Dev reminer antibac dent mater Mehdawi et al2009

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 www.elsevier.com/locate/actabiomat Development of remineralizing, antibacterial dental materials Idris Mehdawi, Ensanya A. Abou Neel, Sabeel P. Valappil 1, Graham Palmer, Vehid Salih, Jonathan Pratten, Dave A. Spratt, Anne M. Young * UCL Eastman Dental Institute, 256 Gray’s Inn Road, London WC1X 8LD, UK Received 27 November 2008; received in revised form 17 March 2009; accepted 24 March 2009 Available online 31 March 2009 Abstract Light curable methacrylate dental monomers containing reactive calcium phosphate filler (monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (MCPM) with particle diameter of 29 or 90 lm) and b-tricalcium phosphate (b-TCP) at 1:1 weight ratio in a powder:liquid ratio (PLR) of 1:1 or 3:1 and chlorhexidine diacetate (0 or 5 wt.%), were investigated. Upon light exposure, approximately 90% monomer conversion was gained irrespective of the formulation. Increasing the PLR promoted water sorption by the set material, induced expansion and enhanced calcium, phosphate and chlorhexidine release. Concomitantly, a decline in compressive and biaxial flexural strengths occurred. With a reduction in MCPM particle diameter, however, calcium and phosphate release was reduced and less deterioration in strength observed. After 24 h, the remaining MCPM had reacted with water and b-TCP, forming, within the set materials, brushite of lower solubility. This provided a novel means to control water sorption, component release and strength properties. Measurable chlorhexidine release was observed for 6 weeks. Both diffusion rate and total percentage of chlorhexidine release decreased with lowering PLR or by adding buffer to the storage solutions. Higher chlorhexidine release was associated with reduced bacterial growth on agar plates and in a biofilm fermenter. In cell growth media, brushite and hydroxyapatite crystals precipitated on the composite material surfaces. Cells spread on both these crystals and the exposed polymer composite surfaces, indicating their cell compatibility. These formulations could be suitable antibacterial, biocompatible and remineralizing dental adhesives/liners. Ó 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of Acta Materialia Inc. Keywords: Antibacterial; Reactive calcium phosphate; Raman; Biofilm; Chlorhexidine release 1. Introduction Dental composite materials, based on methacrylate monomers loaded with high levels of inorganic fillers, have been widely used for restoring either anterior or posterior teeth mainly for esthetic reasons. These materials depend on adhesive systems of largely similar chemical composition, but with lower filler content, as a means of bonding to tooth structures. A major drawback with dental composites, however, is polymerization shrinkage. This affects bonding integrity and can lead to gaps at the adhesive/ tooth interface. These gaps increase the possibility for * Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 20 7915 2353. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.M. Young). 1 Present address: School of Dental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Edwards Building, Liverpool L69 3GN, UK bacterial microleakage and secondary caries, which are the main causes of restoration failure [1]. Furthermore, a commonly used approach in modern management of carious lesions relies on removal of only outer infected dentine whilst inner reminerizable dentine is conserved [2]. The presence of residual bacteria within this dentine further increases the risk of reinfection and secondary caries. This is of particular concern when using dental composites as they lack any antibacterial properties. For this reason, bacteria tend to accumulate more below dental composites than other restorative materials, such as amalgam [3]. There have been various attempts to develop antibacterial dental composites but significant problems, such as reduction in mechanical properties and limited antibacterial action, have arisen [4–7]. Since antibacterial properties are, however, primarily required at the dentine/restoration interfacial region, it should be more effective to include 1742-7061/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of Acta Materialia Inc. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2009.03.030 2526 I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 antibacterial agents within a restoration liner/base material or methacrylate adhesive. With these applications, material strength requirements are less stringent. Conventional and resin-modified glass ionomer cements have been applied as liner/base materials to improve marginal adaptation of composite restorations and reduce bacterial microleakage at the restoration/tooth interface [8]. Although these materials release fluoride, their anticariogenic effects have been attributed to their interaction with tooth hydroxyapatite and formation of a less soluble fluoroapatite rather than to direct antibacterial action [9,10]. Calcium hydroxide liners, on the other hand, do have some antibacterial action. This is generally associated with their high pH, but these materials generally also dissolve in tissue fluids or lack adhesion to dentin and other restorative materials [11–13]. Some dental adhesives may also exhibit antibacterial activity due to incorporation of acidic monomers [14]. This activity can be significantly reduced, however, after light curing or buffering by dentinal fluid [15,16]. Gluteraldehyde incorporated within dental adhesives can also provide strong antibacterial action [17], but its volatility makes toxicity of significant concern [18]. Furthermore, although 1,2methacryloyloxydodecylpyridinium bromide is an effective antibacterial agent, it is bound in the set dental adhesive, limiting its effectiveness against those bacteria in direct surface contact [19,20]. We anticipate that a non-bonded antibacterial agent that could be released and trapped under a restorative material would be more beneficial. With a majority of adhesive methods currently employed, exposed dentine is first treated with 35% phosphoric acid gel in order to gain good interlocking between the composite and the tooth structure. This leaves a layer of demineralized collagen within which fluid hydrophilic resin adhesives can penetrate and set, but unfortunately they do this with varying degrees of bonding and sealing effectiveness. In addition to antibacterial action, it would be beneficial therefore for dental liner/bases and adhesives to release calcium phosphate species. Early release could help remineralize and stabilize remaining defective tooth structure in addition to any acid-treated collagen which the adhesive resin fails to penetrate. Furthermore, longerterm release might aid the repair of the adhesive/collagen hybrid layer that may become damaged by enzymatic action or thermal cycling and occlusal loading [21]. Recently, methacrylate resins containing various calcium phosphates as a filler phase have been formulated [21,22]. The use of the combined reactive calcium phosphate fillers b-tricalcium phosphate (b-TCP) and monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (MCPM) as in this investigation, however, has not previously been reported. When combined with water, these two compounds react via hydrogen ion exchange and reprecipitate as brushite (dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, CaHPO42H2O) or the anhydrous form, monetite [23]. Ideally, dental adhesives should be non-toxic to pulpal tissues. When conventional adhesives are placed directly on or in close proximity to the pulp, however, they can induce severe pulpal inflammation [24]. This effect could in turn enhance pulpal response to bacterial microleakage. Calcium phosphate-based biomaterials are known to be highly cell compatible [25]. Cytotoxic effects with methacrylates occur mainly because of incomplete polymerization and release of unreacted free monomers [26]. One aim of this investigation is to assess whether cell compatibility of dental methacrylates could be affected via addition of reactive calcium phosphate fillers. In this study chlorhexidine diacetate has been added to light curable dental methacrylate monomers that contain reactive calcium phosphate filler particles (b-TCP and MCPM). Chlorhexidine diacetate, a broad spectrum antibacterial agent, has been used to disinfect excavated tooth cavities prior to restoration. In previous attempts to increase the length of time over which this drug might be effective, it was incorporated into methacrylate-based filled [7] and unfilled resins [27]. It was, however, readily released only if significant water sorption occurred or drug loading was excessively high. In such situations, mechanical properties are likely to be very poor and/or decline substantially with time. Our hypothesis was that the addition of water-soluble MCPM fillers should encourage water sorption into the set resin materials, which in turn should enhance the release of chlorhexidine and some calcium phosphate species. Subsequently, however, the absorbed water should promote reaction between MCPM and b-TCP and brushite formation within the polymerized methacrylate. As this reaction can bind water and encourage reprecipitation of less soluble species in material regions from which components have been released, it was also anticipated that it might limit the reduction in strength normally associated with water sorption and component release. Ultimately, the aim of this study was to formulate antibacterial and calcium phosphate-releasing materials with appropriate mechanical and biological properties for potential use as a dental liner/base or adhesive underneath composite restorations. The following describes mechanical, microbiological and cell biological investigations on systematically varying formulations. Chemical studies have also been performed to evaluate the degree of monomer conversion and in situ reaction of reactive calcium phosphate fillers. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials and variables Photo-activated resin was prepared by combining commercially available monomers, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) (Sigma–Aldrich), triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) (Sigma–Aldrich) and urethane dimethacrylate (UDMA) (Rhom) in a fixed ratio of 2:1:1 by weight, with 1 wt.% camphorquinone (Sigma–Aldrich) and 1 wt.% dimethyl-p-toluidine (Sigma–Aldrich). The filler contained equal masses of MCPM (Sigma–Aldrich) and b-TCP (Fluka). b-TCP, with a particle diameter of <15 lm, was used as received. The MCPM particles, however, were 2527 I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 ground using a ball mill and passed though Endecotts sieves to obtain particles in two ranges: small (20–38 lm), with median diameter 29 lm, and large (75–105 lm), with median diameter 90 lm. All formulations had a high or low powder (filler)/liquid (resin) mass ratio (PLR) of 3:1 or 1:1, respectively. Chlorhexidine diacetate (CHX) (Sigma– Aldrich) was also incorporated at a level of 0 (i.e. absent) or 5 wt.% of the liquid phase. Specimen storage solutions were either deionized water or phosphate buffer solution. The latter was prepared by dissolving phosphate-buffered saline tablets (Sigma–Aldrich) in 200 ml of deionized water. This gave a solution with 0.01 M phosphate buffer, 0.0027 M potassium chloride and 0.137 M sodium chloride, with a pH of 7.4, at 25 °C. 2.2. Sample preparation The filler and monomers were mixed using hand spatulation for 30 s and the material poured into suitable steel moulds to produce discs of different forms. Circular discs of 10 mm diameter and 2 mm thickness and cylindrical discs of 4 mm diameter and 6 mm height were prepared for biaxial flexure (BFS) and compressive strength (CS) measurements respectively. The fractured discs from the BFS tests were subsequently used in Raman studies. Circular discs of 10 mm diameter and 1 mm thickness were prepared for water sorption, CHX and ion release, agar diffusion and biocompatibility investigations. For bacterial biofilm studies, discs of 5 mm diameter and 1 mm thickness were prepared. Photopolymerization of all samples was initiated by irradiation top and bottom for 60 s with a blue light-curing unit (L.E. Demetron I, Kerr, USA), for which the power output was 1000 mW cm2. 2.3. Degree of monomer conversion and brushite formation Raman microscopy was used to quantify the level of monomer conversion and changes in filler chemistry upon light exposure and subsequent water sorption respectively. To aid peak assignment, spectra were generated of all the pure components, together with brushite and the polymerized monomer. All possible combinations of high and low PLR and MCPM particle diameter, in addition to CHX concentration (giving eight possible formulations, Table 1(a)), were examined. Surface Raman spectra were obtained before light cure and at 24 h post-irradiation with and without an additional Table 1 Physico-chemical properties of different adhesive formulations containing reactive calcium phosphate fillers and UDMA/TEGDMA/HEMA based resin. PLR MCPM P.S. (lm) (a) 3:1 3:1 3:1 3:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 29 29 90 90 29 29 90 90 CHX (wt. %) 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 Geometric mean: In geometric mean (<ln P>): PLR (b) 3:1 3:1 3:1 3:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1 Geometric mean: In geometric mean (<ln P>): Degree of conversion (%) Compressive strength (MPa) Biaxial flexure strength (MPa) Dry 24 h 1 week Dry 24 h 1 week 91 ± 3 87 ± 1 92 ± 2 88 ± 2 91 ± 2 88 ± 1 92 ± 3 88 ± 1 85 ± 4 87 ± 2 88 ± 4 87 ± 3 87 ± 4 88 ± 2 86 ± 3 87 ± 3 39 ± 3 38 ± 3 26 ± 3 25 ± 2 40 ± 4 37 ± 3 28 ± 2 25 ± 3 41 ± 3 40 ± 3 27 ± 3 27 ± 2 42 ± 2 39 ± 4 29 ± 3 27 ± 3 61 ± 2 60 ± 3 62 ± 3 62 ± 2 61 ± 3 60 ± 3 59 ± 3 60 ± 3 33 ± 2 32 ± 3 22 ± 2 21 ± 2 32 ± 2 32 ± 3 22 ± 2 23 ± 2 34 ± 2 33 ± 2 23 ± 2 22 ± 3 33 ± 2 32 ± 4 23 ± 2 24 ± 3 90 4.5 87 4.5 32 3.5 34 3.5 61 4.0 27 3.3 28 3.3 MCPM p.d (lm) Storage solution Initial mass gradient Maximum mass increase (wt.%) (wt.%/min0.5) Maximum volume increase (vol.%) CHX release Final CHX CHX diffusion release coefficient gradient (cm2/s) (wt.%/min0.5) (wt.%) 29 29 90 90 29 29 90 90 D.W PBS D.W PBS D.W PBS D.W PBS 0.31 ± 0.01 0.20 ± 0.02 0.32 ± 0.02 0.21 ± 0.02 0.12 ± 0.02 0.10 ± 0.02 0.17 ± 0.01 0.10 ± 0.01 11.8 ± 0.6 9.7 ± 0.5 11.5 ± 0.2 10.2 ± 0.7 8.0 ± 0.6 7.5 ± 0.2 8.5 ± 0.4 7.0 ± 0.5 24.3 ± 0.7 20.5 ± 0.4 23.4 ± 0.7 21.4 ± 0.3 16.5 ± 1.0 15.2 ± 1.2 17.5 ± 0.5 15.3 ± 1.1 0.65 ± 0.05 0.43 ± 0.01 0.58 ± 0.03 0.47 ± 0.03 0.30 ± 0.02 0.23 ± 0.02 0.35 ± 0.02 0.20 ± 0.03 74 ± 1 54 ± 2 71 ± 1 57 ± 2 44 ± 1 36 ± 1 46 ± 1 37 ± 2 0.17 –1.8 9.0 2.2 19 2.9 0.38 0.96 53 3.9 0.27  108 0.12  108 0.22  108 0.14  108 0.058  108 0.034  108 0.079  108 0.026  108 0.09  108 21 The initial mass and chlorhexidine gradients were calculated using data up to 6 h and 1 week respectively, whereas the maximum mass and volume increase was obtained at 24 h. Geometric mean refers to that of all eight formulations. The errors represent the standard deviation of the mean (n = 8 and 3 in (a) and (b) respectively). 2528 I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 subsequent immersion in deionized water for various periods up to 24 h. Variations in chemistry with depth were additionally assessed by analysis of fracture surfaces of BFS specimens. All spectra were obtained using a Lab Ram spectrometer (Horiba, Jobin Yvon, France). The samples were excited at 633.8 nm by an He–Ne laser though a microscope objective (50). Raman spectra were obtained in the region 800–1700 cm1 with a resolution 2 cm1 using a confocal hole of 300 lm, giving an approximate spatial resolution of 5 lm. To gain representative average spectra, several hundred point spectra for each sample were generated and their average was used. After baseline subtraction, these average spectra were normalized using a peak that was not significantly affected by polymerization (1455 cm1, C–H stretch bond). The percentage degree of monomer conversion was then calculated using Eq. (1) [28,29]: % degree of conversion ¼ 100½A0  At  A0 ð1Þ 2.5. Mass and volume changes The mass and volume of formulations containing CHX, PLR of 1:1 or 3:1 and MCPM of particle diameter 29 or 90 lm were measured gravimetrically using a four-figure balance (Mettler Toledo) with attached density kit. Each specimen was placed upright in the conical end of a sterilin tube, allowing contact of both sides with 10 ml of either deionized water or phosphate buffer solution. The tubes were then incubated at 37 °C for 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 24 and 48 h, and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 weeks. At each time point, the specimens were removed, blotted dry, reweighed and placed in new tubes containing fresh storage solution. The percentage volume and mass change at each time was finally determined from Eqs. (4) and (5) respectively: 100½V t  V o  Vo 100½M t  M o  % mass change ¼ Mo % volume change ¼ ð4Þ ð5Þ where A0 and At are the peak height of the C=C stretch peak at 1638 cm1 before and after polymerization respectively. Qualitative determination of water sorption-induced brushite formation was assessed as a function of depth though relative changes in various phosphate peak heights around 1000 cm1. Raman P–O stretch peaks of b-TCP are at 943/968, MCPM at 901/912/1011 and brushite at 986 cm1 [29,30]. These are well separated from typical major methacrylate peaks [29] or those of chlorhexidine (at 1286/1292 and 1597 cm1) [30], and are therefore easy to identify. Here, V t and M t are the volume and mass at time t after immersion, while V o and M o are the initial volume and mass respectively. Each formulation was examined in triplicate. 2.4. Compressive and biaxial flexure strength R¼ The CS and BFS of all possible formulations were determined before and after 24 h and 1 week of immersion in deionized water using a computer-controlled universal testing machine (Instron 4502, UK) using eight specimens of each formulation. For BFS, the samples were placed on a knife-edge ring support of 8 mm diameter and the load was applied using a 4 mm diameter spherical ball indenter at 1 mm min1 crosshead speed. The failure stress was recorded and the BFS calculated using Eq. (2): h a i o qn BFS ¼ 2 ð1 þ mÞ 0:485 ln þ 0:52 þ 0:48 ð2Þ l l where q is the load at failure, l is the sample thickness, a is the radius of the knife-edge support and m is Poisson’s ratio (0.225) [31]. Compressive strength specimens were loaded at a crosshead speed of 1 mm min1 and calculated using Eq. (3): CS ¼ q pr2 where r is the radius of the sample. ð3Þ 2.6. Chlorhexidine release Absorbance of the above storage solutions between 200 and 400 nm were recorded using a ultraviolet (UV) spectrometer (Unicam UV 500, ThermospectronicÒ) and checked to ensure they had the same profile as spectra of pure CHX solutions. The amount of CHX released (R in grams) was then calculated using Eq. (6): A V g ð6Þ where A is the absorbance at 255 nm, g is the gradient of a calibration curve of absorbance vs. CHX concentration (obtained using known solutions [30]) and V is the storage solution volume. The percentage cumulative amount of drug release (% Rc ) at time t was then given by Eq. (7): Pt  100 0 Rt ð7Þ % Rc ¼ wc where wc is the weight of CHX incorporated in the formulation in grams. 2.7. Calcium and phosphate ion release Three different formulations containing CHX with PLR 1:1 or 3:1 and MCPM of particle diameter 29 lm or PLR of 1:1 with MCPM particle diameter 90 lm were prepared in triplicate. All specimens were subsequently stored at 37 °C in 10 ml of deionized water. Storage solutions were replaced with fresh deionized water at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 24 and 48 h, and 1 and 2 weeks. Calcium (Ca2+) and phosphate (PO43) ion concentrations in storage solutions were I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 determined using ion chromatography (Dionex, UK) and calibration solutions of calcium chloride or sodium phosphate standards of various ppm concentrations. Results were converted from ppm to mM and the cumulative release for Ca2+ and PO43 calculated using Eqs. (8) and (9) respectively: I ppm Mw t X ½I mM t CI ¼ I mM ¼ 0 ð8Þ ð9Þ where I mM and I ppm is ion release in mM and ppm respectively, while Mw is the molecular weight of Ca2+ or PO43 and CI is the cumulative ion release. 2.8. Antibacterial studies In antibacterial studies, in addition to CHX-containing experimental samples, one formulation with PLR 3:1 but no CHX and the commercial resin-modified glass ionomer cement (RMGIC), Fuji II LC improved (GC corporation) were used as controls. 2.8.1. Agar diffusion assay In agar diffusion assays (BASAC Disk Diffusion Method for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing, Version 1, 2007), isosensitest agar (Oxoid) plates were inoculated with standardized cultures of Streptococcus mutans (NCTC 10449), Lactobacillus casei (NCTC 6375) or Actinomyces naeslundii (NCTC 10951). Three discs of each formulation with PLR 1:1 or 3:1 and MCPM particle diameter of 29 lm or PLR 1:1 with MCPM particle diameter 90 lm were prepared and then placed aseptically onto inoculated plates. All plates were incubated at 37 °C in a 5% CO2 atmosphere for 48 h except for those containing A. naeslundii, which were incubated anaerobically for 72 h. The inhibition zones were measured at three different points using callipers. 2.8.2. Biofilm study A constant depth film fermentor (CDFF; University College Cardiff, UK), described previously [32], was used to grow oral microcosm biofilms at 37 °C. Formulations with PLR 1:1 or 3:1 and MCPM particle diameter 29 lm were evaluated. Nine discs of each formulation were placed on plugs recessed in 5 mm diameter polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) pans, which were then inserted flush with a stainless steel turntable beneath fixed PTFE scrapper blades. The samples themselves were recessed 300 lm below these blades to provide space for biofilm growth. Saliva was collected from 10 healthy individuals, and an equal amount from each was mixed with 10 vol.% glycerol and stored at 70 °C. As required, one cryovial containing 1 ml pooled saliva was defrosted and used to inoculate 500 ml of sterile artificial saliva [33]. This was passed though the CDFF at a flow rate of 0.5 ml min1 (approximate salivary flow rate in humans) for 8 h followed by 2529 sterile artificial saliva at the same rate for the remainder of the experiment. The turntable speed was fixed at 3 rpm. Three discs of each formulation were removed aseptically from the CDFF after 6, 24 and 72 h and vortexed for 1 min in 1 ml of phosphate-buffered saline (Oxoid). Following serial dilution, 25 ll of this phosphate buffer solution was plated onto fastidious anaerobic agar plates (Oxoid). The agar plates were incubated anaerobically at 37 °C for 5 days and then the number of colony-forming units (CFU) was determined. 2.9. Biological assessment An in vitro attachment study of human osteoblast-like cells (MG63, an osteosarcoma line) was performed to assess the biocompatibility of formulations with PLR 1:1 or 3:1 with 0% CHX and small MCPM particle diameter. The results were compared with unfilled copolymer and ThermanoxÒ (surface treated polyethylene terephthalate) as control surfaces. Prior to culture, all samples were sterilized by UV exposure for 30 min each side and pretreated by incubation for 24 h in culture medium (Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (Gibco)) supplemented with 10 vol.% foetal calf serum and 1 vol.% penicillin and streptomycin solution (Gibco). The cells were then seeded at a density of 2.5  104 cells per disc in 6-well culture plates. After 24 h, the samples were fixed overnight with 3% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M sodium cacodylate buffer (Agar Scientific Ltd., Essex, UK) at 4 °C and then dehydrated in a graded series of alcohols (20%, 50%, 70%, 90% and 100%). The dehydrated samples were critically dried in hexamethyldisilazane (Taab Laboratories Ltd., Berkshire, UK) for 1 min and then left to air dry in a desiccator. The processed samples were finally mounted on aluminium stubs, sputter coated with gold–palladium alloy (Polaron E5000) and viewed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM; Cambridge 90B, Leica, UK) supplied with energy-dispersive Xray microanalysis (EDX; Inca 300, Oxford Instruments Analytical, UK). 2.10. Theory and statistical analysis The early stages of diffusion-controlled properties, such as water sorption and drug release, for flat discs can often be given by Eq. (10) [34]: rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2Dt ð10Þ DM ¼ 100M 1 pl2 2l, D and t are the sample thickness, a diffusion coefficient and time respectively. DM represents the change in mass, volume or cumulative drug in solution. M1 is the maximum change. In the following, all these properties are plotted as a function of the square root of time to enable clear visualization of trends at both early and late time points. Initial gradients of these plots and maximum or final values were determined and analysed using the factorial analysis expressions given below. 2530 I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 A suitable factorial expression to analyse kinetic or equilibrium data from eight samples with three variables each with two possible values would be [35,36] þ F 1 F 3 a1;3 þ F 2 F 3 a2;3 þ F 1 F 2 F 3 a1;2;3 2aijk ¼ hln P iFiFjFk¼þ1  hln P iFiFjFk¼1 ð14Þ 95% confidence interval (CI) error bars forp2a parameters were calculated assuming CI = 1.96  SD/ n. If these error bars cross zero, the variable i has no significant effect on the property. It should also be noted that the exponent of hln Pi equals the geometric mean of P. From Eq. (12) the exponent of 2ai is also the ratio of the geometric mean result for all samples with Fi = +1 divided by that when Fi = 1. In other words, it is the factor by which a property on average alters when one variable is changed. Data from mechanical tests were also analysed using the above factorial methods. Ion release and antibacterial results were analysed using independent-student’s t-test assuming normal distribution of the data and equality of variance at a significance level of <0.05. 600 500 300 After polymerisation 1638 943/968 Before polymerisation1400 200 901/912 100 1288/1294 1011 0 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 -1 Wavenumber (cm ) Fig. 1. Representative average Raman spectra of an experimental adhesive with high PLR, small MCPM particle diameter and 5 wt.% CHX, before and at 24 h post-curing followed by an additional 24 h immersion in deionized water. Spectra exhibit monomer peaks at 1400/ 1638, b-TCP at 943/968, MCPM at 901/912/1011, brushite at 986 and CHX at 1288/1294 cm1. substantially in all spectra. The average degree of conversion was approximately 90% (Table 1(a)) and was not affected significantly by any variable (see small 2ai values in Fig. 2). A comparable level of conversion was also observed with the unfilled polymer (data not shown). Relative heights of different phosphate peaks could vary substantially with the region selected for examination with the Raman microscope. Additionally, high fluorescence by some phosphate particles could prevent low noise Raman spectra being generated in some areas. Only qualitative interpretation of the phosphate peaks was therefore attempted. 0.16 0.06 3. Results -0.04 2ai 3.1. Degree of monomer conversion and brushite formation Due to composite specimen inhomogeneity and the micron scale spatial resolution of the Raman microscope, point spectra of dry samples tended to be dominated by either a mixture of polymer/monomer/CHX peaks (i.e. the drug-filled matrix phase) or were identical to the spectrum of either b-TCP or MCPM. After water immersion, point spectra had a mixture of organic and inorganic peaks. Fig. 1 shows example average Raman spectra for one specimen before polymerization, at 24 h post-cure and after subsequent submersion in deionized water for 24 h. At 24 h post-cure, the vinyl C@C stretch peak at 1638 cm1 relative to the saturated C–H stretch peak at 1455 cm1 decreased 943 400 ð12Þ ð13Þ 968 700 ð11Þ hln PiF=+1 and hln PiF=1 are the arithmetic mean values of ln P for all four samples with Fi equal to +1 and 1 respectively. ai,j and ai,j,k are two and three variable interaction terms. These were calculated using: 2aij ¼ hln P iFiFj¼þ1  hln P iFiFj¼1 24 hr after immersion in water 800 F can have values of +1 or 1 only. In the following, F1 and F2 equal +1 or 1 when the PLR and MCPM particle diameter is high or low respectively. F3 is +1 or 1 when CHX concentration is high or low or the storage solution water or buffer respectively. <ln P> is the arithmetic mean of ln P for all eight possible formulations. 2ai quantifies the average effect of changing variable i and was calculated using: 2ai ¼ hln P iF ¼þ1  hln P iF ¼1 986 900 Intensity ln P ¼ hln P i þ F 1 a1 þ F 2 a2 þ F 3 a3 þ F 1 F 2 a1;2 1000 -0.14 degree of conversion -0.24 dry CS dry BFS -0.34 wet CS wet BFS -0.44 PLR MCPM p.d CHX conc. Variable factor Fig. 2. 2ai values (see Eqs. (11)–(14)) for degree of conversion and dry and wet compressive and biaxial flexural strengths of experimental adhesives with variables PLR, MCPM particle diameter and CHX concentration. Error bars are 95% CI.  refers to 2ai values that are significantly different from zero. Interaction terms were negligible so not shown. 2531 I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 14 10 8 6 4 3.2. Compressive and biaxial flexure strength 2 Geometric average CS and BFS for all formulations decreased from 87 and 61 down to 32 and 27 MPa respectively upon 24 h storage in water (Table 1(a)). Conversely, the initial CS and BFS for unfilled polymer were 140 and 88 MPa respectively, and little changed after 24 h immersion in water. As all 2ai values are comparable with or smaller than 95% CI error bars (Fig. 2), none of the studied variables had a significant effect on the dry composite strength. With smaller MCPM particle diameter, however, the decline in strength in water was reduced (note the negative 2ai value in Fig. 2 for MCPM diameter). The average wet CS and BFS increased from 27 and 22–38 and 32 MPa respectively upon lowering the MCPM particle diameter by threefold. Between 24 h and 1 week of water immersion, no significant change in either CS or BFS was observed (see Table 1(a)). 0 Composite mass and volume change were both proportional to the square root of time for the first 6 h (see e.g. Fig. 3), as expected from Eq. (10). After 24 h these properties declined slowly as water sorption reached equilibrium and further changes due to material loss exceeded the effects of any further water sorption gain. The geometric average initial gradient of mass change was 0.17 wt.% min0.5. The average results at high and low PLR were 0.26 and 0.12 wt.% min0.5 respectively (Table 1(b)). Factorial analysis showed raising PLR increased this gradient most. It also revealed that increasing PLR caused the greatest increase in the maximum mass and volume. Removal of buffer from the storage solution had a smaller effect and MCPM particle diameter, while variable interactions had no significant effect on these properties (Fig. 4). For all formulations, the volume change was generally double that of mass change. Geometric average volume and mass change for all formulations reached maxima of 19 and 9% respectively at 24 h (Table 1(b)). They then slowly declined over the following 6 weeks to final values of 13 and 7% respectively. Factorial analysis (Fig. 4) suggests that factors affecting maximum mass change had 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 SQRT (time/min) Fig. 3. Mass changes in deionized water or phosphate buffer solution as a function of square root of time for experimental adhesives containing MCPM particles of 29 or 90 lm diameter. Filled and unfilled symbols refer to PLR of 3:1 and 1:1 respectively. As expected from Eq. (10), this plot is initially linear but reaches a maximum after 24 h. The standard deviation of the reported values ranged from 0.3 to 1.2 wt.% (n = 3). (within experimental error) the same effect on maximum volume change. 3.4. Chlorhexidine release The level of CHX release was proportional to the square root of time for a longer period than mass and volume changes, as evidenced from Figs. 3 and 5. After 4 weeks 1.0 Initial mass gradient CHX release gradient Final CHX release Maximum mass increase Maximum volume increase 0.8 0.6 2ai 3.3. Mass and volume changes p.d=29, water p.d=90, water p.d=29, buffer p.d=90, buffer 12 Mass change (wt%). Before submersion in deionized water, phosphate peaks (P–O stretch) at 901, 912 and 1188 cm1 due to MCPM, and at 943 and 968 cm1 for b-TCP, were clearly observed in averaged Raman spectra of both unpolymerized and polymerized specimens. After 24 h immersion in deionized water, however, the peaks attributed to b-TCP and MCPM were substantially reduced in intensity relative to the polymer C–H peak at 1455 cm1. In their place a brushite peak at 986 cm1 (P–O stretch) became visible. Irrespective of formulation, brushite was formed throughout the sample thickness, although low levels of unreacted b-TCP also remained in some regions of some samples (see e.g. Fig. 1). 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 PLR MCPM p.d Storage solution Variable factor Fig. 4. 2ai values (see Eqs. (11)–(14)) for initial gradient and total cumulative CHX release, initial gradient of mass increase, maximum mass and volume increase, with variables PLR, MCPM particle diameter and type of storage solution. Error bars are 95% CI.  refers to 2ai values that are significantly different from zero. Interaction terms were negligible and so are not shown. 2532 80 5 70 4.5 PLR 3:1, PO4 PLR 3:1, Ca PLR 1:1, PO4 PLR 1:1, Ca 4 60 Cumulative ion release (mM) Cumulative chlorhexidine release (wt%) I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 50 40 30 20 p.d=29, water p.d=90, water p.d=29, buffer p.d=90, buffer 10 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0 0.5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 SQRT (time/min) (square root time, t = 200 min0.5 in Fig. 5), release rates had substantially declined despite total CHX release being significantly <100%. The geometric mean of the initial gradient of CHX release, the drug diffusion coefficient and the total CHX release for all formulations were 0.38 wt.% min0.5, 0.09  108 cm2 s1 and 53 wt.% respectively, as given in Table 1(b). Factorial analysis (Fig. 4) indicated that increasing the PLR caused the greatest increase in both the early release rate and later time total CHX release. Upon increasing the PLR from 1:1 to 3:1, the gradient of CHX release and diffusion coefficient increased on average by factors of 2 and 3.8 respectively, whereas the total release increased by a factor of 1.6. Removal of buffer increased the gradient of CHX release and the diffusion coefficient by factors of 1.4 and 2 respectively, whereas the total release increased by a factor of 1.3. The effects of MCPM particle diameter and variable interactions were negligible. 3.5. Calcium and phosphate release The cumulative Ca2+ and PO43 release from all samples exhibited a burst release for the first 24 h, after which the release continued at a much slower rate (see e.g. Fig. 6). Early release of PO43 was greater than that of Ca2+, but after 24 h the release rates for the two ions were comparable. By comparing the total Ca2+ and PO43 release after 2 weeks (Fig. 7), the formulations with high PLR released significantly more Ca2+ and PO43 than low PLR (p < 0.05). Moreover, the formulations with large MCPM particle diameter exhibited significantly more Ca2+and PO43 release than formulations with small MCPM particle diameter (p < 0.05). 0 50 100 150 SQRT (time/min) Fig. 6. Calcium and phosphate ion release kinetics of experimental adhesives prepared with high (filled symbols) and low (unfilled symbols) PLR and small MCPM particle diameter. The standard deviations of the reported values ranged from 0.05 to 0.1 mM and from 0.07 to 0.14 mM for calcium and phosphate respectively (n = 3). 3.6. Antibacterial studies All CHX-containing test materials gave inhibition zones in agar diffusion tests (Fig. 8), in contrast to the control samples, which gave no observable antibacterial activity. 5 PO4 Ca 4 Maximum ion release (mM) Fig. 5. CHX release into deionized water or phosphate buffer solution as a function of the square root of time (see Eq. (10)) for experimental adhesives containing MCPM particles of 29 or 90 lm diameter. Filled and unfilled symbols refer to PLR 3:1 and 1:1 respectively. The standard deviation of the reported values ranged from 0.2 to 1.5 wt.% (n = 3). 3 2 1 0 PLR 3:1 1:1 1:1 MCPM p.d 29 90 29 Fig. 7. Maximum concentrations of calcium and phosphate ions released from adhesive formulations with high or low PLR (with small or large MCPM particle diameter) after 2 weeks of immersion in deionized water.  refers to formulations which have significantly different results when compared with the sample with PLR 1:1 and MCPM particle diameter 29 lm. Error bars represent 95% CI of the mean (n = 3). 2533 I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 25 1.E+08 S.mutans 1.E+07 L.casie 20 Fuji II LC Formulation (I) Formulation (II) Formulation (III) A.naeslundii CFU per biofilm Inhibition zone (mm) 1.E+06 15 10 1.E+05 1.E+04 1.E+03 1.E+02 5 1.E+01 1.E+00 0 PLR MCPM p.d 3:1 1:1 1:1 29 29 90 Fig. 8. Inhibition zones observed in agar diffusion tests for adhesive formulations prepared with variable PLR and MCPM particle diameter.  refers to formulations which have significantly different results when compared with the sample with PLR 1:1 and MCPM particle diameter 29 lm. The error bars refer to 95% CI of the mean (n = 3). 6h 24h 72h Fig. 9. The number of CFU on RMGIC (Fuji II LC), and experimental adhesives after 6, 24 and 72 h in a CDFF. Error bars refer to 95% CI (n = 3).  refers to formulations which have significantly different results at a given time when compared with both formulation (I) and Fuji II LC. Formulation (I) contains 0% CHX, PLR 3:1. Formulations (II) and (III) contain 5% CHX with PLR 1:1 or 3:1 respectively. For all tested bacterial species, the size of inhibition zones significantly increased upon raising the PLR from 1:1 to 3:1 (p < 0.05) while varying MCPM particle diameter showed no significant effect (p > 0.05). The effect of PLR was particularly pronounced with A. naeslundii. From the biofilm study (Fig. 9), the CHX-containing formulations (II and III) showed more inhibition of growth at all time points compared to the control samples (formulation I and Fuji II LC) (p < 0.05). At 6 and 72 h, formulation III (with 3:1 PLR) inhibited growth slightly better (p < 0.05) than formulation II (with 1:1 PLR). idine have been developed for potential application as dental liner/base or adhesive materials. The antibacterial activity of this system has been assessed using both a simple agar diffusion method and a more sophisticated biofilm study. The remineralizing potential was initially monitored by considering the level of calcium and phosphate release. Moreover, the effect of such inclusion on the polymer properties was also considered from the chemistry, mechanical and biocompatibility points of view. 3.7. Biological assessment The resin monomers in adhesive formulations of this study showed a high level of polymerization (90%) upon photo-initiation. Generally, methacrylates in dental composites have lower polymerization levels (between 39% and 79%) [28]. The high degree of polymerization obtained in this study could be attributed to the incorporation of a high content of HEMA (50 wt.%). which is often added to dental adhesives to raise their hydrophilicity and hence their wetting ability to dentin [37]. The reduced monomer viscosity and raised polymer flexibility upon HEMA addition decreases the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the resin matrix and increases the mobility of reactive species, thereby enhancing the degree of conversion [38]. High monomer conversion can improve the biocompatibility, as unreacted monomers are then less likely to penetrate into pulpal tissues and cause an inflammatory reaction. Good biocompatibility is important if the material is to be used as a dental liner or composite adhesive, particularly when the remaining dentin thickness is minimal. Disadvantages of high polymerization, however, include greater heat After 24 h in cell culture medium, crystals with calcium/ phosphorus ratios of either 1.0 or 1.67 (EDX analysis) could be detected precipitated on the surfaces of experimental formulations containing filler (see Fig. 10c and d). The formulation with 3:1 PLR seemingly had a larger area covered by crystals than that with PLR 1:1. These crystals were not observed on unfilled copolymer, ThermanoxÒ or dry composite samples. MG63 cells showed attachment and migration on both the experimental formulations containing filler, as well as on unfilled copolymer (Fig. 10b) and thermanoxÒ (see Fig. 10a). The cytoplasmic extensions from the cells spread over the composite surface and towards crystals of variable shape and size. 4. Discussion Bioactive and antibacterial methacrylate resins incorporating both reactive calcium phosphate fillers and chlorhex- 4.1. Degree of monomer conversion and brushite formation 2534 I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 Fig. 10. SEM micrographs of cells on different surfaces: (a) ThermanoxÒ; (b) unfilled copolymer; (c) formulation with PLR 1:1; (d) formulation with PLR 3:1. generation and polymerization shrinkage, both of which are proportional to the degree of conversion [39,40]. Generally, the addition of filler particles can potentially reduce the rate of methacrylate polymerization, particularly if there is a mismatch in the filler and resin refractive indices and significant specimen opacity. A higher filler level or small particles can additionally inhibit the polymerization, if particles are poorly wet by the monomer, by increasing the chance of air bubble incorporation [41]. On the other hand, CHX addition can increase the methacrylate polymerization rate [7]. In this study, however, at 24 h, increasing both the particle diameter and the filler mass fraction or adding CHX had no significant effect on the vinyl conversion level. MCPM particles were included in the above samples to encourage water sorption and thereby enhance CHX, calcium and phosphate release. With MCPM alone these processes are too extensive, leading to excessive material degradation. Additionally, with no filler or only b-TCP in the methacrylate monomers of the above study, the CHX release was greatly restricted (data not shown). Incorporation of both the highly degradable MCPM and the relatively insoluble b-TCP as a reactive filler was attempted to provide a control on water sorption and ion release. Through the reaction of MCPM with water and b-TCP, lower solubility brushite can form within these composites, providing a novel means to control water sorption and component release processes. Raman spectroscopy can be used to distinguish various different calcium phosphate species [29,30,42]. In this investigation, Raman mapping studies proved that brushite formation occurred throughout the sample thickness within 6 h of water immersion irrespective of the formulation. As the molecular weight of b-TCP (310 g mol1) is slightly greater than that of MCPM (252 g mol1), with equal weights of the two, there is a 19 wt.% excess of latter in the above formulations. MCPM, however, is more water soluble than b-TCP and therefore more likely to be released from the materials at early times. If more that 19 wt.% of the MCPM is released, then b-TCP will be in excess and should be (and is, in some cases) observed in Raman spectra after 24 h of submersion in water. 4.2. Compressive and biaxial flexure strength The dry composite materials had significantly poorer mechanical properties than the unfilled resin. A likely cause is lack of interaction between the filler and resin matrix, making the organic/inorganic interface a point of weakness. All the studied formulations additionally exhibited a much greater decline in compressive and biaxial flexure strength after 24 h of immersion in deionized water than the unfilled copolymer. This is presumably due to the soluble MCPM encouraging high water sorption, which is considered a key factor reducing composite mechanical properties. This occurs via plasticization and disruption I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 of the polymer matrix [43]. Filler release arising upon water sorption will also, however, be a contributory factor causing decline in strength. The lack of further deterioration in strength between 24 h and 1 week of water immersion is likely due to both cessation of water sorption and a substantial reduction in the calcium phosphate release rate during this period. The addition of CHX in these new formulations did not affect the mechanical properties. This is in contrast with an earlier report, which demonstrated a substantial decline in both tensile and compressive strengths of dental composites with the addition of 5% of chlorhexidine [44]. This discrepancy could be attributed to the form of CHX salt used: acetate (in this study) vs. gluconate (in the former study). Increasing the PLR from 1:1 to 3:1 had no effect on either the compressive or biaxial flexure strength of either dry or wet samples. Formulations with small MCPM particle diameter, however, exhibited a smaller reduction in mechanical strength in water. This is likely due to a reduced percentage of calcium phosphate release from the specimens (see below). The above new formulations showed a greater decline in strength in water than similar amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) composites [45–47]. A likely major cause is the higher percentage filler loss in this study arising from the greater solubility of MCPM compared with ACP. The compressive strength of all formulations in this investigation exceed those of conventional self-curing calcium hydroxide (14–27 MPa) [48], and are comparable to polymer-reinforced zinc oxide eugenol, a commonly used liner/base and temporary restorative material (38 MPa) [49]. Zinc oxide eugenol cements, however, could not be used with composite restorations due to their retardation effect on methacrylate polymerization. Consequently, our formulations could be used, without modification, as a liner/base and temporary restorative materials with added benefits of simultaneous Ca2+, PO43 and CHX release. 4.3. Volume and mass changes The high initial increase in mass and volume of the composite samples is likely due to the presence of MCPM, the dissolution of which in absorbed water enhances osmotic pressure. As observed in a previous study with ACP composites, maximum water sorption was approximately proportional to the filler mass fraction [50,51]. In this study, raising the PLR was observed to cause an even greater effect on the initial rate of water sorption. According to the following equation, for every gram of MCPM, 0.5 g of water is required for formation of brushite [23]: Ca3 ðPO4 Þ2 þ CaðH2 PO4 Þ2  H2 O þ 7H2 O ! 4CaHPO4  2H2 O For full reaction of all the MCPMs with PLR 3:1 and 1:1, 18.7 and 12.5 wt.% water therefore needs to be absorbed. The average maximum mass increase (due to combined 2535 water sorption and MCPM loss) was 10.8 and 7.7 wt.% for formulations with PLR 3:1 and 1:1 respectively. From the percentages of MCPM lost (21–29 wt.%; see below) these figures suggest that slightly less water is absorbed than is required for full reaction of all the MCPM remaining in the composites. Formulations immersed in phosphate buffer exhibited less water sorption than those in deionized water. This could be explained by a reduced osmotic gradient between the aqueous droplets inside the polymer (containing dissolved calcium and phosphate species) and the external solutions. This could indicate that the high water sorption of the formulations in this study is an osmotically driven process. The reproducible decrease in the mass and volume of the samples over longer periods may be due to some limited, slow filler loss, but also water being forced out of the polymer matrix upon reduction of osmotic pressure when the fillers precipitate as brushite. The final mass and volumes were stable by the end of the experiment but always greater than initial values. This was due to the additional volume of the water, which was bound within the brushite, exceeding the mass and volume of any components released. 4.4. CHX release Early release of CHX from the materials was proportional to the square root of time, as expected for a diffusion-controlled process, but at longer times the release slows substantially, possibly because of binding of absorbed water in brushite crystal structures. CHX release will have only a limited effect on mass and volume changes because its percentage mass is relatively low and it is likely to be replaced in the bulk of the material by water of similar density. Increasing the MCPM and b-TCP filler mass fraction substantially enhanced the release of CHX. Release of this drug also continued for several weeks despite most of the water absorbed in the first 24 h rapidly becoming bound in brushite crystal structures. A possible explanation for this is that precipitation of brushite gives a composite structure with channels through the polymer that allow drug diffusion. The reduction in CHX release upon the addition of buffer to the storage water may be due to the reduced water sorption of the samples (see the results of the mass changes). Another explanation could be related to the cationic nature of CHX, which may bind to anions in the phosphate buffer solutions (phosphate and chloride) to form salts of lower solubility. Compared with other CHX releasing resins, the experimental formulations in this study can give a high percentage release of between 27 and 70 wt.% in 2 weeks. Composites produced using the same monomers as in this study but with fluoroaluminosilicate glass filler released only 5.4% CHX over a similar time period [7]. This could be increased by raising the water sorption via enrichment 2536 I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 of the HEMA content of the resin matrix, but this substantially decreases the composite’s strength. In the above study, the addition of reactive calcium phosphate fillers rather than increasing HEMA content could be a more appropriate approach to encourage CHX release from matrix resins, particularly with the remineralization benefits of the calcium phosphate filler. With unfilled UDMA/TEGDMA-based resin, estimates suggest that it would take several years to release 50% of the entrapped CHX at pH 6 [27]. Furthermore, a self-curing system based on poly(ethylmethacrylate) and tetrahydrofurfuryl methacrylate exhibited a release of only 6–12% of incorporated CHX over 14 days [52]. Fast early release of CHX is important to eliminate residual bacteria and/or early colonization of the gaps between a tooth and restoration, and this could be particularly useful if the drug can then be trapped within such gaps. Such entrapment might be improved, for example, by placement of a stronger composite material on top of the new material. CHX is known to interfere beneficially with the endogenous enzymatic degradation of collagen [53]. In addition, the release of CHX from the new adhesive formulations into acid-etched/demineralized dentine could therefore also potentially improve bond durability. It is further anticipated that co-release with calcium phosphate could help binding and entrapment of CHX within the adhesive/collagen hybrid layer. Longer-term CHX release from the material or additionally the hybrid layer could then help prevent bacterial microleakage within gaps that form upon bond failure due to occlusal loading and thermal cycling. 4.5. Calcium and phosphate release The reactive filler in the above formulations enabled burst release of Ca2+ and PO43 in the first 24 h of sample immersion in deionized water, but this was followed by a substantial decline in the release rate for the remaining experimental period. The initial burst release could be explained by largely surface dissolution of the fillers, particularly the MCPM, which has a higher solubility than b-TCP (Ksp = 7.18  102 and 2.071033 at 25 °C respectively) [54]. Some of this MCPM could, however, be from the core of the specimens if calcium phosphate diffusion though the polymer matrix is faster than reaction and brushite precipitation. The ratio of Ca2+ to PO43 release was consistent, with significantly more dissolution of MCPM than of b-TCP (the molar ratios of Ca2+/PO43 are 0.5 and 1.5 in MCPM and b-TCP respectively). After 24 h the release of MCPM decreased, presumably due to elimination of all the MCPM from the material either by dissolution or brushite formation. Brushite has low aqueous solubility compared to MCPM (Ksp = 2.59  107 at 25 °C) [54]. Any excess water in the materials after brushite is formed could therefore be expelled from the material due to a lowering of osmotic pressure. Since calcium and phosphate release are slow at later times, this could in part provide an alternative explanation for the slight reduction in material mass and volume after 24 h. Increasing the filler mass fraction from 50% to 75% enhanced the release of Ca2+ and PO43 presumably because of increased water sorption as well as ion source. This effect was also observed in previous studies of Ca2+ and PO43 release from calcium phosphate-based resin composites [22]. The slightly increased ion release from formulations with larger MCPM particle diameter may be due to the higher concentration of this chemical in direct contact with the sample surface. The MCPM away from the surface of the sample is clearly able to react to a large degree within the material before it can be released though diffusion. Bioactive composites based on ACP also exhibited reduced release of Ca2+ and PO43 ions upon decreasing the particle diameter [46], which was attributed to the better interaction between the smaller filler particles and polymer matrix. The level of Ca2+ and PO43 release after 2 weeks is consistent with approximately 21 wt.% MCPM filler loss for formulations with small particle diameter irrespective of PLR. With larger MCPM particle diameter the percentage loss is slightly higher, at 26 wt.%. There is therefore a slight excess of b-TCP in the materials after water immersion, which would explain the detection of low levels of this component in Raman spectra at later times. In summary, the above results suggest that the levels of calcium and phosphate release are dependent upon the amount of MCPM in contact with the material surface. This could be increased either by raising the PLR, the ratio of MCPM to b-TCP or the MCPM particle diameter. In previous studies of bioactive calcium phosphate composites, release of Ca2+ and PO43 was proven to enhance the mineral content of artificially demineralized human teeth [55]. Exactly how much calcium phosphate is required, however, is expected to be dependent upon the thickness of the demineralized layer. It should be noted that vital pulpal tissues themselves have the ability to remineralize and repair carious tooth structures [56]. This regenerative capacity, however, can be reduced by bacteria-enhanced inflammation [57,58]. Furthermore, additional calcium ions can stimulate differentiation of mineral-forming cells in the pulpal tissues [59]. Materials that release both antibacterial and calcium-containing components might therefore improve repairing activity of pulpal tissues. Ideally, most of the required calcium phosphate should be released early, as occurs with the above new formulations. If the material is adjacent to a demineralized tooth structure, however, then additional sustained slow release from one interface to the other could help to remineralize teeth damaged by caries, improve mixing of the two interfaces and continue repair of the resin bond over a prolonged period. The latter could help combat the decline in bond strength that occurs with thermal and mechanical cycling and incomplete infiltration of the hybrid layer. The I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 additional entrapment of CHX in this interfacial layer should furthermore prevent bacterial microleakage in the long term. 2537 on the surface, which may inhibit further killing by reducing the penetration of antimicrobial agents [66]. 4.7. Biological assessment 4.6. Antibacterial studies The agar diffusion assay has been widely accepted as a simple screening method to assess the antibacterial properties of restorative materials [4]. However, this assay does not reflect the actual status in an oral cavity where the bacteria exist as a biofilm which exhibits an increased resistance to antibacterial agents. In our study, we also measured the efficacy of the new formulations to inhibit bacterial biofilm growth using a CDFF model. In the present study, two principle aetiological species of dental caries were selected for the agar diffusion assay, S. mutans and L. casei [60,61]. Both of these have been specifically isolated from bacterial biofilms adherent to composite restorations [62]. In addition, A. naeslundii was also selected for study due to it is potential role in root surface caries [63]. Only CHX-releasing formulations gave any significant antibacterial zone. These increased in size with raised PLR as expected, since the average concentrations of CHX released by formulations with high and low PLR at 48 h were estimated to be 56 and 39 lg ml1 respectively. This confirmed that CHX was released from the test materials in a high-enough concentration to effectively inhibit the growth of the organisms tested. The agar diffusion assay results also confirmed that the antibacterial activity of test samples was purely due to CHX release. In our study, the lack of inhibition zones of Fuji II LC could be due to insufficient fluoride release. This finding has previously been reported for glass ionomer cements using the same test and similar bacterial species [64]. The greater effect of raising PLR on inhibition zones of A. naeslundii could be attributed to the slower growth rate of this species. In the more complex biofilm model system, formulations with 5% CHX in the monomer phase exhibited effective reduction in viable bacterial numbers on their surfaces. The effectiveness was also dependent upon PLR and hence on concentration of CHX released. The CHX-releasing experimental adhesives were more effective against the build-up of biofilm growth than a commercially available fluoride-releasing material, an effect that has been previously reported [7]. However, although the viable counts remained low throughout the experimental period compared to controls, there was an increase in biofilm mass over time. This may be due to a reaction between the chlorhexidine and the artificial saliva. Indeed, the exchange of acetate with chloride salts of artificial saliva leads to the formation of insoluble salts and reduces CHX release from methacrylate polymers [65]. Furthermore, the effectiveness of antibacterial agent-releasing materials has also been shown to be reduced by the formation of a dead layer of bacterial cells In this study, in vitro cell attachment to the new formulations was evaluated using MG63 cells, a cell line widely used to evaluate osteoblast-like behaviour on various biomaterials [67]. The osteoblast cell line has been previously used to study the cytotoxicity of methacrylate-based calcium phosphate composites [68]. The role of osteoblasts in the initial stages of dentin reparation has also been reported [69]. The morphological characteristics and spreading behaviour of cells seeded for 24 h on material surfaces indicate early biocompatibility of the new formulations. This could be of clinical significance as the material may then be applied in deep cavities or directly on pulpal tissues without potentially causing any cytotoxic effects and could perhaps play a role in reparative pulpal changes. After immersion in growth medium, the crystals formed on tested formulations have Ca:P ratios of 1.0 and 1.67, which correspond to those of brushite (CaHPO4.2H2O) and hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) respectively. This may suggest that the Ca and PO4 ions that have been released reprecipitate on the material surface, forming crystals of different type, shape and size. The osteoconductive properties of hydroxyapatite and brushite are known to encourage cellular attachment and spreading [70,71]. The chemical composition of the monomer phase [72] and degree of conversion [73] are considered to be the most important factors affecting the biocompatibility of polymer-based dental materials. In this study, the addition of reactive calcium phosphate fillers to copolymer had no effect on the degree of conversion, and the cellular attachment was evident on both composites and copolymer. Although the material exhibited suitable properties as a liner/base material, further work may be needed to be undertaken to further improve the mechanical properties and to assess the bond strength of the new formulations to the tooth structure. In addition, further studies are required using host cells such as odontoblasts and evaluation by more quantitative methods the effect of altering PLR and adding chlorhexidine on material biocompatibility. 5. Conclusion Novel CHX-releasing calcium phosphate-filled methacrylate-based dental materials have been developed that could be used as an adhesive/liner with both antibacterial and remineralizing activities. These new formulations have high degree of monomer conversion that is suitable for these clinical applications. Through the addition of MCPM, water sorption by the polymerized materials is encouraged, providing a means for CHX release. Brushite formation within the polymer is encouraged through the further addition of b-TCP, providing a novel means to con- 2538 I. Mehdawi et al. / Acta Biomaterialia 5 (2009) 2525–2539 trol water sorption and ion release. Any MCPM in molar excess of the b-TCP is released within 24 h after placement of the polymerized formulations in water, which could be advantageous for dentine remineralization. In the presence of components of biological fluids, this calcium phosphate was observed to reprecipitate as a mixture of brushite and hydroxyapatite on the material surfaces. The level of calcium phosphate release required for remineralization processes would depend upon the thickness of the demineralized dentine layers but could be increased by raising the amount of excess MCPM, e.g. by increasing the PLR. With higher PLR, CHX release increased, as did the inhibition of bacteria on both agar plates and in biofilms. Using an in vitro model for assessment of cell compatibility, the material was proven to be non-toxic. Acknowledgements This project has been funded by the Ministry of Higher Education- Libya. The authors would also like to thank Mrs Nicola J. Mordan for technical assistance with SEM. References [1] Brunthaler A, Koing F, Lucas T, Sperr W, Schedle A. Longevity of direct resin composite restorations in posterior teeth. Clin Oral Investig 2003;7:63–70. 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