McCarthyism

1 McCarthyism The period of intense anti-communism in the U.S. from 1947 to1956 created national hysteria; government employees, private organizations and ordinary people, as well as the Communist Party, were under relentless investigations by various government agencies. The wide spread of anti-communist sentiments, as it was perceived by historians in later years, inflicted great damage to U.S political institutions and violated the civil rights of the American people. Senator Joseph McCarthy, one of the key figures leading the crusade, gave the era his name for his exploitation tactics, intimidation and aggressive confrontation during the trails. His tactics struck fear in many people and politicians. They were afraid to speak out against him for fear he would attack them and accuse them of being communists, which would ruin their career. The clash of ideologies was the new emerging theme dominating the international system after the defeat of Germany at the end of WWII in 1945. The United States and the Soviet Union both spearheaded campaigns focused primarily on demoralizing the other's way of governing. Each countries saw the other’s advancement as a step towards their own destruction. This developed gradually into the Cold War, in which trust was absent and paranoia grew in the minds of the decision makers as well as the people; such conditions played a significant role in allowing the rise of the second Red Scare. The American Communist Party existed prior to the Cold War; it was formed in1919, after the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917. However, the close monitoring of its work by the American government drove most of its members to shift their focus away from socialist views to other projects, especially the building of labor unions in the country. The party gained noticeable momentum during the depression era for its critical views on the economy and the rise of fascism in Europe in the 1930s, attracting more members, both from the mainstream of the 2 McCarthyism society for all kind of reasons and the left-wing who supported its political rise, but who kept their affiliation to themselves, fearing the negative response from their peers. 1 The gradual transformation of the policy adopted by the American Communist Party during the 1930s proved to be pro-Moscow more through its contacts. They supported Joseph Stalin’s actions against thousands of Russian revolutionaries,2 and also supported the RussianNazi pact signed in the 1940s, calling for U.S. neutrality on the issue. However, when the Germans invaded Russia, the party changed its views again before adopting a hostile policy against America’s foreign policy, and finally adopted a militant anti-capitalist position when its loyalty was questioned by a French Communist leader. William Z. Foster, the Communist Party leader in the mid-1940s, in his book, New Europe, confirmed these early policies. He adds that the party was critical of the views of the American politician’s beliefs of the capitalist system being the perfect system, and their opinion of WWII being caused by the fascist regime. It also criticized the Truman Doctrine and compared it to the Hitler fascist regime; Foster also disapproved of the U.S decision to arm countries like Turkey and Greece, and finally called for the breaking up of the capitalist system completely. 3 In the meantime, government agencies and organizations viewed the party as radical and hostile to American security, and, fearing the worst, they called for the investigation of 1 Howard Johnson A Communist in Harlem November 16, 1979 in Schrecker, End. The age of McCarthyism, 110 Johnson said:” Most of the black intellectuals joined the party because they were attracted to it for the same reasons that I was. It was one organization that was really doing something, that was there. That was picketing, that was demonstrating, that was getting jobs for blacks in this union and that union—especially the unions where there was left leadership,” 2 Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.9. “The party's devotion to Moscow led it to condone Stalin's crimes and to ignore or apologize for Stalin's exterminations of millions of peasants in the late 1920s and early 1930s.” 3 From the Communist Party's Perspective: William Z. Foster Looks at the World in 1947William Z. Foster the New Europe 1947. in Schrecker, End., The age of McCarthyism, 121 Foster said:” They do not accept the stupid notion, current in some American political circles, to the effect that the capitalist system is a sort of divinely ordained institution which can do no harm, and that the war was caused merely by Hitler and a few other unscrupulous and ambitious men in the fascist countries, also The Truman Doctrine is the Wall Street counterpart of Hitler's Anti Comintern Pact2 and has no more chance of success. That to abolish these evils the power of the monopolist capitalists must be broken and the people take full command of society's industrial and governmental machine”. 3 McCarthyism communism in the United Sates. These efforts earned the support of the U.S Congress and led, in 1938, to the creation of The House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), headed by Texas Senator Martin Dies, Jr. They then passed several laws, including the 1939 Hatch Act, The Smith Act, and the Voorhis Act, all aimed at curtailing the Communist Party. HUAC was granted the power to investigate allegations of subversive elements in the country. The initial investigation of disloyalty of private and public citizen and organizations suspected to have communist ties led to a spread of anti-communism sentiment, opening the door for HUAC to use former Communist Party members and leaders to conduct raids and to aid their investigations by being star witnesses in trials. Ellen Schrecker notes: “It is hard to conceive of McCarthyism without the former Communists; the support they gave the rest of the network was indispensable.”4 Louis Budenz, a former Russian agent and a star witness, helped HUAC during the Smith Act Trial of the Communist Party when he testified before the committee in the late 1940s against the Communist Party’s eleven top leaders accused of trying to overthrow the government by subscribing to the Marxist-Leninist philosophy.5 Budenz confirmed the basic fundamentals of the communist beliefs, which called for establishing socialism by violent means, and how the party and the party members were dedicated to up-holding these beliefs. In addition, HUAC expanded its investigation to include many areas of American life, focusing on Hollywood and film makers, suspecting a wide spread of communist sympathizers in this industry. In response, Eric Johnston, President of the Motion Picture Industry, imposed a 4 Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.17. Louis Budenz, “Testimony,” March 1949, Excerpts from the 1949 Smith Act Trial of the Communist Party’s Eleven Top Leaders, in Schrecker, ed., The Age of McCarthyism, 205 Bundenz said: “This sentence is well known in Communist circles. It has been stated by Lenin and Stalin, the historical mission of the working class is the establishment of socialism by the violent shattering of the capitalist state, its military and judicial arms. Lenin and Stalin have stated that, and it is well known to be the statements of Lenin and Stalin in the Communist circles. Socialism can only be established through this violent shattering and the setting up of the dictatorship of the proletariat as defined by Lenin and Stalin.” 5 4 McCarthyism strict policy against personnel implicated in communist activity and fired the ten screen writers, producers and directors who refused to cooperate with HUAC in 19476. Following the investigations, many people in the entertainment business suffered, according to David Sussk1qind’s and Mark Goodson’s testimonies, because of the unofficial blacklisting for reasons of political expediency, handed to HAUC by Johnson.7 Adding to the growing communist hysteria, J. Edger Hoover, the FBI Director, in 1947 during his HUAC testimony, called for the US Government to quarantine the communist threat and expand its role8 HAUC also suggested that communism had infiltrated the federal government, thus threating the security of the state. After defecting from the communist spying ring, Elizabeth Bentley confirmed the FBI’s and HUAC’s fears of having communist informants inside the U.S. government. She talked about how she had been recruited, and later named many people in the government who also worked as informants for Moscow. Harry Dexter White and Alger Hiss stood out for their high-ranking positions; Dexter was the assistant Secretary of the Treasury, and Hiss was a diplomat in the state department who was later found by the authorities to be a spy. In fact, during the instigations by the FBI and HUAC to confirm Bentley stories, they called Whittaker Chambers, another star witness and former communist agent to stand 6 The Waldorf “Statement” December 3, 1947. The Hollywood Blacklist Begins: Studio Heads Fire the Hollywood Ten, in Schrecker, ed., The Age of McCarthyism, 243. The statement indicates “Although HUAC had been investigating communism since the beginning of 1946, it was not until the committee turned to Hollywood in the fall of 1947 that it gained national attention. In its examination of the Communist party's influence within the film industry, the committee subpoenaed a varied group of producers, actors, screenwriters, and directors. Some of the witnesses were not so cooperative. Among them were the Hollywood Ten, 4,046.9 m² group of screenwriters and directors who refused to answer the committee's questions about their political affiliations”. 7 David Susskind “Testimony” in Faulk v. The Blacklist in Operation: Testimony from the John Henry Faulk Trial, in Schrecker, ed., The Age of McCarthyism, 251-254 Susskind said: “it was becoming increasingly difficult to hire talent which was politically clear of the taint of Communism, sponsors and their agencies wanted to keep out of trouble with the public and, therefore, wanted to eliminate anybody that might be accuse of anything which could involve the sponsor in controversy”. 8 To Quarantine Communism: J. Edgar Hoover Speaks to the American People in Schrecker, ed., the Age of McCarthyism, 126. Hoover: also used his HUAC appearance to call for supplementing the government's legal assault on communism with an organized campaign to weaken the party by exposing its members and its alleged machinations. 5 McCarthyism before the committee.9 Confirming Bentley’s stories, Chambers produced his famous Pumpkins Papers, which were copies of government documents that he claimed Hiss had given him for transmission to the Russian government. Moreover, the Red Scare would not have been a national concern and growing hysteria if it was not for the government’s direct involvement. Ellen Schrecker notes: “the nation as a whole would not have made eliminating Communist influence such a high priority had Washington not led the way.”10 Accused of being soft on the communist spread, the Truman administration engaged the media to bolster its actions against the threats; the campaign raised the level of anxiety even more; citizens become overly suspicious of one another, and believed that the communist danger was real. Then, in 1947, the government established the loyalty security program, conducted by the FBI under the watchful eye of J. Edger Hoover. The program was designed to screen government and federal workers and to dismiss all persons who prove to be disloyal to the United States11. It was adopted by all employers and civil services, inflicting economic hardship among Americans; some lost their jobs and their reputations, and some actually committed suicide12. The general consensus among all political forces was about the need to destroy the Communist Party. So the crusades were interpreted differently in each State. Conservative southerners saw the Kremlin's hand in the growing civil rights movement; Midwesterners were concerned about left-wing labor unions; and Texans feared that progressive 9 Whittaker Chambers “Testimony” before HUAC August 3, 1948, Communist Spies in the State Department: The Emergence of the Hiss Case. , in Schrecker, ed., The Age of McCarthyism, 137/138.Cambers said: “Hiss had been under suspicion for several years before the accusations against him became public at a HUAC hearing in August 1948 when the confessed ex-Communist Whittaker Chambers claimed that Hiss and several other former New Deal officials had once been in the Communist party”. 10 Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.25. 11 A Political Test for Employment: The Loyalty-Security Program in Operation in Schrecker, ed., The Age of McCarthyism, 177 “Because the concept of "sympathetic association" with communism was so vague, the officials who administered the loyaltysecurity program tended to interpret their mission of judging an individual's political affiliations with considerable latitude”. 12 Associations." Another employee was suspended because he was "in close and continuing association with [his] parents," who were under suspicion because they had joined a group on the attorney general's list to buy cheap insurance and a burial plot. 6 McCarthyism education was a Communist plot, thus causing national suffering.13Also, the state of New York enacted its own laws to protect its educational system as well14. The investigations proved that some Communist Party members infiltrated the US system and were involved in covert operations and espionage. This gave credibility to the organized crusade against the Communist Party. During the atomic espionage hearings, Klaus Fuchs, a physicist working on the Manhattan Project, confessed he was a spy for the Russian and was supplying them with the blueprints of the atomic bomb15. Also, David Greenglass at Los Alamos, New Mexico, recruited by his brother in-law Julius Rosenberg, was passing information to the Russians through him. They were later arrested by the FBI; Julius Rosenberg and his wife Ethel Rosenberg were found guilty and later executed16. Prior to the Rosenberg trails, in 1949 Americans and right-wing politicians were shocked by the fall of the Chinese nationalist government and the rise of the Communist Mao Zedong. They blamed the state department for failing to stop the communist expansion; part of U.S. media and China’s lobby groups suggested that communist infiltration in the state department caused the defeat. Communist witch hunting also become a partisan campaign. In fact, the Republican Party based its entire campaign on the wide spread of communism in the country, encouraging 13 Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.81There were few states or major cities that did not mount an anti-Communist investigation, implement a loyalty-security program, or adopt some kind of anti-subversive ordinance. 14 Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.83 “New York State, for example, enacted a law requiring public school administrators to apply the federal government's loyalty-security- the program cost more than three hundred teachers their jobs.” 15 Atomic espionage. Klaus Fuchs, confession to William Skardon January 27, 1950, in Schrecker, End. The age of McCarthyism,.157 Fuchs said: “at first I thought that all I would do would be to inform the Russian authorities that work upon the atom bomb was going on. They wished to have more details and I agreed to supply them”. 16 “Because the Soviets had been tipped off about the venona project by some of their other agents, they wanted Rosenberg and Greenglass to flee the country. But they were too late. Gold's arrest and confession at the end of May 1950 led to David Greenglass; Greenglass's arrest and confession led to Julius Rosenberg”. Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.40 7 McCarthyism McCarthy to press the issue. Robert Taft, a Republican senator from Cincinnati, as Ellen Schrecker noted, said, ‘"If one case doesn't work out," Senator Robert Taft advised his colleague, "bring up another."’ As for McCarthy, he took advantage of the opportunity to boost his career on February 9, 1950, by announcing to the Women's Republican Club of Wheeling, West Virginia, that he had a list of Communist agents working in the State Department. He also accused the Truman administration of losing China to the communist revolution, resurrecting the Amerasia incident. This was a small magazine dealing with East Asian affairs, which posted sensitive information based on CIA’s secret reports, later founded to have strong communist ties17 McCarthy continued his notorious style by coordinating his attacks with HUAC, with the Senate International Security Subcommittee headed by Pat McCarran, and with those of local politicians, journalists, labor leaders, businesspeople, and Legionnaires, gaining more supporters and accusing more individuals who opposed him, and public figures from the left wing and liberal democrats. In the state department loyalty issue, McCarthy accused Owen Lattimore, a Johns Hopkins University professor, of being a communist altering U.S. foreign policy to serve the communist cause in China; Budenz, the star witness, implicated the professor in his testimony for the senate internal security subcommittee headed by Pat McCarran 18. McCarthy then accused the Under Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, of allowing John Service, who was investigated by FBI for passing sensitive information and advocating for communist rule in 17 Communists in the State Department: Senator Joseph McCarthy Speech at Wheeling, West Virginia February 9, 1950, in Schrecker, ed., the Age of McCarthyism, 238./240 McCarthy said: “In my opinion the State Department, which is one of the most important government departments, is thoroughly infested with Communists. Also “Like other right-wing Republicans, McCarthy spotlighted the supposed concessions made by the United States to the Soviet Union at the Yalta Conference in 1945 and the "loss" of China to the Communists”. 18 In Schrecker, ed., the Age of McCarthyism, 77 Budenz: “testify that his Communist party bosses considered Lattimore one of them”. 8 McCarthyism China, to continue working for the state department.19 Ellen Schrecker also notes that McCarthy accused General George Marshall, the highly respected Secretary of Defense, of being a traitor. After the Republicans won the elections, McCarthy was appointed to chair the Permanent Investigating Subcommittee. He continued his accusations, this time of the alleged communist infiltrations of the U.S Army. The McCarthy-Army hearing was the first opportunity for the American public to get a firsthand view of McCarthy, as the hearing was televised. His intimidating style and hysterical manner turned off the viewers. The press, at the same time, was running a program criticizing the senator and his assistant Roy Cohn, the lawyer who protected McCarthy against charges of anti-communism. During the army hearing questioning and McCarthy accusation, Joseph Welch, representing the Army, urged the senator to drop the issue. Nevertheless McCarthy persisted in questioning. At this point Welch answered with his famous response, “You done enough. Have you no sense of decency sir, at long last have you left no sense of decency”20. At this point, the entire American public saw how cruel, manipulative, and reckless McCarthy was. A few months later he was censured by the senate for lack of respect, and a year later McCarthy was dead, a victim of heavy drinking. The extreme anti-communist campaigning in the United Sates was, for the most part, legitimate unveiling of the spy ring, which proved that there was subversion enacted by the Communist Party members, but the procedures used to eliminate the threat tarnished the American image. The act of making serious but unsubstantiated charges against people in public 19 Communists in the State Department: Senator Joseph McCarthy Speech at Wheeling, West Virginia February 9, 1950, in Schrecker, ed., the Age of McCarthyism, 239 McCarthy said: “Two days after Grew's successor, Dean Acheson, took over as Under Secretary of State, this man John Service who had been picked up by the FBI”,” under Acheson, placed in charge of all placements and promotions”. 20 “Welch had anticipated the smear and his plaintive rejoinder "Have you no sense of decency, Sir?" spoke to what millions of Americans must have felt”. Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.74 9 McCarthyism life, the irrelevant evidence, and the black list are associated more with the era; even the justice system did not prevail when the Supreme Court refused to interfere with the firings of public servants21. Many people lost their jobs during this menace just by association22. After all, McCarthy had been exploiting the nation’s fear of communism to boost his career, with no evidence that any of the people he referred to were communists; and, when pressed, he tended to qualify his initial charges and fling new ones. Apparently, neither truth nor consistency mattered much to him; he was responsible for reinforcing such fears. “The Court would not protect people who refused to name names, however”. “The Fifth Amendment became a public relations disaster”. Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p68/69 22 Yale Law School professor Ralph Brown, who conducted the most systematic survey of the economic damage of the McCarthy era, estimated that roughly ten thousand people lost their jobs. Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p86 21 10 McCarthyism Bibliography: 1 Howard Johnson a Communist in Harlem November 16, 1979 in Schrecker, ed., the age of McCarthyism, 110 Johnson said:” Most of the black intellectuals joined the party because they were attracted to it for the same reasons that I was. It was one organization that was really doing something, that was there. That was picketing, that was demonstrating, that was getting jobs for blacks in this union and that union—especially the unions where there was left leadership,” 2 Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.9. “The party's devotion to Moscow led it to condone Stalin's crimes and to ignore or apologize for Stalin's exterminations of millions of peasants in the late 1920s and early 1930s.” 3 From the Communist Party's Perspective: William Z. Foster Looks at the World in 1947William Z. Foster the New Europe 1947. in Schrecker, End., The age of McCarthyism, 121 Foster said:” They do not accept the stupid notion, current in some American political circles, to the effect that the capitalist system is a sort of divinely ordained institution which can do no harm, and that the war was caused merely by Hitler and a few other unscrupulous and ambitious men in the fascist countries, also The Truman Doctrine is the Wall Street counterpart of Hitler's Anti Comintern Pact2 and has no more chance of success. That to abolish these evils the power of the monopolist capitalists must be broken and the people take full command of society's industrial and governmental machine”. 4 Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.17. 5 Louis Budenz, “Testimony,” March 1949, Excerpts from the 1949 Smith Act Trial of the Communist Party’s Eleven Top Leaders, in Schrecker, ed., The Age of McCarthyism, 205 Bundenz said: “This sentence is well known in Communist circles. It has been stated by Lenin and Stalin, the historical mission of the working class is the establishment of socialism by the violent shattering of the capitalist state, its military and judicial arms. Lenin and Stalin have stated that, and it is well known to be the statements of Lenin and Stalin in the Communist circles. Socialism can only be established through this violent shattering and the setting up of the dictatorship of the proletariat as defined by Lenin and Stalin.” 6 The Waldorf “Statement” December 3, 1947. The Hollywood Blacklist Begins: Studio Heads Fire the Hollywood Ten, in Schrecker, ed., The Age of McCarthyism, 243. The statement indicates “Although HUAC had been investigating communism since the beginning of 1946, it was not until the committee turned to Hollywood in the fall of 1947 that it gained national attention. In its examination of the Communist party's influence within the film industry, the committee subpoenaed a varied group of producers, actors, screenwriters, and directors. Some of the witnesses were not so cooperative. Among them were the Hollywood Ten, 4,046.9 m² group of screenwriters and directors who refused to answer the committee's questions about their political affiliations”. 7 David Susskind “Testimony” in Faulk v. The Blacklist in Operation: Testimony from the John Henry Faulk Trial, in Schrecker, ed., The Age of McCarthyism, 251-254 Susskind said: “it was becoming increasingly difficult to hire talent which was politically clear of the taint of Communism, sponsors and their agencies wanted to keep out of trouble with the public and, therefore, wanted to eliminate anybody that might be accuse of anything which could involve the sponsor in controversy”. 8 To Quarantine Communism: J. Edgar Hoover Speaks to the American People in Schrecker, ed., the Age of McCarthyism, 126. Hoover: also used his HUAC appearance to call for supplementing the government's legal assault on communism with an organized campaign to weaken the party by exposing its members and its alleged machinations. 9 Whittaker Chambers “Testimony” before HUAC August 3, 1948, Communist Spies in the State Department: The Emergence of the Hiss Case. , in Schrecker, ed., The Age of McCarthyism, 137/138.Cambers said: “Hiss had been under suspicion for several years before the accusations against him became public at a HUAC hearing in August 1948 when the confessed ex-Communist Whittaker Chambers claimed that Hiss and several other former New Deal officials had once been in the Communist party”. 1 0Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.25. 1 1A Political Test for Employment: The Loyalty-Security Program in Operation in Schrecker, ed., The Age of McCarthyism, 177 “Because the concept of "sympathetic association" with communism was so vague, the officials who administered the loyaltysecurity program tended to interpret their mission of judging an individual's political affiliations with considerable latitude”. 1 2Associations." Another employee was suspended because he was "in close and continuing association with [his] parents," who were under suspicion because they had joined a group on the attorney general's list to buy cheap insurance and a burial plot. 1 3 Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.81There were few states or major cities that did not mount an anti-Communist investigation, implement a loyalty-security program, or adopt some kind of anti-subversive ordinance. 1 4 Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.83 “New York State, for example, enacted a law requiring public school administrators to apply the federal government's loyalty-security- the program cost more than three hundred teachers their jobs.” 11 McCarthyism 1 5Atomic espionage. Klaus Fuchs, confession to William Skardon January 27, 1950, in Schrecker, End. The age of McCarthyism,.157 Fuchs said: “at first I thought that all I would do would be to inform the Russian authorities that work upon the atom bomb was going on. They wished to have more details and I agreed to supply them”. 1 6“Because the Soviets had been tipped off about the venona project by some of their other agents, they wanted Rosenberg and Greenglass to flee the country. But they were too late. Gold's arrest and confession at the end of May 1950 led to David Greenglass; Greenglass's arrest and confession led to Julius Rosenberg”. Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.40 1 7Communists in the State Department: Senator Joseph McCarthy Speech at Wheeling, West Virginia February 9, 1950, in Schrecker, ed., the Age of McCarthyism, 238. /240 McCarthy said: “In my opinion the State Department, which is one of the most important government departments, is thoroughly infested with Communists. Also “Like other right-wing Republicans, McCarthy spotlighted the supposed concessions made by the United States to the Soviet Union at the Yalta Conference in 1945 and the "loss" of China to the Communists”. 1 8 In Schrecker, ed., the Age of McCarthyism, 77 Budenz: “testify that his Communist party bosses considered Lattimore one of them”. 1 9Communists in the State Department: Senator Joseph McCarthy Speech at Wheeling, West Virginia February 9, 1950, in Schrecker, ed., the Age of McCarthyism, 239 McCarthy said: “Two days after Grew's successor, Dean Acheson, took over as Under Secretary of State, this man John Service who had been picked up by the FBI”,” under Acheson, placed in charge of all placements and promotions”. 2 “Welch had anticipated the smear and his plaintive rejoinder "Have you no sense of decency, Sir?" spoke to what millions of Americans must have felt”. Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p.74 2 “The Court would not protect people who refused to name names, however”. “The Fifth Amendment became a public relations disaster”. Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p68/69 2 2 Yale Law School professors Ralph Brown, who conducted the most systematic survey of the economic damage of the McCarthy era, estimated that roughly ten thousand people lost their jobs. Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), p86