Pygmy tales: tall stories about short people in East Africa

Pygmy tales: Tall stories about short people in East Africa Pygmy tales: Tall stories about short people in East Africa Anthropologist Martin Walsh recalls his encounter with a former arrow poison trader who told of his capture and imprisonment underground by a group of Wabilikimo, the fabled Pygmies of the East African interior. E ver since ancient times, marvellous yarns have been told about the existence of diminutive peoples in faraway lands. Despite their modern identification with short statured huntergatherers in the rainforests of Africa, the telling of similar tales has not entirely abated. Was this just another tall story about short people, or a mangled memory of real events? Martin Walsh Above: Missionary Johannes Rebmann's 1848 sketch map of East Africa, where the Wabilikimo, "people of low stature", are shown in the vicinity of Kikuyu country (top left). Map by courtesy of the Johannes Rebmann Foundation and Gerlingen City Archive. 49 From Kenya Past and Present issue 43, published by the Kenya Museum Society, 2016. KENYA PAST & PRESENT ISSUE 43 The dry landscape between Tsavo West and Tsavo East, with Mt Kasigau in the background, where Mwaro Marai recounted his tale of being captured by Pygmies. 16 November 1987. It was a hot afternoon in the dry landscape between Tsavo West and Tsavo East national parks that is dominated by Mount Kasigau. I was nearing the end of more than a month’s stay in the village of Kisimeni, and in a hurry to complete my survey of the scattered households of the members of Mwangaza women’s group. One of my last interviewees was Mwaro Marai, a man in his 50s whose second wife (of three) was also a member of the group. Mwaro was a Giriama, originally from Mariakani, who had moved to this mixed community of Taita, Duruma and Kamba in 1972. After we had talked at length about his family’s farming and other enterprises, conversation turned to Mwaro’s past employment. For many years he had been a railroad worker, and was still chasing after his retirement cheque from the Kenya Railways Corporation. When he was a younger man, though, in the last decade of British rule, he had travelled far and wide selling arrow poison. When I heard this, my ears pricked up. Utsungu, literally ‘bitterness’, is the deadly Acokanthera-based poison made by different peoples in the hinterland of the Kenya coast. It was used most notoriously by Waata 50 hunters to kill elephants and other large game in Tsavo before they were stopped from doing so after the creation of the national parks in 1948.1 I had been tracking down information on a related but littleknown group of former hunter-gatherers called the Degere, who live on both sides of the Kenya-Tanzania border near the coast, and was delighted when Mwaro told me that he had sold arrow poison to them in the far northeast of what was then Tanganyika, and indeed had stayed with them there for six months in 1959.2 Conscious that I had three more homesteads to visit before nightfall, I scribbled down as much as he could tell me about their livelihoods, language and history in response to my eager questioning. But Mwaro wasn’t done there. He followed this with a sketch of his further adventures in late colonial Tanganyika: the good life in the high Pare Mountains, where his hosts generously offered him their daughters; his encounter with people who twittered like birds when they were speaking; and last but not least, his capture by the fabled Wabilikimo. I was amazed and incredulous. The diminutive Wabilikimo, whom he described Pygmy tales: Tall stories about short people in East Africa as having comparatively large heads and short torsos, had held him captive in one of their underground dwellings. From a distance these looked just like anthills, but in fact were subterranean houses, covered in earth. Unlike the Degere at that time, they were a sedentary people, and were properly dressed. Mwaro located them a mere twelve kilometres or so from Dodoma in central Tanzania, but later in our conversation said that they neighboured both the Sandawe – north of Dodoma – and the Sukuma, whose traditional territory is much further to the northwest. I asked about their language, and Mwaro told me that they had their own. Their morning greeting exchanges began with the senior of two saying “Hu hu!”, to which the appropriate reply from a junior was “Ho hu” – at least that’s what I recorded in my notebook, even though it sounded as though it might have come out of a fairy tale.3 I didn’t have time to quiz Mwaro about the circumstances of his alleged capture and subsequent release by the Wabilikimo, or to press him on other details and ask for The name ‘Pygmy’ derives from the ancient Greek word that meant ‘fist’ and, by extension, a measure of length from the elbow to the knuckles, the short forearm cubit. For lack of an agreed alternative, it is still used to describe the short statured peoples of Central Africa, though many would prefer to use the names of the different ethnic groups that this sometimes pejoratively used term encompasses. Some researchers refer to the Pygmies collectively as rainforest huntergatherers, but they are neither restricted to the rainforest nor exclusively reliant on hunting and foraging for their subsistence. more. As it happens this was my last chance: we didn’t speak again at length before I left Kisimeni and returned to Mombasa two days later. Pygmies, ancient and modern Listening to Mwaro’s tale, I imagined that I had been carried back into a faraway time when Pygmies were the subject of both geographical speculation and myth. The ancient Egyptians were familiar not only with physical dwarfs but also aware that there were populations of short statured peoples living to their south, and were entertained at court by both. The Greeks and Romans of classical antiquity likewise located the Pygmies on the edges of the known world, placing them in either India or Ethiopia.4 Writing in the 5th century BC, Herodotus famously recounted the story of five chief ’s sons of the Nasamones (a Libyan tribe) who ventured across the waterless desert until “they at last, after many days, saw trees growing on a plain”: “They approached the trees and tried to pick the fruit that was growing on them, but as they were doing so were set upon by small men of less than normal human stature, who captured them and took them A Greek chous wine vessel, 430–420 BC, shows a Pygmy fighting a crane, National Archaeological Museum of Spain. Photo: MarieLan Nguyen, CC BY 2.5. 51 KENYA PAST & PRESENT ISSUE 43 away. The two groups—the Nasamones and their guides—could not understand each other’s language at all. They were taken through vast swamps and on the other side of these swamps they came to a town where everyone was the same size as their guides and had black skin. The town was on a sizeable river, which was flowing from west to east, and in it they could see crocodiles.”5 Herodotus thought that this river was the Nile; others have suggested the Niger or one of its tributaries. In another tale told in The Histories, the Persian navigator Sataspes was said to have sailed for some months down the Atlantic coast of Africa as far as “a country inhabited by small people who wore clothes made out of palm leaves”. In this case it was the Pygmies who fled to the hills when the foreign sailors landed and took their livestock.6 European knowledge of African Pygmies and their whereabouts advanced very little over the next two millennia. In his Anatomy of a Pygmie, published in 1699, Edward Tyson described the dissection of a chimpanzee from Angola and sought to prove that “the Pygmies of the Ancients were a Sort of Apes, and not of Humane Race”.7 It took a few decades for this terminological confusion to be cleared up, following which it wasn’t until the 20th century that the fully human status of African Pygmies was recognised and the distribution of different ethnic groups in and around the equatorial rainforest began to be accurately mapped. Anthropologists and linguists are still describing these diverse peoples and their complex social, economic, and cultural relationships with their taller neighbours. Recent research, meanwhile, has suggested that the various groups of Pygmies share a common genetic origin, and diverged from the ancestors of other African populations around 70,000 years ago. The details of this history, however, remain to be elucidated, 52 and some groups of Pygmies evidently have a much more recent shared ancestry.8 The two-cubit Wabilikimo I later realised that there were much closer models for Mwaro’s tale. Rumours of the presence of Pygmies in the East African interior were first recorded by European visitors to the coast, and were clearly derived from local sources. Lieutenant Thomas Boteler of the Royal Navy, who visited Mombasa on a number of occasions in the period between 1823 and 1825, was the first to write of the short statured people whom Mwaro called Wabilikimo: “Immediately inland of the Wanne-kahs reside the Meric Mungoans, who likewise speak a different language. [...] These people state that in one district between their country and that of the Wannekahs there is a pigmy race of people who scarcely attain the height of three feet: they call them Mberikimo, and affirm the fact of their existence with many protestations of veracity. They assert that the journey from Mombas to that country would take six weeks.”9 Boteler’s ‘Wanne-kahs’ are the Wanyika, an old name for the Mijikenda peoples of the coastal hinterland, whose subgroups include Mwaro’s Giriama. The ‘Meric Mungoans’ are the Marimangao, an archaic nickname for the Kamba, whose homeland (Ukambani) is to the west of the semi-arid Tsavo but who traded regularly with the Mijikenda and Swahili of the coast. ‘Mberikimo’ is Mbirikimo or Mbilikimo, the singular of the ethnonym, the most common Swahili form of which is Wabilikimo, sometimes Wambilikimo, or Wabirikimo. We next hear of the diminutive Wabilikimo in the journals of the Church Missionary Society’s Reverend Johann Ludwig Krapf. Pygmy tales: Tall stories about short people in East Africa The following entry was written at Rabai on 13 May 1847: “Our servant Amri told us some fabulous tales of the Wabilikimo, that is, of the pigmies, and cannibals in the interior. There is said to be a tribe in the interior by whom human beings are fattened for slaughter. A Mnika, it appears, once escaped from a house, where he was to have been slaughtered for dinner. The Wabilikimo in the interior, it would seem, place low seats for their stranger-guests, which by the pressure fix themselves to the seat of honour, and hinder them from rising. I conjecture that these stories have been invented by the Wakamba and the caravan leaders, in order to deter the inhabitants of the coast from journeying into the interior, so that their monopoly of the trade with the interior may not be interfered with. In Abessinia, too, I used to hear similar stories of cannibals, invented by the slave dealers, to terrify the slaves with the fear of being eaten up if they were to loiter on the road or run away.”10 Mwaro, it seems, was not the first coastal trader to claim that he had been captured by the Wabilikimo. In September 1848 Krapf marked the Wabilikimo, “people of low stature”, on a sketch map drawn by his fellow missionary Johannes Rebmann, placing them in the vicinity of “Kikuyu”, to the west of Ukambani. He suggested that they might be the same as a group of Pygmies called the Doko that he had heard about during his earlier travels in Abyssinia, and added: “Their bodies are probably crippled by climatical influences. My guide saw them in Useri in Dshagga, which country they visit in trading business”, the latter being a reference to Usseri in Uchaga, on the eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro.11 On a later map, dated 4 April 1850, Rebmann located the Wabilikimo to the west of Kilimanjaro and south of Kikuyu country. He wrote: “Wabilikimo … literally the twomeasuring, i.e. twice the measure from Detail of Johannes Rebmann's 1848 map. The note about the Wabilikimo (circled) is signed “L.K.”, i.e. Ludwig Krapf. Map by courtesy of the Johannes Rebmann Foundation and Gerlingen City Archive. 53 KENYA PAST & PRESENT ISSUE 43 the middle finger to the elbow, which of course is an exaggeration, but they are no doubt a diminutive race of men. They come to Jagga, to trade, where they are called Wakoningo.”12 By this time Rebmann had been on three journeys to Uchaga (‘Jagga’), and made notes on the Wabilikimo during at least the second of these, when he placed them to the northwest of Mount Kilimanjaro.13 The ‘Wakoningo’ (also Wakonyingo, Wakonongo) were still remembered in 20th century Chaga traditions as the aboriginal inhabitants of Kilimanjaro, though little more was known about their identity.14 It is quite possible that they were already a mythical people when Rebmann heard about them. In July 1850, at the start of his second journey to Ukambani, Krapf gathered more information about the Wabilikimo from some Kamba traders: “On the 15th we were met by a caravan of Wakamba coming from the interior with ivory to the coast, and to some of them, who seated themselves on the ground beside me, I explained the object of my journey; after which, a Mkamba told me that in his youth he had travelled to Mbellete, and had then proceeded into the country of the Wabilikimo, or “little people” (pigmies). The distance between Ukambani and Ubilikimoni was greater than that between the former and Mombaz; the Wabilikimo had long feet, but short bodies, and on their backs a kind of hump; and nobody understood their language. The Wakamba made friends with them by offering copper rings, for which honey was presented in return; they were good, harmless people, and there were many elephants in their country.”15 The entry in Krapf ’s unfinished Swahili dictionary, which was published in 1882, summarised what the CMS missionaries 54 had learned, adding a few new details and a good dose of scepticism: “MBILIKÍMO [...] lit., one who is of two measures or yards ([...] pl. wabilikimo), a kind of pigmy; the pigmies are said to reside four days’ journey west of Jagga; [...] they are of a small stature, twice the measure from the middle finger to the elbow. [...] The Suahili pretend to get all their knowledge of physic from these pigmies, who have a large beard, and who carry a little chair on their seat, which never falls off, wherever they go. There may, indeed, be a set of diminutive people in the Interior but no man in his right senses will ever believe the fables which the credulous and designing Suahili have invented regarding these pigmies. Beyond the wabilikimo are the juju wa majúju, at the world’s end [...], as the fable states.”16 Later Swahili dictionaries added little to this definition. 17 Krapf and Rebmann’s incomplete Mijikenda dictionary also recorded mbilikimo as a term used in the Rabai dialect, but with an invariant plural, implying that it was a borrowing from Swahili. The Reverend W. E. Taylor, however, later gave the form mbirikimo, with the plural abirikimo, in his Giriama dictionary. He defined it as ‘dwarf ’, adding “especially a member of the rumoured race of Pygmies”.18 Despite various proposals, the most convincing etymology is that first suggested by Krapf and Rebmann, which derives mbilikimo from Swahili mbili, ‘two’, and kimo, ‘measure, height’, the latter in turn being a loanword from Arabic. If this derivation is correct then we can surmise that mbilikimo is a relatively recent term of Swahili origin. This is also suggested by the modern form in Zanzibar, which is mbirikimo in both the singular and plural. The lack of a regular or agreed plural form in Swahili is a sure sign that the name is a relatively new one. In everyday usage in Zanzibar and elsewhere on the East African coast, it is applied Pygmy tales: Tall stories about short people in East Africa Batwa Pygmy women in Burundi, where many of them specialise in making and selling clay pots. Photo: Doublearc [public domain]. primarily to people with dwarfism, and this may well have been the term’s original referent. Its use as an ethnonym to describe short statured peoples of the interior might have been a secondary development, an extension of the original meaning that has since become an archaism. Tall stories about short people? What then should we make of Mwaro’s story? There seems little doubt that he was drawing on earlier coastal traditions about the small statured Wabilikimo of the remote interior, enigmatic and powerful as befitted folk living close to the edge of the known world. But who and what did Mwaro encounter during his arrow trading expeditions to Tanganyika in the late colonial period? None of the locations given in the 19th century literature seems to fit. As we have seen, the Wabilikimo were variously placed either to the east or west of Ukambani, or to the west or northwest of Mount Kilimanjaro. The latter might be considered equivalent to the west of Ukambani, depending on the distances and exact directions involved, though not all of these rather imprecise descriptions can be reconciled. This variation most likely reflects more than just a general uncertainty, but the fact that early European travellers were drawing their information from very different sources and traditions – Swahili, Mijikenda, Kamba, and Chaga – no doubt filtered at times through Swahili-speaking and other interpreters. Rebmann’s explicit reference to Chaga tradition is particularly telling in this regard, because it suggests that the Wakonyingo of local legend only became identified with the Wabilikimo of coastal fable in translation. It is possible that Kamba tales about quite different indigenous groups in eastern and central Kenya were at times being similarly reinterpreted.19 There are, of course, no Pygmies, as this term is currently understood, in this part of East Africa; nor is there good evidence that there ever have been. The nearest Pygmy populations are in the Great Lakes region, where scattered groups known collectively as Twa (Batwa) are found in Rwanda and 55 KENYA PAST & PRESENT ISSUE 43 Burundi, as well as in neighbouring areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the southwest corner of Uganda, and the far west of Tanzania.20 Although we cannot rule out the possibility that Krapf ’s Kamba informants had heard about real Pygmy groups in the Impenetrable Bwindi Forest or elsewhere in this region, there is no evidence to suggest that they were ever present to the east of Lake Victoria. This is not, however, what historians have always believed. The idea that Pygmies were once found throughout East Africa was widely disseminated through the school text Zamani Mpaka Siku Hizi (‘From the days of long ago until now’). This book, which was first published in Tanganyika in 1930, cites the short statured people of Chaga and Kikuyu tradition among its examples. It has been reprinted many times, and has Places and ethnic groups in East Africa referred to in this article. undoubtedly influenced perceptions of to whom the Swahili ethnonym Wabilikimo might be applied.21 Taking all this into account, it could be that Mwaro was recalling a visit to any one of a number of communities in the general area of north-central Tanganyika. This area is home to ethnic groups speaking a variety of Bantu and non-Bantu languages whose culture might well have seemed strange to an inexperienced trader from the coast. The sedentary Sandawe (mentioned by Mwaro) and the hunter-gathering Hadza both speak languages with click phonemes that might be likened to the twittering of birds, as Mwaro described the speech of one group he encountered. Although none of the peoples in this area are known to be particularly short in stature, there is no shortage of local CONGO KENYA UGANDA KIKUYU TWA Mt Longonot KAMBA RWANDA TWA HADZA IRAQW MOSIRO Mt Kasigau GOROWA PARE SANDAWE GOGO Dodoma FIPA 56 TANZANIA DA EN JIK CHAGA SUKUMA MI Mt Kilimanjaro BURUNDI Kis ime ni TWA SWAHILI DEGERE Mombasa Pygmy tales: Tall stories about short people in East Africa traditions about aboriginal inhabitants who were, including the Nkulimba who are said to have preceded the Gogo in Dodoma Rural District, and the diminutive N/íni of Sandawe legend.22 Semi-subterranean earth-covered houses were once a relatively common sight in some parts of the Rift Valley, for example among the Cushiticspeaking Gorowa and Iraqw, while some hunter-gatherers of Southern Nilotic origin, the Mosiro (Akiek) of Arusha Region, are reported to have scooped out underground living spaces below the roots of baobabs and other trees.23 Mwaro’s description of the underground dwelling Wabilikimo is therefore not entirely far-fetched, though it may well have been influenced by local tradition and translation as well as his own understandings and expectations drawn from Swahili and other discourses about little folk in the East African interior. The story of his capture could have been based on real events – it’s not unknown for foreigners to be detained against their will for one reason or another – though it might equally have been an exaggeration for narrative effect. Again, Mwaro could have been drawing on earlier traditions of capture by the Wabilikimo, as first recorded by Krapf. This is a common trope worldwide in stories about human encounters with wildmen and other subhumans, though more often than not we are the captors and they are the captives.24 And finally Of course, it may be that Mwaro was just pulling my leg. It wouldn’t be the first time that a gullible anthropologist has been spun a yarn by an accomplished storyteller; indeed, academic monographs about tribal lore have been written on the basis of not much more than this. But I prefer to think that Mwaro didn’t merely make up his tale about the Wabilikimo: the stories he told about his other adventures as an arrow poison trader were fairly credible, and some of the ethnographic and linguistic information he provided can be corroborated from other sources. He may have embellished his anecdotes, but then we all do that. The dividing line between fact and fiction is rarely as solid as we like to believe, and the Wabilikimo will always be suitable subjects for an expanded Borgesian Book of Imaginary Beings.25 And it is unlikely that I will ever really know what Mwaro experienced, or even where it occurred. The author at the end of his stay in Kisimeni. The moral of my own tale, though, is much simpler than this. Next time you hear a story like Mwaro’s, make sure that you go back and ask for more. Ever since leaving Kisimeni I’ve regretted not doing this, and am afraid that it’s now too late. PHOTOGRAPHS AND MAPS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED ABOUT THE AUTHOR Martin Walsh is an anthropologist who has been researching and writing about East Africa for more than 35 years. He currently works for Oxfam GB as their Global Research Adviser, supporting research for advocacy, development, and humanitarian programmes worldwide. His most recent article for KP&P was "Mung’aro, the Shining: Ritual and human sacrifice on the Kenya coast", in issue 40. 57 KENYA PAST & PRESENT ISSUE 43 POSTSCRIPT In recent decades Pygmies have suffered from extreme discrimination and violence in a number of African states. Many local and international NGOs are now working to counter this marginalisation and secure their rights, and in the process have reclaimed the use of the name ‘Pygmies’ as a positive designation. For an example of a prominent organisation campaigning on their behalf, see Survival International’s webpage http://www.survivalinternational. org/tribes/Pygmies. Baka Pygmy women using smartphones to map community forests in Ingende, DRC. Photo: Gill Conquest/Moabi, from www.newschallenge.org Acknowledgements It goes without saying that I could not have written this article without Mwaro Marai, and I will be forever in his debt. I remain grateful to all the members of Mwangaza women’s group, especially Ndumbu Mkala and Mkala Chipuli, who housed and fed me for the duration of my stay in Kisimeni. Josephat Tayari and colleagues at Tototo Home Industries in Mombasa were particularly helpful in facilitating this. My research in OctoberNovember 1987 was funded by the Ford Foundation through World Education Inc. in Boston as part of a long-term study of Tototo’s women’s group programme, the results of which have found their way into print elsewhere. Tobias Schölkopf of the Johannes Rebmann Foundation kindly assisted in securing permission to reproduce parts of Rebmann's 1848 sketch map. Last but not least, I would also like to thank Asha Fakhi Khamis, for discussing contemporary linguistic usage in Zanzibar, as well as supporting my research in many other ways. 58 Notes and references 1. There is a large literature on the arrow poisons made from the roots of different species of Acokanthera. For one Giriama recipe see D.A. Walker, “Giriama arrow poison: A study in African pharmacology and ingenuity”, The Central African Journal of Medicine, 3 (6): 226-228 (1957). The story of the Waata and the Tsavo parks is best told in D. Holman, The elephant people (London: John Murray, 1967). See also J.-L. Ville, “The Waata of TsavoGalana: Hunting and trading in their semi-arid coastal hinterland”, Kenya Past and Present, 27: 21-27 (1995), and J.-L. Ville and A. Guyo, Le dernier elephant: Histoire d’un chasseur Kenyan (Paris: Éditions Autrement, 2004). 2. M. Walsh, “The Degere: Forgotten hunter-gatherers of the East African coast”, Cambridge Anthropology, 14 (3): 68-81 (1990); “The Vuna and the Degere: Remnants and outcasts among the Duruma and Digo of Kenya and Tanzania”, Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 34/35: 133-147 (1992/93). 3. Any resemblance to the well-known chorus (“Heigh-ho, heigh-ho...”) in Walt Disney’s film of Snow White and the seven dwarfs (1937) is surely coincidental: in any event it could only have come from my head and not Mwaro’s. 4. W.R. Dawson, “Pygmies and dwarfs in ancient Egypt”, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 24 (2): 185-189 (1938); V. Dasen, “Dwarfism in Egypt and classical Pygmy tales: Tall stories about short people in East Africa antiquity: iconography and medical history”, Medical History, 32: 253-276 (1988); and Dwarfs in Ancient Egypt and Greece (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1993). 5. Herodotus, The Histories (trans. R. Waterfield) (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), II: 32, pp. 107-108. 6. Herodotus, The Histories, IV: 43, pp. 248249. 7. E. Tyson, Orang-Outang, sive Homo Sylvestris: or, The Anatomy of a Pygmie Compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man. To which is added, A Philological Essay concerning the Pygmies, the Cynocephali, the Satyrs and Sphinges of the Ancients. Wherein it will appear that they are all either Apes or Monkeys, and not Men, as formerly pretended. (London: Thomas Bennet and Daniel Brown, 1699). 8. For overviews of African Pygmy populations including their genetics see B.S. Hewlett (ed.), Hunter-Gatherers of the Congo Basin: Cultures, histories, and biology of African Pygmies (New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers, 2014); and P. Verdu, “African Pygmies”, Current Biology, 26: R12-R14 (2016). 9. T. Boteler, Narrative of a voyage of discovery to Africa and Arabia, performed by His Majesty’s ships Leven and Barracouta, from 1821 to 1826, under the command of Capt. F. W. Owen, R.N. (London: R. Bentley, 1835), II, p. 212. 10. J.L. Krapf, Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years’ Residence in Eastern Africa; together with journeys to Jagga, Usambara, Ukambani, Shoa, Abessinia and Khartum, and a coasting voyage from Mombaz to Cape Delgado (London: Trübner & Co., 1860), pp.171-172. 11. J. Rebmann, “Rough Sketch of a Map from 6° to 2° South Latitude & from 35° to 41° East Longitude for the illustration of our journies in the year 1848. Mombas Sept 22/48”, http:// www.johannes-rebmann-stiftung.de/ share/karte_big.jpg. The note about the Wabilikimo is signed “L.K.”, i.e. Ludwig Krapf. For a useful summary of the 19th century literature on the Doko as well as other African Pygmies see H. Schlichter, “The Pygmy tribes of Africa”, The Scottish Geographical Magazine, 8: 289-301, 345357 (1892). 12. J. Rebmann, “Imperfect Sketch of a Map from 1½° North, to 10½° South Latitude, and from 29 to 44 degrees East Longitude, by the Missionaries of the Church Missiony Society in Eastern Africa. [...] Rabbai Mpia, Apr. 4 1850”, The Huntington Library, Rare Books Department, Sir Richard Francis Burton Map Collection, http://hdl.huntington. org/cdm/ref/collection/p15150coll4/ id/7139. 13. J. Rebmann, Tagebuch des Missionars vom 14. Februar 1848 – 16. Februar 1849 (Veröffentlichung des Archivs der Stadt Gerlingen, Band 3, 1997), p. 131, entry for 23 December 1848. 14. See, for example, C. Dundas, Kilimanjaro and its people: A history of the Wachagga, their laws, customs and legends, together with some account of the highest mountain in Africa (London: Frank Cass, 1924), pp. 37-38, 41, 50-51; and Asili na Habari za Wachaga (London: The Sheldon Press, 1932), p. 8. 15. Krapf, Travels, pp. 301-302. 16. J.L. Krapf, A Dictionary of the Suahili Language (London: Trübner & Co., 1882), p. 214. Juju and Majuju are the Yajuj and Majuj of the Qur’an, the Gog and Magog of Judeo-Christian tradition, barbarian hordes who will break through the barrier that separates them from the rest of humankind at the end of time. 17. See, for example, H.K. Binns, SwahiliEnglish Dictionary, being Dr. Krapf ’s original Swahili-English dictionary revised and rearranged (London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1925), p. 142; C. Sacleux, Dictionnaire Swahili-Français (Paris: Institut d’Ethnologie, 1939), p. 526; F. Johnson, A Standard SwahiliEnglish Dictionary (London: Oxford University Press, 1939), p. 268. 18. [J.]L. Krapf and J. Rebmann, NikaEnglish Dictionary (ed. T.H. Sparshott) (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1887), p. 247; W.E. Taylor, Giryama Vocabulary and Collections (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1891), p. 65. 59 KENYA PAST & PRESENT ISSUE 43 19. There are a number of candidates in this region, including the short statured Athi and Gumba hunter-gatherers who are said to have occupied Mount Kenya before the Kikuyu, and the even more diminutive Maitha wa Ciana who on some accounts preceded them: see G. Muriuki, A History of the Kikuyu 15001900 (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp. 37-47. A longer list might also incorporate two cases which have excited cryptozoologists: the “race of little red men” once rumoured to live on top of Kiang’ombe Hill in Mbeere, and the mysterious Pygmy-like “X4” whose identity is apparently known to Kenyan Maasai and Dorobo, but was kept secret by the anthropologist who announced their existence together with that of other categories of “unidentified hominid”: see S.V. Cook, “The lepracauns to [sic] Kwa Ngombe”, Journal of the East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society, 20: 24 (1924); and J Roumeguère-Eberhardt, Dossier X: Les hominids non identifies des forêts d’Afrique (Paris: Éditions Robert Lafont, 1990), passim. 20. See J. Lewis, The Batwa Pygmies of the Great Lakes Region (London: Minority Rights Group International, 2000). The existence of small numbers of Twa in western Tanzania is not mentioned by Lewis and others, but see P. Chubwa, Waha: Historia na Maendeleo (Tabora: TMP Book Department, 1979), pp. 13-16. There are also traditions of their historical presence further down the eastern side of Lake Tanganyika, for example among the Fipa of southwest Tanzania: R. Willis, A State in the making: Myth, history, and social transformation in pre-colonial Ufipa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981), passim. 21. Zamani Mpaka Siku Hizi: Historia ya Tanzania Bara Mpaka 1965 (third edition) (Arusha: Eastern African Publications Limited, 1966), pp. 3-4. For an example of its likely influence see the use of the term Mbilikimo (in the plural) in Ikizu tradition: J.B. Shetler, Telling our own stories: Local histories from South Mara, Tanzania (Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na 60 Nyota Publishers, 2003), pp. 34-35, 4449, 292 fn. 6, 294 fn. 27. 22. For the Nkulimba: M.E. Mnyampala, Historia, Mila na Desturi za Wagogo (Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1954), p. 3. Mnyampala actually introduces them as “NKULIMBA (Mbilikimo)”, another possible instance of the influence of Zamani Mpaka Siku Hizi. For the N/íni: E. ten Raa, “Sandawe prehistory and the vernacular tradition”, Azania, 4: 91-103 (1969), p. 95. 23. J.E.G. Sutton, The Archaeology of the western highlands of Kenya (Nairobi: British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1973), p. 144; R.A.J. Maguire, “Il-Torobo”: being some notes on the various types of Dorobo found in the Masai Reserve of Tanganyika Territory and contiguous districts” (Part 1), Journal of the Royal African Society, 27 (106): 127-141 (1928), p. 141. 24. G. Forth, “Disappearing wildmen: capture, extirpation, and extinction as regular components in representations of putative hairy hominoids”, in G.M. Sodikoff (ed.) An anthropology of extinction: Essays on culture and species death (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2012), 200218. Another Kenyan tale of capture was told to the big game hunter Roger Courtney by his guide, a Muslim of Boran and Kamba parentage, who claimed that his father had been held by primitive “Mau men” in a cave on the slopes of Mount Longonot: R. Courtney, A greenhorn in Africa (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1940), pp. 25, 43-49; G. Forth, Images of the wildman in Southeast Asia: An anthropological perspective (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), p. 219. It is perhaps no coincidence that this is in the same general area of the country that Jacqueline Roumeguère-Eberhardt was told about Pygmy-like people and other varieties of her “X-men”: RoumeguèreEberhardt, Dossier X, passim (see also footnote 19 above). 25. J.L. Borges and M Guerrero, The Book of Imaginary Beings (trans. N.T. di Giovanni) (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1969 [1957]).