Musical instruments

OCLC FirstSearch: Detailed Record Your requested information from your library RILM ABSTRACTS Return WorldCat results for: ti: encyclopedia and ti: world and ti: art. Record 1 of 819. Detailed Record Add/View Comments Encyclopedia of world art. Bernard S Myers 1959­1987 English Book 17 volumes : illustrations, maps, plans, plates (some color) ; 31 cm New York, McGraw­Hill ; ISBN: 0070194661 9780070194663 Subject matter consists of representational arts in the broadest sense, architecture, sculpture, painting, and other man­made objects with no limits as to time, place, or cultural environment. GET THIS ITEM Availability: Check the catalogs in your library. Libraries worldwide that own item: 2364 External Resources: Cite This Item F IND RELATED Find Items About: Encyclopedia of world art (2); Myers, Bernard S., (max: 4) Title: Encyclopedia of world art. Author(s): Myers, Bernard S.,; 1908­1993. Publication: New York, McGraw­Hill Year: 1959­1987 Description: 17 volumes : illustrations, maps, plans, plates (some color) ; 31 cm Language: English Contents: v. 1. Aalto­ Asia Minor ­­ v. 2. Asiatic Protohistory­ Byzantine art ­­ v. 3. Calder­ Cosmology ­­ v. 4. Cossa­ Eschatology ­­ v. 5. Eskimo­ Gallo­Roman ­­ v. 6. Games and toys ­­ Greece ­­ v. 7. Greek art­ Indian art ­­ v. 8. Indo­Iranian art­ Landscape architecture ­­ v. 9. Landscape in art­ Micronesian cultures ­­ v. 10. Middle American protohistory­ Painting ­­ v. 11. Pakistan­ Rembrandt ­­ v. 12. Renaissance­ Shahn ­­ v. 13. Shamanism­Terror and the malign ­­ v. 14. Textiles, embroidery, and lace­ Zurbaran ­­ v. 15. Index ­­ v. 16. Supplement: World art in our time ­­ v. 17. Supplement 2: New discoveries and perspectives in the world of art. Standard No: ISBN: 0070194661; 9780070194663; National Library: 03630450R LCCN: 59­13433 Abstract: Subject matter consists of representational arts in the broadest sense, architecture, sculpture, painting, and other man­made objects with no limits as to time, place, or cultural environment. SUBJECT(S) Descriptor: Art ­­ Encyclopedias. Art ­­ Encyclopedias ­­ English. Art ­­ Dictionnaires anglais. Art ­­ Dictionnaires italiens. Art. Genre/Form: Encyclopedias. Note(s): Added t.p., in Italian./ Added t.p., v. 16: Supplement: World art in our time./ Vol. 15: Index./ Vol. 16 edited by Bernard S. Myers./ "All articles have been translated into English from the original language ... and correlated with the final editorial work of the Italian edition."/ Vol. 17: Supplement II, New discoveries and perspectives in the world of art. Published by J. Heraty & Associates, Palatine, Ill./ Includes bibliographical references. Class Descriptors: LC: N31; R703 E; Dewey: 703; NLM: N 33 Other Titles: Enciclopedia universale dell' arte. Vendor Info: Baker and Taylor (BTCP) Document Type: Book Entry: 19830913 Update: 20150318 Accession No: OCLC: 509698 Database: WorldCat FirstSearch® Copyright © 1992­2015 OCLC as to electronic presentation and platform. All Rights Reserved. E­mail address: [email protected] Location: http://FirstSearch.oclc.org Return MUSEUMS AND COLLECTIONS 419 Rearransements i. kalian Ar.h&oloeical Musem, Musem, VI, res3, DD. 39-45; Muso e $llerie d'dte in Italia r94s-r953, Rome, r953i G Q. cigli"li, Il Museo Campana e le sue viqde, S. Romui, IlI rs5a, DD- 292106, 4\314t C. Marcenaro, Le concept de mus6e et la !6otsmisation du Palazo Bian@ n Genes, Muserm, VII, t9s4, pp. 25e67: Associazione nazionale dei musei italirli, M$ei e gaUd6 d'kalia, Rom., 1956. (2) Ftdncel I rlumesnil. Hisrorre de Dls celEbres amateurs ftancajs l vols Pdjr, rS<o qE: E. Bonnaild, Recherches sur les @llecfions de Richelieu, P&is, rSEr: E. Bonnafle, Les colLecuoMeus de lucieme France, P&a r88a: r. Iiomafld. D,cdomaire des amateu. fmnsa,s au XVII" sjcclc P,ris '88a: C. Sauier, L€s conquetes .ltistiques d. la Revolution et de 1'Empire, P.ris, Charles I' ibe Couections of ve(tue, Caulosle of Q. Cr.d Brnain: too2. t r vols.. Londoo. r78sr W. Bucharan, Memoire ol P.inhng. London r82ar h r- w"u".". Ireasures ot Art in Grear Brimin, avols London. rSsa<r: E. Eariards, Lives ol the Foudere of the Brirish Ms€um. London, iSzo: A. MichaeLis, Ancient Varbles in Gre.t Brihin, Cmbrtdse, r882: C. H;ldes and C. H. C. Baker, The Malshg ol lhe Nacion.l Galle.v. Londor. ro:n: L. Salerno. r?!h Cenrurv Enslish Litedrure on Paindng Warburs. ilv. ,*r. rr. 2ra sE; D. Cowper. The Couhuld Couection. London. ,".- G; Ti, N"thdl"d': H Floerke. Srudreo zu niederl ndisch.n Kunst D,e Form€n des Kun*handtls, das Atelier und die ";i x"ii,.*".t'i.t '", vom rs. 'I8. Jahrhundert. MJnich, teos: s,--ler ,; den Niederldd.n C. Bille. De temDel der kuNt of het kabinet v.n den heet Braam@nD, z vois., Ansterdam. rebt. li Genaw 6d A6,,4: F. Alsarotti, Progetto dure a comDimento il Resro MJse, di Dresda pr€'€nrato in Hube rs_ "e ;',." "lla R. Maesra di AJsusto III Re dr Polon,a il d,2E ollobre I?a2, in O"-" rnew ea.r, vllt, Venice. n92, oD Js3-74. A Aetser. Invenrar der wirherm von Ore.rtich. Jhbo"a Khsamlwia I. 1883. DD. Il*ix<lxryiii A Venturi, Zur Geschichte der i-"l"i.iii-ti^" t*h*-c' t";t"Id Kunstsammlunqs Kaiser Rudoleh p i.,a"r. o- k,n,t""*luncen des Grossen. JhbPreu"sKsamml. der Grose a[ S@nlet Il, RepfKw, vlll, r88s, Dp. r-23: des Prinzen Heinrich. Bruder Friedrich rEs2, pp ss '68: P. Seidel, Friedrich XIll, von Gemzilde. und S\ulptu.er, JhbPreussKssmml, iitt. re*. rr. t83 r,r, xlv.,8e3 pp 8t-e3, o H FiiBttr K6lner Kun{s;mle; vom Minelaher b; z@ Ende des bijJserlrhen Zetrahtr3 u;.i';- ,..,, G. Handls. Fttsilche Mdze,e und Sarunle. in Deutschland ."" Srrasbours, ,o3l \6, Sbain: P de Madrazo viaje afiisri.o 'i"*,o-. B,r.elona. r88.: E. tturis, The Prado: Treasure House ot the SD Lh Roval Corlections, London, New Yo.k te4o. t1t Utttcd Stat.s: M. c;der. lsabeua Stewalt Gardne. and Fenwav Cou.r. Bo*on. New York. ro2s: S. N. Behmo, Duveen, New Yorl<, resz; L. Venturi, Collezioni d;srie it liana nesli Stati Utiti, Nuov! Antologis, CCCLXII, res4, pp rr- ,8: H. Read ud A. Drexler, The \4uecum oi Modern Art. New Yort. Miian. roso; A. B. Saarinen. The Proud Possessoc, New Yort London resq: th€ Uniied States oI Americ., London, w. G. Constable, Aft Collectinc i.yornals: MuseuEkude, Belin, igos ff.: New York, re6a. /. rrrusolagrr (t) re24 fl.; Mouseion, Omce int. de mus., Mtrseum News. Washinston, ,o27 ft-: Museum. UNESCO, ,ea8 fr. \z) SFe.ial studi$t W T. B.igham n""..t .r a loum.v Around the Wolld to Studv Matte6 Reladns !o Mu_ ."r',.r. H"^it"t,, iqrr; R. F aach. tf, musde modeme. Mouseon. lV, J. Caprt. Le r6le social d€3 musds, Mouseion. IV rero' ,pro. pp. ,+ oi. :,o .:S; e.'o,Kimball. Quelques sugsestions pou la coDstruction et lor_.i.i""ti"" a* mus€es, MouseioD, Iv, te3o, Dp. r42-sr: J Lameere, La ..**"." * l orcuiearion moderne des musaes d an et d h,stoire. llou_ seion. Iv. roro, p;. 23e-3 r, : M. B Picl, Musdes numismaLiques. Mouseion, IV. roro. DD. r74r7; F. Schumacher, La co6tructioD oodeme des mus€es, M."*ioi,, iV, io:o, pp. , 'r-16; W. Krcis, Muemsbauten, in G. wasmuth' Ldicon der Baukunst, III, Berli., re3t, pp. 658-62r F. Pell.{ Administ"_ ..e""i""tio" ao -usees italiens: Lois et resl6menB, Mouseion, vL tion to32,"iDD. 1o24si L. Hauteceu, Architectue et orsa.isation des ou#e& Mo"sJi.n, VlL s-+, 1e33, Dp. s-2e; T. Mudo, The Education.l FEctioos of- e.t 14"."-, a. Cl"ve. Mus., xx, re33, pp r,rr-46; F. Pellati, contri b;rion n l'histoire des musdas en l1ali6, MouseioL VIL 3-4, re33, Dp. e8,,6: C. S. SLein. Aichir.ctue et aminagement des mu.€es, Mouseion, VII, i-;. ;..r. rr. , 20; S. Suoembon. L eddc.tion Dopulaire au \4usEe naoonal a" 6t."uitti', nat"*i""' vlr' r2' re33' Dp 77-s7' w Ahre.s' control€ et rcclape de la Fm!;.arJ.e et de l'huridire daas les muqde" llous"ion VIIL r+, ,e34, pp. rrs r,: P P Cret Luchi(ectur. des mus6'i en Bht vlll, r-2, :934, DD.7'16 G- Q. Giclioli dd othds xxIV, re34, pD. rr3-23; G. Giovannoni, L€s 6di6ces exicences de la oBaosraphie moderne, Mouseion VIIL rz. que ;hstiqu€, Mouseion, 6r, i.r. u"*., anciens et les ro34. D.,. 1723i MusdosraDhie: Architectu.€ et ah6nagement des musEes a;ai, confcreqie i"t. a'et., 2 vols., Madrid, re3a; c sachs, La sisniEcation' ia ta"le et la tdchniaue mus€ost.ehique des @llections d'inshuments de pD. r5r-8a: C. Tholen'Js. La re.hmusi6u€. Mouseion. Vflr. .r-o, 'or+, d d$noeraphie MouBe'on vll I r-a' nioue mJseoE.aDhique d€q colhctions deq colirin, oo. ss i,r, t-. v* puvvelde. Les Drincipeq de la pr.tnrarion L.ii""" ai"" le; nus6es. \4oureion, vltl, t z, ro3a pp so a3' v B,erIx' Mouseion' tocaux' bauer, L'architecture et l'amdnae@€nt des mus'tes r-2, io::s, pp, ag-:c; A. L.uterbach, L'adaplation des Dalai!.nciens n t'usage des mus€es et la prasentation des ensembles, Mouseion lx r-2't93s,pp73,6: l. H. Maikhrm, Le plad et la conc.Dtion architecturale des musdes, i'loriseion, Ix, r-2. te3s, DD. ,-22; L. Mumford, The Cultule of Cities, New Yorir, rq:8; T. R. Adam, The Museum atrd PoDular Culture, N York, to3ei T. L. Low, The Mus€ud as a Social InsEument New York ,"",. e. U. V.o.e. Promotine International F.iendship ThJo rgh Museum ii,..,i".. v,*.-. L ,q48. DD. ,8r-8?: w. Pach The Art Mu'eum in e-..i.", i.r.* v-1, t9a8r P. Riv.t. Orsanisation des mus6es d'dthnologie i["""u-, l, ,s+4, pp. 6i'7o, r r2; J. Cassou, Les mus6$ d'art et la vie sooale' Jr" M;;;, il,-ir;;, pp. r5s-6r; R.D'Ha oncourt 'nd E KaDJman'' u".",- -! ria""tih a,is, Museum lr',e4e,pD.pp. rsGsar K B Dishe'' Mm B. cebhard' s4-to: iG-;;;i Hi.i;; \4useJms. Mu.eun II loae. r' in a Science l4useum of the Futue Mu$um. IL to4o. pp 162,r: ii."a. pii-. C.ueries. Museum, ll. 'o4o. pp 3e-45: App.Loeb, ProR. r6-rp: ii,,-? i.. -"+". e lheure mtueile, Museum, TI rorq. - MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 420 PeEoud, Musdes d'histoire, Museum, IJ, 1949, Do. 46-49; G. H. Riviere, Le role et l'oresnisation des mG6es, Museum, II, r94q, pD. 2o6-rai D. F. Rubin de la Borbolla, Aspects universels des mus6es ]o@u, Museum, IL re4e, De.6i-6i: H. Shaw, Science MBeums, Museum, lL r94e, pp. se62r J. Tuwm, EthnoeraDhi@l and Eth.olosi€ll Mueums ard the Public, Museum, II, re4e, pD. r8o-88: L. V. Coleman, Musem Buildincs, Washington, teso; G. L. McC. Morley od others, Museums and Circulatins Exhi_ bitions, Museum, III, rgso, pp. 26r-323; Acts of the ConferencB of the In_ teroatioDal Coucil of Mureds (ICOM), r95r fi.: G. L McC. Morlev md oth.rs, Museums aad TemDordy Eihibitions, Museum, IV, resr, !D. 2-62, H. E. V.n Gelder, Museumsr Their Functio.s and Archit€cture, Mus€un, lV, resr, Dp. r7q-86; H. Bersod, Les progr.mmes adu@tifs des musdes d'histoire natueue en EuroDe, M6eum, V, ros2, Dp. ,3-7e; M. Clsiano de Adedo, Museen und Museumskunde im 20. Jahrhund.rt, in Das Atlanrbbuch der Kunst, Zudch, res2, Do. 6e5-eer R. T Hatt, Educatioel Proslamoes of Natural History Museums in th€ United States' Museum, v, re52, pp. !r-23r G. L. Mcc. Morlev, Pr6sentation des exposi_ tions 6du@tives, Museum, V, rq52, DD. 80-97; D A. AIl.n ed others, The Rol€ of Museums in Educutioh, Museum, VI, 1953, pp.2r3-8r; R. Heim atrd otheG, Modern Trends oI Display iq Natural Science Museums, Museum, VI, tes3, pD. r4s-83r G. L. McC. Morle, and oth€rs, Modern Tiends ol DisDlay in Alchaeolosi@l Museums, Museum, VI, i953, pp. r-74 P. R. Adams, Towdds a Sfategy of Presentation, Museum, VlI, rgs,' pp, r-r4; H. Auer, Mu66es scieitiEque et compr6hension if,ternationale, Museum, VIl, 1954, pp. 97-ro8; A. G. Boloen, Del condizionam€nto e delia hce lele sau.rie d'a;te, vinun, se, ros4r B. M cbistiso!, The Artmobile: A New Experihent in Education, Collese Art J., XIIL res4, po 2e4-3ori P. Fi€_ rens. M$6es d'art et @mD!6hension interoationale, Museum, VIL resa Dp. 73-82: G. W. Locher, Mus6.s d'Ethnologie et @mptdheNion inrerna_ ii;nale, MEeum, VIL re54, DD. 8r-e4; A. Malrau*. Le probleme fondamental du musd€ Rev. des arts rv, res4, DD. 2-r2r C Marcendo, Le concept de mus6e et l. rEorsanisatioo du Palazzo Bianco A Genes, Museum, VII, tgs4, pt- 2so 67; P. Rivet, Mus€es de i'home et cohpf6h€nsion interna_ tioDale, Museum, VIl, re5a, pD. 83 86; S. Zavala, Musdes d'histoire et com_ prdhetuion interEtionale, Museum, VlI, t9s4, pD. 9s-96: M, Bernardini, Scopi pr.ctici dell'dchitettua € ordinamento dei musei, Bari, 1es5; G. L. McC. Morley ud otheE, The Role of Museums in Education, Museum VIII, ress, pp. 2ot-6si A. E. Reidv and others, Cont€mpor.lv Architecture and Museums. MBeu@. Ix 10.6. DD. 6e r32; G. C AtsaD, L. crisi dei mus€i italiaai, Ulisse, V. 27, r9s?, Dp. r397-r4ro; C. Bfatrdi, Il problema delle esDosizioni, Ulisse, V, z?, re57, Dp. ,383rr; G. L. McC. Morlev, Musdes d'aujourd'hui et de demain, Museum. x, 1957, pp. 233-42; R. PaIlucchini, Il problema delle mostre d'arte mtica, Ulisse,v,27,1es7, DD.lattra; L. Venturi, I nost i musei d'arte moderna, Ulisse,y,.7, \9s7,oo.1372?a; F. Albini, Funzione e architettura del Mus€o, La Biennale, VIII res8, Dp.2s-3ri R. F. Howard, Museum Securig, Am As,oc ofMN.Pub, N.S., 18. ressi M. Labd and R. P.ne, Dibanito sul Mue.o del Castello sforz€s@, L'dichitettura, IV, r9s8-59, pp. rs2-63: G. Schmidt, Geht €s nicht auch ohne Rahmen ?, Du, XVIII,7, res8, Dp. a8-so; S Mccandles6 and R. Kelly, Museum Lishtins, Mus. N€m.. xXxvII, rese, r, pp.8 rr, z' Dp. 8-rr, 3, pD. rGrg; R. KjeUbers, Sc.ndinavian Open_air Museum, Mus. News, XXXIX, a, te6o, pe. 18 22; G. }{. Rivia.e and H. F E. Vi!_ ser, Museum Show-case, Museum, XIII, te6o, pD. r-ss. Illustrations: p!s. 2oi?2ii ro fiss. in text. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. The primary concern ifl the construction of musical instruments is the production of sound through the physical properties of vibrating malter, but the expert crallsmanship and the decorative inspiration so frequently lavished orl these contrivances since ancient times have placed them in the category of works of art. The deep significance ascribed to sound arld to music in cultutes varying from the most advanced to xhe teast evolved is based on deep- rooted religious, magical, slrnbotic, and social beliefs and practices (s€e LlruRcIcAL AND RrruAL oBJEcrs). Thus the iconography of ancient and primitive instrurnental decoration involves prepoflderantly sacred, m,'thological, and emblematic themes appropriate to solemn rites. However, as accompaniment to dancing, &amatic performarces, festivals, and civic spectacles, instruments have also been decorated with comic, amorous, pastoral, allegorical, and courtly representations, according to xhe prevniline taste of the society in which they were produced. The expression of taste is particularly operative in the instruments that serve also as furniture, thus reflecting the style of interior decoration. In thc course of time, instruments of one type or anothel have gain€d or Iost caste, passing from street singer or shepherd to courtier and perhaps back again. In centers of strorlg artistic creativity musical inventions and novelti€s have proliferated in correspondence with oth€r art objects, whereas in static societies the established types of instrum€nts have remained urBltered fo! centuries. In addition, cultural migratiofls, such as the infiltration of Oriental civilization into 427 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Europe through the Balkans, southern ltaly, and Spain, have contribut€d to the difiusion and mutation of instnfnental forms. The great wealth of these foms of the past would be largely lost to present-day knowledge, because of the generally perishable natwe of the materials used for musical instruments, except for two facts: 6rst, the mlue of instruments in sets to be play€d in concert and the beauty of mafly individual examples have appealed to collectors, who thus preserved them; and, second, the esthetic interest of musical subjects and the atbactiveness of the instumental shapes tiemselv€s have intrigued a-rtists of all tim€s, so that a wealth of docurnentation of the lost irBtruments exists in painting, sculpture, illumination, and other SUMM^RY. History of collectiry (col. 42r). Classification (col. a24). Form and decoration in reiation to musical function (col. 4zS). Instruments as fumiture and then decolation (col. a2?). Technolosy and typology: Develophent and difiusioo of forrns (col. a3z). Music and musical instruments io the figual arts (col. 434). Prnnitive instruments: Masico-relisious and symbolic significance of shape and de"orsrion (col. $8\t ldiophones ol uood and elay; tdiophonc ot nctal : Mmbtapophats ; Chotdophone, ; Aerophones. HrsroRy oF col-I,EcrrNc. In the great civilizations of antiquity, such as China, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, coll€ctions of musical instruments, in th€ broad sense of the word, must have been established $ith the formation o{ orchestras at courts and places of worship. It is reasonable to assume that the instruments, especially precious, highly decorated specimens, were hept in order and in tune by the professional musicians employed at the court or temple. Israel, to mention only one example, had a body of professional musicians wh€n David's temple was built, andin Solomon'stime the Scriptures (II Chron. 5:r2-r4) speak of 4,ooo students of ritual music, with instruments of many kinds. Some of the famous temple and coufi collections of the Far East, as, for instance, in China, Japan, and Indochina, have survived to our day. Here, too, the size of the ensembles was often remaikable. The imperial orchestra of the Han period in China (zo6 B.c.-^.D. 2,r) comprised 8oo musicians, divided into four sections, and in the T'ang period (A.D, 618-907) the "ten orchestras" (Sh;h-p1r-ki) formed the backbone of the music peformed at state ceremonies and court festivities. A source dating from the T'ang dlnasty mentions 2oo shOng (rx\onth organs), r8o lutes, r2o harps, and numerous wind and percussion instruments used in the accompaniment of ritual hymns. Likewise, the Japanese gagaAz orchestras, originating about A.D.600 Under Chinese influence, consisted of numerous reed pipes, flutes, mouth organs, lutes, drums, and gongs. Among the medieval Easterq collections are th€ marvelous instruments preserved in the Sh6sdin at Nara and the famous Chinese lutes made of sandal'wood and inla;d with tortoise shell and mother-of-pcarl given by the emperor Sh6mu as an ofiering to a Buddhist temple in A.D. 749. Another example of a large public orchestra is the Javanese gamelan, in which a large number of idiophones of wood or metal predominate. In the Occident, there is litde evidence of large collections during the Middle Ages, despite the existence of a great number of instruments. This is not suprising, considering the predominant style of instrumental music perfomance by soloists and small ensembles. Exceptions must be assumed, however, if one takes into account certain pictorial sowces. The illumirations in the mannscripts containing the Carrigas de Santa Maria (Madrid, Escorial, Mss. B.r,z and T.I.r), collected at the court of Alfonso X (called "el Sabio") of Castile (1252-84), show so many beautifully adorned instruments and so many difierent va eties within each basic type of instrument that one may deduce that a substantial number of instruments $rere kept permanently at the court for the Chfistian, Moorish, and Jewish musicians employed there. On the other hand, even though a large number of instruments is also depicted, from the r4th century on, in aflgel concerts in Italian and Flemish pairtinss (e.s., yI, pL. 346), as well as in illuminations, this does not permit conclusions as to the existence of large orchestras o! bodies of instruments; while single instrumeEts are, as a rule, represented with meticulous accuracy, their 4t22 grouping into effiembles is targely the product ofthe painter,s In_ the Renaissance, a difier€ntiation between two types of- collecr.ions begins to take place: (r) a body of instrumims _for kept together at church, convenr, or'palace performance jnstrumen[s collecred as rare and curious objects or for their exquisite workmanship and beauty. "pleasing the eye as welt as the ear. , ofren kepr wrth ober curios and works of art or in special music srudjos. However, a sharp division between these two t}?es cannot be drawn, since often the showpieces also served performance purposes. Collections in the modern sens€ canrot be dated prior to the baroque. Judging by contemporary musical life and by the wealth of written instrumental music, the larger Renaissance courfs must have had substantial cotlections containing both instruments used for performances and showpieces and curiosities. While the Medici inventories of 1456 and r49z contain a small number of instruments in comparison with the splendor reflected in later inventories of that court, the court of Mantua, thanks largely to the musical interests of Isabella d,Este and her passion for collecting, had a number of showpieces, some of them commissioned from famous makers, others purchased from other courts. The riches in the castles of Urbino and I lrlst nlmentc fthammet); (z) an aggregarion of Gubbio, the two residences o.t Fedetigo da Monrefelrro, may be esrimated from the great number and variery of beauriful instruments represented life-size in the trompe l,oeil inlays in the studioli. Precise historical evidence, in the form of inventories of large specialized collections, can be traced back as far as the r6th century. In France, Eug€ne de Bricqueville (1895) mentions a rsthcennuy Parisian collecror, Maitre Jacques Duchi6, shose lrdrel in lhe Rue des Prouvelles contarned harps, organs, vielles, guiternes, and psalterions. In England, by far the largest collection was that belonging to Henry Vl llr besides several groups ot EngJish instrumentalisrs (minstrels and rrumperers). he employed various Spanish. Italian, and Durch ensembles, and rhe inventory ot his coltec- rions at his death included, as well as many bowed and plucked instruments, 13 regals, 17 virginals, and 76 recorders. Italy, even earlier than 16oo, abounded in cotlections of instruments. ln Floreflce. for example. rhe couecrion (turcs ol rvory and ebony, harpsichords. viols, citterns, flutes, and others) that formed part of the remarkable art collection of the sculptor Ridolfo Sirisatti was described in Raphaelto Borghini's -Il Rrposo (1584). Francesco Saruovino, in his Venetia descritta OS8I'), mentions no less than four music salons: those of the Cavaliere Sanudo; of Cataino Zeno. whose collection included a precious organ previously owned by King Manhias Corvinus of Hungary; of Luigi Balbj; and of Agostino Amadi, which contained not only modern iflstruments Lut also Greek and aflcient types, that is, archaeological reconsrructions which had become so fashionable with the rise of musical Humaoism in the late Quanrocento. From a cefltury later is the rich collection of the Procurator Contarini, part of which is now preserved in the Paris Conservatoire. North of the Alps, the richest collections were in Augsburg, Graz, ard near Innsbruck. The one in Augsburg lormed part of the art collection of the Fugger family. The inventory of Raimund Fusser (1166: taken after his death rvhen the collection was ofiered to Alb€rt V of Bavaria) includes no less than r4o lutes. enumerating most of them in sets of three, four, or 6ve and frequently describing the precious materials of which they were made. Because of their delicate constructionr elaborateiy carved sound holes, and the use of precious materials in the staves forming their bellies, lutes were amons the sreat showpieces ofthe craft ofthe tim€. A lzrge Insbumentenkantmer in Graz by the Archduke Karl of Styria; its inventory (i577) indicates rhat it served chiefly performance purposes. The collection formed bv the art connoisseur Archduke Ferdinand II of Tirol in his castle of Arnb.as near Innsbruck, built to house his lanotrs Kunsthammer, of which musical instruments formed a special section (invertory, 1596), is rich in rarities and precious showpieces. The collection was established MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 423 (now largely in Vienna, Kunsthist. Mus') includes, among other mre pieces, the beautitul cittern commissioned by the Archduke from Girolamo de Virchis of Brescia in $74 (PL. 43)i a lFa-cittern of the r6th or rTth century, actually a hybrid instru.rnent combining the shape of an ancient lyre with a ehitanone neck, probably for use on the stage; several theorbos made by membeis of the Tiefienbrucker d)'nasty; numerous Renaissance lutes of German and Italian provenance; tie unique set of five German tartdlten of the r6th cefltury, bizarre wind instruments in &agon shape, probably used for masqueradesl the iDlaid chessboard containirg a combination of regal and spinet, made by Anton Meidling of Augsburg in 1587; an automatic spinet operated by a pin barrel, also made in Augsburg duiing the second half of the r6th century; two silver trumpets for fanfares made in Niirnberg in r58r and 1657; a south German autom.ton with moving figures of uumpeters and a little automatic regal concealed in the box; a r6th-century toutnebrut, probably Milanese; a unique set of four !6th_cennrry bass sordoni, probably Italian; and a collection of thirty miriature models of various instruments made during the r6th century, In Milan the richest and most interesting collection was the musical section of the pdvate museum of Manfredo Settala, described by Terzaghi (Museum Seltalianun, Tortona, 1644); its inventory enumerates 59 instrirments, among which were Oriental instruments brought back from Settala's travels and unusual instruments constructed by himself. In Bologna, the museum lounded by Ferdinando Cospi and described by Legati (Museo Cosbiano, \677) included a number of old and rare instnrmmts. Probably the most important north Italian collection, dating back to the rTth ce[tury, lsas that in the casde of Cataio, near Padua, which was built by Pio Enea I degli Obizzi. There a museum, iflcludiog a collection of musical iEstruments, was founded by Pio Enea II in about 1648. Tommaso degli Obizzi (d. r8o3), the last of the family and a friend of the famous Venetian art collector Teodoro Correr, left the coll€ction to the ducal family of Modena, who enriched it substantially. Later it went to the Hapsburg collections in Vi€nna, where it v,/as united after World War I with the Ambras collection in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, under the superyision of Julius Schlosser, who wrote the famous catalogue of the combined collections in rgzo. Among the rare and unique pieces in this collection are the Germafl aDd Italian Renaissarce Iutes by such malers as Laux Maller, Hans Frey, and Wendelin Tietrenbrucker; early cittems and the bizarre harp-cittem by Wendelin Tiefienbrucker; the famous liro da bruccio rl:ade by Giovanni d'Andrea of Verona in r5rr (er-. 233); a consort of three viole da gamba made in r58o by Gasparo da Sald; eatly Venetian violins; and [umerous early north Italian woodwind instrummts and corn€ts. In Rome, at the same time, there existed the curious Gal- leria Armonica founded by the violone and trumpet player Michele Todini and described in his "Dichiaraziore" of 1676. Typical of the baroque penchant for automata, it contained chiefly musical machines, such as musical clocks, mechanical fiddles, and novel kinds of keyboaxd instruments' some designed and built by Todini himself. Another collection in baroque Rome was in the Museo Kircheriano, founded by the Jesuit polyhistor Athanasius Kircher. Kircher vlas greatly inter€sted in Oriental civilizations and had, no doubt, obtained much interesting matedal and information from Jesuit missionaries in the Orient and other missionary territories. Thus, it is not surprising tt]at the treatise on i$struments by his pupil Filippo Buonaoni (1722) contained numerous illustrations afld descriptions of Turkish, Persian, Armenian, Coptic, African Negro, lndian, Chinese, Javanes€, and everr Brazilian instruments. The Medici collections, m€fltioned earlier, had expanded considerably since the rsth centwy; the inventory of 1716 induded, besides precious stringed and wind instlulneflts, no less than 53 keyboard instruments Q6 cinbali, 2r s'btette' sri.nettoni, s|inetrin;, and 5 organs). One €ntry may be quoted ; show th;t mor€ attentio was given to the description of ddcor than was required merety for identification: "A harpsichord two eight-foot stops made in Antwerp, having three registers and a four-foot, and triro manuals with -ivory and ebony kep, 494 with the case painted red with gilded moldings, and the jack rail and front lid inlaid with ivory and red ebony; and another, whose frort lid bears the alms of the princely house, carved in gilded relief, with an outer case, the inside of which is painted red, ornamented with gold arabesques, and the outside, sky-blue with similar gilding, and with matching legs and leather cover marked No. 75." Modern cotlections in Europe, the Americas, Asia, Africa, and Oceania arc listed in the articles pertaining to the subject ]n Gtooe's D;ctiona4t of M sic anil M sicians (sth ed., rq55) and h Die Muih in Gesch;chte und Gegenart (1957). Many of the important catalogues of Europea[ collections appear in the bibliography of Bessarabofi's important study (r94r). CLAssrFrcAaroN. A clear-cut and consistent classifrcation of musical instruments which would take into accomt instlum€nts of both the past and present, not only in Europe but in the rest of the world as well, is not an easy task. Many systems of classification have been tried. A list based on the shape of the instnfn€nt would be confr:sing, since the number and variety of foms is virtually limitless, afid since there exists, besides a large number of familiar, standardized forms, an immense proftsion of hybrid and tansitional forms. Similarly problematic would be a system based on the materials of which instruments are made (e.g., "brass instrumefits"), since the variety of rllineIals and metals, woods and other plant fiberc, bones, hides, and shells is lirnidess, and since, furthermore, many insfiurne s are composed of more thafl one substance. A classification according to the playiflg method is bound to iDstruments are played in more than their method oI playing in the couse of time (for example, members of the lute family have been bowed as well as plucked). Today the most widely accepted classification, suggested by Erich von Hombostel and Curt Sachs (r9r4), organizes instrumeflts, according to the sound-genemting medium, into four categories: (r) vibrating strings (stringed instruments or chordophones); (2) vibrating air columns (wind instmments or aerophones); (3) vibratirg membranes, as in drums with skin heads (membranophones); (4) matter vibrating without t}le aid of strings, air, or membranes (idiophones or autophores), such as slit drums, bells, gongs, chimes, rylophones, the African sarrua, musical glasses, rattles, scrapers, and the like. The category of chordophones is commonly subdivided into plucked, struck, or bowed strings; a more practical grouping distinguishes zith€rs, lutes, harps, aad lyres. Zithers have neither neck nor yoke; the strings are stretched bet'lvee[ the two ends of a body which may be a sha[ow box, a tube, or a stick equipped with additional resonators, such as gourds. Lutes, in the general sense of t}Ie form, have a sound box lerminating in a neck which serves both as a handle and as a device for exterding be inconsistent, since many one manner, and others have changed the strings beyond the souird box. Harps are characterized by the fact that the st ngs, iovariably plucked, do not mn parallel to the soundboard but vertically away from it. The stdngs of llyes run patallel to the soundboard but continue beyond it to a crossbar or yoke held by two arms projecting from the sound box. The ancient Greek iyra was a bowl lFe with a soundboard of skin stretched over a shallorv bowl made of *ood or of the back of a tutle shell. The ancient Greek kithara had a box with vrooden front, back, and side walls fastened together. However, while these four fundarnental groups take into account the stdnged instflrmeots of Euiope, they aie too limited in scope to encompass all the instruments of the other cultural orbits, and especially of primitive civilizations, in which there is a large number of "mixed" forms, such as lute-harps, lyre- harps, frame-zithers, and other hvbrids. The popular division of wind instruments into woodwind instnrments and brass instruments, while appropriate to the modern orchestra, is misleading if applied to a wider tealm, since flutes and €ertain reed pipes are made also of bone, clay, stone, metal, glass, or bamboo, while trump€ts and horns are frequendy made from materials such as clay, wood, and even tree bark. A more scientific classification, as suggested by MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 4A5 Nicholas Bessaraboff, divides the wind instruments into three categoiies according to the fundamental method of tone production: flue-blown instruments in which the air stream is - by a "flue," either the lips of the player, shaped and directed as ir vertical and tansverse flutes, or a caflal mouthpiece, as those pipes equipped with a - the Renaissance shawm, the double reed (the ancient aulos, modern oboe and bassoon) or with a single reed (clarifiet, saxophone); lip-vibrated those in which the player's lipg in combination with a special themselves function as vibrator mouthpiece (trumpets, horns, and other traditional "brasses"). A further subdivision may be made within these three main groups, according to acoustical properties, such as range, shape of tube, and the various devices for lengthening or shortening the tube. in recorders; reed.ivibrated FoRM .rND DEcoEATtoN rN RELATToN To MusIcAL FUNcrroN. The laws of acoustics and the practical requirements of the player determine, to varying degrees, both the general shape of the instrument and that of its individual parts. For instanc€, the tapering shape of soundboard ard sound box in the modern "grand" pianoforte is a logical result of the gradation of strings from long and thick to short and thin, and similarly the asymmetry of the frames of European harps results from the unequal length of the strings. On the other hand, the shapes ol simple or primitive imtruments, such as $ttles or clay whistles, are not directly determined by their musical function, and thus we fiod an inexhaustible profusion of geometric, anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, and other bizarre shapes, including African basket rattles, Centml American and African gourd rattlesj Northwest Coast American Indian bird rattles (PL. 224; XIII, pL. 3), Central American clay whistles, and the like. In general, the more complex the firnctional properties (e.g., the compass, the d].namic range, and the ease and rapidlty of playing required), the $€ater the restrictions placed on the imagination of the instrurnent maker in his choice of a shape. One cannot, for instance, change the length of the neck of a violifl, or its angle to the body, or the contour of the latter, the curvatue and thickness of its walls, or the plac€m€nt a.ld form of the bridge without afiecting the balance of the whole. Wherever the functional determinant penits fre€dom, the other form-shapiflg determinants, such as mtthical, totemistic, religious symbolism, or simply the will to please the eye, come into play, and as a rule the shape of an instrument is determined both by tunctional and extrafirnctional factorc. Here the problem arises as to which parts are inflexible and cannot be altered by artistic imagination without impairing the function, and which invite the free play of decorative fantasy. Two outstanding showpieces may serve as examples. The lirst is the splendid harp made for the Farnese family and now in the collectiofl of Princess Heruiette Barberidi (design in Florence, Ufizi, Gabiretto dei Disegni e Stampe); it is depicted in tbe AlleEory of Musi by c. Lanfranco (Rome, Gall. Naz.). The front piUar, which plays no part ir the generation of tone, is completely transformed into a profusely decorated tower of superimposed levels, groups of caryatid-putti altemating with pseudoarchitectural omaments, while the sound box, in the usual pyramidal shape, is entirely free of ornamental reliefs, as any decorative ballast would hamper the vibration of the sourdboard and, to some extent, of the whole sound box. The three-dimensional stai.rettes of angels that crown the jurctions of the curving neck with the pillars and with the upper end of the sornd box do not impair the instrument's function, since the points which they occupy do not vibrate but s€rve or y as reinforcements of the harp frame. The second example is the famous citleIn (cetra) cornmissioned in 1574 by the Archduke Ferdinand oI Tirol from Girolamo de Virchis of Brescia ffienna, Kunsthist. Mus.; pL. 233). It shows the most elaborate sculptured decomtion precisely at those points where the burden of added weight cannot impair free vibration, thax is, at the shoulder and at the head of the reck, which is crowned with the figure of Lucretia stabbing herseu. The soundboard, as well as the back and side walls of the body, are free of carved ornament, and only the sound hole has a 426 beautiful painted and gilded rose similar to tiose found in contempomry lutes and guitars. Only in rare and exceptionally magnificent stringed instruments of the late Renaissance and the early baroque does the carved decoration invade the sound box itself, and even then it is rarely seen on the soundboard. One instrument of this sort is the beautiful violin ofthe early rTth century, allegedly once owaed by King James I (Vict. and Alb.), of which the whole back is carved in flat relief with arabesques and ribbon knots. The back of another instrument, a violoncello (Modena, Mus. Estense) bearing the Este family coat of arms, is carved in deep relief with allegorical frgures, angels, putti, and garlands. In such exceptional cases the maker either had to take the trouble to achieve a workable compromise which would allow the necessary freedom of vibration despite the heavy decoration or had simply to content himself with producing an instrument pleasing to the eye rather than to the ear. In irNtruments in which the vibrating soundboard consists not of wood but of skin, as is the case with many ancient Egyptian, African, and Near Eastern stringed iEstruments, any massive decoration of the skin is natually out of the question; the same is rrue of the skin heads of drums. All these problems of the interaction of functiofl and form flaturally play a much lesser role in the realm of accessory decoration, that is, ifl those parts of the instrument qhere the ornarnent canDot conflict with the musical function. Examples are painting, inlay, or gilding of the exterior of European keyboard instruments (prs. 234, 236) and strirged and woodwind instrum€nts of many regions of the world; int.icate carying of of the Middle Ages, Renaissance and baroque ivory horns, and r8th-centwy ivory recorders; sgraffito designs on African and South American ivory horns; and the molding of the copper bells of Tibetan trumpets or European slide trombones into bizarre dragon shapes. It is clear that the heavier types of ornament, such as carving, stucco, or inlay, can be tolerated only on the outer surfaces, such as side walls, whereas painting might be applied evefl to soundboards, as for example in Flemish virginals. To the category of applied decoration belong all the many and varied deyices or structlues for suspending ox supporting the sounding body of the iflstruments and the cases protecting the instrrment proper. Among these are the bases and frames holding or carrying the "resting bells" of China and the massive €arved bases (often in zoomorphic form) of southeast Asian xylophones and metallophones (pL. 23o), the large carved wooden frames of Indian gongs, the stands for the stone and metal gong-chimes of China (el. z3r) and Japan (VIII, pr-. 3oz), the "cradles" supporting Chinese and Japanese barrel drums, and, in Euope, for instance, the structures, often with elaborat€ly carved legs, carrying virginals, harpsichords, claviorgans, and pianofortes (PLs. 234,46). Here also belong the profusely decorated, protective, wooden outer cases of ttre small ltalian spinets and the harpsicholds, usually made not by the instrument build€r but by a sp€cial cabinetmaker. Therc are, of course, borderline cases between decomtion aflecting the basic functional shape of the instrument and "applied" decoration, such as the unique ,i/a da braccio made by Giovaflni d'Andrea of Verora in r5rr (pL. 233), with its soundboard subtly curved to imitate a human torso, or the eastern European oliphants lt\djafl ?ulyui (et. zzg), a lute in the form of a peacock, in which the accessory d€coration of paint and feathers heightens the simila ry. In stringed instruments, two areas in particular permit elaborate decoration. They are (r) the heads, or upper eods oI the necks, often crowned with delicate carving, such as the stylized luck-bdoeing bats on ,'i-r'as and, btu as (pL. 23\), human heads carved on hurdy-gurdies, viole da gamba, and on viole d'amore, the scroll on violins, the head of the legendary peacock in countl€ss ornamental stylizations on many of the long-necked bochettes, the traditional biindfolded Cupid lutes of India, and the mlthological horse's heads on Yugoslavian guslas: and (z) the sound holes of lutes, bass lutes, guitaB, cifterns, and of keyboard instruments such as Fl€mish virginals and the small Italian spinets. These sound holes were decoBted MUSICAI INSTRUMENTS 427 4{28 positive organ. Large Leyboard of va'ous designs and materials. l'oeil inlays a magnificent r6th ceoturv houses. from burghir appear in instruments. or r,,* ","n -!"",'*ua" o( bone -the l..jni;ilil;;;a'.i1i on, especially in the north. where the home formed the center l,t".ii"r, i" *;;,'""JiV **..f I** Europ*" ivorv. Those;n of i"i"" "i'r*illy Iit and artistic activitv, including perlormances ." iothic flambovant desicns, and t" ;#"#";;i;t.* centurv manv German the r?th Bv or ltas music. A;gtu"a the thev were directty cut out of "r'u,"uo their Ktaaier o; Flrs?I (names indicating' at rhat ".,-d;"";;;;f* homes.had #;r;;;e; in. The famous tuternakers competei"il large forms of the harpsichord), Dlttct. zithamer ^nd time, traditions existed f*;i;;;l;,;;;. Dinefent national Engrish d-rawine rooms their virginars or wine-shaped harpia-a;;;i;;;i;' F;i';;;r., "ii..;;-'i;r.g,.,i"-i,*arv #"p;"; F-rench salons thei,i dat:ccins or +inartPr. The ;.fro.a",. ;;;";L reDresentins an alresorical ng,.,,". ...i ".a bodv of Dictorial evidence of outstandins most.sutstantial ;;;r fu; (*. ,;,;";;: rhe maker of €anke.l bv initials oi the rith and r8th ceoturies is provided furniture" ir,i. ;;';;;;iy ,#l h"d sichords or spiners frequentty painted bv Terborch, Metsu. Jan sr.een. D",.:! interiors ""r.i.a ir,,i-a-i-"i";.",i iii-".. !y 9. wood caned in qeomer,i"ur pu*",r," *o. Vermeer (Il' PL' 2Io)' with Derforated starc or roses "sunken roses" consistingof s"u""t tuv"i'ii;;;;;;;;il;t ii''",c'i Dersistence of tmditional ".""d-";i.-;;;.il"na *rj'i..ii'"'ji'ii,"" r"i" nl"'astonishing' is trulv senerations ii,, aissance repeat in their roses .*n1*,L.i'ilii.'i:",1J, The (vl Pi"" de Hooch' "L.7ot' Gerard Dou' caspar Netscher' Jan Verkolje r'*' '""'Mieris' tr'" tra.,' and others' A harpsichori or' more often' a drsin'l i" ,t".st standard equipmeni and is frequenrlv the decorative Molenaer *ai". e,ji--'"r'i"ii*lia""re'"' :ilTil::::"J*:"',:U;"!;i;,,,11],';*.?lif ;3'l';*:l: *,"i" ''J ",;drv clianging lr"i* - . fi:'.H.:1il:il"fl*anc€s represent i,i';i" iaving thai the design ol the soufld boxes' It goes without :::T:',,,;;L;.ti;-".r *'1,:;,J1x""",.'illl1;1 of mrxical ftDction prevailing stvle Protec;ive cases, and iegs' reflected closetv the *"r,u'iii eye. the of -*il't -**.rJul to furniture' of religious Italian in in"t"'-'ni" the .-"-Jf* .i ,t,r. '.r""d Two main rvpes of lurniture predominated. (Il From the "-" "r" uir. ,l'rri""d'fi;;ffi;. ana resti""rs ,Jrama, masquerades, r6th centurv on' the strict architectural form of ihe 'arson? "r lil"f""l,'iJ' -"t-"' Nllanv reDorts of perlormances model for resals and to some extenl for the oblone became "*" rr.'# f"",i;i';:;;';; -the vasa;i.s deraired description "r ,h. occaiionallv the shape of the credenza was ot.vircinals. boxes rvi;;t.r ;": in r<6< on Lhe occasio. or tr,. *.aa,,g JiF*,.;; in the beautifirl claviorpan (harpinsunce. ai. for borrowed, J";,1f".-,ri.. and Joanna of Austria. A.*h., ,i.h":;r;; pipes) b-u-ilr bv Lodewvk Theeuues with orsan combined srchord ;;";;;t.* '" ahour theater insrruments * th" ',-*;;';# in A]lfwerp (rs7q. vict. and Alb.). usuallv the positive oreans piven bv stase direcrors Lo .t ,r,*,*'".;Gt - M,nv .lifferent kinds of mock pi.r..ii'" case over their ranks ol pipes las mav be " i,";;;"';;'" "r". bujtt aid had in one or the side oaners or the van Evcks' Ghent altarpiece' seen "o iii'"*,i""-i*."l"iav '1"'i;;;' ,,".i"]"t'",Xjiifil"uil"iir"r "v,"L"ri" in-.Isralel van Meclenem's el,eravinc fie Oryanist and' His held by Aporro, rhe Muses. o,pr,.'i,"'i-l*'p" "'a wde..znd ia one of Hans Burgkmair's woodcuts tot the weis\mvtholosicat or auesorical o*r.]i"r#-inir"-i#'1",-J ^!hcrp'"iia.a k'nlq)' staee uv real instrumenis hjdden behind the *r" tz) tn the ,7th centurv the shapes or the s'/i/rolo (wrjting , Freouenr)v actuar rnsrrumenrs *.,. ,#;;:i il;H ";;;r,-;;1ti cabinel) and d" auuoii became the accepted models lor i'ie"" or other monster' the rhe most erBeme case of the subordinatlon the demands u, rir-p"t" bujlt in ' larger chamber orsans; their wooden cases were divided inro "t"p".f .ff"1.,"5i-;#;';;";;;;; a twer' wider section' housins the bellows' and an upper' ;i;;;;;i;i "iau-a, narrower sqql;6n. Lr5uallv equippid with opening doors' housing function various orher materials, accord,ns t. ii.;' "fl.i..i"ut or pipes. ln the r6th and rTrh cenruries the visible lhe rar-&s. on rhe srase. Thus, in an i.,".-.di',1;';j;8"fi;' ;il;;;;; arraneed in three different wavs: (a\ sv:nfrontal .pipes'were rhe Sohircsrhere were r.'.,p" ",a ri,','i.'eil"iia - ei,"',r,". metricaliy. with the Iongist pipe in the center. as in the sourh "t of ..ceresLial b*-",' ";".:.i;;;;;,.; ?"i ,l.a tr,. made in the-firsr half of the r?th centurv and c-'"*r'"rran L-ipp"rl ".mLro,,"e *,iniii".'"r]* shimmering inslrumenrs {i1ed wirh illu"trated i-n the ca(alosue of the wilhelrn Hever Co)lection' 2s rhe serDenrs of Jeatousy. r. in Lejpz;s (No' zq:)r (6) tapering Irom the larse bass ""-.':;'Ji;;"";;";;;6;s" i;i' one or the ' '"* -," onlv iemoo,arv;Lain colanaria, pip" o' ttre teri to tt'e tr"bt" pipes on the risht as in the small "i.';;;;;;];;;"; u"a J""il;;,' ;;;. il;; Amb,a"' comedy, positive with painted- side doors or rb27 rrom the bi'."" sDire. when attackeci by serpenrs, of the Electoi John George I of Sa-{onv (vicl and colleclion p"v.r," u*"iii;"';;;.;..; ",,#:;'tl#;;;;";',iir,,t wlth rhorny stjcks, pl.^234r; (.) in three groups, iymmerricallv arraneed in "".;;;i; AIb.r "" rhe ;;i ii.;i;. rere .""";i.;;; shed rherr camouffage anct t'ipty.r, f*iio". as in the Iialian positive bearins rhe coat oI sricks as fiddte bows, and in ,f,. r,*a" "T,f,. "'" f.* J-L"g.n;"," *ms of th" Rovere familv, made in the 6rst half of the r6th these save ofi the swe€test of h"r-;; Frequently'mythologicalo..".",*."*.'.furnishedwithcentury(HeverColl..No..zrr).oftenthefrontalspacenot filled 6y ploes was couered tv **"a '"a frequenrlv silded instrumenrs .,alt,antica, *,. ," ..^,i,ii..i'r' ,i. "pp'.-l-"i" grill*ork.- bne exceptional and umxuallv elaborate example )yres * ,;;;;r",:;i Roman or creek shaDe o{ ancienr among survivine chamber organs is the rTth-centurv German rechniques. *"J.i"'rn.,*issancer liiii.I;; ,ii ir"]riir" -i,f 133-34) with t" FliieeLchrank frlm the Ambias collection (Nohide At least ore example of rr,;" tvpe ore,',il'i';;;;";;i;;.'ii the pipes' thal comp]eterv drawers frontar it" *,nv d;;;;i?.i[;: rhe rovery eo,d and br ., ,r*-,0,*-ii'iil"i.,..i: "*ar arrangement basic same the continued r8th centurv The ;",;"rion {now in vienna. Kunsthisr. M*i.";; ,;i; ;tq"; applied .t rhe dressori and credenza ror chamber organs. butcontours ment. rhe sryl;zed ,ithoueue or ,. "li.;;,"i;'J;.";;-ir,i.a and often bizarre ii;; ;; ,iiiio"", ,"*"; se wete rhe freelv undulatins uirh the ronc neck and fingerboard .i;;;" example is Stili and-decoration of the iococo one characterisric evidenrty for use ;n a m),lhotosical ;;J;;-i;. "r;;". the middle of the cenrurv' wit1, ftontal &om Dutch Dositive the ;;;;d";; i"^"#r"ri" another form of camou6age ""*-"i p;p." ar*nied in triptvch fashion (Hever co[, No 2sr) where dancers or people riding in ,h. ;;;;;;;";.;.;"*t.'A-orrg In con.Id".i"p -.,"i.ut i".t* ."t" as furniture ceruin drawLeonardo's a1v dressed entirely as insrrumeno. with'a double funcrion should also be mentioned' tnstr.,-.r,rs r,o.sebu"t< ings tor fesrivats, for example, r".r" "i-"iti.r." r,*liil toe as ro head r,"i;!e,i*a " i:"i"n'i",l"rXl.i';;l'T:(;;Yff,:i;'i}rl:.tr.'::?'il,".:i; ,r'rrErR DECORATTON. Instru- in i49z; and the iashionable Igth-cenrury sewing_box pianos INSTRUMENTS AS FURNTTURE AND *ith ; ;.ti* needles, thread, and scissors placed on top of r*."'iri.." i,"i*"""'-ii,"v r"'ments a(e of esthetic i,t".""t soundhoard palaces "" princelv l't'r.,* "f"ai*"'i "t the interior' Tn Ttalv' i.r 'aJ-"*i. the Althoush rhev do not come under the categorv of turnituJc' . had kerboard rnsrrumenrs .r **,a'.*ti.''i;i. inslruments mav be mentioncd' 'uch as oth., a*ir,-.tLn .ii" * .r"i*O"g music as early as rhe r5rh *r*.r]'f.' of boxes (boite a ru ique' tabatiare de kinds tr," a;r"i"* p"u"E -*y -rir"*i;;ii';; examDte. the studioto of r]edeieo da il;,;i;i;;;; even a unique musical bustle siven to oueen musique"slie/dose' Mus.) .r'.*" at c;bbio (now, Met. "iiile'if ro be blown bv demon";" "..r"" i.i# lJ'lil"in'"r"J'iJi;;';"[';; " MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 4,29 Victoria in 1887, which was designed to plav the national anthem down) equipped with little hidden wherever its *"ur". acting on small pipes or steel combs Din-barrel mechanisms"ut and the late-I8th- and early-roth-century cane irstruments' Manv different kinds of ins$umenrs were concealed in or made in the form of walking sticks: l.mnsverse ffutes. recotders, cla nets, even violins. These instruments have been regarded as characteristic accouterments of a sentimental age. (See In Europe the large keyboard instruments, because of their size and thi abundance oI flat surfaces, lent themselves particularlv well to piclorial decoration. Organs for church and home and certain tvpes of harpsichords and pianolortes invited (PLs' oainted o. inlay deio'ation or reliefs in wood or stucco 'rr^-zrot. tn fact, the early instruments of this sorr continued ,iJ ,*itr-""n** ,tuaidon ;f the painted .asrozi; in later perio& tt'"i'_decoration reflects trends in national sryles which may be - described as follows: In instrurnents with harpsichord action, difierent traditions a"r.iop.d in the north and the south. Flemish vircinals and J.rtf"' r;r*;..t", when closed. looked like inconspicuous coffins Sfi.t and derojd of embeuishment bur were lavishlv ",;-"a i...'ri.a l..ia". The soundboards were adorned with painted flowers and pewter sound-hole roses and the front board, behind .1. f""t*.i. with wallpaper patlerns. The upper lid, covering the soundboard, was painted wilh landscap€s or musical scenes' *" r.*"t ila, wfricfr ^"a I-arin Drovertrs coverea the kevs, was paint€d lvith or mo(oes slorifving music. The most famous makeri ot such instrumenls were the Ruckers d5'nastv in Ant- *."". founa.d bv Hans Ruckers the Elder, who was admitted bi"*^,,0"t.i**,? to the painters' Cuild of sr' Luke in "" r<ro. Ruckers instruments were widelyexporred to connoisseurs .r'''"""t ou, EuroDe and in Lhe Spanish colonies Besides viroinali the Ruckirs tamilv and other Flernish builders made i";"n-"r'"""a harpsichords (claticenbalil. Both kinds of instru- a'e depicied in interior scenes by Vermeer, Terborch' and other artists. The front board and the inside of the top cover of the harpsichords were usuallv covered with painting, qhile the outsidJof these instrumeflls was jusr as inconspicuous as that of the viiginals. men-ts Unlike the Flemish harpsichords, Italian wing-shaped harpsichords were usually constructed in two parts' the instrument itself and a protective outer case from which it could be removed' This outer case, usually built by a special cabinetmaker, was normallv oroluselv decoraled wifi painrings on the outer as of those nonfunc-"lr as ihe inner iide ot the lid. The shape rional Darts not strictlv determined by acoutical requirements notahli the stand and lhe tess, followed the changing fashions of furniture siyle, r€flecting those pieces closest to them in bulk and shape, such as daspri and tables. Onlv ir the exuberurt baroque, lesi bound to any strict stvl;stic formulas than any other oeriod, were kelboard instruments conceived as in- .i"."-dent {orms and construcred in eccenlric and ltzarre shaoes. Perhaos the most oulslanding of these showpieces is a harpsichord ol fantastic shaPe in the MetropoUtan Museum of Air tpr-. 214). lls gilded bodv is supported bv fishtailed Tritons and nymphs emerging ftom the silvery-green waves that form the base, and a putto drives fwo dolphins from his oerch on a seashell at the rear ol the rnsrrument - a veriiable oceanic phanrasmagoria. The curvrne side watl of the bodv is decorated with an elaborate gilded frieze representing the triumph of Galatea. Th€ €ntire harpsichord is flanked bv two life-size 6gures, each seated on a rock. One represents Polyphemus playins a bagpipe Qanpogna)i the other represents balatea, who musL once have held a lute' l.hus svmbolizing the aee-old dichotomy between rusdc wind music and the more noble mu.ic of tbe suings. A small clav model, evidentlv made for this instrument at the time of its commission and aftributable to the school of Algardi (possiblv to Domenico Guidi), is today in the Museo di Palazzo Venezia in Rome' In the-r67os the instrument was a n'tajor attraction in Michele Todini's Galleria Armonica in Rome, and, according to his description, Pollphemus' bagpipe could be made to sound bv a friaa"r, device that connected the keyboard of the m"u"" "f 430 harpsichord with a set of pipes concealed in the rock on which Pobphemus sits. Another Itatian harpsichord of somewhat later date (last quarter of rTth cent.), formerly in the PallaviciniRospigliosi Collection, Rome, is suppotted by putti, musical trophies, and dolphios, and is decorated with paintings by Lodo\rico Gimignani. The smaller instruments with harpsichord (i.e., quill) action ir Italy, namely t}]re sp;nettini ^nd ottaain; of pentagonal or other polygonal shape, excelled not so much in the paintirg as in r,he subtle combination of carvEg, mother-of-pearl and wood inlay, and certosina work. In one of the 6nest and earliest specimens preserved, the t incttino (Met. Mus.) made in r54o in Venice for Eleanora, Duchess of Urbino (daughter of Isa- bella d'Est€), even the jack rail is made of several lavers of wood; ivory buttons decorate the edges of the box, and the sunLen sound-hole rose is of intricate flamboyant design. Decomtion of the pianoforte was adopted laxe and then only gradually. The first piano, invented by Bartolommeo Cristofori in Florence, was devoid of ornament, its case and stand painted in u$ifom btack. For some re:rson the profrxe painting of harysichords was not at first apPlied to their new ,iv'ul. Ev"n in Mozart's time, the only decorative feature of pianos worth speaking of was the careful veneer work on the lid and side walls. A rapid change took place when the pianoforte began to replace the harpsichord and to become the bourgeois meltble par excelleDce. The Empire saw graceful square pianos (Tafelklntierc) lavishly painted, such as those decorated bv Angelica Kaufimann and her imitators. Inlay of precious woods and mother-of-pearl and painting, such as gilt decoration with fruit and flower designs, were applied to frontal surfaces. In the Biedermeier period, pianos with vertical soundboards became fashionable and were either in symmetrical shape ("lyre" or "pyramid" piano) or in asymmetrical harp or wing shape ("giEfie" piano), and the fronts of their soundboards were often prctected by plaited silk screens. With the introductioo of m€tal braces and frames for the reinforcement of the sound_ board, at the beginring of the rgth cenflrry, the pianoforte became a standddized product of mass fabrication and was thus no longer within the freld of individual artistic imagination. Nevertheless, in the time of Liszt and Chopin, when the pianoforte was the spiritual center of social gatherings in the salons of Paris, London, Vienna, Milan, and Berlin, individuatly decorated showpieces appeared, sometimes completely covered by intricate marque[y, as, for example, the instruments decorated by master craftsmen such as Ceorge Henry Blake in London for rhe firm of Erard. The history of the organ since its origin in Hellenistic Alexandria would encompass some 2,ooo years of Mediterranean culture and is beyond the scope of this article. Because of wars, fires, and the successive modernization of existing mechanisms, f€w organs have survived intact from pre_Renaissance times. In the north, particularly in Germany, which was richer in large organs than Italy, many famous instruments were destroyed ifl the religious conflicts of the Reformation. Begi.ning with the r5th century, many important churches had two organs, a large one in the nave or over the main poltal for solo performances anda smaller oneinthe choir to accompany the singers and to play during the service. Apart from large church organs conceived as part of the architecture, several types of freestanding organs developed, chiefly for sectrlar use: "positives" or chamber organs, and still smaller "portatives," used at home, at court events, and often carried on cars in processions (as shovn in works by Butgkmair, Diirer, etc.); orsanetti, wl'lcl:^wete even smaller and were carried by a leather strap around the neck of the player; and the regal, which was placed on a table and contained one set of short reed pipes operated by two rectangular bello\,r's. An important esthetic problem posed by church as well as chamber orgars was that of symmetry, since the natural arrangement of piPes would have been in a descending diagonal line, starting from the longer and larger bass pipes and ending with the shorter and smaller treble pipes A reconciliation of the acoustical and visual requircments was achieved in the sfDmetrical deplo)'ment of the pipes. This probtem aflected 431 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS only the front pipes seen by the listener and known as the "prospect," which concealed the many other ranks behind. One frequent solution was a pyramidal arrangement, with the longest pipe in the center; another was a division ol the prospect into three compartments in triptych fashion, with the longer pipes in the middle compartmentJ as in the elegant gilded organ in S. Maria sopra Minerva in Rome (pL. 235). Large church organs would have from five to seven comparlxnents, each housing a special ranl of pipes. One of the most gmcetul designs is the rood loft and organ piospect in S. Maria della Scala in Siena, attributed to Pe \zzi,, in which the prospect is divided into nuherous small pipe comp.rtments. The essiest solution for a pleasingly symmetrical prospect, bowever, was in the use of "blind" or mute pipes to cleate a false decorative ftont. The climax of organ decoration was reached during the baroque period in Catholic countliesr especially in Spain, and under the banners of the Counter Reformation in Bavaria. The oryan became the great shoqiece of the church, an integral part of the colorful sculptured, stuccoed, and painted church interior, excelling not only in size but in visual splendor. Its visible front pipes trere gilded, painted, or embossed in orn,rmental patterns or hidden behind large pyramids of "blind" or mute pipes. Large wooden fronts teeming with saints, of the putti, and decorative yases encased the pipe angels, compafments organ. The important tr€atises on organ construction in the baroque period rarely mention visual, decorative aspects. However, Jakob Adlung (1768) includes an interesting Eection devoted "to the eye rather than to lhe ear." "If an organ is rightly constructed, it serves as special adornment of the house of the Lord," Arnong the problems discussed by Adhmg are the corect placement of the instfl.rment) "at which point of the compass, and how high or low, so that the right light may fall upon it"); the requirements of "Eulthmie" for synrnetrical the spatial grouping of pipes, the rxe of mute pipes "for filling optical gaps" and, for the same purpose, the use of carved ornaments such as "flames, pyramids, roses, appearance; musical instnments, statues, the sun, s!a$r scrolls,..." The detailed history of the church organ as an integral esthetic element of the church interior, as well as the evolution of rood lofts for organs, belongs chiefly to the history of church architecture. Regals and organetti, becatse of their shape and generally small size, ofiered only limit€d surfaces for decoration, but the two pillars that flank the ranks of pipes of positives, even in smaller mod€ls mad€ to be placed on tables, invited carying and inlay. These pillars were also often croq7lled by carved figures, as in the charming instruhent depicted in one of the famous Unicom tap$tries (ca. r5oo; Paris, Mus. de Cluny). The larger positiv€s, or chamber organs, plac€d or the ground, were an important factor in house music of the Renaissance, especially north of the Alps. They were a coinmon piece of ftirniture used at home alongside the harpsichord and clavichord. These chamber organs, as well as small chuch organs, were nearly alnays protected by woode[ cases which, like the lids and side walls of virginals and harpsichords, oflercd ample surface space not only for painted omam€ntation but even for good-sized paintings. Such paintings on the doors of orgar cases (pL. 234), on the imer sides of virginal lids, and on both sides of harpsichord lids were standard pmctice in the Renaissance and baroque and, following the tr.dition of.assone paintiDg, were often commissioned from great maste$. According to Vasari (Vita di Po torno), Bronzino painted the case of a harpsichord for Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino, and in The Hermitage there is an exquisite painting of the contest between Apollo and Marsyas, which has been attributed both to Coregeio and to Bron ino. Its unusual form, originally wing-shaped but later expanded into a rectangle, indicates that i! was intmded for the decomtion of a harpsichord lid. Most of these decorative paintings were naturally related to music. For oigan cases religious subjects were preferred, such as King David, St. Cecilia, and angel concerts. Keyboard instrurnents for secular use admitted representatioru of musical 4.32 parties, pastoral scenes (pL. 236), and particularly such mlthological subjects as Parnassus, the Muses (alone or with Apollo), the contests of Apollo with Pan and with Marcyas, and Orpheus and Arion. Sometimes amusing combinations occrfred; an angel concert would be painted on the inside of the front section of the lid, vr'hich could be opened separately on more formal occasions, while the rear section displayed a reclining Venus, who evidently graced less serious musical events. The most elaborate instructions w tter duJinc the high Renaissance for the pictorial decoration of keyboard instruments are to found in l-omazzo's tteatise of 1584. For the ornamentation of church organs he recommends a long list of sacred topics, all of which should have some inner relation to music, thus ruling out such subjects as the Convelsion of St. Paul, tie Annunciation, battle scenes, sacrifices, aod miracles. Secular instruments used at coud or in private homes were to be decorated with mlthological or allegorical subjects or rcprelentations of the nine choirs ol heavenly musicians. Each choir should be devoted to one t,?e of instrument and should contain portraits of t}le three most excellent musicians associated with it. The z7 famous mrxicians he suggests, include, for instance, Leonardo da Vinci, who was renowned for his \rirtuosity on lia da hn .io. There is yet one more area of a keyboard instrument that invited decorative fantasy: the sound hol€sj usually one, but sometimes twor which perforated the soundboards of virginals and harpsichords (er. z3z). As described earlier, an inexhaustible the wealth of pattems was lavished on these small circul3r openings. ThcHNoLocy AND Tt?oLoc1.: DE!'ELoPI,GNT AND DtFFUsIoN oF FoRMs. Among the most important factors that influence the evolution of musical instnrments are, on one hand, the prevailing musical style of a period and, on the other, the status of technology. Both these factors are in a perpetual state of flu-x, and it is not possible to formulate general rules as to their intetaction. In the history of music since prehistoric times appear numerous cases in which the inv€fltion of a new lool or a decisive technical improvement of an existing tool kindled the imagination of the music maker and thus led to a transformalion of the music itself. But therc are as rnany cases in which the imagination of the composer or player seeks new sounds or new mechanical contrivances for producifig sounds, and the instrunent maker then produces the needed tool. It so happens tha! two of the most popirlar instruments of our day, the pianoforte and the violin, represent different extremes. When Bartoloruneo Cristofo invented the pianoforte, h€ gave to his era, greedy for new d],'namic efiects, an appropriate tool in th€ form of a keyboard insfiument with a hammer mechanism that permitted gradual inoease or decrease of tonal volume through the modification of finger pressure exerred upon the kejs. Similarly, the desire of Richard Wagner for a particular solenrn timbre for certain orchestral passages in his Rt"g resulted in a new brass instrument, the "Wagnff tuba." The violin, however, had €xisted a considerable time before its inherenr dynarnic and tonal resources were exploited by Vivaldi and Iate!, in an udoreseeable way, through the invention of a supplementary tool, the Tourte bow. Only then did the violin become the vehicle of a new musical thought ,nd style, Sometimes another factor, the visual appeal of the shape, cont butes to the invention or improvem€nt of an inst.ument, Here again the violio is an example. Its "inv€ntion" must, in fact, have been due to xhe esthetic sensitivity of unknown master craftsmen in the early r6th century; searching for a "perfect" form, an organic and unified whole, they achieved a crystallization of older types and forms of the fiddle into a balanced luion of undulating contours and gracefutly molded planes. At the same time, a beautiful and standardized shape may resist finctional changes to a nearly absurd degree. This is the case with the shape of the classical lyre and Lithara, with theit two arms suppoting a yoke to which were attached the "open" strings. Long aftff the playing technique had b€en superseded by the addition of a 6nger board or neck, the arms visually survived in rnore or less atrophied form, though devoid 433 MUSICAT INSTRUMENTS of practical tunction. What is even more striking is tiat in periods of revival of antiquity, such as the Carolingian era, the Quattro- and Cinqu€cento, and the French Empire, arms were added to iDstruments with a central fnger board puely to give them the appearance of the kithala or lyre. The frequent assumption that tie invention of new instruments can be traced either to technological progress or to n€w musical ideas has often led to an oversimplified inxerpretation of musical history. Actually, generatizations are not possible, and each case must be iovestigated on its own merits. It is interesting that some mechanical devices used for producing sound, though comparatively simple, were nor appli€d to musical instrum€nts until c€nturi€s after their invention, at a point when musical thought was ready to employ them. The keyboard could easily have been constructed in a mechanically minded environment such as Hellenistic Alexandria, but this invention had to v,/ait for the rise of medieval polrchony, when a need arose for a mechanism that would enable one player to master several simultaneous voices. Valves for brass instruments *ere not invented until about r83o, but xheir construction *ould have presented no major difficulty to the metal craftsmen of Augustan Rome who devised the subtle metal rings, or collars, which could be revolved to shut of or diminish the diameter of the finger holes of the double oboe (aulos or tibia). While the progress of technology and the constant evolution of musical thought stimulate the development of musical instrumetts and new inventions, the force of tradition frequently acts as a retarding influence. Many sreams of culrural tradition run parallel to one another, some moving fast, othe$ almost incredibly slowly. There is the strong, quick putsation of inventive life in the centers of creative energy, courts and cities ferme[ting with competition and consequently with innovation. But there are also the quiet, remote islands and mountai! valleys where a hundred years is like a single day and where tools and pattems are inherited viitually unchanged throughout generations, Stlucturat devices, playing techniques, even small decorative patterrs, such as the shap€s of sound holes, are retained for centuries. The shape and sound of ancient Egyptian and Greek reed pipes are still retained in folk instrumints of the Near East and Balkans respectively, a.fld the graceful form of the ancient Egyptian shoulder harp lives orr in the region of the upper Nile and adjoining areas. Perhaps the most important and substantial migration of instrumental types was caused by the rapid spread of Islamic culture, which carried many instrum€dts into an ar€a extending from Spain to the south€ast Asian archipelago. T,he Persian spike fiddle taveled as far as Indonesia, where it is still one of the instruments used in the gametan, atd. the persian oboe is played both in Morocco and Bomeo. The Persian zither (qannn ot santir) developed in Europe in the rrth and r2th centuries into the psaltery and dulcimer, so popular during the Middle Ages, and even, much later, in China, where ii was called yang ch'in (foreign zither). Another interesting example is the lute, which originated in the Arab-Persian orbit, where it was called al-'ud (,,rlne wood,'). During the Middle Ages it crossed the Mediterranean to Moorish Spain; its dissemination in Christian Europe was probably aided by the Crusades. The Arab lute of today, or the other hand, has be€n greatly influenced by the European lute. As a result of migrations and cultural osmosis, curious mixtures oI shapes lrequenrly occur. The European violin, for instance, itself a remote descendant ol Near Eastern fiddles such as the rebab, has lent its chamcteristic curved outline to instrumenxs in Far Eastern regions, such as Burma, where they take their place beside such other bo.wed insuurnents as the spike fiddle. The fusion of difierent cultural currents results in strange hybrid forms and blendings of shapes as vreil as of decorative patterns. This has occurred, for instance, in colonial regions when the decorative style imported by the colonial power mingled with the native ornam€ntal vocabulary. Thus, Spanish traditional decoration 1\,as fused with native patterns in Moroccan as well as Central and South Arnerican instruments. Occasionally curious imitations by tribal musicians of complex 434 European instruments occur, in which the outer shape of the foreigd instrummt is roughty copied without any utte-pt to reproduce its actual firnctional strucnue. For .*ampie, u simple bamboo wind instrument from the philippine Iilands (Met. Mus.) has, attached to its main tube, seviral bamboo coils intended ro give ir rhe appearance of a modem valve hom. one other phenomenon should be menrioned in - Finally, tirs conte.t, narnely, the existence of idenrical or strikingly similar shapes in remote parts of the gtobe and in distant perio'di oJ history. The form of the Egyptian shoulder hary (ei. zz), the survival ofwhich iri North Africa has already been mentioned, occus also in Burma, both as a simple folk instrument and as a highly re61ed and ofren exquisitely decorated artistic object (rr,. zz8). Modem ethnomusicological research has succeeded in explaining some of these coincidences. Jaap Kunst (1959) demonstrated. with great plausibiliry, that the tuncrional;d decorative similarity of certain insrrumenc, and in fact whole groups of instrummts, in the Balkans and io Indonesia mav be due, or at leasl in some way connected with. cuihrral migrations such as the Pontic migration, which was hlpotherically suggested by Robert Heine-celdern and oth€m. Muslc AND MUstcAL TNsTRUMENTs rN THE arcuRAL ARTs. From prjmitive to hishJy developed civitizations, tocal and mstrumental music has been part and parcel of social life; no wonder, then, that musical scenes and instrlrments form an important th€me in the vjsual arts, from painring. drawing, pnnts, and sculpture to the minor arts of furniture decoration, faience, bookbinding, vignettes, and the like. Egypt ard rhe ancient Near East abound in pictorial rcp, r€sentatioos of musicians and instruments (et. zz7; Iy, er_. 362). Certain stylistic peculiarities in perspective and other mannerisms hardJy hamper the recognition of acrual shapes, hngetings, and embouchures, especially since so many depic- trons rn relrels and wall paintings are life-size or very nearly so. In_ancient Hebrew musical culture, however, r.here aie abundant references in tle Scriprures but a great scarciry of pictorial monuments. The Greco-Romaa world left many visuafrecords d€picting musical scenes arld instnrments with adrnirable exactness (lII, pL. r38i lV, pl.s, ro9. rro, 2tg., yll, pL. 24 . There are Greek vase paintings (III, pls, 36a, 375, 376.1, scutitures, ieliefs, and coins, and from the Etruscan and Roman world an enormous quanrity oI frescoes (V, pL. 42), mosaics (VI l. rL. r66), and sarcophagi 1VIII, er. zz9t. Ancient scuJptue, including sarcophagi, has ofren been restored in later irytes, and the replaceme[t of missing or broken instruments is frequ€ntly .inaccurate (pL. 227\. A\ excellent example showing orrgrnal ,nstrum€nt3, though somewhat damaged, is the Sarcoph_ agus of the Muses (Rome, Mus. Naz.). Topics were mythologjcal as well as secular, including revelries and music lessons. Oriental instiumenls are also well documented in sculpture and painting (e.q., Vl, er-s. r7,8r; VIII, er.32r; IX, pL.33r). .._ In the Middle Ases topics *e'e fo. u t"-ng it-. ti-it? t" rllustrations oI the ScriptuJes, especially of apocalyptjc themes, Davjd the Rer PsatmisL (1, ers.'295, :o+r Xlt, pi_i. z+s, z6c), and the rsoth Psalrn. The apocalypric subjecrs were rhe sevin angels w .h trumpers (Rev. 8:2,6); the hoty mefl playing insru_ ments in frort ot rhe Lamb (,,habentes cytharas,'.); the two fi€ures. represented with Iong-necked 6ddtes, flanking each side ofthe animals wifi the Lamb (,.renes cyharam") in Spanish B*eatus manuscriptsl the 24 elders- surrounding Ctuist in glory (Rev. 4:4; 7:rr; r4:2.3). For the organotogiit this theme is by lar the mosl rewarding smong the apocalli'tic scenes. Sometirrres t}re elders are shown holding steieotypid identical vie es (rrth-cent. Beatus "Apocalypse of Saint-Sever"; XII, pL. 2o7); larer, t})e vielles often ditrer in shape and in the number of slrings (Moissac; XII, pL. 237); even later, other instruments suth as harps and organisrra,join them (Santiago di Compostela, P6rtko de Ia ciodai Chartes, Porrait Royat), Carolngian illuminated manuscripts, particulariy rhe Utrecht Psalier (Utrecht, B;b. der tujksruriv. iod.3z; S., M""., "opy, Harley Ms,6o:). abound in poirrayals of musi"t*"ii,."., ""g.f"f surrounding the Psalmisr. For the iconologis! these jluminations pr$ent an exceedingly complex probl€m, since many are copied MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS +35 from, or at least influenced by, much earlier models and ih€refore cannot be taken simply as depictions oI contemporary practice. They may, ho$.ever, throv,/ new light on one of the great lacunae of musical history, the transition from the instrumental practice of tate antiquity to that of the early Middle Ages, and especially on the rise in the Occident of inshuments r ith fineer boards for slopping the striflgs, possibly owing to the influence of performing practices in the eastern Mediterranean, Outstafldjng examples of the depiction of performance of secular music are the Man€ssa Codex (Heidelberg, Universitatsbib.) and the Cantigas de Santa Maia, with their enormous array of ifftrumeotalistsrefl€cting, side byside, Christian and Moslem tradition. In Gothic art, where the sacred and the profane, even the !'ulgar, meet as close neighbors, a great number of wild and fantastic creatures, monste$, monhs and nuns, jugglers, and beggarc invaded the marsins of the pages of Psalters, Books of Hourc, and prayer books. But while some of the instruments and their grouping i[to ensembles are products of fancy, others are r€al_ istic depictions, rich in information about a period from which very few actual instruments have survived. r Mnsical angels, other than apocal]ptic (PL. 232), ^ppe in the r4th century, €specially in coDnection with Marian topics, such as the Assumption atld the Coronation, these being the themes most conducive to the portrayal of large angel orchestras. Later, chiefly in the Venetian realm, appear the sac,/e tleir small ensembles or single angels playing co oertazioni ^ndda braccio, and occasionally other instnrments. the lute, the lira In paintings of the Virsin and Child, musical imtruments played by angels appear as early as in Cimabue and Giotto; this theme reaches its peak in the rsth centuy (IV, PL. 296; VI, pL. 345; IX, I,I,s. r8r, 322, 344), with some paintings portra,ving num€rous musical angels, such as Giovanni Boccati's "Madonna del Pergolato" (Perugia, Gall. Naz. dell'Umbria; XIl, PL. 3o). The Nativity, which is by far the oldesx of all the Marian th€mes, dating back to early Cbiistian times, admits musical instruments relatively late, with the exception of bagPipes played by the inevitable shepherds. Outstanding examples are the Nati.t)i.t! by Pierc della Francesca (London, Nat. Gall.; cf. detail, XI, pL. 165), with its s),mmetrical ensemble of lute-rebec-lute accompanying the singers, ar,d the Nattuitlt by Bramantiro (Milan, Pin. Ambrosiana; lute, and vielle. VIII, PL. 196), showing tromba marina, Instrumental music in representations of the Coronation of the Virgin appears as €arly as the early-r4th-cennty mosaic by Gaddo Gaddi in the Cathedral of Florence. Throughout the development of this theme the number of musical instruments played by angels grows continuously and reaches its culmination in paintings such as xhat of the I ssunlt;on of the I/irgin by the Master of the Sr. Lucy Legend (late rsth cent.; Washington, D.C., Nat. Gall.), which has two diflerent orchestras for the inner and outer heaven, and the huge angel concert painted by Gaudenzio Ferraii in the flat Lombard cupola of the Sanctuary at Saronno, with no less than 116 angel musicians, 59 of which play instruments, all minutely depicted. While these large heavenly orchestras do not reflect actual performance practice of the time, the small ensembles of musician angels in the foreground of the saue conoertaz;oni ^nd simitar subjects truly mirror the most intimate and refined instrumental music of the early Cinquecento. Ir paintings of this .ype by Giovanni Bellini (11, rL. 263), Montagna (XII, pL.45), Carpaccio (UI, pl-s.76,77), Fra Bartolommeo (XII, rr-.64), Signorelli (XIII, er.34), and otherc, the mystic silence observed by the saints meditating before the throne of the Virgin is not broken by a8ything so crude as words spoken or sung but is pervaded by the refned voices of stringed or wind instruments. Of the Biblical musicians, Renaissance imagery retains Jubal, Tubal-cain, and above all King David playing the psaltery or the harp afld, from the late rsth century on, usually the lira da braccio. Another Biblical subject ll'as the r5oth Psalm, which was translated irto scr.rlpture in Luca della Robbia's far:,ors cantoria (lY, rL, r5?); its eisht relief panels with sinsiflg and playing angels itiustrate the instruments named in the text of the Vulsate, word by word and panel by panel. 4,36 Of secular musical figures, the s],rnbolic representation of Music as one of the liberal arts is retained. At the same time, competing with the countless angel concerts, the m)'thological musicians of the ancient Greco-Roman world reappear on the scene: Apollo Kitharoidos, Hermes wit-]l the lyle he invented, Pallas Athene with her creation, the aulos, Olph€us playing in Hades or for the beasts (IV, pL. 160), and tlrc Muses, particularly Erato, Euterpe, and Calliope. The publication of the Oo;d;o Metamorphose' Vulgare (lenjce, 1497) stimulated countless portrayals of the contests between Apollo and his musical rivals Pan and Ma*yasin Italian paintings, woodcuts, engravings, and plaquettes. Models for the instruments are found in ancient statues, sarcophagi, and other reliefs, greedily and systematically collected by Renaissance connoisseurs and copied, sometimes with great precision and thorough archaeological understanding, but more often misunderstood and distorted, or stylized and decorated with free pictorial fancy (XI, pL. r r7). True musical srchaeology blended with strange misconceptions: Sappho, for example, was credited with the inveEtion of the frddle bow, and et]'rnology added to this confusion in that lba neant t}re cetn rcferred to ancient lyre as well as the lira ila bnccio ^nd cittern. Consethe ancient kithara as well as the contemporary quently Apolo, Orpheus, King David, and the allegorical Music appear, more often than not, playing contemporaty lite da braccioSimilarly, the diaulos is frequently replaced by contemporary wind instnrments, usually double iecorders, sometimes two shawms (as in prints by Giulio Romano; Louvre, Nos. r52, r85). The highest degree of pictorial fancy is reached in those paintings, evidently renderings of scenes from stage plays or intermedia, which depict fantastic nonfimctional instruments that must have been stage props. The great€st precision io tlle rcndering of instrumeflts is reached in Italian art in the sacte conaersazioni, already mentioned, and in inlays on choir stalls of Italian churches, in door panels of palaces, in furniture (V, rr-. 434), and especially in t}.e tt dioli of Federigo da Mont€feltro in Urbino and cubbio. The same precision is found north of the Alps in the paintings of the brothers Van Eyck and ol Memling (III, er,. 3rr; IX, pr,s. +6o, +6r). Apart from sacred and mythological subjects, musical instruments play a paramount role in several other tlpes of rePresentation, for example, musical still lifes such as those by the Bergamask painter B.schenis (II, pL. r84; XIII, pL. 2o9), some of whose compositions wele made up solely of instruments. (Cf. also Chardin's still life, III, pL. zr3.) The allegorical Musica or Harmonia, which had been a favorite topic in the Ouattrocento within the pictorial repr€sentations of the quadrivium, was revived in the baroque period (in slightly diferent form) as Auditus within the fashiofiable allegorical cycles of the 6ve senses (e.g., A,. Bosse's AUegory oJ Heating; IV, PL. 433). One outstanding example, containiflg a flearly complete inventory of early-r7th-century instruments in a most accurate rende ng, is Jan Brueghel's Hearing ii tbe Prado. (For other representations of the rTth century, see II, pL. 186; III, pL. 33; V, PL. 4o4; IX, er. 94), Portraits of musicians with their instruments are exemplified by the Lute Player ittributed to Pontormo (Paris, Mus. Jacquemart-Andr6), Wattea!'s Mezzet;n (Met. Mus.; XIV, PL. 4oo), and Risaud's Ga$a'd de G eydan (,1, PL. 406). There were also genre paintirgs and prints portraying concerts aid musical parties, such as Titian's or Giorgione's Cozcer, (Florence, Pitti), that by Ercole de' Roberti (London, Nat. Gall.), and Caravacgio's Musical PartJ OlI, E. 3r). Especially noteworthy is the great Dutch traditior of interiors mentioned above, with lutes, theorbos, citterns, viole da gamba, clavichords, virginats, and occasionally wing-shaped harpsichords. One special form of the genre scene is the music lesson, which, in fact, begins in classical antiqu;ty with sculptures showing saty$ or Pan himself with musical disciples. This topic was revived in the Renaissance and continued with undiminished popularity well iato the rococo, often, as in the many flut€ lessons, with more ot less amorous connotations. Instruments appear frequently in pastoral scenes, culminating in the Renaissance Chanpqtte with Giorgione's (ot Titi^ds?) (LoLre), Titian's Shepherd and Nymrh, Concett ^nd his 437 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Man (XIII, pl-s. 'Watteau's,93, ro2). An afterglow of these Pater's, and Lancret's elegiac F6tes Chanpdtres, with their elegant pseudopastoral instruments, the ine\itable aie e a rore and musette, and frequently the theorbo, its long neck forming a diagonal line in the landscape. The picto al representation of instrunmts through the ages often permits one to see the continuity in the evolution of t,?es of instruments; such a panorama could not easily be obtained from the few extant specimens of early periods such as the Middle Ages and the early Renaissance. On the other hand, depictions of instuments are often inexact, stylized, or consciously distorted. The artist is subject to many influences and factors that have an impact on his work and may interfere in some Three ACet of rnusical pastorals are measure \rith the "realistic" portrayal of the obj€ct. Some of these factors are of a psychological nanrie, others are rooted in traditions of technique or style, and still otherc are the result of the social environment in which the artist cr€ates, More precisely; the artist is stylebound, bom into a de6nite tradition with all its pictorial devices, tricks, and mannerisms; he is often limited in th€ choice of lis subject and in his maDner of delineating it by church or secular authorities and by the tastes and predilections of his sponsors and critics; he is limited by his media and toois stone or terra cotta, canvas or paper, brush or pencil, stained- glass or needlework. Also, the two- ard threedimensional realms restrict "realism" of porrrayal in difierent wa]'s. Depictions on the tlvo-dimensional surface can repr€sent the objects from only one angle, and the various tlpes of perspective used in diflerent periods of art history to create the illusion of depth must then be interpreted by the sryle-conscious beholder. Sculpture, on the othei hand, does not easily permit the rendering ofst.ings, the hairs of bows, and the like, and either omits these features entirely (e.g., IX, pL. 4ao) or suggests them in simplified form. Frequentll' the draftsman, woodcutter, or engraver simply lacks the technical understanding of instnrments necessary for their exact depiction. Furthermore, wherever the shapes of instruments are employed for merely decorative purposes, as in friezes, trophies, grotesques, and book vignettes, they are freely absorbed into the prevailing style of ornament. A special category is constituted by the fantastic or bizarre instru.rnents and musical scenes that appear throughout the history of art, from ancimt Egyptian wall paintings to contemporary times. The animistic element of inshuments (their voice) as w€ll as their striking and unusual shape has always made them a natural subject for caricature and satirical themes. Bizarre instruments and performances abound in the &olleries found io illuminated prayer books of r3th- and r4rh-cenruy Flanders, France, and Englar,d, and later in the Italian grotesques of the Cinquecento. The works of Bosch (e,g., II, rr,s. 3t+, 3r7) a d. Pieter Bruegel the Elder reem vdth demonic and humorous musicians and instruments. These depictions are often symptomatic of popular customs (II, FL. 36r; VI, pL. 68). At this point should also be mebtion€d musical caricarures, as well as sarirical paintines. prints, pamphleLs, and broadsides, some of which are tull of inlormation abour the social status and political connotations of certain instruments, In Italian Renaissance painting, especially in the large angel concerts, one often 6nds instnrments that app€ar fantastic, and it sometimes requires more than a Siance to €stablish whether they are actual but rare inslruments. common insrrumenrs smothered in Renaissance decoralion, in.,r,r-"nt" crcared ad l?oc by the painter's brush, yet nevertheless acoustically feasible, or instnrrnents which are grctesque inventions l\,ith no basis in reality. All these types occur simultaneously, for example, in Gaudenzio Ferrari's magnificent angel concert in the cupola of the Sanctuary in Saronno. Musical instruments have had a skong fascination for mod€rn painters, not only because of the atmosphere and the poetic associations lhey evoke. as jn cerrain painrings by Chagatl. but also because the complex outlines and inrricate curves of;nsrrunents such as the violin, lute, and guitar lend themselves to intri$ring variations, as in the work of Braque andPicasso, where the elements of instrumental forms are played upon in countless ways (II, pL. 35o; IV, pL, 76t. And it s€ems quite characteristic +38 that, €ven in ,yorks that arc far removed from realistic depiction, an allusion to the curved profiles or scrolls seems strong enough to coerce the imagination into reconsEucting the object (V, pi, 25i. EhaDu€I WrNrlrNrrz PRTMTTI\,E TNSTRUMENTS: MAcrco-Rll,rcrous AND syMBoLIc SIONIFICANCE OF SIIAPE AND DECoRATIoN. Since the Renaissance European music has tended more and more to become a vehicle for individual cr€ative expression. In the great Asiatic civilizations China, Japan, India, Indonesia, lran music is often, by -contrast, a collective expression bound up -with the entire commurity. Such a communal conception of ar is even more clearly €vident in the primitive culhnes of Africa, the Americas, and Oceania. In these cultures, art in flearly all its forms expresses a view of th€ universe in which man, far from being the center, is an extremely insignificant element, yet intricately involved wirh all the other parts of the lrhole. Leaving aside purely functional considerarions, the form and decoration of primitive musical instruments can be understood only against a background of the cultural milieu ir lvhich they are made and us€d. Shape and ornarnentation are dictated neither by chance nor by rmfettered creative imagination but rather by magical and supernatural concepts, and the power activated through the €ound of the inshum€nt is increased through visual symbolism. Many creation m).ths describe sound as the primordial manifestation of energy; the tust god is in essence pure sound (the cry, the word). The sacriEce of this god then produced other material entities: stnrs, earthj water, ptants, an;mals, men. The creative power of sound is therefore unique, and music and musical instruments play a preeminent role in the magical and relieious ceremonies of Drimitive cultures. Often instrumenls are kept in sacred precincts, away from the sight of the uninitiated. Nor only does possession rnstance. conter sovereign power; [he of a drum. for drum itself rs such Before music became a conscious ar, it was an integral part of psychic behavior as a whole. Primitive man does not separate beins, thousht, feelins; the world is a who1e, of which man is a part. Forms, colors, stars, cardinal points, plants, ani- mals, numbers, musical not€s and timbres make up a unity that is organized according to a variety of rhythmic designs. Thus, the material from which an instrument is constructed, its form, its geometric or zoomorphic decoration, its color, the quality of the sound produced, and the notes drawn from it are all governed by a single purpose. The maiotenance and prolongation of life directs the enrire behavior of primitive man. His worship appeals to beneficent powe$ and attempts to help him escape from those that are evil. His devotion to a cult activates materialE, forms, colors. sounds, and motions thal express or represent the author;ry o[ his ancestors, sexLral strength, solar energy, lunar fruitfulness, the fertiliry of the earth, and growth-producing min. The cry or chant is his most personal and vital act of wonhip, and musical instruments are believed to be the most efilcacious of ritual objects (see LITURGICAL AND RrruAL oBJEcrs) because. through their sorrnd, they direcrly correspond to rhe prescribed movemenrs oI rhe c€r€mory. Other ritual objects must be fashioned to incorporate the spirili sound in irself is spirit. lnslrunenls are considered infailible devices in magic, and the magic ot lhe sound musr be reinforced by the mar€rials of which they are made and the symbols with which they are decorated. Darkness prevails in hollow instruments; their sounds are mumed and h€avy. These qualities are likened to the materflal womb, while the phallic form and high-pitched tones of flutes €xpress masculine strength. The conch, thrown up from the depLhs of rhe sea, is thoughr by primitive man to stimutare birrh throush the hollow sound ir produces. The harpJuLe, 3,rrpr'lr, occurs in borh male and female shapes, rhe laner havjng a more rounded sound box that suggests the abdomen of a pregnant woman, while the former resembles a virile silhou€rte wjfi its thin waist and larger shoulders. The correspondence of the various cosmic designs musical notes, signs of the zodiac, materials, colors, cardinal points,