Assessing romantic competence among older adolescents

Journal of Adolescence 34 (2011) 397–406 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Adolescence journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jado Assessing romantic competence among older adolescents Shmuel Shulman a, *, Joanne Davila b, Lital Shachar-Shapira a a b Bar Ilan University, Israel State University of New York at Stony Brook, NY, USA a b s t r a c t Keywords: Romantic relationships Competence Adolescent relationships Assessment Davila and colleagues (Davila et al., 2009) developed the Romantic Competence Interview to capture the potential for romantic competence during early adolescence. Considering that at later stages of adolescence the majority are likely to be involved in some kind of romantic relationship, the current paper adapts, extends, and examines the concept of romantic competence among older adolescents. Seventy two Israeli adolescent girls (mean age 17.17 years) were given a revised version of the RCI along with measures of quality of relationship with romantic partners and parents, and quality of parental marital satisfaction. Mothers were also interviewed and were asked to talk about their attitudes toward daughters’ romantic behavior. Results showed that RCI scales were reliably coded and exhibited good construct validity. The meaning and expression of romantic competence among older adolescents is conceptualized and discussed within the framework of developmental and agency perspectives. Ó 2010 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction In a recent paper, Davila and colleagues (Davila et al., 2009) presented a newly developed Romantic Competence Interview designed to assess romantic competence among adolescents. Interviews conducted on a sample of early adolescent girls (M age ¼ 13.45) yielded a global rating of competence that considered girls’ ability to make decisions, regulate distress, and maintain self worth in the context of actual or hypothetical romantic activities and experiences. This assessment was developed, in part, to capture the potential for romantic competence during early adolescence, the stage when romantic interests start to emerge, but the majority of adolescents are not romantically involved. Considering that at later stages of adolescence the majority are likely to be involved in some kind of romantic relationship (Carver, Joyner, & Udry, 2003), it is important to extend and examine the concept of romantic competence among older adolescents. The current paper examines romantic competence among 16–18 year old adolescent girls. Romantic relationships are normative and salient during adolescence. Romantic interest, short encounters, and affiliation with mixed-gender groups during early and middle adolescence precede involvement in dyadic and lasting romantic relationships (Connolly, Craig, Goldberg, & Pepler, 2004). By the age of 18 more than 70% of adolescents report having had a romantic relationship (Carver et al., 2003). Moreover, the mean duration of relationships among 17 and 18 year olds may be 12 months or more (Carver et al., 2003; Shulman & Scharf, 2000), suggesting that by late adolescence a substantial number of adolescents have attained the capacity to become involved in steady and intimate romantic relationships. The specific capacities required to maintain such relationships may be different than the capacities needed to negotiate earlier phases of * Corresponding author. Department of Psychology, Bar Ilan University, 52900 Ramat Gan, Israel. Tel.: þ972 3 5350267. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Shulman). 0140-1971/$ – see front matter Ó 2010 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.08.002 398 S. Shulman et al. / Journal of Adolescence 34 (2011) 397–406 relationship involvement. As such, a somewhat different and more elaborated definition of romantic competence during latter stages of adolescence may be needed. That said, there are a number of capacities that are likely to be relevant for both early and late adolescent romantic functioning, and we drew on the definition developed by Davila et al. (2009) to guide our thinking. Their definition emphasized social-cognitive models of interpersonal problem solving, attachment theory, and models of emotion regulation, all theories that guided our definition of romantic competence in late adolescence as well. However, as described below, the specific foci for late adolescent relationships differed given the differences in romantic activity and quality across the developmental periods. This is logical given that the developmental tasks perspective (Masten, Burt, & Coatsworth, 2006) contends that individual competence is developmentally related and differs from one stage to the other. For example, having somebody to play with is an indicator of competence in childhood peer relationships whereas during adolescence, competent peer relationship is indicated by the existence of close and intimate relationships with friends (Burt, Obradovi c, Long, & Masten, 2008). Review of existing theory and research on adolescent romantic relationships also points to distinctive patterns of relationships that evolve with age. Embedded within a developmental perspective, theories, (Brown, 1999; Connolly & Goldberg, 1999), and research (Connolly & McIsaac, 2009b; Seiffge-Krenke, 2003) on stage models of adolescent romantic relationships describe development that moves from initial attractions to the consolidation of intimate and committed relationships. Triggered by pubertal maturation, adolescents become intensely interested in matters of sexuality and romance. These attractions may not be accompanied by actual interaction (Connolly & McIsaac, 2009b). Inexperience, personal worries, or even group pressure may prevent romantic interests from materializing and remain within the domain of personal fantasies (Tuval-Mashiach, Walsh, Harel, & Shulman, 2008). This romantic “activity” captures more the emergence of romantic interests and the potential to become romantically involved as described by Davila et al. (2009). However, gradually, romantic interests are materialized, but encounters are likely to be superficial or short-lived and more meant to enhance status within the peer group (Brown, 1999). Romantic partners may serve as companions and friends (Furman & Simon, 1999; Shulman & Scharf, 2000) providing experiences of cooperation with the other gender. Though crushes on and attraction to a potential romantic partner can be intense, romantic encounters serve mainly own needs and wishes showing less reference to the needs of the other. It is only during mid adolescence that romantic relationships become more steady and exclusive, and provide affection, intimacy, and support (Brown, 1999; Connolly & Goldberg, 1999). These encounters carry with them expressions of strong feelings and preferences, making these relationships emotionally charged. To achieve intimacy, one must be oriented not only to value and seek closeness but also to be sensitive to the needs and feeling of both self and others (Connolly & Goldberg, 1999; Shulman, Laursen, Kalman, & Karpovsky, 1997). In line with social cognitive models of problem solving, involvement in a deep and intimate relationship signifies an increasing ability to think through interpersonal situations in a way that recognizes consequences of own and other’s actions, and considers the needs and outcomes of both parties involved (Selman, Beardslee, Schultz, Krupa, & Podorefsky, 1986). Thus, in line with the developmental tasks perspective (Masten et al., 2006) romantic competence among older adolescents (e.g., 16 and older) differs from competence among younger adolescents in a number of key ways related to the length and depth of involvement, the emotional quality of the relationship, and its level of mutuality. Of particular importance, given the intensity of involvement, is the ability to recognize and address inevitable emerging disagreements, and negotiate them to the satisfaction of both partners. Given this, we emphasized the following aspects of competence. First, we considered increased involvement in stable romantic relationships as an indicator of romantic competence in late adolescence. Less competent late adolescents will be less likely to stay involved in relationships, whereas more competent adolescents will be involved in more lasting relationships. This differs from earlier adolescence, when stable dyadic involvement is less normative (and thus not an indicator of competence). Second, in line with Davila et al. (2009) and following the developmental course of adolescent romantic relationships (Brown, 1999; Connolly & Goldberg, 1999; Connolly & McIsaac, 2009b; Seiffge-Krenke, 2003), we considered partners’ capability to be sensitive to the needs of self and other, and to balance needs of both partners to be evidence of competence. Less competent adolescents will be more likely to describe relationships as fulfilling their own needs and will be less able to acknowledge the needs of partners. More competent adolescents will tend to describe relationships as mutually intimate and rewarding, where partners are sensitive to the needs of each other. This component of competence is crucial during latter stages of adolescence. The capacity to balance the needs of self and others (Selman et al., 1986) will impact whether individuals become involved in intimate and mutually rewarding relationships, or whether romantic encounters will be superficial and short-lived. Third, we considered partners’ ability to regulate emotionally intense experiences and interactionsthat emerge during relational disagreements or conflicts as an indicator of competence. Despite increasing ability for intimate, rewarding relationships in late adolescence, involvement is emotionally positive. Disagreements and conflicts are common. Anger, envy, and disappointments color all relationships and can even be considered integral to them (Josselson, 1992). Moreover, even trivial disagreements and frustrations that may arise routinely over the course of daily interactions with a partner and can become a source of stress (Donnellan, Larsen-Rife, & Conger, 2005). Romantic relationships are also the context where sexual experimentation and behavior takes place (Giordano, Manning, & Longmore, 2006). Adolescents, and in particular girls, might be under pressure to make difficult decisions about the extent of sexuality in their romantic liaisons, decisions that require the experience and negotiation of a likely complex set of emotions. Finally, experiencing romantic dissolutions S. Shulman et al. / Journal of Adolescence 34 (2011) 397–406 399 are inevitable and can become an additional source of emotional distress for some individuals (Connolly & McIsaac, 2009a; Joyner & Udry, 2000). Thus, despite the rewarding aspects of romantic involvement, adolescents face inevitable and distressing demands that accompany involvement. Not only must they be aware of their own and others’ emotions, they also need constructive ways of managing negative affect. The ability to regulate emotional intensity, inhibit inappropriate responses, and react constructively (Fabes, Hanish, Martin, & Eisenberg, 2002) are important indicators of emotional competence (Katz, Hessler, & Annest, 2007). More specifically, as Davila et al. (2009) stated, adaptive emotion regulation can facilitate the capacity to flexibly experience and express a range of emotions that naturally arise within a romantic relationship and during break-ups. Taken together, we suggest that romantic competence in late adolescence requires romantic “agency” to regulate emotionally intense experiences (Lerner, Theokas, & Jelicic, 2005) that are inevitable in relationships. Individuals high on romantic agency perceive involvement in a realistic, appropriate manner. They are aware of possible difficulties and express confidence in their ability to cope with them. Individuals low on agency perceive romantic involvement as too stressful and demanding to even become involved, may disregard explicit difficulties, and/or approach relationships in an unrealistic or over idealized manner. Fourth, romantic competence can be understood within the tenets of attachment theory, particularly with regard to coherence of representations (Roisman, Collins, Sroufe, & Egeland, 2005). Coherence is a widely used construct for evaluating state of mind with regard to a particular relationship (Main & Goldwyn, 1998). Studies show a coherent state of mind about relationships is evidenced by insight, the ability to reflect on self and other, and the ability to learn from prior experience (Treboux, Crowell, & Waters, 2004). Individuals with a coherent state of mind have the capacity to refer to and integrate negative and positive aspects of relationships. In contrast, descriptions of relationships by individuals low on coherence are characterized by inconsistencies, as well as reports of unresolved stressors, pain, and loss. We expect that more competent adolescents will have more coherent representations of relationships. Therefore, based on our conceptualization, four aspects of romantic competence during late adolescence were assessed: level of romantic involvement, maturity of social cognitive perception of romantic relationships, romantic agency, and coherence of relationship representations. As noted earlier, these aspects of competence recall those described by Davila et al. (2009), but considering the changes in romantic involvement across adolescence, the current study suggests that at the latter stages of adolescence, when individuals are commonly romantically involved, the definition of competence must include developmentally relevant relational skills. To this end, an interview assessing adolescents’ romantic experiences, thoughts, and feelings, in actual romantic encounters currently or in the past, as well as feelings about lack of involvement (current or past) was conducted and coded along the four dimensions. We began to assess the construct validity of the romantic competence scores in the following ways. First, because involvement in more steady, intense, and intimate relationships is a marker of mature adolescent romantic development (Brown, 1999; Connolly & Goldberg, 1999), we expected competence scores to correlate with levels of Passion, Intimacy and Commitment as assessed by reports on Sternberg’s (1997) triangular love scale Second, when parents are sensitive to children, and reinforce appropriate emotional displays and behaviors, children learn how to cope and regulate in different situations (Gottman, Katz, & Hooven, 1997). Therefore, within a framework of construct validity, it is reasonable to assume that appropriate maternal support of daughters’ romantic experiences will be associated with greater adolescent romantic competence. To test this, adolescents were asked to talk about the way their mothers relate to their romantic involvement (or lack thereof). Mothers were interviewed separately about the same. Both accounts were coded for maternal support of adolescents’ romantic status and confidence in adolescents’ romantic competence. We expected competence indices to correlate positively with maternal support of and confidence in daughters’ romantic competence. In a similar vein, it is suggested that models of relationships in the family are carried forward into future relationships (Furman & Shoemake, 2008; Sroufe & Fleeson, 1986). Because evidence supports intergenerational transmission of experiences in romantic relationships (Amato, 1996; Amato & DeBoer, 2001), and consistent with the findings of Davila et al. (2009), we predicted that greater romantic competence would be associated with perception of parents’ marital relationship as more satisfactory (by both mothers and daughters), whereas reports of lower marital satisfaction among parents would be associated with lower romantic competence. We also expected romantic competence to be associated with age and sexual behavior. As outlined above, with age, adolescents tend to become more involved and more competent in romantic relationships (Brown, 1999; Connolly & Goldberg, 1999; Joiner & Udry, 2000; Shulman & Scharf, 2000). Considering the current study focuses on latter stages of adolescence, it is reasonable to assume that age will be positively associated with competence. Regarding sexual behavior, adolescence involves emergence of, and experimentation with, sexual behaviors (Furman & Shaffer, 2003). Sexual involvement during early adolescence has been associated with lower romantic competence (Davila et al., 2009) and emotional and behavioral problems (Kaltiala-Heino, Kosunen, & Rimpela, 2003; Neeman, Hubbard, & Masten, 1995). However, as adolescents mature and relationships are characterized by greater depth and intimacy, sexual behavior can become an important component of an adaptive romantic involvement. Indeed, adolescents in stable and intimate romantic relationships are more likely to be sexually involved in comparison to adolescents in non stable relationships (Shulman, Walsh, Weisman, & Schleyer, 2009). Thus, we expected positive associations between romantic competence and sexual behavior in this late adolescent sample. Finally, though age plays a role in romantic development the role of experience in romantic competence also needs to be considered. Increasing involvement in a romantic relationship challenges partners to negotiate issues of autonomy and relatedness, learning to be sensitive to the other and to maintain a sense of self (McIsaac, Connolly, McKenny, Pepler, & Craig, 400 S. Shulman et al. / Journal of Adolescence 34 (2011) 397–406 2008). In addition, within relationships partners learn to express but also to regulate resentments and to utilize disagreements as a means of improving the nature and course of relationships. Based on these notions we suggested that experience in romantic involvement may play a role in the development, coordination, and consolidation of relational skills (see Furman & Wehner, 1997). Thus, although romantic involvement is part of our definition of romantic competence, we examined its association with the other indices of competence and predicted that greater involvement would be associated with more competence in other arenas above and beyond the impact of age. Method Participants and procedure Participants in the current study were drawn from a larger project on romantic relationships that contacted six high schools in the center and north of Israel. After getting permission of the Ministry of Education, telephone calls were made randomly to mothers and daughters from these high schools. Of 112 telephone calls made, 72 mothers and daughters agreed to participate in the study – a response rate of 64 percent. Signed consent of mother and daughter was required. Participants were not compensated. The current sample included 72 Israeli adolescent girls, 11th and 12th graders (ages 16 to 18.5, mean age 17.17 years, SD ¼ .70), and their mothers. Mean age of mothers was 45.37 years (SD ¼ 4.67) and mean maternal education level was 14.00 years of schooling (SD ¼ 2.52). However, 47.9 percent of mothers reported only a high school education suggesting that our sample represented a low to upper middle class sample. Considering the possible impact of divorce on adolescent romantic relationships, only intact families were included in the study. Adolescent girls and mothers were interviewed separately in their homes, and also completed questionnaires and demographic information. Measures Romantic competence A semi-structured interview was developed that tapped the four criteria: level of romantic involvement; social developmental conceptualization of romantic relationships, romantic agency, and coherence of representations. Adolescents reported on current romantic status and history of romantic involvement. Girls currently involved in a relationship were asked to describe their partner, their experiences in the relationship, and their thoughts and feelings about the relationship. In line with the AAI interview procedure (George, Kaplan, & Main, 1985) to assess coherence, girls were asked to provide three words that best described their partner and the relationship. They were asked to elaborate and provide examples to explain their choice of each word, and they were probed accordingly. Girls not currently in a relationship were asked to describe a former relationship. Girls with no romantic experience or who had not had a relationship for a long period of time were asked to talk about their feelings about not being romantically involved, as well as expectations and hopes about romantic involvements. This mode of interview differs somewhat from that conducted by Davila et al. (2009). In their interview, in addition to discussing any existing relationships in which they were involved, early adolescents were asked to refer to hypothetical situations, such as, “What would you think, feel, and do if you were interested in a particular person?; What would you think, feel, and do if you were dating someone and you were unhappy about how the relationship was going”, and responses to these hypotheticals factored into scoring of competence particularly for adolescents without prior relationship experience. In contrast in the current interview, adolescents did not discuss hypothetical circumstances. As such, the present interview assesses competence in the context of relationship features, whereas the Davila et al. (2009) interview assesses competence at a more individual skill-based level (i.e., competence at the “person” level). Girls also were asked to describe their mothers’ attitudes toward their romantic status, whether mothers are supportive, critical, or interfering, and the extent to which they feel their mothers have confidence in their romantic behavior. Interviews lasted between 30 and 40 min, depending on girls’ amount of relationship experience, and were audiotaped and transcribed. An adapted Hebrew form of the Parent Development Interview (PDI; Aber, Slade, Berger, Bresgi, & Kaplan, 1985; Dollberg, 2003) was administered to mothers as part of the larger project. Relevant for this study, mothers were asked to describe how they feel and behave in relation to their daughters’ romantic behavior. They were probed about whether they support daughters’ romantic interests and behavior, whether they have any worries, and whether they feel they can trust their daughters and rely on their judgment. Interviews with mothers were also audiotaped and transcribed. (See the interview in the Appendix. Detailed description of the rating scales will be sent upon request). Romantic competence was coded on the following four scales with scores from 1- low to 5-high: 1. Level of romantic involvement: 1 – Has never been romantically involved; 2 – Has been involved only in sporadic and non stable romantic encounters; 3 – Is currently involved in a relationship that is shorter than two months, or is currently not romantically involved but has been involved in a relationship more than six months ago; 4 – Is currently involved in a relationship lasting for more than two months, or has been involved during the recent six months in a relationship that lasted for more than two months. S. Shulman et al. / Journal of Adolescence 34 (2011) 397–406 401 2. Maturity of social cognitive perception of romantic relationships: Assesses the extent to which romantic relations are described in an elaborated mature form reflecting sensitivity to and balancing of the needs of self and partner. A low score (1) reflects a sense that relationships are mainly based on self-serving needs (e.g., peer status, personal gain); needs of the partner are not recognized (“A partner needs to know how to be romantic. he must be there when I need him, must know how to bring flowers when necessary, and when we celebrate our one month anniversary, he must bring a present”). A respondent may not even perceive relationships as important unless they fulfill one’s needs. A high score (5) reflects an awareness of mutuality in relationships with regard to intimacy and mutual satisfaction. Needs of self and other are considered and respected, and there is evidence that partners make genuine efforts to be sensitive to each other ("This is love, and every human needs it in his/her life, it instills a sense of stability. But it can also be difficult, but this is how couples work. It’s an obligation, and very intense, for both of us."). 3. Romantic agency: Taps whether the adolescent perceives romantic involvement in a realistic and appropriate manner and is capable of addressing inevitable disagreements or conflicts that may emerge in a relationship from time to time. A low score (1) reflects worries about, fear of, or discomfort with being in a romantic relationship and coping with relationship demands; there is difficulty seeing positive aspects of a relationship (“It’s hard to find trust.I haven’t seen many success stories, in every place that you look there are problems, it’s not simple .”). A high score (5) reflects a realistic approach to romantic relationships, an awareness of advantages and possible difficulties, and a balanced and mainly positive attitude toward involvement "We have a lot in common, a lot to speak about.he knows me more than anyone else in the world. As if, he is everything for me .but even though he has a place in my heart, each of us has our own place and our own time with other friends.I don’t think that you need to lose yourself for the sake of a relationship even when you feel very close”). 4. Coherence: Assesses the ability to present romantic relationships in a clear mode that reflects inner integration. A low level of coherence (1) is characterized by a confused, disorganized, and a difficult to understand script about own romantic experience or about becoming romantically involved. A high score (5) is characterized by a script that is easy to follow and demonstrates the ability to integrate different experiences. This scale was developed following the guidelines for coherence assessment in the AAI interview (Main & Goldwyn, 1998). Two scales assessing perceptions of mothers’ attitudes toward daughters’ romantic involvement were developed. Daughters’ and mothers’ interviews were rated separately. 1. Support of adolescent romantic behavior: Low scores represent mothers’ expressing a negative attitude toward adolescents’ romantic involvement that can be expressed directly (i.e., open criticism) or indirectly. High scores represent mothers’ displaying a realistic and supportive attitude toward adolescent romantic involvement. 2. Maternal confidence in adolescent’s romantic competence: Low scores represent mothers’ perceptions of adolescents as incompetent and too immature to be romantically involved. High scores represent mothers’ realistic perceptions of adolescents as able to cope well with age related romantic tasks. Two coders rated 20 interviews separately to establish reliability. Cohen’s Kappas for the two raters across the four adolescent romantic competence scales ranged from .71 to .89. Cohen’s Kappas for the two maternal scales; support of adolescent romantic behavior and maternal confidence in adolescent’s romantic competence were .73 and .78 respectively. Ratings of all the interviews were completed separately by the two raters. Disagreements were discussed until a consensus was reached. Different raters were used for daughters’ and for mothers’ interviews. Demographic data and sexual involvement. Information about age and parental level of education was reported by the adolescents. Adolescents were also asked to rate how sexually intimate they were with their current or previous romantic partner (1– never touched each other; 9– had sexual intercourse). Quality of romantic involvements. The 36-item version of Sternberg’s Triangular Love Scale (1998) was used to assess three components of quality of romantic involvements: Intimacy (e.g., "I have a warm relationship with _________"), Passion (e.g., "Just seeing ___________ excites me"), and Commitment (e.g., "I will always feel strong responsibility for_______”). Respondents indicate the extent to which each statement characterizes their relationship on a scale from (1) does not characterize the relationship at all, to (6) very much characterizes the relationship. For each component a mean was computed. Cronbach alphas were: Passion – .85, Intimacy – .84 and Commitment – .84. Parental Marital Satisfaction. The Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS; Spanier, 1976) was used to assess marital satisfaction. Mothers completed the original 32-item scale (Cronbach alpha ¼ .85). Daughters completed an adapted 23-item version (Cronbach alpha ¼ .88). Results Descriptive data Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the four competence indices are presented in Table 1. As can be seen, on average, girls scored in the moderately high range on the different indices of competence. Furthermore, 33 of the 72 girls 402 S. Shulman et al. / Journal of Adolescence 34 (2011) 397–406 (45.8%) were involved at the time of assessment in a romantic relationship that lasted for more than two months. An additional 15 girls (20.8%) were involved in relationship of a shorter duration or had been involved in a relationship that lasted for more than two months in the previous six months. Thus, two thirds of the girls were involved in a stable romantic relationship, or in a relationship with potential to be considered stable. Fourteen girls (19.4%) reported involvement in sporadic romantic encounters, and only 10 girls (13.9) did not have any romantic experience. As can also be seen in Table 1, the four indices of romantic competence were moderate to highly correlated, suggesting that a high level of competence in one area is related to high levels of competence in other areas. Additionally, the correlation between adolescent and maternal support of adolescent romantic behavior was r ¼ .41, p < .01, and the correlation between adolescent and maternal Confidence in Adolescent’s Romantic Competence was r ¼ .40, p < .01. Construct validity data We hypothesized that greater romantic competence would be associated with greater intimacy, passion, and commitment in relationships. As can be seen in Table 2, this hypothesis was supported. All components of competence were associated with the three relationship quality features. In addition, there was partial support for our prediction that romantic competence would be associated with maternal support of and confidence in daughter’s romantic behavior. Greater maternal support of daughter’s romantic behavior (both daughter and mother report) was associated with greater competence (all components except for mothers’ report and social cognitive maturity), though confidence was not. There also was some support for the prediction that competence would be associated with parental marital satisfaction. As can be see in Table 3, greater parental marital satisfaction, as reported by mothers and daughters, was associated with greater romantic involvement and greater agency. Daughters’ reports also were associated with greater social cognitive maturity. As expected, significant associations were found between age and indices of romantic competence. During the latter stages of adolescence, romantic competence among girls tended to increase with age. As can also be seen in Table 3, associations between level of sexual involvement and romantic competence indices were high. As predicted, greater sexual involvement was associated with more long-term romantic involvement, greater social cognitive maturity, greater agency, and more coherence about relationships. Finally, to assess the role of experience in romantic competence, a MANOVA comparing levels of social cognitive maturity, romantic agency, and coherence across the four categories of romantic involvement was conducted. In order to control for the possibility that the impact of experience is confounded with age, age was first entered as a covariate. Results revealed significant differences between the four categories of involvement after controlling for age, F (3, 68) ¼ 4.42, p < .001. Follow-up ANOVAs with Scheffe contrasts (at the p < .05 level) were conducted. As can be seen in Table 4, girls who are involved in a stable romantic relationship are rated consistently higher on indices of social cognitive maturity, romantic agency, and coherence, as compared to girls who are involved in transient romantic encounters or lack romantic experience. In addition, girls involved in short encounters were rated intermediately coherent as compared to those involved sporadically or who have never been involved. Thus, greater and more stable romantic involvement is associated with greater romantic competence. Discussion Recently, Davila and colleagues (Davila et al., 2009) presented the concept of romantic competence and its assessment among early adolescents. Considering developmental changes in adolescent romantic behavior (Carver et. al, 2003; Shulman & Scharf, 2000), the aim of this study was to adapt, extend, and examine romantic competence among older adolescents and establish psychometric data for its assessment. The indices of romantic competence for older adolescents were based on theories of social cognitive problem solving, emotion regulation, and attachment, in line with prior research (Davila et al., 2009), as well as theory and research on adolescent romantic development. Regarding reliability, coders demonstrated adequate interrater reliability and rarely disagreed by more than one point in scoring, suggesting that the definition of each competence index is clear and identifiable in adolescents’ accounts of their relationships. Preliminary evidence of construct validity was also demonstrated. First, all four indices of competence correlated significantly with measures of passion, intimacy and commitment in romantic relationships. This suggests two things. First, from a developmental perspective, it is consistent with the notion that in later adolescence, adaptive romantic relationships are characterized by greater intimacy and depth. Indeed, romantically competent later adolescents report more of these features in Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the indices of romantic competence. Romantic involvement Social cognitive maturity Romantic agency Coherence M/SD Notes. **p < .01; ***p < .001. 1 2 3 4 – .56** _ .47** .66 *** _ 2.98/1.10 3.89/.86 3.70/1.12 .58** .57** .60** _ 3.67/1.03 403 S. Shulman et al. / Journal of Adolescence 34 (2011) 397–406 Table 2 Correlations between indices of romantic competence and validity measures. Romantic involvement Passion Intimacy Commitment Maternal support of D0 s romantic behavior; D report Maternal confidence in D0 s romantic competence; D report Maternal support of D0 s romantic behavior; M report Maternal confidence in D0 s romantic competence; M report Social cognitive maturity Romantic agency .31** .36** .41** .42** .45** .34** .46** .35** .43** .46** .48** .28* Coherence .12 .36** .34** .42** .05 .02 .12 .06 .23* .19 .22* .39** .01 .00 .01 .14 Notes. *p < .05; **p < .01. their relationships. Second, it suggests that romantic competence is associated with positive features of relationship experience that are typically considered reflective of high quality relationships. We would expect competence to be associated with higher relationship quality. For instance, social cognitive maturity should be associated with more adaptive problem solving, thus reducing conflicts. Similarly, romantic agency may allow adolescents to effectively handle inevitable disagreements and hassles that contribute to the quality and longevity of a relationship (Shulman, Tuval-Mashiach, Levran, & Anbar, 2006). Second, the competence indices were associated with a number of important parent-adolescent relationship variables. Adolescents girls with mothers who supported their romantic endeavors and behaviors (as reported by both the adolescents and mothers) evidenced greater romantic competence. These findings may suggest that supportive parental relationships, specific to romantic functioning, may allow for the development of greater romantic competence in adolescence. Alternatively, it may be that competent adolescents are more supported in their endeavors and have more harmonious parental relationships than their less competent counterparts. Longitudinal research will be necessary to determine the direction of association. In line with the above ideas, data also supported the hypothesis that more romantically competent adolescents have parents who are more satisfied in their marriage (again as reported by both the adolescent and parent). It is conceivable that parents of a competent adolescent might become more martially satisfied, perhaps due to reduced stress in the family. However, competence experienced within the family, including the quality of the parents’ marriage, is believed to carry over for a variety of reasons including skill acquisition, imitation, emotional regulation, or expectations about relationships (Amato & DeBoer, 2001; Conger, Cui, Bryant, & Elder, 2000; Elicker, Englund, & Sroufe, 1992; Roisman, Madsen, & Hennighausen, 2001). Therefore, it is likely that the model of a happy marriage and the relationship skills that may be transmitted to daughters of such marriages allow for the development of greater competence in adolescents (Elicker et al., 1992). If true, this would have important implications for avenues by which to intervene to increase adolescent competence. An important distinction between earlier and later adolescents bearing on romantic competence is level of romantic involvement. Since it is considered more normative in later adolescence to be involved in a romantic relationship, relationship involvement was considered part of the definition of competence. Indeed, greater involvement was correlated with greater competence on the other indices. Moreover, adolescents reporting the highest level of involvement were significantly different from other less stably involved adolescents on the other competence indices. Whether competence breeds involvement, involvement breeds competence, or there is a transactional relation between the two will be an important focus of future research. Age also was associated with greater competence. Older adolescents were more likely to be involved in more stable relationships, as developmental theories of romantic relationships predict (Brown, 1999; Connolly & Goldberg, 1999). Older adolescents also evidenced greater social cognitive maturity, greater romantic agency, and greater coherence. However, experience (level of involvement) remained associated with competence even when age was controlled, suggesting that it is not age alone that is important. Taken together, these findings suggest that romantic competence develops with maturity and experience, and they suggest that at the latter stages of adolescence, romantic competence is represented by the ability to become involved in mutually satisfying relationships, a tendency to perceive relationships in a realistic manner, and balance rewards, demands, and difficulties that may emerge, and a more integrated set of views about relationships. As predicted, level of sexual involvement was associated with romantic competence. Unlike in early adolescence where increased sexual involvement is associated with less competence (Davila et al., 2009), in this sample of later adolescents greater involvement was associated with greater competence. This is consistent with developmental changes in adolescent Table 3 Correlations between indices of romantic competence and validity measures. D – Marital satisfaction M – Marital satisfaction Age Sexual involvement Romantic involvement Social cognitive maturity Romantic agency .44** .34** .28* .78*** .36** .01 .29* .52** .29* .20* .22* .45** Notes. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001. Coherence .16 .17 .08 .67*** 404 S. Shulman et al. / Journal of Adolescence 34 (2011) 397–406 Table 4 Romantic competence across the four categories of romantic involvement. Social cognitive maturity Romantic agency Coherence Lack of romantic experience Sporadic/ involvement Involvement in a relationship of short duration Involvement in stable relationships F 3.15 a (.97) 2.80 a (1.27) 2.80 a (.85) 3.46 a (.57) 2.92 a (.87) 3.10 a, b (.81) 3.63 a (.61) 3.50a (1.06) 3.63 b (.99) 4.42 b (.73) 3.96 b (.81) 4.19 c (.89) 9.72*** 8.47*** 3.06* Notes. Within rows means with different subscripts indicate significant differences in follow-up contrasts (*p < .05). ***p < .001. romance and speaks to the criterion validity of our measure. Early initiation of sexual behavior is typically related to emotional and behavioral problems (Davies & Windle, 2000; Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2003; Neeman et al., 1995), perhaps because early adolescents lack the cognitive and emotional capacities to manage sexual experiences and to successfully integrate sexual and romantic experiences. However, during the later stages of adolescence, romantic relationships are often the domain of sexual activity (Furman & Shaffer, 2003), adolescents may be more cognitively and emotionally equipped to handle such experiences, and the integration of sexuality into romantic relationships becomes one of the expressions of closeness and intimacy between partners (Manning, Giordano, & Longmore, 2006). As such, sexual activity within stable relationships can be considered a marker of adaptation (Shulman et al., 2009). Furthermore, consistent with the present findings, Giordano et al. (2006) found that among individuals high on romantic agency, sexual activity was not a source of worries or inconvenience, but rather a physical expression of the closeness between partners (Giordano et al., 2006). Comparison between the current assessment of romantic competence and that described by Davila et al. (2009) points to similarities as well as to distinctions. Both methods point to the centrality of measures like problem solving skills, capacity for self-regulation, and coherence of state of mind. However, considering the age differences of the two samples among early adolescents who are less likely to be involved in a romantic relationship the Davila et al. (2009) procedure assesses more the competence skills required to initiate a romantic relationship. In contrast, the current measure assessing mid and late adolescents who are likely to be involved in a relationship focuses more on features of relationships. Assessment of the social cognitive maturity and romantic agency refers to the ways that adolescents balance needs of self and other and cope with relational distress they are confronting or have confronted. In addition, considering the developmental changes expected in romantic relationships, the current procedure also is more embedded within the recent developmental models of adolescent romantic relationships. Thus, the current method of assessment adapts the Davila et al. (2009) method for the assessment of older adolescents. Yet, its emphasis on relational features and its incorporation within the adolescent romance developmental framework allowed us to learn more about the distinctive feature of romantic competence among older adolescents. Although the results provide preliminary support for the validity of the indices of romantic competence in late adolescence, the study is not without limitations. First, the study focused on girls. Former studies showed that boys start later to become involved in sustained romantic relationships (Shulman et al., 2009; Zimmer-Gembeck & Helfand, 2008). However, given the existing literature on adolescent romantic relationships there is no clear reason to assume the conceptualization of romantic competence to be different among males and females. Also, this study was conducted on an Israeli sample. Israel is a developed, industrialized and Western culture (Schwartz, 1994). Former studies show that romantic timetables among Israeli adolescents to resemble those of American adolescents (Carver et al., 2003; Shulman & Scharf, 2000). However, there are also findings suggesting that, despite these similarities, different sexual behavior trajectories among males and females from different cultures may exist (Shtarkshall, Carmel, JaffeHirschfield, & Woloski-Wruble, 2009). The study also employed a cross-sectional design, making it impossible to examine temporal associations between variables, such as whether family quality variables predict or are predicted by adolescent competence, as well as sequencing of romantic experiences and the development of competence. To summarize, adaptation, extension, and examination of the concept of romantic competence among older adolescents appears to evidence preliminary reliability and validity and to resemble that reported by Davila et al. (2009) who studied a sample of early adolescent girls. In addition, confidence in the findings is strengthened by consistency of adolescent and maternal reports. Future studies will have to show how romantic competence is expressed by adolescent boys and it will be important to collect longitudinal data to study development over time. To the extent that this assessment is further developed it could be helpful in learning more about adaptive and problematic expressions of adolescent romantic competence. Appendix A Romantic competence interview In this interview we would like to ask you about your romantic experiences and the way you feel about them. 1. When thinking about romantic experiences or relationships, please name three words that come first to your mind. 2. Can you please elaborate or give an example about each word you have mentioned. S. Shulman et al. / Journal of Adolescence 34 (2011) 397–406 405 3. What is your romantic status right now? Can you describe your partner? Can you talk about your relationship with your partner? Can you please tell us about your “romantic history”, how did it evolve? 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