, 174, 182, 197, 220, 233, 237 Cultur Environ HuFood MedVet Cultural diseases and disorders Dental health Digestive system General ailments Infections and infestations Musculo-skeletal system Skin and subcutaneous tissue Not specified UtenTool Domestic Human groups E, P I, Ni I P I E I, Ni C, P I, Ni P I, Ni Ni Ni E I, Ni C, E, P I, M, Ni References* 507 Use categories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 508 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Astrocaryum sciophilum (Miq.) Pulle Use categories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Hunting and fishing Labour tools Other Miscellaneous Recreational Lf Fr, Sp Fr, Ns Fr, Sd, St Lf Am Am Am Am Am B B, P B B, P C I I, Ni I, Ni I, Ni I 131, 161 213, 220 161, 179 24, 213, 230, 233, 237 151 Ornamental Food Digestive system Poisonings UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Constr Houses Ns Fl, Sd Lf St Fr Lf St Am Am Am Am Am Am Ch C C C C C C C I I, Ni I I I I A, I, Ni 151 104, 151 151 155 151 151 106, 107, 109, 112, 199, 208 Cultur Lf, Sl Fr, Sd Ep, Sp, St Ep Lf Ph, Sd Fr, Ns, Ph Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch C, C, C C, C E C, E I, Ni Ni I I, Ni A A, C A, C, I, Ni Fr Lf, Ls, Ns, Pt, Sl St Sl Ch Ch C, E C, E C, Ni A, C, I, Ni 3, 109, 112, 199 97, 199 109 40, 121 106 97 3, 19, 25, 45, 70, 97, 107, 112, 121, 162, 199, 200 97, 112 3, 19, 25, 29, 40, 97, 109, 112, 208 Ch Ch C C I I 109 109 Other Cultur Environ HuFood MedVet Astrocaryum standleyanum L.H. Bailey Environ Fuel HuFood Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Ritual Agroforestry Fire starter Beverages Food Oils UtenTool Domestic Labour tools Rope E E E M.J. Macía et al. Use subcategories Scientific name Astrocaryum urostachys Burret Use categories Other AnFood Constr Cultur Fuel HuFood MedVet Astrocaryum vulgare Mart. Attalea allenii H.E. Moore Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Other Miscellaneous Wildlife attractant Bridges Houses Thatch Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Ritual Firewood Beverages Food Sd, Sl, St Sl Fr, Sd Lf St Lf Lf Fr, Lf, Sd Lf St Sd Fr, Ph, Sd Ch Ch Am, An Am Am Am Am Am Am, An Am Am Am, An C, E C E E E E E E E E E E A, I Ni I I I I I I I I I I Lf, St Am, An E I 140, 162 112 23, 63, 64, 38 62, 63, 64, 16, 62, 63, 69 38, 60, 69, 16, 23, 38, 63 169 16, 23, 38, 225, 243 16, 23 Sd Sd Lf Fr Ep, Sp Fr Lf, Sl Sl Lf Lf Sd Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Ch Ch Ch E E C C C C C C C C C I I I I I Ni I I I A, I Ni 160 64, 71 204 204 227 29 204, 227 227 31 31, 208 199 Cultural diseases and disorders Respiratory system UtenTool Other Cultur Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Ritual HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Cultur Recreational Ritual HuFood Beverages 69, 71 71, 160 160 Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 72 62 62, 63, 72, 139, 160, 509 510 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Attalea amygdalina Kunth Attalea bassleriana (Burret) Zona Attalea butyracea (Mutis ex L. f.) Wess. Boer Use categories Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Food Other Miscellaneous Ritual Food Oils AnFood Wildlife attractant Constr Thatch Environ Agroforestry HuFood Beverages Food MedVet Poisonings UtenTool Domestic Other Miscellaneous AnFood Fodder Fr, Sd Sd Sd Ns Fr, Sd Sd Fr Lf Ep Fr Fr, Ph, Sd Ns Lf, Ns, Sl Lf, St Fr Ch Ch Ch An An, Ch An Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, Ch C C C C C C E E, P P E P C P P C A, I, Ni A Ni Ni I, Ni Ni I I, M, Ni I, M I I, M, Ni I I M, Ni Ni 31, 107, 112, 208 140 112 221 56, 92, 204, 221 204 58 28, 35, 58, 60, 86, 153, 165, 240 28, 86 216 35, 153, 159, 165, 240 151 35 153, 165 32, 204 Wildlife attractant Bridges Houses Thatch Fr Lf Ns, Sl, St Lf Am, An Am Am Am, An B, E P C, E, P B, C, E, P I, Ni Ni I, Ni I, M, Ni Cloth and accessories Cosmetics Personal adornment Recreational Ritual Lf Sd Sd Br Lf Am Am Am Am An B B, P C B C Ni I, Ni I Ni Ni 23, 71, 124 170 24, 102, 136, 160, 220 23, 24, 32, 38, 71, 102, 124, 128, 139, 160, 177, 182, 197, 204, 213, 230, 236, 237 213 10, 124, 213, 237 102 124 29 UtenTool Other Cultur HuFood Constr Cultur M.J. Macía et al. Plant parts Scientific name Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Environ Agroforestry Ornamental Soil improvers Firewood Beverages Food Ep Ep St Sd, St Fr, Ph, St Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd Am Ch Am Am Am, An Am, An B C P B, C, E C, P B, C, E, P Ni Ni Ni I, Ni C, M, Ni I, M, Ni Sd Rt Rt Sd Ns, St Lf, Lr, Pt, Sl Fr, Lf, Sd, Sl, St Ns Am Am Am Am Am Am Am B B, B B C, B, B, Am P I 213 32 24 160, 204, 237 24, 29, 32, 204, 206 23, 24, 32, 38, 92, 111, 160, 177, 182, 204, 213, 234, 237 237 10, 24 213 124 190, 204 24, 32, 213, 220, 237 24, 32, 102, 124, 160, 177, 204, 213, 237 9 Thatch Other HuFood Food UtenTool Other Other Miscellaneous AnFood Fodder Lf Ns Ns, Sd Fr, Ns Fr, Ns Sd Am Am Am Am Am Ch P P P P P E M M I, M I, M M Ni 158, 166, 234 207 9, 166, 207 9, 234 166, 207 20, 34 Cultur Environ HuFood Sd Ep Fr, Sd Ch Ch Ch E E E Ni Ni I, Ni 34 40 3, 70 Fuel HuFood Oils Digestive system General ailments Respiratory system Not specified UtenTool Domestic Other Miscellaneous MedVet Attalea cephalotus Poepp. ex Mart. Attalea colenda (O.F. Cook) Balslev & A.J. Hend. Constr Houses Cosmetics Agroforestry Beverages I I, Ni M Ni P M, Ni C, P I, Ni C, E, P I, Ni P 511 Use categories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 512 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Attalea cuatrecasana (Dugand) A.J. Hend., Galeano & R. Bernal Use categories Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Food Oils MedVet Digestive system UtenTool Domestic Constr Houses Fr, Ph, Sd Fr, Sd Fr Lf St Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch C, E C, E E E C Ni I, Ni I Ni I 2, 3, 20, 34, 40, 199 20, 31, 34, 40 70 2 200 Thatch Ritual Firewood Beverages Food Oils AnFood Wildlife attractant Constr Thatch Cultur Recreational HuFood Food MedVet General ailments UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other Other Miscellaneous Cultur Ritual Lf Lf Fr Sd Fr, Ns, Sd Ns, Sd Fl, Fr Lf Ph, Rt Fr, Ns, Sd Rt Lr, Ns, Pt, St Lr, Ns, Pt, St Ns St Br Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C C C C C C C, C, C C, P C, C, C P C Ni I Ni Ni I, Ni I, Ni I I, Ni I C, I, Ni Ni I I, Ni I Ni I 199 31 199 199 31, 92, 121, 199, 200 121, 199 72, 155 1, 24, 151 151, 154, 155 1, 24, 52, 54, 62, 104, 151, 154, 155 24 62, 151, 160 24, 62, 151, 155, 160, 220 54 24 227 HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic AnFood Fish bait Sd Lf Fr Am Am Am C C C Ni I I 92 1 181 Cultur Fuel HuFood Attalea insignis (Mart.) Drude Attalea luetzelburgii (Burret) Wess. Boer Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart. E P E, P E E, P M.J. Macía et al. Plant parts Scientific name Use categories Constr Cultur Environ Fuel HuFood Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Fl, Fr, Ns Lf, St Lf Am Am Am B, C, E C, I, Ni C, P I, Ni B, C, E, P C, I, M, Ni Cloth and accessories Cosmetics Personal adornment Recreational Lf Fr, Sd Ns, Sd Br, Ep, Infr, Lf, Ph, St Ep Ns Ep Lf Fr, Lf, Ns, St Pt Fr, Ns, Ph Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd Am Am Am Am C B, P C, E B, C I I, Ni I I, Ni Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C C C E C, E, P E C, E B, C, E, P I I C I I, Ni I C, I, Ni I, M, Ni Sd Fr, Ph Rt Infr, Ph, St Am Am Am Am P P P C Ni Ni Ni I Ph Fr Br, Lf, Lr, Ns, Pt, Sl Am Am Am C I E I B, C, E, P I, Ni Ritual Other Ornamental Fire starter Firewood Lighting Beverages Food Oils Digestive system General ailments Metabolic system and nutrition Poisonings Respiratory system UtenTool Domestic MedVet Human groups References* 46, 63, 66, 72, 73, 110, 124, 181 26, 113 1, 10, 24, 37, 46, 66, 110, 113, 124, 151, 166, 177, 181, 182 227 10, 124 72, 151 37, 104, 114, 151, 177, 181 227 151, 223 110 160 26, 46, 160, 181, 223 160 1, 46, 63, 89, 110, 113, 151 1, 24, 26, 37, 38, 46, 51, 63, 66, 72, 104, 113, 151, 160, 174, 177, 181, 182, 206, 223, 249 26 24 24 151 151 38 24, 26, 46, 72, 113, 124, 151, 160, 181, 223, 227 513 Use subcategories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 514 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Attalea microcarpa Mart. Attalea moorei (Glassman) Zona Attalea peruviana Zona Attalea phalerata Mart. ex Spreng. Use categories Other Constr HuFood UtenTool HuFood Cultur AnFood Constr Cultur Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Hunting and fishing Am C, E, P I, Ni Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, An E C, E, P P P P P P B B P B, P I I, Ni M, Ni Ni M Ni I I, Ni I Ni I, Ni 19, 24, 27, 38, 63, 66, 73, 89, 113, 151, 160, 174, 181, 223 66, 72, 73 24, 27, 46, 72, 151, 181, 223 24, 158, 166 24, 249 166 249 228 182, 241 196 24 48, 124, 136, 173, 182, 241 Thatch Lf, Lr, Ns, Pt, Sl, St Ns, Sd, St Fr, Ns, St Lf Fr, Sd Lf Sd St Fr, Ph Fr St Lf, Lr, Ns, Pt, St Lf Am, An B, P I, M, Ni Other Cloth and accessories Cosmetics St Br, Lf Br, Fr, Sd Am Am Am, An B B, P B Ni I, Ni I, Ni Dyes Personal adornment Recreational Br Fr Br, Pt, Sd, Sl Am Am Am, An B B B I I I, Ni Ritual Agroforestry Lf, Ph, Sl Ep Am, An Am B B, P I, Ni I, M, Ni Other Miscellaneous Thatch Food Domestic Food Recreational Fodder Wildlife attractant Bridges Houses 14, 24, 42, 48, 75, 124, 128, 131, 132, 161, 170, 173, 177, 179, 180, 182, 195, 196, 197, 230, 233, 237, 239, 241, 250 182 24, 131, 161, 177, 196, 197, 237 14, 42, 48, 124, 161, 173, 177, 180, 182, 195, 196, 197, 237, 239 42 131 42, 131, 132, 161, 173, 180, 182, 195, 196 42, 132, 161, 173, 182 128, 131, 233, 239 M.J. Macía et al. Environ Use subcategories Scientific name Use categories Fuel HuFood MedVet Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Fences Ornamental Firewood Lighting Beverages Food St Lf Sd Sd Fr, Ns, Ph Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd, St Am Am Am Am Am Am, An B B, P B B B B, P I Ni I I, Ni I, Ni I, M, Ni Food additives Oils Blood and cardiovascular system Cultural diseases and disorders Digestive system General ailments Infections and infestations Metabolic system and nutrition Musculo-skeletal system Pregnancy, birth and puerperial Reproductive system and sexual health Respiratory system Skin and subcutaneous tissue Fr Sd Rt Am, An Am, An Am B B B I, Ni I I 131 24, 182 237 42, 182 42, 48, 177, 180, 182, 237 14, 24, 42, 48, 75, 81, 124, 128, 131, 132, 161, 173, 177, 179, 182, 195, 196, 197, 230, 233, 237, 239, 241, 250 173, 182 131, 161, 173, 237 5, 42, 238, 239 Sd Am B I 5 Rt, Sd Fl, Fr, Rt, Sd Rt, Sd Am Am Am B B, P B I, Ni I, Ni I, Ni 5, 14, 42, 161, 179, 195, 238, 239 24, 42, 124, 161, 180, 197 195, 239 Rt Am B Ni 197 Fr, Rt, Sd Fr, Rt Am, An Am, An B B I, Ni I 42, 161, 173, 179, 239 173, 238 Ns, Rt Am, An B I, Ni 173, 195, 196, 239 Fr, Rt, Sd Fr, Rt, Sd Am, An Am, An B B I, Ni I, Ni 42, 173, 179, 196, 197, 239 5, 42, 161, 173, 180, 238 515 Use subcategories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 516 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Not specified Fr, Lf, Ns, Rt, Sd, St Br, Lf, Lr, Ns, Sd, Sl, St Am B M, Ni 128, 177, 195 Am, An B, P I, M, Ni UtenTool Domestic Attalea plowmanii (Glassman) Zona Attalea princeps Mart. Lf, Lr Br, Fr, Lf Fr, Sd, St Am Am, An Am, An B B B, P I I, Ni I, Ni Constr Thatch Lf Am P M, Ni Fr, Ph, Sd Fr St Lf Fr, Ns, Sd Br Fr, Ns, Sd Sd Lf Sd Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am P B B B B B B, P B B B Ni I Ni I, Ni I, Ni I I, Ni I I I 24, 249 156 50 37, 50, 129, 156 50, 76, 129, 156 76, 84, 129 37, 50, 76, 129, 136, 249 156 37 129 Lf, Sl Lf, St Lf, Sd Lf Ns Ph Am, An Am Am Am Am Am B B B C, P C C I, Ni I I, Ni I, Ni I I 37, 129, 156, 245 76 76, 129, 175 24, 151 47 151 HuFood AnFood Constr Food Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Cultur Cosmetics Recreational HuFood Food Oils MedVet Digestive system Skin and subcutaneous tissue UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other Constr Thatch Cultur Personal adornment Recreational M.J. Macía et al. Attalea racemosa Spruce Other Hunting and fishing Other Miscellaneous 14, 24, 42, 48, 124, 128, 131, 132, 136, 161, 173, 177, 179, 180, 182, 195, 196, 197, 237 14, 48, 131 173, 182, 195 14, 24, 42, 173, 182, 195, 230, 233, 237 24, 234 Scientific name Attalea salazarii (Glassman) Zona Attalea septuagenata Dugand Attalea speciosa Mart. Attalea tessmannii Burret Use categories Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* HuFood Food Oils UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other Miscellaneous HuFood Food Fr, Ph, Sd Sd Lf Ns, St Fr Sd Am Am Am Am Am Am C, P C C C P P I, Ni Ni I I Ni Ni 24, 104, 151 104 151 47, 151 24 249 HuFood AnFood Constr Sd Fr St Lf Lf Fr, Sd Lf Fr Sd Fr, Ph, Sd Sd Sd Sd Fr, Ns Fr, Lf Sd, St Fr Fr, Ns, Sd Lf Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B P P P Ni Ni Ni I, Ni Ni I, Ni I Ni Ni I, Ni I, Ni Ni Ni I, Ni I, Ni Ni I I, M, Ni I 92 124, 177 177 124, 131, 177, 182, 197, 213 177 177, 182, 196, 197, 213 131 182 182 131, 132, 182, 196 50, 124, 131, 182, 213 197 197, 213 177, 182, 196 177, 182, 196, 197 124, 182 230 9, 207, 230, 249 35 Food Fodder Houses Thatch Cultur Cloth and accessories Cosmetics Recreational Fuel Firewood Lighting HuFood Food Oils MedVet General ailments Respiratory system Not specified UtenTool Domestic Other Miscellaneous Cultur Recreational HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic 517 Plant parts Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 518 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Attalea vitrivir Zona Bactris acanthocarpa Mart. Bactris barronis L.H. Bailey Bactris bidentula Spruce Bactris bifida Mart. Bactris brongniartii Mart. Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Other AnFood Cultur Fuel HuFood Other AnFood Constr Cultur HuFood MedVet Miscellaneous Fodder Cosmetics Firewood Oils Miscellaneous Fish bait Houses Personal adornment Food Digestive system Infections and infestations Domestic Food Hunting and fishing Fish bait Food Beverages Food Fish bait Beverages Food Hunting and fishing Food Hunting and fishing Ns Sd Sd Sd Sd Sd Fr St Fr Fr Fr Rt Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am P P P P P P C P E P B P I Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni I Ni 230 26 26 26 26 26 104 24 38 24 37 24 Rt Fr St Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr Ns Fr St Am Ch Ch Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Ch Ch C C C P C, P P P P P B, C, P C C C I A A Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni I, Ni I A, Ni A 151 208 208 24 24, 104, 233 233 24 24 249 24, 151, 182, 233 151 112, 208 208 UtenTool HuFood UtenTool AnFood HuFood HuFood AnFood HuFood UtenTool HuFood UtenTool M.J. Macía et al. Bactris coloradonis L.H. Bailey Use categories Scientific name Use categories Bactris concinna Mart. AnFood Constr Cultur HuFood MedVet Bactris corossilla H. Karst. Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Other Fodder Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Transportation Personal adornment Beverages Food Sd Fr Fr St Lf St Sd Fr Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd Ch Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C P E E, P P P C P B, E, P Ni Ni I I, Ni Ni Ni I Ni I, Ni Rt Rt Am Am C C I I 112 233 62 24, 27 24 24 102 249 9, 24, 27, 35, 38, 60, 72, 75, 160, 161, 167, 174, 177, 212, 216, 230, 233, 240, 252 102 102 Rt Rt Lf, St St St St Fr St Lf Fr, Ph, Sd Ph Ns Lf Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am E I C I B, E I B, C, E, P I, Ni C I E I E I E I P Ni E, P I, Ni E I E I E I Digestive system Infections and infestations Respiratory system Urinary system UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Labour tools Other AnFood Wildlife attractant Constr Houses Thatch HuFood Food MedVet Digestive system Not specified UtenTool Domestic 160 102 72, 161, 174 27, 38, 102, 159, 161 102 72 72 17 24 17, 24, 63, 72, 160 63 17 63 519 Use subcategories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 520 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Bactris elegans Barb. Rodr. & Trail Use categories Cultur Bactris fissifrons Mart. HuFood UtenTool Constr Cultur UtenTool Bactris gasipaes Kunth AnFood Constr Cultur Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Hunting and fishing Wrappers Other Recreational St Lf St Ph Am Am Am Am E E E C I I I I 17, 62, 63, 160 17, 160 62 151 Food Hunting and fishing Other Personal adornment Domestic Hunting and fishing Fish bait Fodder Wildlife attractant Houses Fr Ns Ns Ns Ns Ns Fr Fr, Lf Fr, Ns Ns, St Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, An, Ch Am Am, An, Ch C C C C C C C, B, B, B, Thatch Other Cloth and accessories Cosmetics Dyes Personal adornment Recreational Ritual Lf Ns, St Lf Fr, Rt Fr, Lf, Ns, Sd Lf, Sp Ns, St Ep, Fr, Lf, Ph, St Am, Am, Am, Am, Am, Am Am, Am, I I I I I I P I, Ni C, E A, C, Ni C, E I C, E, P I, M, Ni An, Ch B, C, E, P I, Ni An B, P I, M, Ni An B, E I, Ni An B, E, P I, Ni Ch C, P C, I, Ni E I An, Ch B, C, E I, Ni An, Ch B, C, E, P I, M, Ni 151 151 47 47 47 47 181, 233 13, 44, 182, 203, 208 19, 46, 155, 156, 181, 196 3, 17, 23, 24, 25, 27, 33, 45, 72, 74, 85, 89, 94, 102, 107, 113, 136, 139, 145, 151, 160, 161, 186, 212, 234, 243 24, 26, 44, 120, 151, 179, 186 74, 177, 239 44, 131 14, 23, 24, 196, 197, 237 1, 47, 104, 110, 113, 136, 151, 209 72, 174 3, 25, 44, 45, 131, 151 19, 33, 45, 51, 56, 60, 69, 74, 104, 114, 117, 118, 121, 131, 134, 151, 154, 155, 160, 200, 212, 227, 243 M.J. Macía et al. Use subcategories Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Environ Other Agroforestry St Ep Am B I Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P C, I, M, Ni Fuel HuFood Fences Ornamental Firewood Beverages St Fr, Lf, St Fr, Lf, St Fl, Fr, Ph Am, Am, Am, Am, Food Fl, Fr, Infl, Infr, Ns, Ph, Sd Am, An, Ch B, Food additives Fr Am An An An An, Ch Countries B, B, B, B, C Human groups References* 237 9, 11, 13, 28, 31, 46, 51, 56, 74, 77, 88, 92, 96, 110, 113, 114, 120, 121, 124, 128, 129, 131, 134, 136, 137, 141, 154, 155, 160, 177, 183, 203, 210, 220, 233, 239, 243, 244, 251, 252 E, P I, M, Ni 24, 74, 131, 243 E, P Ni 24, 44, 124 C, E I, Ni 44, 46, 181, 237 C, E, P C, I, M, Ni 3, 13, 14, 17, 19, 23, 24, 27, 33, 37, 44, 45, 46, 50, 51, 60, 63, 69, 88, 92, 94, 104, 114, 117, 119, 120, 126, 131, 143, 151, 154, 155, 159, 160, 161, 165, 166, 167, 183, 196, 204, 214, 216, 233, 237, 243, 247, 250, 252 C, E, P A, C, I, M, Ni 1, 3, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 35, 37, 38, 44, 45, 46, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 59, 60, 63, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 77, 79, 80, 85, 89, 91, 96, 102, 104, 107, 110, 112, 113, 114, 117, 119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 134, 136, 145, 151, 155, 156, 159, 160, 161, 165, 166, 167, 174, 177, 179, 181, 182, 183, 186, 190, 192, 193, 196, 197, 200, 203, 204, 208, 210, 212, 214, 216, 225, 233, 237, 239, 242, 243, 244, 247, 249, 250, 251, 252 I 247 Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 521 522 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Oils Fr, Sd Am, Ch B, C, E, P C, I, M, Ni Ns, Ph, Sp Am, An, Ch C, E, P I, M 3, 24, 104, 110, 112, 113, 128, 131, 151, 154, 155, 165, 237, 250 74, 138, 139, 198 Ns, Ph, Rt Fr, Ns Ph, Rt Fr Rt Am, An Am Am, An Am Am E, P B, E E, P B E I, Ni I Ni I I 24, 44, 139, 163 137, 161 24, 44 161 222 Fr, Rt Am, An B, E, P I, M, Ni 24, 118, 139, 152 Ns, Rt Am, Ch C, E, P A, I 9, 138, 208 Fr Lf, Ph Ph, Sp Am An Am, An B E E I Ni I, Ni 239 44 44, 160 Rt Rt Fr, Lf, Ns, Ph Lr, Ns, Sl, St Am, An Am Am, An Am, An B, P P B, E, P B, C, E, P I, M Ni I, M, Ni I, Ni Lf, Ns, St Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, M, Ni 74, 214 24 17, 67, 129, 190, 197, 225, 246 7, 35, 44, 47, 104, 130, 131, 151, 197, 225 7, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 24, 25, 26, 27, 33, 35, 37, 38, 44, 46, 47, 60, 63, 70, 85, 89, 92, 117, 120, 129, 130, 131, 134, 139, 143, 156, 159, 160, 161, 165, 166, 174, 177, 181, 182, 183, 196, 220, 225, 234, 237 MedVet Cultural diseases and disorders Digestive system General ailments Infections and infestations Musculo-skeletal system Nervous system and mental health Pregnancy, birth and puerperial Reproductive system and sexual health Respiratory system Sensory system Skin and subcutaneous tissue Urinary system Veterinary Not specified UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Human groups References* M.J. Macía et al. Use subcategories Scientific name Bactris glaucescens Drude Bactris halmoorei A.J. Hend. Bactris Bactris Bactris Bactris hirta Mart. killipii Burret macroacantha Mart. major Jacq. Use categories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Labour tools Ns, St Am B, C, E, P C, I, Ni Other Wrappers Other Miscellaneous St Ns, St Ns, St Am E I Am, Ch B, C, E, P I, Ni Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, M, Ni HuFood AnFood Constr HuFood HuFood UtenTool HuFood Constr Cultur Environ HuFood Food Fish bait Houses Food Food Hunting and fishing Food Houses Other Ornamental Food Fr Fr St Fr Fr, Ns Ns Fr, Ns Ns, St St Ep, Lf Fr, Sd Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am B P P P B, P C C, P B, C B B B Ni Ni Ni Ni M, Ni I I, Ni Ni I I, Ni I, Ni Fr Fr St St St Fr St Lf Sd Am Am Am Am, Ch Am Am Am Am Am C C B B, C C C, E E, P E C Ni Ni I, Ni I I I I I I MedVet Bactris maraja Mart. Digestive system Poisonings UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Labour tools AnFood Wildlife attractant Constr Houses Thatch Cultur Personal adornment Human groups References* 14, 33, 35, 47, 60, 89, 110, 131, 160, 161, 177, 182, 220, 237 85 8, 72, 88, 112, 239 14, 17, 19, 24, 25, 44, 46, 63, 102, 104, 113, 126, 160, 181, 190 177, 182 24 24 24 24, 190, 197 151 24, 54 92, 179 14 130, 182 14, 130, 161, 177, 179, 182, 196, 197, 237 111 111 177, 237 56, 204, 237 204 46, 64, 71 35, 71 17 102 523 Use subcategories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 524 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Fuel HuFood Firewood Beverages Food St Fr Fr, Ns, Ph Am Am Am C P B, E, P I Ni I, Ni Rt Rt Rt Rt Rt Ns, Pt, St St St St Fr Fr Fr, Lf St Ph St Fr Fr, Ph Rt Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C C E E C C, E C E C P E, P E P C E P E, P P I I I I I I I I I Ni Ni I Ni I I Ni I, Ni Ni 46 167 9, 17, 24, 35, 37, 62, 160, 169, 177, 182, 233, 249 102 102 160 160 102 46, 51, 62, 64, 102, 151, 160 102 64, 71 46 233 24, 38 62, 72 26 151 62 233 24, 160, 167 24 St Fr, St Lf Am Am Am E, P E, P E, P I, Ni I, Ni I, Ni 26, 160 24, 160 17, 24, 160 MedVet Bactris martiana A.J. Hend. Bactris riparia Mart. Bactris schultesii (L.H. Bailey) Glassman Digestive system Infections and infestations Musculo-skeletal system Respiratory system Urinary system UtenTool Hunting and fishing Labour tools Other Other Miscellaneous HuFood Food AnFood Fish bait Wildlife attractant Constr Houses Cultur Recreational Fuel Firewood HuFood Beverages Food MedVet Reproductive system and sexual health UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Constr Thatch M.J. Macía et al. Use categories Scientific name Bactris setiflora Burret Bactris setulosa H. Karst. Bactris simplicifrons Mart. Ceroxylon alpinum Bonpl. ex DC. Ceroxylon amazonicum Galeano HuFood UtenTool Constr HuFood Use subcategories Food Hunting and fishing Transportation Beverages Food Constr Houses Environ Agroforestry HuFood Beverages Food MedVet Not specified Constr Thatch Cultur Cosmetics Environ Agroforestry HuFood Beverages Food MedVet General ailments Nervous system and mental health Not specified UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Wrappers Cultur Ritual Cultur Ritual HuFood Food AnFood Fodder Plant parts Ecoregions Fr St St Fr, Fr, St Ep Fr Fr, Fr Lf Ns Ep Fr Fr, Fr Ns Ns Rt Ns Lf Lf Lf Ph Sd Ph Sd Ph Ns, Ph Countries Human groups References* Am E, P Am E Am E Am E Am E Am E An E Ch E Am, An, Ch E Am E Am P Am P Am P Am P Am E, P Am P Am P I, Ni I I I I, Ni Ni M I I, M, Ni I Ni I I I I, Ni Ni I 17, 24 38, 160 38 16, 33 16, 38 38 235 70 44, 67, 70, 235, 243 67 24 9 88 88 9, 17, 24, 167 24 88 Am Am Am Am An An Am An I I I I M, Ni Ni I Ni 17 151 151 160 38, 105, 235 44 243 38, 105 E C C E E E E E 525 Ceroxylon echinulatum Galeano Use categories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 526 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Constr Cultur Environ Houses Ritual Agroforestry Fences Lighting Beverages Food Houses St Lf Ep St St Sd Infl Ns An An An An An An An An E, P E C, E, P E E E E E M, Ni Ni M, Ni Ni Ni M Ni Ni 105, 210 38, 105 38, 105, 210 38, 105 38 243 38 157 Ritual Lighting Beverages Fodder Houses Thatch Ritual Fodder Lf St Ph Lf St Lf Lf Fr An An An An An An An An B, E E E B B, E B, E B P M, Ni Ni M Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni 38, 61, 177, 197 38 61 177 105, 177 105, 177 182 108 Cultur Houses Thatch Agroforestry Fences Ornamental Ritual St Lf Ep St Ep Lf An An An An An An P P P P P E Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni 108 108 108 108 108 19 Fuel Fire starter St An E Ni 19 Fuel HuFood Ceroxylon parvifrons (Engel) H. Wendl. Ceroxylon parvum Galeano Ceroxylon peruvianum G. Galeano, M.J. Sanín, K. Mejía, J.-C. Pintaud, and B. Millán Constr Cultur Fuel HuFood AnFood Constr Cultur AnFood Constr Environ Ceroxylon quindiuense (H. Karst.) H. Wendl. M.J. Macía et al. Use categories Scientific name Use categories Ceroxylon sasaimae Galeano Ceroxylon ventricosum Burret Cultur AnFood Constr Cultur Environ Ceroxylon vogelianum (Engel) H. Wendl. Chamaedorea angustisecta Burret Use subcategories Ritual Fodder Houses Ritual Agroforestry Fences Fuel Lighting UtenTool Domestic Constr Houses Cultur Environ HuFood Cultur Environ MedVet Thatch Ritual Fences Food Cosmetics Personal adornment Ritual Ornamental Digestive system General ailments Musculo-skeletal system Poisonings Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Lf Sd St Sl Ep St St Sl St An An An An An An An An An C E E E E E E E B Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni 105 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 177, 182 Lf, St Lf St Fr Fl, Infl Infl Infl Ep Fl, Infl Infl Ph An An An An Am Am Am Am Am Am Am B, E B, C C E B B B B B B B M, Ni Ni Ni M I, Ni I, Ni Ni Ni I, Ni I I 177, 243 107, 177, 182, 197 107 243 14, 161, 213 196, 197 197 213 42, 161, 177, 179, 213 14 239 Fl, Infl, Lf, Ph, Rt, St Fl, Ph Am B I, Ni 5, 14, 42, 197, 214 Am B I 14, 42, 239 Fl, Infl Am B I, Ni 196, 197 527 Reproductive system and sexual health Respiratory system Plant parts Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 528 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Chamaedorea fragrans Mart. Chamaedorea linearis (Ruiz & Pav.) Mart. Chamaedorea pauciflora Mart. Chamaedorea pinnatifrons (Jacq.) Oerst. Use categories Use subcategories Skin and subcutaneous tissue Not specified UtenTool Domestic Cultur Other Environ Ornamental Constr Cultur Thatch Cosmetics Dyes Personal adornment Recreational Ritual Environ Ornamental HuFood Food MedVet Infections and infestations UtenTool Domestic Wrappers AnFood Fish bait Cultur Environ HuFood Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Personal adornment Ornamental Food Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Lf, St Am B I 214 Ns Infl, Lf Ep Ep Am Am Am An B B P E I I, Ni I Ni 246 161, 177, 182 123 38 Lf Fl, Fr, Infl Fr Infl Infl Ep, Fl, Infl, Ns Ep Fr Infl Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am E, P C, E, P P C, E C C, E E P E I, Ni I, Ni Ni I I I I Ni I 24, 38, 24, 27, 24 19, 63, 151 19, 38, 67 24 160 Rt Lf Fr Am Am Am P E, P P Ni I, Ni Ni 24 24, 160 24 Fr St Lf Fr, Pt, Sd Ep Fr Am Am Am Am Am Am E P B, P E, P C, E P I Ni I, Ni I, Ni I, Ni Ni 60 24 14, 24 24, 228 29, 67 24 160 38, 67, 69, 155, 252 104, 160, 174 174, 228 M.J. Macía et al. Constr Plant parts Scientific name Chamaerops humilis L. Chelyocarpus chuco (Mart.) H.E. Moore Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* MedVet Poisonings UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Wrappers Environ Ornamental Constr Houses Ph, Rt Lf, Rt, St St Lf Ep Ns Am Am, An Am Am An Am B B, E, P E, P B E B I I, M, Ni I, Ni I Ni M 14 14, 24, 38, 161, 235 24, 72 161 19 128 Thatch Cloth and accessories Ritual HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Constr Thatch Lf Lf Sd Fr, Ns Ns Lf Am Am Am Am Am Am B B B B B P M, Ni Ni Ni M, Ni M Ni 124, 128, 177 124, 177 177 128, 177 128 24 HuFood UtenTool AnFood Constr Fr Lf Fr Ns, St Lf St Lr St Fr, Sd Lf St St Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am P P E E, P E C E E E, P E, P E E Ni Ni I I I Ni I I I, Ni I, Ni I I 24 24 66 9, 66 66, 160 104 160 66 24, 66, 160 24, 35, 66 66 66 Cultur Chelyocarpus repens F. Kahn & K. Mejia Chelyocarpus ulei Dammer Food Domestic Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Cultur Recreational Ritual Fuel Firewood HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Labour tools Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 529 530 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Cocos nucifera L. AnFood Constr Cultur Environ Fuel HuFood MedVet Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Wrappers Fodder Houses Thatch Transportation Cloth and accessories Cosmetics Personal adornment Agroforestry Ornamental Lighting Beverages Food Lf Fr St Lf Lf Fr, Lf Fr, Ns, Sd Fr, Sd Ep Ep, Fr Fr Fl, Fr, Ns, Sd Fr, Ns, Sd Am Ch Am Am, Ch Am, Am, Am, Am, Am, Ch Am, Am, P I E Ni P Ni E, P Ni C I B, E I, Ni B, C, E Ni C I, Ni C, E, P I, Ni B, E Ni E Ni B, C, E, P I, Ni B, C, E, P A, I, M, Ni Food additives Oils Blood and cardiovascular system Dental health Digestive system Fl, Fr Ns, Sd Fr Am, Ch Am, Ch Ch Rt Fl, Fr, Rt, Sd Am C Ni Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P A, I, M, Ni General ailments Infections and infestations Poisonings Pregnancy, birth and puerperial Fr, Rt, Sd Fr, Sd Am, Ch Am B, E, P P I, Ni Ni 111 3, 14, 24, 45, 111, 118, 124, 149, 255 3, 5, 14, 24 24 Rt Fr, Lf, Sd Am Am C C, P Ni I, M, Ni 111 24, 119, 168, 231 Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch C B, C C Human groups Ni Ni Ni References* 35 3 24 3, 24 31 3, 14 3, 124, 204 102, 204 3, 40, 45, 88, 121, 136, 160, 185 19, 124 3 3, 24, 40, 88, 111, 124 3, 14, 31, 45, 52, 54, 72, 79, 88, 102, 111, 112, 119, 124, 136, 160, 204, 208 45, 111, 204 45, 112, 124 204 M.J. Macía et al. Scientific name Copernicia alba Morong Desmoncus cirrhiferus A.H. Gentry & Zardini Desmoncus giganteus A.J. Hend. Use categories Use subcategories Reproductive system and sexual health Respiratory system Skin and subcutaneous tissue Urinary system Not specified UtenTool Domestic Other Other Miscellaneous Constr Houses Other Environ Fences MedVet Blood and cardiovascular system Musculo-skeletal system UtenTool Domestic HuFood Food Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Fr Am, An B, E, P I, M, Ni 118, 124, 149, 229 Fr Fr, Sd Am, An Am, Ch B, P E, P M, Ni I, Ni 24, 118 3, 82 Fr, Rt, Sd Fr, Sd Fr, Lf Fr, Sd Ns, Sd St St St Rt Am, An, Ch B, C, E Ch C Am, Ch B, C, E Ch C, E Am, Ch C, P Am B Am B Am B Am B I, Ni A, Ni I, Ni A, Ni I, M Ni Ni Ni Ni 3, 14, 111, 149 204, 208 3, 14, 45, 124, 204 3, 45, 112, 140, 208 80, 121 177 177 176, 177 177 Rt Am B Ni 177 Infl Fr Am Ch B E Ni Ni 176, 177 38 Ns, St Ns, St St Fr Fr St Ns Ch Ch Ch Am Am Am Am C, E C, E C P E E E I, Ni I, Ni A, Ni Ni I I I 29, 31, 38, 65, 115, 121 31, 38, 70, 115 112, 140, 208 24 63 38 38 531 UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other AnFood Fish bait Wildlife attractant Cultur Recreational Ritual Plant parts Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 532 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories HuFood MedVet Desmoncus mitis Mart. Food Blood and cardiovascular system General ailments Other UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Rope Other Miscellaneous AnFood Fish bait Wildlife attractant Cultur Cosmetics Recreational Ritual HuFood Food MedVet Cultural diseases and disorders General ailments Respiratory system Skin and subcutaneous tissue Other UtenTool Domestic Rope Other AnFood Fish bait Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Fr Fr Am Am E P I Ni 160 24 St Ph St St St Sp Fr Fr Sp St Ep, St Fr Rt Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am P E E, P E P E P E B B B, E B E Ni Ni I, Ni I Ni I Ni I I I I I I 24 38 24, 38, 63 63, 160 24 160 24 62 14 14 14, 38 14 19 Lf, St Lf, St Ns Am Am Am E E E I I I 160 160 163 Ns Ns, St St St Fr Am Am Am Am Am E C, P C, P E P I I, Ni Ni I Ni 163 24, 151, 250 24, 104 72 24 M.J. Macía et al. Desmoncus orthacanthos Mart. Use subcategories Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Wildlife attractant Houses Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Fuel Firewood MedVet Cultural diseases and disorders Digestive system UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Rope Other Miscellaneous AnFood Fish bait Cultur Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Ritual HuFood Beverages UtenTool Domestic Rope Other Other Miscellaneous AnFood Wildlife attractant Constr Cultur Desmoncus polyacanthos Mart. Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Mart.) H. Wendl. Cultur Environ Recreational Ritual Fences Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Fr St Ls, St Sd St St Am Am An Am Am Ch E C E E E C I I I I I I 63, 66 154 23 72 66 45 Fr, Rt St St St St Fr Pt Sd Sd Sd Ns, Pt, St St Ns Ns Fr, Ph Am E, P Am, An, Ch C, E, P Am, Ch C, E Ch C Am E Am P Am P Am E Am E Am P Am B, C, P Am C, P Am C, P Am P An E I, Ni I, Ni I, Ni Ni I Ni M I I Ni I, M, Ni Ni I I I 19, 24 23, 24, 45, 63, 66, 107, 154, 160 45, 63, 160, 174 45, 107 72 24 153 69 69 159 24, 47, 52, 104, 127, 135, 153, 177 24, 104 9, 54 9 23 Sd Sd, St St An An, Ch An Ni I, Ni Ni 38 29, 107 38 E C E Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 533 534 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Dictyocaryum ptarianum (Steyerm.) H.E. Moore & Steyerm. Dypsis lutescens (H. Wendl.) Beentje & J. Dransf. Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Use categories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* HuFood Food UtenTool Other Constr Houses Infl, Ph Sd Ns, St An An Am B, E C C I, M, Ni Ni I, Ni 23, 177, 197, 243 29 104, 151 Thatch UtenTool Domestic Other Miscellaneous Environ Ornamental Lf Ls, Rt St Ep Am Am Am Am, Ch C C C E I, Ni I I Ni 104, 151 151 151 19 AnFood Constr Sd Lf Ns Sd Ep Infr Fr Fr Fr, Ns Fr Fr, Sd Fr Ns Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, Ch Am Am B, P Ni P Ni B Ni P Ni B Ni B Ni B Ni B Ni C, P I, Ni P Ni B, C, E, P Ni C Ni C Ni 26, 124 24 124 26 124 124 124 124 24, 53, 54 26 19, 24, 26, 124, 204, 249 111 111 Fr Fr Am Am C P 204 24 Fuel HuFood MedVet Elaeis oleifera (Kunth) Cortés AnFood Fodder Thatch Other Cosmetics Agroforestry Soil improvers Firewood Beverages Food Food additives Oils Digestive system Skin and subcutaneous tissue Fodder Wildlife attractant Ni Ni M.J. Macía et al. Plant parts Cultur Environ Use subcategories Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Houses Thatch Cultur Cosmetics Personal adornment Fuel Fire starter HuFood Food Oils MedVet General ailments Respiratory system UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Constr Houses Thatch HuFood Beverages Food MedVet Digestive system Infections and infestations Respiratory system UtenTool Domestic HuFood Food St Lf Fr Sd Lf Fr, Sd Fr, Sd Lf Sd Infl, Lf Ns St Lf Fl Fr, Ns Rt Fr, Rt Am Am, Ch Am Am An Am, Ch Am, Ch Am Ch Am Ch Am Am Am Am Am Am P C, C P C C, C, P C C, C C C C C P P Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni A Ni Ni Ni I Ni Ni 24 24, 112 92 24 204 111, 112, 204, 249 24, 112, 249 24 112 24, 204 208 104 104 104 54, 242 24 24 Rt Infl Ph Am Am An P P B Ni Ni Ni 24 24 197 AnFood Constr Fr St Lf St Ch Ch Ch Ch C, E C C, E C I, Ni A, Ni A, I, Ni Ni 45, 162 45, 112, 199, 208, 215 162, 199, 215 215 Constr Euterpe catinga Wallace Euterpe luminosa A.J. Hend., Galeano & Meza Euterpe oleracea Mart. Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Other P P P P Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 535 536 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Environ Agroforestry Ornamental Beverages Food Ep Ep Fr, Ph Fr, Ns, Ph Am, Ch Am Am, Ch Am, Ch B, C Ni P Ni B, C, E, P A, I, Ni B, C, E A, I, Ni Food additives Blood and cardiovascular system Digestive system Endocrine system Infections and infestations Reproductive system and sexual health Other UtenTool Domestic Labour tools Rope Other AnFood Fodder Wildlife attractant Fl, Fr Fr Am, Ch Ch B, C, E C A, I, Ni A 124, 215 250 3, 29, 31, 38, 45, 124, 215, 247, 250 29, 31, 45, 107, 112, 124, 162, 208, 215, 242, 247 38, 124, 199, 215, 247 215 Rt Rt Rt Am Am Am P P P M M M 231 231 231 Fr Ch C A 215 Rt Lf, St St St Sd, St Lf, Ph Fr, Ns Am Ch Ch Ch Ch Am Am P C E C, E C P B, C, E, P M A, Ni I I, Ni A Ni C, I Constr Lf, Ns, St Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P C, I, M, Ni 231 45, 208 162 3, 45 140 26 27, 60, 62, 63, 68, 69, 72, 110, 196, 223 1, 9, 10, 14, 24, 26, 27, 35, 38, 42, 44, 45, 63, 75, 88, 102, 104, 110, 114, 124, 128, 136, 151, 153, 154, 156, 158, 160, 161, 166, 177, 179, 182, 192, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201, 213, 223, 234, 237, 250 HuFood MedVet Euterpe precatoria Mart. Houses Human groups References* M.J. Macía et al. Use categories Scientific name Use categories Cultur Environ Fuel HuFood Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups Thatch Lf, St Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Other Cloth and accessories Cosmetics Dyes Personal adornment Recreational Ritual Am, Ch Am, An Am Am Am Am Am C, B, B, B C, C B, Other Agroforestry Fences Ornamental Soil improvers Firewood Beverages Ns, St Lf, Ns, St Fr, Lf, Rt Fr, Ns Fr, Ns, Sd Ns Ep, Lr, Ns, Sd, St Ns Ep St Ep, Infl, Lf, Ns Ph, Sd Lf, Ns, St Fl, Fr, Ns, Ph Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, Ch E, P B, C, P B, P B, C, P P C, E, P B, C, P Food Fl, Fr, Ns, Ph Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P C, I, M, Ni P I, C, E, P I, E, P I, I, P I, I C, E, P I, M, Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni I C, I, M, Ni I, Ni I, M, Ni Ni I, Ni I, M, Ni References* 14, 17, 24, 26, 27, 37, 38, 42, 44, 59, 62, 63, 102, 128, 131, 156, 160, 161, 177, 179, 182, 196, 197, 199, 201, 213, 237 47, 53, 55, 121, 190, 224 44, 55, 88, 237, 250 35, 38, 75, 160, 238 196, 197 47, 55, 102, 250 114 9, 26, 35, 102, 160, 182, 227 537 223 55, 88, 96, 101, 124, 128, 131, 190, 194, 244 24, 42, 123, 131 24, 29, 52, 53, 145, 161, 190 26 26, 51, 160, 223 1, 14, 24, 37, 42, 45, 55, 75, 81, 102, 104, 114, 119, 124, 145, 154, 156, 161, 165, 166, 177, 179, 182, 196, 197, 199, 201, 213, 224, 227, 233, 249, 250 1, 9, 14, 17, 24, 26, 27, 35, 37, 38, 42, 44, 45, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55, 59, 63, 68, 71, 75, 88, 96, 98, 101, 104, 110, 119, 121, 123, 124, 128, 131, 136, 151, 153, 160, 161, 165, 166, 167, 177, 179, 182, 187, 190, 193, 194, 196, 197, 200, 201, 206, 212, 213, 223, 230, 233, 234, 243, 250 Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 538 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories MedVet Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Food additives Oils Blood and cardiovascular system Digestive system Fr Fr Fr, Rt Am Am Am B P B, P Ni Ni I, Ni 182 24 5, 42, 43, 124, 182, 213, 214 Fr, Ns, Ph, Rt Am B, C, E, P I, Ni Endocrine system General ailments Infections and infestations Metabolic system and nutrition Musculo-skeletal system Poisonings Pregnancy, birth and puerperial Reproductive system and sexual health Respiratory system Fr Fr, Lf, Rt Fr, Rt Am Am Am B B, E C, P I I, Ni I, M, Ni 5, 14, 24, 42, 43, 102, 151, 156, 161, 167, 196, 222, 248 42 5, 42, 63, 213 24, 43, 102, 119, 153, 202 Rt Am B Ni 124, 197 Fr, Rt Am B, E, P I, Ni 42, 43, 160, 161, 182, 196, 238 Rt Rt Am Am B E Ni I 182 212 Rt Am B, P I 43, 196 Lf, Rt Am B, E I, Ni Ns, Rt Ns, Rt, St Am Am B, C, P I, Ni B, C, E, P I, M Br, Infl, Infr, Lf, Lr, Ns, St Ns, Sl, St Ns Lf Am B, C, E, P I, Ni Am, An Am Am E, P C, P P 5, 37, 160, 174, 177, 179, 182, 197, 214 10, 43, 102, 161, 167, 238, 248 9, 53, 55, 72, 128, 136, 187, 223, 246 14, 24, 27, 37, 51, 55, 63, 102, 161, 179, 182, 197, 201, 213, 223 44, 63, 69, 75, 123, 160, 223 55, 220 26 Urinary system Not specified UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Labour tools Other I, Ni I Ni M.J. Macía et al. Use subcategories Scientific name Geonoma arundinacea Mart. Geonoma atrovirens Borchs. & Balslev Geonoma brevispatha Barb. Rodr. Geonoma brongniartii Mart. Geonoma camana Trail Geonoma chococola Wess. Boer Geonoma congesta H. Wendl. ex Spruce Geonoma cuneata H. Wendl. ex Spruce Geonoma deversa (Poit.) Kunth Use categories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Other Miscellaneous Constr Thatch UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Constr Thatch Ns, St Lf St St Lf Am Am Am Am Am C, P E P P P I, M, Ni I Ni Ni Ni 9, 24, 51, 55, 190, 207, 223, 244 69 24 24 24 UtenTool Constr Constr Cultur UtenTool AnFood Constr Cultur UtenTool Constr Constr Wrappers Thatch Thatch Cosmetics Domestic Wildlife attractant Thatch Recreational Hunting and fishing Thatch Thatch Lf Lf Lf Infl Rt Ph Lf Ep St Lf Lf Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Ch Ch P B B, E, P P E E E, P C E C C, E Ni Ni I, Ni Ni I I I, Ni Ni I I I, Ni 24 177 17, 24, 38, 69, 72, 160, 179, 197, 230 24 69 58 24, 66, 71 104 66 121 31, 38, 107, 121 AnFood Wildlife attractant Fr, St Ch E I 65 Constr Cultur Thatch Dyes Ritual Food Not specified Houses Lf Lf Ep Fr Lf, St Ns Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Am C, E E E E E P I I I I I I 65, 121 38 70 25, 38 65 9 HuFood MedVet Constr Use subcategories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 539 540 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Thatch Lf Am B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Recreational Agroforestry Cultural diseases and disorders Respiratory system UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other AnFood Wildlife attractant Ep, Lf, St Ep Lf Am Am Am C B B I, Ni I I 10, 14, 24, 42, 59, 75, 76, 98, 99, 104, 124, 128, 130, 134, 156, 160, 161, 170, 177, 178, 179, 182, 189, 197, 230, 237, 239 51, 104, 228 134 5 Fr Lf, Rt, St St Ns Fr Am Am Am Am Am E E, P E B E I I, Ni I Ni I 160 24, 35, 38, 160 160 179 63 Constr HuFood Lf Sd Ns Lf St St Lf Lf Lf St Lf Rt Ep Am, An, Ch B, C, E Am E An E Am E Am E Am E Am E Ch E Am E Am E Am, Ch E, P Am P Ch E I, Ni I I I I I I I I I I, Ni Ni I 16, 23, 33, 38, 63, 107, 160, 161, 177 216 23 160 38 33 160 Cultur Environ MedVet Geonoma interrupta (Ruiz & Pav.) Mart. Geonoma irena Brochs. Geonoma jussieuana Mart. Geonoma leptospadix Trail Geonoma linearis Burret Thatch Beverages Food UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Labour tools Wrappers Constr Thatch Constr Thatch UtenTool Hunting and fishing Constr Thatch UtenTool Domestic Cultur Ritual Human groups References* 66 66 24, 65 24 25 M.J. Macía et al. Use subcategories Scientific name Geonoma longipedunculata Burret Geonoma macrostachys Mart. Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* MedVet Constr AnFood Constr Digestive system Thatch Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Ns Lf Fr Ns Lf Ch Am Am Am Am, An E E E P B, C, E, P I I I I I, Ni Other Cosmetics Personal adornment Recreational Ritual HuFood Food MedVet Digestive system General ailments Reproductive system and sexual health UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Labour tools Wrappers Ns Rt Sl Ns Lf, Ph Fr, Ns Fl Fl Pt Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C P E C E E, P P P P I Ni I I I I Ni Ni Ni 38 17, 38 103 9 16, 17, 23, 24, 27, 58, 60, 63, 66, 69, 71, 72, 94, 103, 104, 160, 174, 177, 236 47 24 69 151 38, 160 9, 16, 103 24 24 24 Lf, Ns Ns, St Ns Lf, Ns Am Am Am Am E, P C, E P E, P I I I I, Ni AnFood Constr Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Fr Ns Lf Am Am Am E I P I B, C, E, P I, Ni Transportation St Am E Cultur Geonoma maxima (Poit.) Kunth I 63, 69, 160, 174, 220 27, 103, 151 220 24, 38, 60, 63, 66, 69, 71, 160, 174 63 9 24, 37, 63, 104, 151, 160, 161, 182, 230 63 541 Use categories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 542 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Cultur Geonoma orbignyana Mart. Geonoma poeppigiana Mart. Personal adornment Recreational Ritual Environ Agroforestry Fences HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Labour tools Cultur Ritual HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Constr Thatch Other Cultur Recreational HuFood Beverages Food MedVet General ailments UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Wrappers Constr Thatch AnFood Wildlife attractant Constr Thatch Cultur Recreational MedVet Dental health Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups Lf Fr, Lf, Ph, St St Ep St Fr, Ns Lf, Ns, St Ns, St Ns Lf Fr St Lf Ns Ns Fr Fr, Ph Ns Lf Ns Lf Lf Fr Lf Fr, Ns Ph Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am An An An Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am An Am Am Am E I C, P I, Ni E I P I P Ni E, P I, Ni C, E, P I B, C, E I, Ni P I C Ni E Ni E Ni C, P I, Ni C Ni C I C I C I C I C I C I C I E I E I B, C, E, P I, Ni C, P I, Ni E I References* 60 24, 88, 104, 220 160 88 24 9, 24, 160 151, 160, 220 37, 38, 60, 63, 72, 151, 160, 177, 182 220 29 6 38 24, 104, 151, 170 53 151 151 151 151 151 151 151 16, 38 23 17, 24, 27, 38, 66, 151, 177 24, 151 38 M.J. Macía et al. Geonoma polyandra Skov Geonoma stricta (Poit.) Kunth Use subcategories Scientific name Geonoma triglochin Burret Geonoma undata Klotzsch Hyospathe elegans Mart. Use categories Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Ns, St Fr, Lf, Sd, St Fr Lf Lf St Lf Ns Fr Ns Lf Fr St Lf St Lf, Ph Sl Sl Lf St Fr Ns, Ph Fl, Rt Rt Ph Lf, St Am Am Am Am, An An An An An An An An Am Am Am, An Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C, E C, E, P E E E E E E E E E E E, P E, P E C, E E E C, P E P C, E P P C E, P I C, I, Ni I I I I Ni I Ni I Ni I I, Ni I, Ni I I I I I, Ni I Ni I Ni Ni I I, Ni 38, 151 17, 24, 38, 66, 228 66 23, 160 23 38 38 91 38 91 38 66 24, 66 17, 24, 27, 38, 44, 66, 69, 89, 160, 232 69 232 69 69 24, 228 66 24 19, 104, 228 24 24 104 24, 27 543 UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other Miscellaneous Constr Thatch UtenTool Domestic Constr Houses Thatch Cultur Cloth and accessories Dyes UtenTool Domestic Wrappers AnFood Wildlife attractant Constr Houses Thatch Transportation Cultur Cosmetics Dyes Personal adornment Recreational Fuel Firewood HuFood Food MedVet Dental health Digestive system General ailments Respiratory system UtenTool Domestic Plant parts Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 544 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Iriartea deltoidea Ruiz & Pav. Use categories AnFood Constr Cultur Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups Hunting and fishing Labour tools Fish bait Wildlife attractant Infr, St St Fr Fr, Ns, St Am Am Ch Am, An E, P E E B, C, E, P I, Ni I I C, I, Ni Bridges Houses St Lf, Ns, St Am B Am, An, Ch B, C, E, Thatch Lf, St Am, An, Ch B, C, E, Transportation Other Cosmetics Personal adornment Recreational Ns, St Ns, St Fr Lr, Ns, Sd Br, Fr, Ns, Rt, St Lf, Ls, St Ep, Ns, Rt Ep, St Am, Ch Am, Ch Am Am Am, Ch B, B, E B, B, Am, Ch Am Am, An B, C, E B, E, P C, E Ritual Other Agroforestry C, P C, E C, P C, E, References* 17, 38, 66, 69, 160, 232 66 65 12, 23, 46, 63, 67, 69, 103, 110, 124, 155, 196, 223 Ni 177 P A, C, I, M, Ni 2, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 33, 35, 38, 42, 44, 52, 59, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 89, 104, 106, 107, 110, 112, 120, 123, 124, 136, 145, 151, 153, 155, 158, 160, 161, 162, 165, 166, 174, 177, 179, 182, 196, 197, 200, 207, 208, 212, 213, 219, 220, 223, 224, 234, 237, 243 P I, Ni 2, 14, 19, 23, 24, 27, 33, 35, 38, 42, 44, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 102, 120, 124, 160, 161, 177, 179, 182, 196, 197, 212, 224, 237 I, Ni 26, 31, 35, 116, 144, 151, 161 I 47, 53, 66, 68, 121, 161 I 174 I 14, 47, 102, 220 P I 19, 25, 31, 123, 129, 161, 204, 220, 237 I I I 38, 107, 160, 237 160, 161, 223, 238 12, 23, 102, 141 M.J. Macía et al. Environ Use subcategories Scientific name Use categories Fuel HuFood Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Fences Ns, St Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P C, I, Ni Ornamental Firewood Lf, St Ns, St Am, An Am, An Beverages Food Fr, Ph Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd Am E, P I, Ni Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Ns Ph, Rt Ph Am Am, An An Ph, Rt Ns, Ph Br, Lf, Lr, Ls, Ns, Pt, Rt, St Br, Fr, Lr, Ns, St Am B I Am, An E, P I Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, Ni St St Lf, Ns Ns, Sd, St Am, Ch Am Am Am, Ch Food additives Digestive system Infections and infestations Poisonings Not specified UtenTool Domestic MedVet Hunting and fishing Labour tools Rope Wrappers Other Countries E, P B, C, E E E, P E Human groups Ni I, Ni I Ni Ni Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, Ni E B, E B, E, P B, C, E I I I, Ni A, I, Ni References* 2, 12, 24, 42, 44, 75, 102, 110, 131, 161, 162, 196, 243 24, 44 12, 16, 44, 46, 63, 69, 72, 161, 174, 196, 197, 223, 225 24, 216 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 23, 24, 25, 27, 38, 42, 44, 53, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71, 73, 77, 103, 120, 139, 151, 160, 161, 162, 166, 177, 179, 196, 197, 207, 212, 216, 223, 225, 230, 243 12 24, 44 44 Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 238 223, 225 12, 14, 16, 24, 35, 44, 47, 102, 120, 123, 129, 131, 151, 161, 162, 174, 177, 230, 237 12, 17, 19, 24, 25, 27, 33, 35, 38, 44, 47, 60, 63, 66, 103, 120, 123, 151, 160, 161, 162, 174, 217, 220, 223, 225 60, 162 42, 60, 161 12, 17, 24, 161 8, 16, 53, 68, 140, 179 545 546 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Iriartella setigera (Mart.) H. Wendl. Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Other Miscellaneous Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Constr Thatch Lf, Ns, Pt, Rt, Sd, St Lf Am C I 24, 25, 44, 46, 51, 60, 63, 67, 68, 69, 72, 102, 120, 160, 207, 213, 223, 230 151 Lf Am C Ni 104 Ns Ns, St Ns St Lf Rt Rt Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C C, P C P P P P I I, M, Ni I Ni Ni Ni Ni 151 18, 51, 92, 104, 151, 166 54 24 24 24 24 Rt Lf Lf Ep Fr Ep Lf Pt, St Ep Ep Fr, Ns Ls, Pt, St Am Am Am Am Am An Am Am Am Am Am Am P C, P P C P E C C C C C C Ni I, Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni I, Ni Ni I I I, Ni I, Ni 24 24, 102, 104 24 104 24 19 1, 83 1, 92 227 83 1, 83, 242 1, 83, 92, 204, 227 MedVet Iriartella stenocarpa Burret Itaya amicorum H.E. Moore Jubaea chilensis (Molina) Baill. Leopoldinia piassaba Wallace Skin and subcutaneous tissue UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other Miscellaneous Constr Houses Thatch MedVet Digestive system Infections and infestations UtenTool Domestic Constr Thatch Cultur Cloth and accessories Recreational HuFood Food Environ Ornamental Constr Thatch Cultur Cloth and accessories Ritual Environ Agroforestry HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Countries Human groups References* M.J. Macía et al. Use categories Scientific name Use categories Lepidocaryum tenue Mart. Constr Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Rope Houses Thatch Ls, Pt Lf, Ns Lf Am Am Am C P C, P I, Ni I, Ni I, M, Ni Ns Sd Ph Ep Fr Fr Fr, Rt Rt Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C P C C C C, P P P I Ni I I I I, Ni Ni Ni 92, 204, 227 9, 136, 250 1, 11, 24, 26, 102, 104, 146, 151, 153, 154, 158, 165, 166, 167, 170, 187, 220, 234 47 24 151 227 151 24, 151, 159 24 24 Ph Rt Fr Am Am Am C P P I Ni Ni 151 24 24 Ns Ph Lf Lf Lf Ns Br St Ns, Sd Am Am Am Am, Ch Ch Am Am, Ch Am Am, Ch C C C, P C C C C P C, P I I I I, Ni I I I, Ni I I, Ni 187 151 90, 220 11, 93, 104, 107, 112, 119, 199 31 54, 224 29, 93, 107, 199, 204 122 93, 122, 199, 224 547 Plant parts Other Personal adornment Recreational Ritual HuFood Beverages Food MedVet General ailments Infections and infestations Poisonings Respiratory system Skin and subcutaneous tissue Not specified UtenTool Hunting and fishing Wrappers Constr Thatch Transportation Other Cultur Cloth and accessories Recreational HuFood Food Cultur Manicaria saccifera Gaertn. Use subcategories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 548 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Musculo-skeletal system Respiratory system UtenTool Domestic Other Constr Houses Fr Ch C A 255 Fr Br Br, Ns, Sd St Ch Am, Ch Ch Am C C C P Ni Ni A, Ni Ni 112 29, 199, 204 107, 112, 140, 208 24 Thatch Other Cultur Recreational HuFood Beverages Food UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other Miscellaneous AnFood Fish bait Fodder Wildlife attractant Lf Ns Ns Fr Fr Ls, Ns Ns St Fr Fr, Sd Fr, Ns Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, An C, C C C C, C C C, C, C, B, Constr Bridges Houses Thatch St Lf, Ns, Pt, St Lf, Pt Am Am Am, An P Ni C, P I, M, Ni B, C, E, P I, Ni Transportation Other Cloth and accessories St Ns, St Lf, Ns, Sd, Sl, St Am Am Am P Ni B, C I B, C, E, P I, Ni MedVet Mauritia carana Wallace ex Archer Mauritia flexuosa L. f. Cultur P P P E E C, I, Ni I I I I, Ni I, Ni I I, Ni I I, Ni E, P C, I, Ni 11, 24, 83, 151 54 151 151 24, 104, 151 104, 151 151 24, 151 62, 187 27, 120, 204 23, 27, 46, 62, 69, 71, 110, 124, 155, 156, 181, 196, 230 24, 26 1, 9, 24, 26, 55, 136, 158, 166, 191 1, 72, 88, 102, 124, 179, 182, 184, 191, 196, 197, 204, 211, 250 24, 26 47, 131 2, 24, 92, 117, 120, 124, 161, 184, 196, 197 M.J. Macía et al. Plant parts Scientific name Use categories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Cosmetics Personal adornment Recreational Am Am Am C, E B, C, E B, C, E I I I 151, 184 47, 55, 102, 161, 184 46, 114, 131, 151, 181, 184, 224 Am C, E, P I, Ni Other Agroforestry Fr, Lf, Ph, Rt Ns, Sd, Sl Lf, Lr, Ns, Ph, Sd, Sl, St Ep, Fr, Lf, Lr, Ns, Sl Ns Ep Am Am C, E I B, C, E, P C, I, M, Ni Fences Firewood Other Beverages St Lf, Ns, St Lf Fr, St Am Am Am Am, An B C, E E, P B, C, E, P Food Fl, Fr, Ns, Ph, Rt, St Am, An B, C, E, P C, I, M, Ni Food additives Fr, Lf, Sd Am B, C, P 102, 104, 114, 117, 151, 160, 184, 187, 204, 227 53, 223 9, 55, 86, 88, 101, 114, 120, 131, 151, 184, 185, 194, 244 161 46, 120, 160, 181, 223 63, 116, 166, 184 1, 7, 14, 19, 23, 24, 26, 33, 60, 63, 69, 75, 88, 92, 104, 114, 117, 120, 124, 131, 151, 154, 155, 160, 161, 165, 166, 167, 177, 182, 184, 187, 191, 196, 197, 212, 213, 216, 233, 244, 249, 250, 252 1, 7, 9, 14, 16, 17, 19, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 35, 38, 44, 46, 51, 53, 54, 55, 59, 60, 62, 63, 69, 71, 72, 75, 79, 80, 86, 88, 89, 96, 98, 101, 102, 104, 110, 114, 120, 124, 136, 139, 143, 145, 151, 153, 154, 160, 161, 165, 166, 167, 169, 174, 179, 181, 183, 184, 185, 191, 193, 194, 196, 197, 205, 206, 211, 212, 213, 218, 220, 223, 224, 225, 230, 233, 234, 240, 243, 247, 249, 250, 252 1, 24, 26, 55, 124, 143, 145, 167, 182, 233, 247, 249, 250 Ritual Environ Fuel HuFood I I I, M C, I, M, Ni I, Ni 549 Use subcategories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 550 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Fr Ns, Rt Fl, Rt, St Fr Am Am Am Am B, C, E, P C, I, Ni C, P I, Ni C, E, P I, Ni P Ni 26, 98, 104, 110, 120, 124, 151, 165 24, 151 24, 114, 120 24 Rt Am C I 114 Ph, Rt, Sd Am E, P I, Ni 24, 184, 229 Sd Am P Ni 229 Rt Ns Lf, Ns, Ph, Pt, Sd, Sl Am Am Am P M C, E I B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Am C, E, P Other Labour tools Rope Wrappers Other Miscellaneous Lf, Ns, Ph, Pt, Sl Lf, Pt, St Lf, Ns, Sl Ns Lf, Ns Ns, Sd, St Am Am Am Am Am, An B, C, C B, B, I I, Ni I C, P C, I, Ni C, E, P C, I, M, Ni AnFood Fish bait Fr Am C I Oils Digestive system General ailments Infections and infestations Musculo-skeletal system Pregnancy, birth and puerperial Reproductive system and sexual health Other Not specified UtenTool Domestic MedVet Hunting and fishing I P E, P References* 231 55, 223 2, 24, 26, 35, 46, 47, 51, 55, 75, 92, 104, 117, 120, 124, 131, 151, 160, 161, 165, 166, 181, 184, 191, 196, 204, 223, 250 46, 92, 117, 160, 181, 184, 223 35, 161, 220 2, 26, 92, 104, 165, 181, 184, 204 151 24, 53, 110, 182 16, 23, 24, 26, 44, 46, 51, 55, 62, 63, 69, 75, 102, 104, 110, 114, 117, 120, 124, 134, 153, 160, 161, 165, 181, 184, 187, 191, 223, 224, 231, 233, 234, 250 151 M.J. Macía et al. Mauritiella aculeata (Kunth) Burret Human groups Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Wildlife attractant Houses Thatch Other Cultur Recreational Ritual HuFood Beverages Food MedVet Musculo-skeletal system Not specified UtenTool Hunting and fishing Other Miscellaneous AnFood Wildlife attractant Fr Ns, St Lf Ns Ph Ep Fr Fr, Ns Fr Ns Lf St Fr Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am E C, P C C C C C C, E, P C P C C E I I, Ni I I I I I I, Ni I I I I I 69 151, 250 151 224 151 227 151 9, 60, 104, 136, 151, 250 228 9 151 151 62, 71 Constr Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am E, P B, P C P P P B, P B, C, E, P I, Ni Ni I I Ni I I, M, Ni I, M, Ni Am Ch P C I A, Ni 24, 62, 71 24, 182 53 77 24 123 24, 123, 166, 182, 249 24, 38, 53, 71, 77, 123, 166, 167, 182, 233, 249 123 112, 208 C Ni 45, 107, 112 Constr Mauritiella armata (Mart.) Burret Other Constr Miscellaneous Houses St Lf Ns Ep St Lf Fr Fr, Lf, Ns, Ph, Sd St Ns, St Thatch Lf Ch Environ Fuel HuFood Mauritiella macroclada (Burret) Burret Houses Thatch Other Agroforestry Fences Other Beverages Food 551 Plant parts Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 552 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Maximiliana venatorum H. Wendl.** Oenocarpus bacaba Mart. Oenocarpus bataua Mart. Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Environ Fences Ornamental HuFood Oils UtenTool Other UtenTool Domestic St Ns Fr Lf, St Br, Pt Ch Ch Ch Ch Am C C C C P Ni A Ni A I 107 208 112 140 35 Hunting and fishing Wildlife attractant Thatch Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Recreational Environ Agroforestry Fuel Firewood HuFood Beverages Food Oils MedVet Poisonings UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other Miscellaneous HuFood Beverages Food Oils AnFood Fodder Wildlife attractant Lr, Pt Fr Lf Ns Fr, Ns Ns Ep Lf, St Fr Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd Fr Ph Lr, Ns, St Lf St Fr Ns Fr Fr, Lf Fr, Ns Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, An Am P C C C C C C C C B, C C C, P C C C B P B E B, C, E, P Ni I I I I I I I I, Ni I, M I I I I I Ni I Ni I, Ni C, I 26, 159 46 102, 151 151 47, 102 151 46 46 46, 51, 92, 104, 151, 154 46, 51, 54, 81, 102, 151, 154, 227 151 82, 102 47, 151, 154 151 46, 151 177 136 177 4, 44 4, 46, 63, 66, 67, 110, 123, 155, 181, 196 AnFood Constr Cultur Use subcategories M.J. Macía et al. Oenocarpus balickii F. Kahn Use categories Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Constr Houses Lf, Ns, Pt, St Am, Ch B, C, E, P A, I, M, Ni Thatch Lf, Lr, Pt Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P C, I, M, Ni Other Cloth and accessories Cosmetics Ns Sd Fr, Ns, Rt, Sd Am Am Am, An C I E I B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Dyes Personal adornment Recreational Ritual Agroforestry Fr Sd, Sp Infl, Lf, Ns, Sd Ep, Fr, Lf, Sd Ep Am Am Am Am, Ch Am, An E E, P C, E, P B, C, E B, C, E, P I I I, Ni I, Ni C, I, M, Ni Fences Ornamental Fire starter Firewood St Ep, Fl, Lf, Ns Lf, Ls, St Fr, Lf, Ns, Sd, St Fr Lf Am Am, An Am Am, An B C, E, P E, P C, E I I, Ni I I, Ni 3, 4, 9, 18, 24, 37, 67, 102, 113, 124, 128, 142, 151, 160, 161, 165, 166, 177, 179, 196, 197, 208, 224, 237, 250 4, 14, 17, 24, 27, 38, 42, 46, 51, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 85, 102, 110, 112, 120, 124, 128, 142, 151, 155, 156, 160, 161, 165, 166, 171, 172, 174, 177, 179, 181, 182, 196, 197, 211, 213, 224, 226, 236, 250 18, 55 142 4, 7, 8, 9, 14, 16, 18, 19, 23, 24, 38, 42, 44, 60, 69, 75, 124, 142, 151, 161, 172, 182, 196, 197, 212, 213, 238, 239, 250 4, 174 4, 220 18, 63, 114, 151, 171 4, 19, 46, 114, 142, 177, 227 8, 44, 46, 55, 57, 88, 101, 114, 141, 142, 194, 233, 239, 242, 244 196 18, 24, 44, 151, 225 85, 142, 174, 230 4, 44, 46, 66, 90, 142, 160, 181 Ch Am E E I I 3 69, 142 Cultur Environ Fuel Lighting Other Human groups References* Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 553 554 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions HuFood Beverages Fr, Ph, St Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P A, I, M, Ni Food Fr, Infl, Ns, Ph, Sd Food additives Oils Fr, Infl Fr, Ns, Sd Blood and cardiovascular system Digestive system Fr MedVet Fl, Fr, Ph, Rt, Sd, St Countries Human groups References* 1, 3, 4, 14, 18, 19, 23, 24, 37, 42, 45, 46, 51, 55, 57, 63, 69, 75, 89, 92, 104, 112, 113, 120, 124, 129, 142, 145, 151, 154, 155, 156, 159, 160, 161, 165, 166, 171, 172, 174, 177, 179, 182, 196, 197, 199, 204, 208, 212, 213, 216, 220, 233, 237, 240, 247, 249, 250, 252 Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P A, C, I, M, Ni 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 24, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 38, 44, 45, 46, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 75, 77, 81, 85, 88, 89, 96, 98, 101, 102, 104, 106, 110, 114, 120, 121, 123, 128, 131, 136, 139, 142, 145, 151, 153, 154, 155, 160, 161, 166, 167, 169, 171, 172, 174, 179, 181, 182, 183, 188, 193, 194, 196, 197, 200, 205, 206, 207, 211, 212, 213, 216, 224, 225, 227, 230, 234, 239, 242, 243, 250 Am B, C, P I, Ni 124, 131, 182, 233, 247, 249, 250 Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P A, C, I, M, Ni 1, 3, 8, 14, 19, 24, 26, 27, 31, 42, 45, 55, 57, 98, 104, 110, 111, 112, 113, 124, 131, 142, 154, 161, 165, 171, 177, 182, 199, 204, 208, 234, 237, 244, 249, 252 Am P M 18 Am, An B, E, P I, M, Ni 4, 18, 24, 26, 38, 42, 44, 85, 120, 124, 137, 139, 142, 161, 174, 213, 250 M.J. Macía et al. Use categories Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Endocrine system General ailments Infections and infestations Musculo-skeletal system Nervous system and mental health Poisonings Pregnancy, birth and puerperial Respiratory system Fr Fr, Ph, Rt, Sd Fr, Ph, Rt, Sd Fr, Sd Rt Am Am Am Am Am B Ni B, E, P I, Ni B, C, E, P I, Ni B, E, P I, M, Ni E I 124 4, 24, 38, 42, 85, 197, 213, 238 24, 113, 196, 202, 212, 226, 239 18, 75, 120, 142, 161, 239, 250 120, 160 Sd Fr, Ph Am Am P E, P 18 18, 142 Fr, Ns, Rt, Sd, St Am B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Skin and subcutaneous tissue Not specified Fr, Ns, Sd Am B, E Fr, Ns, Rt Am, An, Ch B, C, E UtenTool Domestic Human groups I I, Ni I I, M, Ni Fr, Infl, Lf, Lr, Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Ls, Ns, Sd, St Hunting and fishing Lf, Lr, Ls, Ns, Pt, Sp, St Am, An, Ch C, E, P I, Ni Wrappers Other Lf Fr, Ns, Sd, St Am Am, Ch I, Ni A, I, Ni C, P C, E, P References* Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 4, 10, 18, 24, 26, 42, 92, 111, 120, 124, 142, 160, 171, 196, 197, 204, 213, 239 42, 142, 222, 238, 239 53, 55, 62, 68, 72, 121, 128, 172, 188, 225 4, 14, 18, 24, 26, 35, 38, 42, 44, 46, 51, 55, 60, 63, 68, 72, 73, 85, 104, 120, 121, 123, 131, 142, 151, 155, 160, 161, 165, 166, 171, 172, 174, 181, 211, 213, 220, 225, 233, 237 17, 18, 19, 25, 26, 27, 38, 44, 46, 47, 51, 92, 104, 120, 123, 139, 142, 151, 155, 171, 181, 243 90, 220 9, 53, 67, 140 555 556 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Oenocarpus distichus Mart. Oenocarpus mapora H. Karst. Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Other Miscellaneous Fr, Ls, Ns, Sd, St Am, An B, C, E, P I, M, Ni St Lf Fr Fr Lf Fr, Ns St Ns, St Am Am Am Am Am Am, Ch Am Am, An, Ch B B B B B C B B, C, E, P Thatch Lf Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, Ni Cosmetics Dyes Recreational Ritual Agroforestry Fences Ornamental Firewood Fr, Rt Ns, St Lf Lf, Ns Ep St Ep, Lf, Ns Lf, St Am, Am Am Am, Am Am Am, Am, Constr Houses Thatch HuFood Beverages Oils UtenTool Domestic AnFood Wildlife attractant Constr Bridges Houses Cultur Environ Fuel An Ch An An B, E, P C, P B C, E, P C, P B, E E, P C, E Human groups Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni I, Ni I, Ni A, I, M, Ni I, Ni I I I I, M, Ni I, Ni M, Ni I, Ni References* 9, 14, 18, 23, 24, 42, 44, 46, 55, 68, 72, 73, 89, 114, 120, 123, 124, 142, 151, 154, 155, 156, 160, 161, 167, 171, 172, 179, 181, 197, 207, 211, 213, 233, 244 182 177, 182 177, 182 177 177 45, 46, 181 161, 213 9, 18, 19, 23, 24, 35, 38, 44, 45, 62, 123, 145, 151, 153, 165, 166, 177, 179, 182, 196, 197, 208, 213, 234, 243 23, 24, 37, 38, 44, 45, 62, 112, 124, 151, 160, 161, 179, 182, 196, 197, 243, 250 19, 23, 24, 213 9, 88, 151 161 9, 19, 31 46, 86, 88, 233 196, 213, 243 24, 44, 190 44, 46, 181 M.J. Macía et al. Use categories Scientific name Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries HuFood Beverages Fr, Ph Am, Ch B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Food Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P A, I, M, Ni Ph Fr, Ns Lf Am Am, Ch Ch E I B, C, E, P A, I, Ni C I 24, 37, 45, 46, 51, 75, 104, 124, 151, 161, 165, 166, 177, 179, 182, 196, 197, 199, 213, 216, 233, 249, 250 9, 24, 27, 35, 38, 44, 45, 46, 59, 60, 62, 69, 77, 86, 88, 104, 123, 145, 151, 153, 159, 160, 161, 166, 167, 177, 179, 181, 187, 190, 196, 197, 205, 206, 208, 212, 213, 216, 243, 250 23 19, 24, 104, 112, 177, 208, 213, 249 45 Fr, Rt Rt Fr Fr, Rt Am Am Am Am P P B P I, Ni M I Ni 18, 24 231 37, 161 24 Ls Am P Ni 24 Fr, Rt Fr Am Am P B Ni Ni 24 213 Lf, Lr, Ns, Pt, Sl, St Lf, Lr, Ns, Pt, St Sd, St Fr, Ns, St Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Food additives Oils MedVet Cultural diseases and disorders Digestive system Endocrine system General ailments Infections and infestations Musculo-skeletal system Respiratory system Skin and subcutaneous tissue UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Other Other Miscellaneous Human groups References* Am, An C, E, P I, Ni 19, 24, 25, 38, 44, 46, 60, 69, 104, 124, 151, 160, 161, 165, 166, 181, 234 27, 35, 38, 44, 60, 69, 151, 220, 243 Ch Am C B, C A I, Ni 140 46, 151, 179, 181, 197 557 Use categories Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 558 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Oenocarpus minor Mart. Parajubaea cocoides Burret HuFood Cultur Environ HuFood AnFood Cultur Environ Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Fr Fr Ep Sd Lf Ls Ep Ep Fr, Ph, Sd Lf, Lr, Ls, Pt Lf, Lr, Ls, Pt Ls Lf Lf Ep Fr, Ph, Sd Lf, Ls, Pt Lf, Ls, Pt Ep Ep St Lf Fr St Fr Am An An An An An An An An An An An An An An An An An An An Ch Ch Ch Ch Am C, P E E E B B B B B B B B B B B B B B E E E C, E E E E Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni I, Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni I A, I, Ni I I I 92, 249 38 19 38 182 182 95 177 182 95, 182 95, 182 182 245 245 245 49, 182, 245 182, 245 182, 245 19 19 162 45, 106, 107, 162 162 162 27 M.J. Macía et al. Beverages Cloth and accessories Ornamental Food Parajubaea sunkha M. Moraes Fodder Cloth and accessories Agroforestry Ornamental HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Rope Other Parajubaea torallyi (Mart.) Burret AnFood Fodder Cultur Ritual Environ Agroforestry HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Rope Phoenix canariensis Chabaud Environ Ornamental Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Environ Ornamental Pholidostachys dactyloides H.E. Moore Constr Houses Thatch HuFood Food UtenTool Labour tools Pholidostachys synanthera (Mart.) AnFood Wildlife attractant H.E. Moore Plant parts Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Constr Houses Thatch St Lf An Am, An E C, E, P Ni I, M, Ni Ep, Ph Fr, Ph Lr Am Am An C E, P E I, Ni I, M, Ni Ni 44 17, 24, 27, 33, 38, 44, 59, 104, 151, 153, 183, 234 104, 151 24, 27, 243 38 Lf Fr Fr, Infl Fr Lf Sd Ep Fr, Ph, Sd Fr Fr Fr Am Ch Ch Ch An, Ch An An, Ch An, Ch Ch Ch Ch E E E E E E E E E E E I Ni Ni Ni I, M, Ni M M, Ni I, M, Ni Ni I I 27 150 150 150 25, 40, 70, 243 235 40, 235 19, 25, 70, 150, 243 150 70 70 Fr Fr Fr, Lf Fr, Sd Fr Ch An An Ch Am E E E E B I M M Ni I 70 243 243 19, 40, 150 156 Cultur HuFood MedVet Phytelephas aequatorialis Spruce Phytelephas macrocarpa Ruiz & Pav. Recreational Food Skin and subcutaneous tissue UtenTool Wrappers AnFood Fish bait Fodder Wildlife attractant Constr Thatch Cultur Personal adornment Environ Agroforestry HuFood Food Oils MedVet Digestive system Reproductive system and sexual health Sensory system Urinary system UtenTool Domestic Other AnFood Wildlife attractant Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 559 560 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Constr Houses Thatch Ns, St Lf Am Am B, P I, Ni B, C, E, P I, M, Ni Cultur Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Recreational Ritual Agroforestry Ornamental Fire starter Beverages Food Sd Fr, Sd, St Sd Ns Ep Sd Ls Fr, Ph, Sd Fr, Ns, Sd Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C, B, B B P C, E P B, Sd Fr, Sd Ns Lf, Ls, Pt, Sd, St Lf Fr, Ns, Sd Ns, Sd, St Sd Sd Am Am Am Am B P P B, E, P I, Ni M, Ni I I, M, Ni 9, 136, 182, 197 7, 14, 19, 26, 27, 35, 60, 80, 94, 117, 119, 131, 153, 156, 161, 165, 166, 170, 177, 179, 182, 196, 197, 207, 212, 213, 219, 234, 250 26, 92, 145 14, 85, 131, 161, 196, 197, 213 161, 213 179 9, 233, 244 26, 92, 165 85 159, 250 7, 9, 14, 19, 26, 27, 35, 60, 75, 80, 85, 119, 131, 136, 143, 145, 161, 165, 166, 169, 177, 179, 207, 212, 213, 219, 230, 233, 234, 240, 249, 250 124, 161 165, 166, 231 9 35, 85, 145, 161, 166, 177, 182, 196, 213 Am Am Am An An B, E C, E, P P C C I I, Ni I, M Ni Ni 14, 27 9, 27, 92 28, 80, 192, 207, 244 29 29 Environ Fuel HuFood MedVet Dental health Endocrine system Not specified UtenTool Domestic Phytelephas schottii H. Wendl. Hunting and fishing Other Other Miscellaneous Cultur Ritual UtenTool Other Human groups P E Ni I, Ni I, Ni Ni I, Ni P Ni I Ni C, E, P I, M, Ni References* M.J. Macía et al. Use categories Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Phytelephas seemannii O.F. Cook Cultur Environ HuFood UtenTool Cloth and accessories Ornamental Food Hunting and fishing Other Miscellaneous Fodder Sd Sd Fr, Sd Sd Sd Sd Sd Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Am C C C C C C E I, Ni Ni I, Ni I A, Ni Ni I 30, 31, 92, 204 30, 92 31, 107 31 92, 107, 140 199 120 Wildlife attractant Bridges Houses Thatch Fr St Lf, St Lf Am Am Am Am, An E E E, P E, P I I I, Ni I, Ni Other Cloth and accessories Personal adornment Fences Firewood Beverages Food Ns Sd Sd St Lf, St Ph Fr, Infl, Ns, Ph, Sd Fr, Ph Fr Ph Am Am Am Am Am Am Am, An C P E P E P C, E, P I Ni I Ni I Ni I, Ni Am Am Am P P P Ni Ni Ni 62, 63, 64, 66, 71 160 24, 62, 63, 160, 174 23, 24, 33, 62, 63, 66, 71, 69, 72, 120, 139, 160, 183, 236 53 24 120 24 120, 160 24 23, 24, 44, 53, 62, 63, 64, 66, 69, 71, 72, 120, 160, 167, 174, 183, 216 24 24 24 Fr Am P Ni 24 Phytelephas tenuicaulis (Barfod) A.J. Hend. Other AnFood Constr Cultur Environ Fuel HuFood MedVet 561 Digestive system General ailments Infections and infestations Skin and subcutaneous tissue Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 562 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Phytelephas tumacana O.F. Cook Prestoea acuminata (Willd.) H.E. Moore Use categories Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Not specified UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Labour tools Other Cultur Cloth and accessories Rt Lf, Sd, St Lf Sl Ns Sd Am Am Am Am Am Ch E E, P E E C C I I, Ni I I I I 62, 72 24, 63, 120, 160, 174 120 72 53 92 Environ UtenTool Other AnFood Sd Sd Sd Fr Ch Ch Ch Am C C C E Ni I Ni I 92 92 199 103 Thatch Ornamental Beverages Food UtenTool Hunting and fishing Constr Houses Lf Ep Fr, Ph Fr, Ph St St Am, An E Ch E An B, E Am, An, Ch E Am E Ch C I, M I Ni I, M, Ni I A 61, 67, 103 65 21, 50 25, 38, 65, 67, 103, 148, 225, 235, 243 103 106 Constr Houses St An E Ni 44 Cultur Environ Fuel HuFood UtenTool Thatch Cloth and accessories Ornamental Firewood Food Domestic Lf Lf Lf St Fr, Ph Lf, St An, Ch An An An An, Ch An E E E E E E I, Ni Ni Ni Ni I, Ni Ni 19, 25, 44 44 44 44 25, 44 44 Ornamental Other Miscellaneous Wildlife attractant Constr Environ HuFood Prestoea decurrens (H. Wendl. ex Burret) H.E. Moore Prestoea ensiformis (Ruiz & Pav.) H.E. Moore M.J. Macía et al. Plant parts Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Prestoea schultzeana (Burret) H.E. Moore AnFood Wildlife attractant Fr Am E I 66, 72 Constr Houses Thatch St Lf Am, An Am, An E E, P I I, Ni Cultur Recreational Ritual Firewood Beverages Food Fr Lf, Ph St Fr Fr, Ph Am Am Am Am Am, An E E E E E, P I I I I I, Ni MedVet Respiratory system Not specified UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Labour tools Constr Thatch UtenTool Other Environ Ornamental Rt Ph, Rt Lf, Ns Fr, Ns St Lf Lr Ep Am Am Am Am Am An Ch Am E E E E E C C B I I I I I Ni Ni Ni 66, 225 16, 24, 27, 38, 58, 66, 69, 72, 160, 225, 243 38 67, 212 66 160 24, 27, 60, 66, 67, 72, 160, 212, 216, 225, 243 160 67, 72 27, 72, 160 38, 160 160 107 112 124 UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing MedVet Digestive system St St Lf Am Am An P P P I I Ni 28 28 87 Nervous system and mental health Wildlife attractant Lf An P Ni 87 Fr, Ns Am B, C, E, P I, Ni Fuel HuFood Prestoea simplicifolia Galeano Raphia taedigera (Mart.) Mart. Roystonea oleracea (Jacq.) O.F. Cook Roystonea regia (Kunth) O.F. Cook AnFood 19, 46, 63, 66, 69, 73, 124, 155, 196, 223 563 Socratea exorrhiza (Mart.) H. Wendl. Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 564 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Constr Houses Lf, Ns, St Thatch Lf, St Other Cloth and accessories Cosmetics Personal adornment Recreational Ritual Other Fences Ornamental Firewood Beverages Food Ns, St Lf Lf, Sd Ns, Sd Ep, Fr, Ns, Rt Ep, Fr, Ns, Rt, St Ns St Lf Ns, St Fr, Ph Fr, Ns, Ph, Sd Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P A, C, I, M, Ni 1, 9, 10, 14, 19, 24, 25, 28, 31, 33, 35, 37, 38, 42, 44, 45, 53, 60, 62, 63, 69, 71, 72, 75, 89, 104, 106, 110, 112, 117, 124, 128, 129, 131, 136, 145, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 160, 161, 162, 166, 177, 179, 187, 196, 197, 200, 207, 208, 211, 212, 213, 220, 223, 224, 225, 227, 234, 237, 243, 250 Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, M, Ni 14, 19, 24, 44, 62, 129, 151, 153, 154, 160, 161, 162, 212, 224, 225, 237, 250 Am, Ch B, C, E I, Ni 47, 52, 54, 66, 73, 121, 161, 213 Am B I 196 Am B, E I 63, 66, 160, 174, 238 Am, An B, C, E, P I, Ni 14, 24, 47, 161, 196, 197, 225 Am B, C, P I 10, 14, 42, 151, 161, 237 Am B, C, E, P I 42, 117, 160, 161, 187, 227 Digestive system General ailments Ph, Rt Fr, St Cultur Environ Fuel HuFood MedVet Countries Human groups Am Am, Ch An Am, An Am Am, An, Ch E, P B, C, E, P E B, C, E E, P B, C, E, P I C, I, Ni Ni I, Ni I, Ni I, M, Ni Am Am P B I, Ni I, Ni References* 223 24, 62, 110, 131, 162, 243 44 44, 46, 63, 69, 160, 161, 223 24, 67 19, 24, 25, 38, 44, 85, 89, 121, 131, 154, 160, 161, 169, 196, 207, 213, 223, 225, 227, 243 15, 24 37, 177 M.J. Macía et al. Use categories Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Rt Am E I 160 Ph, Rt Fr, Rt, St Am, An Am B, E, P B, P I, M, Ni I 42, 44, 153, 156, 238 10, 42, 161, 196 Rt Ns, Ph, Rt Br, Lf, Ls, Ns, Rt, Sd, St Am B I Am, An C, E, P C, I, Ni Am, An, Ch B, C, E, P I, Ni Hunting and fishing Lf, Ns, Rt, St Am, Ch B, C, E, P A, I, M Labour tools Wrappers Other Other Miscellaneous Constr Houses Thatch HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Constr Houses Thatch Environ Fences UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Constr Thatch St Lf Ns, Ph, Sd, St Ns, St St Lf Ph, Sd Rt St Lf St Rt St Lf Ch Am Am, Ch Am, Ch An An An An Am Am Am Am Am Am E B, C C, E, P C, E, P E E E E P P P P P C Musculo-skeletal system Poisonings Skin and subcutaneous tissue Veterinary Not specified UtenTool Domestic Socratea rostrata Burret Socratea salazarii H.E. Moore Syagrus inajai (Spruce) Becc. I I A, I, M, Ni I, M, Ni C, I I I, Ni I M, Ni I Ni I M Ni 42, 161 9, 52, 110, 223, 225 14, 24, 35, 37, 38, 42, 44, 46, 47, 60, 62, 63, 69, 75, 104, 121, 124, 131, 151, 160, 161, 162, 174, 177, 187, 196, 211, 223, 224, 230, 237 33, 35, 46, 47, 60, 63, 66, 69, 73, 85, 117, 151, 160, 161, 174, 196, 208, 223, 234, 237 162 151, 161 38, 52, 53, 54, 62, 66, 72, 140, 190 9, 24, 25, 46, 62, 72, 166, 223 16, 23, 38 23 16, 38 16, 38 75, 166 230 75 230 153 104 565 Plant parts Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 566 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Syagrus oleracea (Mart.) Becc. Syagrus sancona (Kunth) H. Karst. Syagrus smithii (H.E. Moore) Glassman Synechanthus warscewiczianus H. Wendl. Use categories Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Food Fodder Fodder Houses Thatch Cultur Personal adornment Environ Fences Ornamental HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Labour tools Other Miscellaneous Constr Thatch Sd Fr Fr St Lf Fr, Sd St Ep Fr, Sd Lf, Sd, St Ns, St St St Lf Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am Am C B P B, B B, B B B, B, B, P P C Ni Ni Ni I, Ni Ni I Ni Ni I, Ni I, Ni I, Ni I Ni Ni 104 182 159 14, 159, 182, 213 124 14, 38, 131 177 177, 182 14, 48, 123, 124, 131, 132, 183, 241 14, 89, 177 33, 131, 139, 159 35 159 104 HuFood Constr Sd St Am Ch C E Ni I 104 162 Dyes Recreational Ritual HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Labour tools Environ Ornamental Lf Ep Ep Fr St St Ep Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Am E E E E E E E I I I Ni I I Ni 19, 70 25 19 38 162 162 19 Environ Ep An E Ni 19 HuFood AnFood AnFood Constr Food Houses Cultur Trachycarpus fortunei (Hook.) H. Wendl. Washingtonia robusta H. Wendl. Ornamental P E E, P E E, P M.J. Macía et al. Plant parts Scientific name Use categories Welfia regia H. Wendl. Wettinia aequalis (O.F. Cook & Doyle) R. Bernal Wettinia augusta Poepp. & Endl. Wettinia drudei (O.F. Cook & Doyle) A.J. Hend. Wettinia maynensis Spruce Use subcategories Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Constr Houses Thatch HuFood Food UtenTool Domestic Other Constr Houses St Lf Fr Lf, Sl Sd, Sl, St Ns, St Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch C C, E C C C C, E Ni A, I, Ni Ni A, I, Ni A A, I, Ni 112 19, 31, 107, 112, 208 112 31, 112, 208 140 19, 25, 38, 70, 106 Thatch Food Houses Thatch Cultur Recreational HuFood Food MedVet Infections and infestations UtenTool Domestic Hunting and fishing Constr Bridges Lf Ph Ns, St Lf, St Ns Fr Lf Ch Ch Am Am Am Am Am E E P C, P C P C I I I, M, Ni I, M, Ni I I I 19, 70 70 9, 24, 166 24, 104, 151, 158, 230 151 230 104 Ns Ns, St St Am Am Am C C, P P I I, M Ni 151 151, 153 24 Thatch UtenTool Hunting and fishing AnFood Wildlife attractant Constr Houses Lf, St St Fr, Ns St Am Am Am Am, An C, P C E E, P M, Ni Ni I I, Ni Thatch Lf Am, An E I, Ni Transportation Other St Ns, St An Am E C, E I I, Ni 104, 158, 166 104 63, 66, 67, 69, 72, 73, 174 16, 17, 23, 33, 38, 44, 63, 67, 68, 69, 91, 123, 160, 211, 212 17, 23, 33, 38, 44, 60, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 160, 183, 211, 212, 243 91 53, 66, 73 HuFood Constr 567 Plant parts Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 568 Appendix (continued) Scientific name Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Cultur Environ Personal adornment Fences Ornamental Firewood Other Food Sd St Lf, St St Lf Fr, Ns, Ph Am An An Am, An Am Am, An E E E E E E, P I Ni Ni I, Ni I I, M, Ni An Am Am, An E E E I I I, Ni Other Constr Hunting and fishing Labour tools Other Miscellaneous Bridges Ph Ph Br, Fr, Lf, Ns, Rt, St Ns, St Ns, St Ns, Sd St St 17 44 44 44, 66, 67, 69, 72, 225 33 16, 17, 23, 38, 44, 58, 59, 63, 66, 67, 68, 77, 91, 123, 160, 183, 225, 243 23 67 16, 33, 44, 211, 225 Am, An Am, An Am Am, An Ch E, P E E E, P E I, Ni I I I, Ni I 17, 63, 67, 17, 38 AnFood Thatch Wildlife attractant St Fr An Ch E C, E Ni I 38 70, 121, 162 Bridges Houses Thatch Transportation Other Personal adornment Recreational St St Lf, St St Ns Sd St An An, Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch C C, E E E C E C Ni A, I, Ni I I I I I 107 3, 25, 31, 106, 107, 112, 162, 200 25, 65, 70, 162 162 121 162 121 Fuel HuFood MedVet Digestive system Not specified UtenTool Domestic Wettinia oxycarpa Galeano & R. Bernal Wettinia quinaria (O.F. Cook & Doyle) Burret Constr M.J. Macía et al. Cultur 33, 44, 60, 63, 68, 69, 123, 160, 183 66, 225 73 44, 63, 68, 123 Scientific name Wettinia radiata (O.F. Cook & Doyle) R. Bernal Use categories Use subcategories Plant parts Ecoregions Countries Human groups References* Environ Fuel HuFood UtenTool Fences Firewood Food Domestic Hunting and fishing Rope Other Miscellaneous Houses St St Fr, Ph, Sd St Ns, St Lf Fr, St St St An, Ch Ch An, Ch Ch Ch Ch Am, Ch Ch Ch C, E E E E C, E E C, E E C I, Ni I I I A, I I A, I I A 107, 162 162 3, 25, 38, 162 162 107, 162, 208 162 8, 140 25 106 St Ch C A 106 Other Constr UtenTool Hunting and fishing 569 *1: Acero-Duarte1979; 2: Acosta-Solis 1952; 3: Acosta-Solis 1971; 4: Aguilar 2006; 5: Aguirre 2006; 6: Aguirre et al. 2003; 7: Alarcón 1988; 8: Alarcón 1994; 9: Albán 1994; 10: Alexiades 1999; 11: Allen 1947; 12: Anderson 2004; 13: Antezana 1976; 14: Armesilla 2006; 15: Ayala 1984; 16: Báez 1998; 17: Báez & Backevall 1998; 18: Balick 1986; 19: Balslev and Barfod 1987; 20: Balslev and Blicher-Mathiesen 1994; 21: Balslev and Henderson 1987a; 22: Balslev and Henderson 1987b; 23: Balslev et al. 1997; 24: Balslev et al. 2008; 25: Barfod and Balslev 1988; 26: Barriga 1994; 27: Bennett et al. 2002; 28: Bergman 1990; 29: Bernal 1992; 30: Bernal 1998; 31: Bernal and G. Galeano 1993; 32: Bernal et al. 2010; 33: Bianchi 1982; 34: Blicher-Mathiesen and Balslev 1990; 35: Bodley and Benson 1979; 36: Boll et al. 2005; 37: Boom 1986; 38: Borchsenius et al. 1998; 39: Borgtoft 1992; 40: Borgtoft 1994; 41: Borgtoft 1996; 42: Bourdy 1999; 43: Bourdy et al. 2008; 44: Byg and Balslev 2004; 45: Caballero 1995; 46: Cabrera et al. 1999; 47: Cadena-Vargas et al. 2007; 48: Califano 1999; 49: Cárdenas 1970; 50: Cárdenas 1989; 51: Cárdenas and Politis 2000; 52: Cárdenas and Ramírez 2004; 53: Cárdenas et al. 2002; 54: Cárdenas et al. 2007; 55: Castaño-Arboleda et al. 2007; 56: Cayón and Aristizábal 1980; 57: CEATA et al. 2007; 58: Cerón 1993a; 59: Cerón 1993b; 60: Cerón 1995; 61: Cerón 2002; 62: Cerón 2003; 63: Cerón and Montalvo 1998; 64: Cerón and Montalvo 2000; 65: Cerón and Montalvo 2002a; 66: Cerón and Montalvo 2002b; 67: Cerón and Reyes 2007a; 68: Cerón and Reyes 2007b; 69: Cerón et al. 1994; 70: Cerón et al. 2004; 71: Cerón et al. 2005a; 72: Cerón et al. 2005b; 73: Cerón et al. 2006; 74: Cerro et al. 2003; 75: Chávez 1996; 76: Chicchon 1992; 77: Chirif 1978; 78: Coomes 2004; 79: Coomes and Ban 2004; 80: Coomes and Burt 1997; 81: Copeticona 2002; 82: Cornejo 1998; 83: Crizón 2001; 84: Davis 1983; 85: Davis and Yost 1983; 86: De Jong 2001; 87: DeFeo 1992; 88: Denevan and Treacy 1987; 89: Descola 1989; 90: Díaz Piedrahita 1981; 91: Duchelle 2007; 92: Dugand 1961; 93: Duke 1970; 94: Einzmann 1988; 95: Enssle et al. 2006; 96: Etter 2001; 97: Fadiman 2008; 98: Feisal 2009; 99: Flores and Ashton 2000; 100: Flores Paitán 1987; 101: Flores Paitán 1998; 102: Forero 2005; 103: Freire 2006; 104: Galeano 1992; 105: Galeano 1995a; 106: Galeano 1995b; 107: Galeano and Bernal 1987; 108: Galeano et al. 2008; 109: Gallego 1995; 110: García et al. 1996; 111: García Barriga 1974; 112: García Cossio et al. 2002; 113: Garzón 1985; 114: Garzón and Macuritofe 1992; 115: Gentry 1988; 116: Gilmore et al. 2002; 117: Girard 1958; 118: Girault 1987; 119: Glenboski 1983; 120: Gomez et al. 1996; 121: González 1994; 122: Grández and Henderson 1993; 123: Guallart 1968; 124: Gutiérrez-Vásquez and Peralta 2001; 125: Hamlin and Salick 2003; 126: Harner 1984; 127: Henderson and Chávez Palm Uses in NW South America Appendix (continued) 570 View publication stats 1993; 128: Henkemans 2001; 129: Hinojosa 1991; 130: Hinojosa et al. 2001; 131: Hissink and Hahn 2000; 132: Holmberg 1978; 133: Holm-Jensen and Balslev 1995; 134: Huanca 1999; 135: Hübschmann et al. 2007; 136: Huertas 2007; 137: Iglesias 1987; 138: Iglesias 1989a; 139: Iglesias 1989b; 140: IIAP 2008; 141: Irvine 1989; 142: Játiva and Alarcón 1994; 143: Johnson 1975; 144: Johnson and Mejía 1998; 145: Jordan 1970; 146: Kahn and Mejía 1987; 147: Karsten 1988; 148: Knudsen 1995; 149: Kothari 1993; 150: Koziol and Borgtoft 1993; 151: Kronik 1999; 152: Kvist et al. 1998; 153: Kvist et al. 2001; 154: La Rotta 1983; 155: La Rotta et al. 1986; 156: Langevin 2002; 157: León et al. 2006; 158: López-Parodi 1988; 159: Macbride 1960; 160: Macía 2004; 161: M.J. Macía, unpubl.; 162: Marchán 2001; 163: Marles et al. 1988; 164: Mayer 2006; 165: Mejía 1983; 166: Mejía 1988; 167: Mejía 1992; 168: Mejía and Rengifo 1995; 169: Mendoza 1994; 170: Mendoza and Panduro 2005; 171: Miller 2002; 172: Miranda et al. 2009; 173: Mollinedo 2000; 174: Mondragón and Smith 1997; 175: Moore et al. 2007; 176: Moraes 1991; 177: Moraes 2004; 178: Moraes and Sarmiento 1999; 179: Moraes et al. 1995; 180: Moraes et al. 1996; 181: Morcote-Ríos et al. 1998; 182: Moreno Suárez and Moreno Suárez 2006; 183: Mundo Shuar 1977; 184: Ojeda 1994; 185: Oré and Llapapasca 1996; 186: Orejuela 1992; 187: Ortiz 1994; 188: Ortiz Gómez 1989; 189: Otterburg and Mamani 2008; 190: Pacheco et al. 1998; 191: Padoch 1988; 192: Padoch and De Jong 1989; 193: Padoch et al. 1985; 194: Padoch et al. 1987; 195: Paniagua-Zambrana 1998; 196: Paniagua-Zambrana 2001; 197: Paniagua-Zambrana 2005; 198: Parra and Virsano 1994; 199: Patiño 1977; 200: Patiño 2006; 201: Peña-Claros 1996; 202: Pérez 2002; 203: Pérez et al. 2006; 204: Pérez-Arbeláez 1956; 205: Peters et al. 1989; 206: Phillips 1993; 207: Pinedo-Vasquez et al. 1990; 208: Pino and Valois 2004; 209: Pino et al. 2003; 210: Pintaud and Anthelme 2008; 211: Pohle and Reinhardt 2004; 212: Ponce 1992; 213: Proctor et al. 1992; 214: Quintana and Vargas 1995; 215: Restrepo 1996; 216: Rios and Caballero 1997; 217: Rodriguez 1996; 218: Rojas et al. 2001; 219: Román 2002; 220: Romanoff et al. 2004; 221: Ruiz Echeverry 1984; 222: San Sebastián 1995; 223: Sánchez 2005; 224: Sánchez and Miraña 1991; 225: Santín Luna 2004; 226: Schultes 1951; 227: Schultes 1974; 228: Schultes and Raffauf 1990; 229: Seoane and Soplín 1999; 230: Shepard et al. 2001; 231: Silva and García 1997; 232: Skov and Balslev 1989; 233: Smith et al. 2007; 234: Stagegaard et al. 2002; 235: Svenning and Balslev 1998; 236: Svenning and Macía 2002; 237: Thomas 2008; 238: Thomas and Vandebroek 2006; 239: Ticona 2001; 240: Tournon 2006; 241: Townsend 1996; 242: Triana 1985; 243: Van den Eynden et al. 2004; 244: Van der Linden and López 1990; 245: Vargas 1994; 246: Vargas 1997; 247: Vargas 2006; 248: Vásquez 1992; 249: Vásquez and Gentry 1989; 250: Vásquez and Vásquez 1998; 251: Vélez and Vélez 1999; 252: Vickers and Plowman 1984; 253: Vormisto 2002a; 254: Wheeler 1970; 255: Zuluaga 2003. ** The nomenclatural status of this species needs clarification. Use categories AnFood Animal Food, Constr Construction, Cultur Cultural, Environ Environmental, HuFood Human Food, MedVet Medicinal and Veterinary, UtenTool Utensils and Tools, Other Other Uses Plant parts Br Bract, Ep Entire plant, Fl Flower, Fr Fruit, Infl Inflorescence, Infr Infructescence, Lf Entire leaf, Ls Leaf sheath, Lr Leaf rachis, Ph Palm heart, Pt Petiole, Rt Root, Sd Seed, Sl Spear leaf, Sp Spine, St Stem, Ns Not specified Ecoregions Countries B Bolivia, C Colombia, E Ecuador, P Peru Human groups A Afroamerican, C Colono, I Indigenous, M Mestizo, Ni Not identified M.J. Macía et al. Am Amazon, An Andes, Ch Chocó