THE FOREIGN POLICY–THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

ICSCS2012 International Congress on Social & Cultural Studies September 4-8, 2012 Port Harcourt, Nigeria BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS Volume 1 Jacinta A. Opara,PhD Antonello Biagini,PhD M.O.N. Obagah,PhD Giovanna Motta,PhD Austin N. Nosike,PhD Richardo R. S. Hidalgo,PhD Kinikanwo A. Anele,PhD Nayereh Shahmohammadi,PhD ©2012 International Association for Teaching and Learning All rights reserved Printed and Published in the Kingdom of Spain First Published in 2012 Editorial Office Calle Joan Miro 4 bajo 18140 Granada Spain Tel/Fax: 958-59-23-65 The right of the Editors to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted according to relevant EU laws and regulations. The publication is indexed and registered at Ministry of Culture, Madrid 08/114362 Typeset and Illustrations by Luis Cabellero(Spain) Proofreading by Ms Betty Oruhwo and Ozioma Azubuike(Nigeria) Cover Design by Christophe Guerrero(France) Project Manager: Dr Joseph Kosu(Ghana) Project Assistant: Dr Yemisi Olorode and Florence Archibong(Nigeria) Lithography: Beverly Resources, Spain Sub-Editing: Dr Dominic Connolly(Ireland) Media and ICT: Prince Alexis(Ghana) Project Director : Dr Austin N. Nosike(Spain) Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted by European Commission, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise with the prior permission in writing of the publishers.The funding of the International Congress on Social and Cultural Studies and the publication herein is provided in part by the generous grant from Raphael Nosike Foundation. Legal Deposit no. MU-0701-2012 ISBN: 978-84-612-8475-7 Forward I have the pleasure to furnish you herewith the Proceedings which herein contains a collection of the papers presented at International Congress on Social and Cultural Studies (ICSCS2012) organized by African Society for Scientific Research and African Association for Teaching and Learning in cooperation with several partners and collaborating journals in the international community. The congress was held September 4-8, 2012 at Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. The ICSCS series is an academic activity for interested scholars, scientists, technologists, policy makers, corporate bodies and graduate students. The aim of the conference is to diffuse research findings and create a conductive environment for scholars to debate and exchange ideas that lead to development in social, political, cultural and economic spheres of the global community. Following the call for papers by the International Scientific Commission, papers we received more than 700 proposals from 45 different countries from all continents. As a commitment to the vision and mission of academic excellence and integrity, each paper was anonymously reviewed by two members of the editorial sub-committee of the Commission. This book of proceedings contains a selection of the papers presented at the conference. We wish to express our sincere thanks to the Governing Council, Management and Senate of the Ignatius Ajuru University of Education for providing the venue and facilities for the conference and for being committed to towards ensuring the success of the conference by setting up a high powered Adhoc Local Orgainising Committee led by Professor M.O.N. Obagah. We thank the staff and students of the institution for their cooperation and support for the project. We express our profound gratitude to all and sundry especially our Special Guests, delegates, reviewers, the media, the Nigerian foreign missions and all the cooperating partners for their contributions in promoting this noble academic event. Please read on!!! Jacinta A. Opara,PhD Convenor, International Congress on Social and Cultural Studies(ICSCS2012) Visiting Associate Professor, Universidad Azteca,Chalco-Mexico Organising Partners 2012 International Congress on Social and Cultural Studies(ICSCS2012) is organized by International Society for Scientific Research (ISSR) and International Association for Teaching and Learning(IATEL) with the Support and Cooperation of: International Association for the Scientific Knowledge, Portugal;Mediterranean Center for Social and Educational Research, Italy; Federal College of Education(Technical), OmokuNigeria;European Scientific Institute, Macedonia;Universidad Azteca, Mexico;Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt-Nigeria;Universidad Central de Nicaragua, Nicaragua; Raphael Nosike Foundation and Beverly Resources. International Scientific Commission ICSCS2012 Conference Chair Professor Oby C. N. Okonkwor Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka-Nigeria Conference Chairs Dr Jacinta A. Opara African Association for Teaching and Learning Professor Richardo R. Saavedra Hidalgo Universidad Azteca,Chalco-Mexico Professor M.O.N. Obagah Ignatius Ajuru University of Education,Port Harcourt, Nigeria Sir(Dr)Nkasiobi S. Oguzor,JP,MNIM,CT,KSC,PHF Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Nigeria Dr Jovan Shopovski European Scientific Institute, Macedonia Professor Kinikanwo A. Anele University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria General Coordinator Dr Austin N. Nosike The Granada Management Institute, Spain Coordinator Dr Asoluka C. Njoku Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education,Owerri-Nigeria Professor Peter U. Akanwa Imo State University, Nigeria Scientific Committee Members Hector F. Rucinque University of Cordoba, Columbia Toader Nicoara Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Radoslav Raspopovic, University of Monte Negro, Monte Negro Ugochukwu P.N. Amadi Federal College of Education(Technical),Umunze-Nigeria Ljubomir D. Frckoski, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia Sibylle Heilbrunn Ruppin Academic Center, Emek-Efer, Israel Sule Kut Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey Justina Adalikwu-Obisike Canadian University College,Alberta-Canada Arda Arikan Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey Andrea Carteny Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Maryam Chkhartishvili Tbilisi State University, Georgia Jozsef Pal University of Szeged, Hungary Godfrey Baldacchino University of Malta, Malta Dimitri A. Sotiropoulos University of Athens, Greece Werner J. Patzelt, Univerisity of Dresden, Germany Vincent Hoffmann-Martinot University of Bordeaux, France Mohamed Ben Aissa University of Tunis, Tunisia Marco Cilento Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Werner J. Patzelt University of Dresden, Germany Emanuele Santi African Development Bank, Tunis, Tunisia Kamaruzaman Jusoff Universiti Putra Malaysia Nkasiobi S. Oguzor Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Nigeria Jacinta A. Opara, African Association for Teaching and Learning Sokol Pacukaj Aleksander Moisiu University, Albania Muhammad Zeeshan International Digital Organization for Scientific Information, UAE Liverpool Onyije Federal College of Education(Technical),Omoku-Nigeria Natarajan Gajendran Indian Society for Education and Environment Prof Yau Yuen Yeung Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong A. R. Sayfoo Vocational Training Institute, Mauritius Mohammad Nisar University of Malakand,Pakistan A.C. Nwokocha Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike-Nigeria Mahwish Washeed International Islamic University, Pakistan Raphael C. Njoku University of Louisville, USA S.S. Lloyd West Coast University, Panama Sodienye Austin Abere Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nigeria Timothy A. Falade New York Institute of Technology, Jordan Pedro Cravo International Association for the Scientific Knowledge, Portugal Fernando Alberto Ferreira Polytechnic Institute of Santarem, Portugal John A. Idumange Niger Delta University, Nigeria Orifjan Namozov Prague Development Centre(PRADEC), Czech Republic Ivan Genov Science and Education Foundation, Bulgaria Bassey Ubong Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku-Nigeria Hassan Danial Aslam Human Resource Management Research Society(HRMARS), Pakistan Abraham I. Oba Niger Delta Development Commission, Nigeria Lisa Licata Sapienza University of Rome-Italy Alberto Becherelli Sapienza University of Rome-Italy Alessandro Vagnini Sapienza University of Rome-Italy Giuseppe Motta Sapienza University of Rome-Italy Alessandro Pistecchia Sapienza University of Rome-Italy Jovan Sopovski Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia Antonello Battaglia Sapienza University of Rome-Italy Programme of Event(Draft) th Tuesday 4 September 08:00 – 09:30 09:30 – 11:45 11:45 – 14:30 14:30 – 14:45 14:45 – 16:45 16:45 – 17:15 17:15 – 18:00 20:30---10:30 Registration Welcome Ceremony Special Sessions Lunch Break Special Sessions Coffee Break Plenary Sessions Welcome Cocktail Wednesday 5th September 08:30 – 10:00 10:00 – 10:30 10:30 – 13:30 13:30 – 14:45 14:45 – 16:45 16:45 – 17:15 17:15 – 18:45 Special Sessions Coffee Break Plenary Sessions Lunch Break Plenary Sessions Coffee Break Plenary Sessions Thursday 6th September 08:30 – 10:00 10:00 – 10:30 10:30 – 13:30 13:30 – 14:45 14:45 – 16:45 16:45 – 17:15 17:15 – 18:45 Special Sessions Coffee Break Plenary Sessions Lunch Break Plenary Sessions Coffee Break Plenary Sessions Friday 7th September 08:30 – 10:00 10:00 – 10:30 10:30 – 13:30 13:30 – 14:45 14:45 – 16:45 16:45 – 17:00 17:00 – 18:00 18:00 – 19:00 Special Sessions Coffee Break Plenary Sessions Lunch Break Plenary Sessions Coffee Break Special Sessions/Communiqué Closing Sessions Saturday 8th September Departure CONTENTS Rethinking On Drug Abuse and Crime Relationship:An Alternative Explanation For Intellectuals Criminologists ……………………………………………………………...….1 Usman Ahmad Karofi A Study on Women Empowerment in South-Asian Countries: A Contemporary Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………..……20 Shobana Nelasco Is “Partnership” A Fulfilled Principle by the Local Authorities in Their Fight Against Social Exclusion: A Case Study From Brussels ………………………………………..…33 Ihsan Ikizer Vocational and Technical Education: Seeing Through the Eye -View of Globalization ………………………………………………………………………………………………..43 Daso, Peter Ojimba Gender Differentials and Determinants of Child Health in India …………………...53 Koyel Sarkar Traditions Under Siege: Dissecting Socio-Political and Economic Pressures in Ola Rotimi’s ………………………………………………………………………………..……64 Kurunmi and Ovonramwen Nogbaisi Samuel Okoronkwo Chukwu-Okoronkwo Chuppi Todo (Break the Silence) – Campaign against child sexual abuse through educational film on safe and unsafe touch …………..……………………………………71 Sanjay K Singh Comprehensive Child Survuval Programme: A Study on Impact of Asha on Familial Prcatices of Newborn Care in India ……………………………………………………….80 Nida Siddiqui Branding In Serbian Rural Tourism ………………..…………………………………..…90 Milena Vukić, Milena Popović, Marija Kuzmanović The Americans led developed countries have been behaving communism …………….98 Xu Han-You Democratic Change in the Gulf Monarchies in the 21st Century ……………………....105 M. Azam The Paradox of Economic Globalization: The Case of The Niger Delta Region …….114 Justina Adalikwu-Obisike and Ebere E. Obisike Women Rights: With Special Reference to Hidden Domestic Violence ………………121 Vijaya Lakshmi Sharma and Noor Mohammad Where Are The People?Cultural Heritage Discourses Genealogy, Its Trends and Its Contemporary Challenges …………………….…………………………………….……132 Juliana Forero and Liangping Hong Trends in Infant and Child Mortality in Nigeria: A Wake-Up Call Assessment for Intervention Towards Achieving The 2015 MDGs ……………………………………..142 Ojewumi Titus Kolawole Challenges of Globalization and Information Era: Rejuvenation of Highr Education In Pakistan …………………………..…………………………………………………….….155 Muhammad Safdar;N. B. Jumani;Muhammad Abdul Malik and Shakil Ahmad Ghazi Street Children and It’s Influence on Educational Attainment in South Western States in Nigeria . ………………………………………………………………………………..….160 Ola T. Monisola, O. Oluwagbemiga, Adeyemi Olalekan and Bamisaye Folashade The Reality of Political Culture in Jordan After Twenty Years of Political Openness ………………………………………………………………………………………………173 Amin A. al-Azzam Bertrand Russell on Chinese Education ………………………………………………....186 Zheng Weiping The Evacuation of Unaccompanied Children during the Occupation of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995): Lessons To Be Learned ………………………………..190 Tamara Miskovic and Anne Tellett Strategies for Teaching and Sustaining Mathematics as an Indispensable Tool for Technological Development in Nigeria ………………………………………………….196 Peter Ojimba Daso Human Dignity: Its Ideas and Status in China ………………………………………….202 Jiaming Chen The Culture of Widowhood Practices in Africa: De-institutionalizing the Plights of Women through Theatre ………………………………………………………………....208 Samuel Okoronkwo Chukwu-Okoronkwo Motive for Using Specific Health Care Practices in Kathmandu Metropolitan City ………………………………..……………………………………………………….……215 Srijana Pandey Depression in Late Life: A Comparative Study Among Elderly Inhabiting in Different Environmental Settings ………………………………………………………………...…225 Moumita Maity and Barun Mukhhopadhyay Education Practice: Issues and Experiences in Bangladesh …………………………....237 Shahreen Raihana Dialects: Basic Connectivity of Masses (With The Reference Of Ahirani Dialect) M. S. …………………………………………………………………………………..……243 Pagare, Govind Gayki, and Dhanraj Dhangar The Foreign Policy of The USA Towards Yugoslavia ……………………………..…..248 Dejan Marolov Does Religious Fanaticism Lead to Terrorism? …………………………………………263 Nehal Karim Aggression in Iran 5 to 11 Grade Children in Relation to Parental Involvement and Attachment-Security ………………………………………………………………………271 Nayereh Shahmohammadi Motive For Using Specific Health Care Practices In Kathmandu Metropolitan City ………………………………………………………………………………………………284 Srijana Pandey Litigation In Pakistani Lower Courts with Respect to Contract Law ……………..….294 Akeel Ahmed The Effect of Family in Decreasing Sines of Children ………………………………….297 Virtual Education and Its Location for Faculty Members ……………………………...300 Mousa Mojtabaei Revisiting Health in Colonial Bengal: A Literary Overview (1880 -1930) …………….308 Tinni Goswami Bhattacharya The foreign policy –theoretical overview ………………………………………………..314 Dejan Marolov Legal Framework Concerning Gender Equality in Republic of Macedonia ……….…324 Jovan Shopovski Sociological Study of contemporary family …………………………………………..…331 Baqir Sarukhani Effect of media family on the precocious puberty of teenage girl: the emphasis on Iranian society ……………………………………………………………………….…….337 Nosrati, Vida and Faranak Seyyedi Decision Making and Fertility Behavior Among Women In West Bengal, India ……345 Koyel Sarkar Adoption of Destitute on The Margins of Society: A Case Study From Urban India ………………………………………………………………………………………….…..356 Kalpana Prasanna How Rural-Urban Migration Contributes to the Development of a Megacity: A Case from Bangladesh ………………………………………………………………………………….366 Asif Ishtiaque Video Broadcast Courses at The Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch (Case Study) …………………………………………………………………………………………..….377 Nayereh Shahmohammadi Islamic anthropology in Contemporary Epoch …………………………………….…...387 Mohsen Tousi Business Education and The Entreprenuership Education Agenda: A Synergy For Unemployment Reduction in Nigeria ……………………………………………………392 Obi Emmanuel Chinasa Media imperialism and body image perception in Kuwait ……………………………..399 Charles Mitchell, Juliet Dinkha, Tasneem Rashwan and Monica Matta Extinction of Species and Its Management for Ecological Balance .……………...……417 N. Cherly Anto Frezina and N. Junofy Anto Rozarina Entrenching Democracy and Good Governance: The Role of ICT ……………….…..423 S.A.Adesola Leadership and Followership in Nigeria ………………………………………………...431 Blessing E.N. Thom-Otuya Community Development as the Bastion of Sustainable Development in Nigeria …...442 Green Iheanacho A Survey of National Development Plans in Nigeria: The Challenges and Way Forward for Sustainable Development ………………………………………………………….…447 Okorie, Cornelius Ofobuisi and Eje, Benjamine Odaa Time Resource Management for Effective School Administration ……………………453 Kalu, Joyce Nnuola Women Rights and Empowerment in the Arabian Gulf Countries …………………..461 Muhammad Azam Synopsis of Religion and Child Abuse: Nigeria Experience …………………………...471 Alexander Olufemi Afolabi Okebukola Gender Differentials and Determinants of Child Health in India ………………….476 Koyel Sarkar Crime: Concept, Causes and Militating Factors ………………………………….…….487 Florence N. Anumba Challenges Of Climate Change: The Role of Christian Religious Leaders …………....496 Nche George Christian Relative Effectiveness of Classroom Interaction Techniques on Students’ Participation in Rivers State, Nigeria ………………………………………………………………………503 Oranu Philomena Chika and Onwioduokit F. A Linking Geography with Ecology: A Case Study From India …………………………512 S. K. Sharma RETHINKING ON DRUG ABUSE AND CRIME RELATIONSHIP: AN ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATION FOR INTELLECTUALS CRIMINOLOGISTS Usman Ahmad Karofi (Ph.D.) Department of Sociology Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Federal University DUTSIN-MA,Nigeria Abstract According to the literature on the drug-crime link, there is relationship between abusing drugs and involvement criminal activities. A growing number of literature and empirical research have documented that relationships exists between drug abuse and criminal offences. Through studying a selected sample of three hundred institutionalised drug addicts [inmates] with and without criminal history from two government drug rehabilitation centres in Penang, Malaysia, findings from an empirical research affirmed that indeed relationships exist between drug abuse and involvement in criminal offences. The result of the study reveals that is not in all situation abusers of drugs get involved in criminal activities, even in situation where they do so, abusing the drug alone is inappropriate in justifying their attitudes. In addition to abusing drugs other micro and macro factors should be put in place for proper understanding of their criminal offences. 1:1 Introduction In speaking about the drug-crime nexus, Inciardi et al. (as cited in Baron, 1999) argue that the drug and crime relationship is interactive. Crime, they point out, finances the use of drugs. Continuous usage of drugs encourages more use of drugs and more use of drugs encourages more crime. According to the literature on the drug-crime link, there is an association between the use of drugs and getting involved in criminal activities. Some social conditions seem applicable to cause both drug use and crime, and many young offenders commit a wide variety of crimes, which include drug use. Even if it is assumed that drug use is not a direct cause of crime, it is unquestionable that a large proportion of youth who get involved with criminal justice agencies (the police, the courts and custodian institutions) are usually regular drug users. Empirical data indicate a correlation between drug abuse and crime. However, drug abuse by itself does not sufficiently explain criminal behaviour (Ramsay and Percy, 1996; Parker, 1996; Ekpenyong 1989). For instance, Clinard and Meier (1995) state that substance abuse involves violations of norms surrounding the use of alcohol and other drugs, whereas crime involves violation of legal norms of legislature and other government agencies. According to a United Nation Report (1989), the use of illegal drugs and crime go hand in hand. In so many cases, drug users will literally do anything to obtain enough money to satisfy their drug use habits. The most frequently committed unwanted behaviours by drug abusers are criminal in nature. Drug abusers tend to gain most income by theft, prostitution and drug peddling. There are some apparent relationships between drug abuse and criminal behaviour. A number of these are: crimes committed under the influence of drugs; crimes committed in order to get money or goods to buy drugs and trafficking and a host of other crimes associated with drug distribution (Ibid p. 42). However, initially and as indicated by the literature regarding the occasional user phase, drug use and crime are spuriously related. During the continuous usage, drug use is facilitated, but not caused by, criminal income. Lastly, during the street addict phase, 1 drug use appears to cause crime (See, for instance, Mernard 2001, Sommer and Bakin 1999 and Goldstein, 1985). Thus, although the causal relationship is not unidirectional, substance use in general appears to be a cause or at least a risk factor for criminal and other problem behaviours. According to Bennett (1998 and 2000), there is clear evidence that as a person‘s drug use increases his involvement in criminal activity tends to increase as well. However, it is not in all situations that drug abusers get involved in criminal activities. Even in those situations where they are engaged in criminal activities, it is not sufficient to justify drug abuse as the only attributing factor to their criminal behaviour. Some micro1 and macro2 factors predisposing drug abusers to criminal behaviours must be considered for an adequate understanding of crime as a dependent variable. Present research is meant to further explore the micro and macro factors that lead drug abusers into criminal activities. 1:2 Statement of the Problem Bennett (2000) has identified five main explanations connecting drug abuse and criminal activities. The first one is the view that drug abuse causes crime. Goldstein et al. (1992), Inciardi et al. (cited in Baron, 1999), Mackesy-Amitir and Fendrick, (l999), offered some examples of this explanation. The second one is that crime causes drug use (Bennett, 1998 and 2000; Makkai, 1999). The third one is that both drug abuse and crime are caused by other factors (Becker, 1963; Stephens, 1992; Farrington, et al. 1986). The fourth one is that, the relationship between drug abuse and crime is reciprocal (Inciardi, et al. 1993). Finally, drugs and crime are not causally connected, but simply coexist within a complex setting of events that include both (Bennett, 2000: 54). Similarly, Mernard, (2001) presents five explanations linking substance abuse and criminal activity. The explanations are: (a) substance use causes crime; (b) crime causes substance use; (c) substance use and crime directly influence one another in a pattern of mutual causation; and (d) the relationship between substance abuse and crime is spurious. What follows with this explanation is that there are causal variables that influence both substance use and illegal behaviours, and in controlling those variables there is no direct relationship between substance abuse and other criminal behaviours; (e) the final explanation is a blend of the third and fourth explanations stating that substance use and crime may be influenced by the same or similar set of causes, but may also exert some direct influence on each other. There are a number of arguments that examine the causal relationship between drug abuse and crime. Some argue that most addicts commit economic-associated crimes3 to sustain their addictive behaviour. Others are of the opinion that drug users are more frequently involved in personal crimes like assault, family quarrels, violent crimes, and prostitution. For example, Goldstein (1985) argue that there is a causal relationship between drug use and violent 1 In this perspective, micro factors are those that are learned in the process of interaction. Social deviation and criminality are learned through peer pressure, family members, on the street, at school, contact with criminal justice agents, mass media, individual frustration etc. 2 In this context, macro factors signify factors that predispose people to social deviation and criminality which are structural, such as social disorganization, weak social control, a host of social problems caused by social structure, population heterogeneity, environmental factors, inequality, unemployment, poverty, broken homes etc. 3 These are crimes/offences motivated by the need for money or goods to buy drugs. In other words crime committed by drug abuser in order to obtain money or property to buy drugs. Examples of such crimes could include theft of different kinds, stanching, robbery, kidnapping handling stolen goods, etc. 2 behaviours in what they coin as the `Tripartite Conceptual Framework`. According to him, there are three situations that explain this term: (1) homicide is considered pharmacological when it is the consequence of a short-term injection of a substance that brings about aggression; (2) homicide is considered economically compulsive when a drug abuser feels compelled to engage in economic crimes in order to support his addiction; and (3) a systematic type of homicide (violence) is an outcome of traditionally aggressive patterns resulting from interaction with the system of drug use and distribution. While the systemic linkage between substance use and crime actually involves illicit drug sales rather than substance use, illicit drug use is a necessary prerequisite to illicit drug sales. It therefore follows logically that the drug market is one mechanism by which substance abuse causes crime. Mernard‘s (2001) findings fully support the Goldstein (1985) Tripartite Conceptual Framework for this connection with data he obtained from a national sample of teenagers in the United States. He adopts a developmental perspective from adolescence to adulthood. The results of the research in question show that psychopharmacological inducement to offending were evidently attributed to alcohol use and other illicit drug usage. Among street addicts, for instance, economic compulsive motivation played a great role in their participation in property offences. Finally, involvement in illicit drug sales leads to violence. Again in accord with the Tripartite Conceptual Framework, Spunt and Goldstein (1994) in a sample of 268 homicide offenders incarcerated in New York, revealed four major findings: (1) 250 (96%) of the offenders had used alcohol at some time of their lives; (2) 89 respondents (33%) had experienced some type of effects related to their alcohol use at the time the homicide occurred. A total of 89 respondents (92%) self-reported that they were actually drunk, while a total of 52 (58%) said yes when asked whether their homicide was related to their drinking; 45 (86%) of the total homicides were classified as psychopharmacological and 3 of the 52 alcoholrelated cases (6%) were classified as multidimensional. In another study, Sommers and Baskin (1999) conducted interviews with 156 women from two New York City neighbourhoods with high concentrations of drug selling to find out if there is any relationship between situational or generalized violence with drug networks. They found that the respondents were engaged in a wide range of criminal activities, and almost all of them admitted to being experienced drug users: 70 per cent of them were regular crack users, 47 per cent used cocaine regularly, 41 per cent were addicted to heroin, 38 per cent reported involvement in robbery, 17 per cent were reported involved in burglary, 44 per cent were at some time involved in prostitution, 52 per cent had sold heroin, and 45 per cent had sold cocaine. Moreover, crack, cocaine and heroin addicts were reported to have engaged in criminal activities. Other substance abusers were reported to be involved in assaults. Thus, the researchers concluded that the drug distribution market is viewed as just another domain of community life that is troubled with violence. However, it is not just the drug business that makes sellers and buyers violent, but rather drug selling itself that provides the sub-context that sustains the use of violence within a large social setting, where violence is a general culture. On the other hand, Bennet (1998), while doing research on a sample of 225 arrestees, found that 75 per cent of the subjects tested positive for at least one drug, including alcohol. The criminal offences that correlated with the use of drugs were income generating offences, such as multiple types of theft, many shopliftings and handling stolen goods, and supplying drugs. In another empirical study between drug use and delinquency, Otero-lopez, et al. (1994) established the relationship between delinquents who abuse drugs and their delinquent activities with the following hypotheses: (1) drug abuse causes delinquency; (2) delinquency causes drug abuse; and (3) delinquency and drug use are the outcomes of common causes. Their investigation on 2,022 3 subjects confirmed a correlation between these variables. However, they suggested that future studies in the area should focus on identifying etiological, psychological and social variables affecting both drug abuse and delinquent activities. Institutional actions against drug abuse and delinquency should not only be directed to individuals, but also to supra individual factors. Furthermore, Hser, et al. (1992) acknowledged that the high level of criminal activity among addicts has raised considerable concern about the direction of causality between narcotics use and crime. Stressing this relationship, they identified three areas: (1) narcotics use leads to, or causes crime; (2) criminal orientation is a necessary antecedent of heroin use, which is an expression or consequence of the orientation; and (3) both crime and narcotics use are the results of a third factor or set of factors, ranging from inter-personal/psychological to environmental/sociological. In their research, Javis and Parker (1989) acknowledge that among their sample of 46 incarcerated hard heroin users, 83 per cent admitted that they resorted to illegal activities to finance their opiate use, 63 per cent had up to 10 offences, against their criminal records. Another position that explains the relationship between drug abuse and other criminal activities is the learning/sub-culture point of view. The main argument presented by the Sub-culture Theories is that deviant behaviours in general are not only learned through interaction, but are also enhanced through career. In the first stage peer groups train the deviant how to deviate. The second stage is that he/she is rejected by his/her society. After the rejection he/she joins a deviant group in a form of a sub-culture. A beginner of marijuana use must first learn how to use it. Becker (1963), a prominent sub-culture theorist, in his study of how marijuana is used, found that beginners must learn three things: (1) how to smoke the drug in a way that will produce real effects; (2) how to recognize the effects and connect them with drug use (learning in other words, to get high); and finally (3) learning to enjoy the sensations he perceives and to interpret the sensations as pleasurable (Ibid: p. 58). However, in relation to peer pressure as a correlate of drug abuse, Vicknasingam (1997) studying 400 AIDS and Intravenous Drug Users (IVDUs), found that the peer group influence seemed to be a significant factor in persuading a drug-user to practice risky behaviours. This influence is significant because a certain skill is required for the injection of drugs, and peers initially play an important role in helping a new recruit learn the technical skills. Goode (1989) views that there is a strong correlation between the use of marijuana by one‘s friends and the frequency with which one uses the drug. The conclusion at which he arrives is that selective peer group interaction and socialization comprised the probability that the most powerful factors related to drug usage among adolescents are imitation and the social influence. They play a significant role in initiating and maintaining drug use among teenagers. It is often hypothesized that in the process of their development from adolescent to adulthood, children learn patterns of behaviour, whether prosocial (social behaviour that is condoned) and or antisocial (behaviours which are accepted to be anti-social), from the socializing agents of family, school, religious and other community institutions, and their peers. Socialization then follows the same processes of learning whether it produces prosocial or antisocial behaviour. Children are socialized through processes involving four constructs: (a) perceived opportunities for involvement in activities and interactions with others, (b) the degree of involvement and interaction, (c) the skills to participate in these involvements and interactions, and (d) the reinforcement they perceive as forthcoming from performance in activities and interactions. When socializing processes are consistent, a social bond develops between the individual and the socializing agent. This social bond, once strongly established, has the power to affect behaviour independently by creating an informal control on future behaviour. This control inhibits deviant 4 behaviours through the establishment of an individual's "stake" in conforming to the norms and values of the socializing unit (Mernard 2001: 6). Catalano and Kosterman (1996) also observed that the social developmental models provided a great deal of knowledge regarding the effects of empirical predictors, or "risk factors," in the development of antisocial behaviour. They further empirically revealed that multiple biological, psychological, and social factors at different levels in different social domains (i.e., within the individual and in the family, school, peer group, and community) all contribute in some degree to the development of such problems as delinquency and drug use. Other empirical studies that further support peer pressure, learning and sub-culture as important yardsticks of associating drug use and criminal behaviour among others are: Farrington et al. (1986); Navaratnam and Foong (1988); Baron (1999); Acarid et al. (2000) and Miethe and Meier (1994). Other researchers, however, consider socio-economic factors as the causal factors to both drug abuse and criminal offences. These factors include environment, poverty, broken homes, urbanization, and improper family socialization, among others. Ramsay and Percy, (1996), Johnson et al. (1995), Leslie (1989), Miller, et al. (1989), McCarthy & Hagan, (1991) and Farrington et al. (1986) are all in agreement that socio-economic factors are pertinent in any meaningful search for the reasons why individuals engage in drug abuse and other criminal offences. Ramsay and Percy (1996), for instance, conducted a study to establish an association between drug use (which is treated as a dependent variable) and socio-economic factors such as unemployment, poverty and running away from home (seen as independent variables). Using a national representative sample of 14,500 household subjects in the United Kingdom, they found that: (1) cannabis is the most popular drug, one-third of the sample aged between 16 and 19 trying it; (2) 20 per cent of the same group reported as drug users in the last month; (3) drug use consumption is lower with the increase in age; (4) 22 per cent of males and females aged 30 - 59 had taken drugs some time or another; and (5) drug use was reported more by males than by females. However, like any other national household survey, that study had the following limitations: (1) it could not reach those on the fringe of society who did not live in households reachable by survey teams; (2) the age range it covered more than 16 and less than 60 for self drug exercise was not broad, and could therefore not be used for generalisation purposes. According to Johnson, et al. (1995), sales of crack were strongly associated with increased violence, property crimes, assault, and prostitution. This increased with the frequency of crack cocaine use, as the study on 1,003 drug abusers and sellers proved. The dependent variable was crack use, and drug-associated crimes as independent variables. However, the researchers noted, while discussing their results, that: (1) drug use, abuse and addiction were complex issues with multiple causes and effects, (2) a variety of factors, including personal psychological, family, peer group pressure, and environmental factors could be attributed to drug problems. A significant limitation of their study, however, as it is for the present one, was the exclusion of recreational users of drugs from the working, middle, and upper socio-economic classes. In a study of strain, personality, and delinquency Robert, et al. (2002) found among the variables of their study that, most of the strains examined have a significant relationship with delinquency. In particular, they discovered that: (1) delinquency is higher among those who experience family, school, and neighbourhood strain; (2) it is higher among certain categories of juveniles experiencing peer abuse; and (3) the effect of the strain variables is particularly noteworthy, and Lastly four of the six strain variables have significant positive effects on delinquency: family strain; parents lost of control; school hatred, and neighbourhood strain. 5 The above mentioned empirical review prompted the conduct of this study, to make similar research in the drug crime nexus in Malaysia. This research is devoted to studying the relationship between drug abuse and criminal activities in Penang. Much has been researched and written about the epidemiology of drugs in Malaysia, but there was no single local study devoted to the understanding and explanation of the reasons as well as the causes for abusing drugs and getting involved in criminal activities among drug using populations. While the use of certain categories of drugs cannot be attributed to some kinds of criminal offences, literature suggests that those who abuse expensive drugs like marijuana, ganja, heroin, cocaine and other illicit drugs, often command funds to sustain their addictive behaviours, which, in turn lead them to a wide range of criminal behaviours in order to sustain their drug addictions. Other crimes associated with drug addiction of course include those crimes that result in the distribution and marketing of drugs and or crimes like corruption, fraud, embezzlement, money laundering that are linked to drug trade in general. 1:3 Method and Participant The study is about three hundred drug addicts who were drawn from two Government Drug Rehabilitation Centres in Penang, by stratified and systematic sampling procedures. The population was one thousand drug inmates with and without criminal history. To begin with, an ideal sample size was made N=300. This figure was arrived at based on Blaikie‘s (2000) sample determinant for varying populations. According to Blaikie, while large populations may need large samples than smaller populations, the ratio of population size to an appropriate sample size is not constant, for example: for population around 1,000, the ratio might be about 1:3 a sample of about 300 (P. 208). To obtain the sample elements, an inmate roster was used. The inmate roster was obtained from the authorities of the two Drug Rehabilitation Centres. The population distribution according to ethnicity was as follows; 483 were Malays, 305 were Chinese, 210 were Indians and only 2 respondents belonged to other ethnic groups. The sampling process began with stratification of the population into four strata according to ethnicity. This was followed by a preparation of four specific lists. In order to obtain the sample elements, the selection techniques were that for every fourth person on the list, one was selected. The rationale for using the stratified sampling procedure in the selection of the study elements/respondents across the four ethnic groups was to ensure that the sample was as homogenous as the population from which it was drawn and was based on the guidelines drawn by Blaikie (2000) and Kish (1965). This was done to control for under and over representation of respondents from the four ethnic groups. In this way, it guaranteed the two respondents belonging to other ethnic group an equal opportunity of representation. 1.4 Research Questions The study provided answers the following questions: 1. What is the relationship between drug abuse and criminal activities? 2. To what extent are drug abusers involved in criminal activities? 3. Why are drug abusers engaged in specific types of criminal offences? 4. Why are drug abusers involved in criminal activities? 6 1.5 Results 1.5.1 Research question # 1 A series of questions were asked to solicit information from the respondents based on selfreport and on the relationship between their use of drugs and involvement in criminal activities. For example, ―Did you commit crime to support your drug use habit?‖ Table 1 below describes the responses provided by the respondents. Table 1 Commit Crimes to Support Drug Use _______________________________________________________________ ―Did you commit criminal acts to support your drug use habit?‖ _______________________________________________________________ Frequency Percentage Yes 113 39.1 No 158 54.7 Missing 18 6.2 _______________________________________________________________ Total 289 100.0 _______________________________________________________________ According to Table 1 above 113 respondents (39.1%) attributed their involvement in criminal activities to support their use of drugs, whereas 158 respondents (54.7%) do not commit criminal offences at all, or their involvement in criminal activities had nothing to do with their drug use habit. But beyond this, the big differences between the yes and no responses of the subjects‘ indicate that abusing drugs might not in all situations predispose the drug abusers to commit crime. Concerning those who said yes, abusing drugs might thus be among a series of factors that lead addicts to be involved in criminal activities Additionally, there were two other items that were added in the questionnaire (with five response categories ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree) (1) ―There is a relationship between your casual drug(s) use and your criminal activities‖ and (2) ―There is causal relationship between your criminal activities and casual drug use‖. The responses to the above two items are presented in Table 4.8 and 4.9 respectively. Table 2 Relationship between Your Drug Use and Criminal Activities ―There is a causal relationship between your casual drug use and your criminal activities‖ _____________________________________________________________________ Frequency Percentage Strongly agree 40 13.8 Agree 58 20.1 Undecided 63 21.8 Disagree 87 30.1 Strongly disagree 26 9.0 Missing 15 5.2 _____________________________________________________________________ Total 289 100.0 _____________________________________________________________________ Table 3 Relationship between Your Criminal Activities and Drug Use ___________________________________________________________________________ _ 7 ―There is a causal relationship between your criminal activities and your casual drug use‖ ______________________________________________________________________ Frequency Percentage Strongly agree 34 11.8 Agree 55 19.0 Undecided 71 24.6 Disagree 88 30.4 Strongly disagree 26 9.0 Missing 15 5.2 _____________________________________________________________________ Total 289 100.0 _____________________________________________________________________ In Tables 2 and 3 above 98 respondents (33.9%) and 89 respondents (30.8%) reported that indeed a relationship exists between their drug use and their engagement in criminal activities. However, in both cases 63 respondents (21.8%) and 71 respondents (24.6%) were undecided about the relationship. Putting together ―Disagree‖ and ―Strongly Disagree‖ 113 respondents (39.1%) and 114 respondents (39.4%) respectively might either not have had any criminal involvement or found no relationship between their drug use and criminal activities and vice versa. From Tables 2 and 3 the results indicate that the respondents understood the two items4, because the percentages obtained in both the tables are quite similar. This interpretation shows acceptance of the view that there might be other factors5 rather than drugs could be responsible for causing drug users to commit crimes. Drug abuse might not be a major contributing factor but might be one among many factors. 1.5.2 Research question # 2 Furthermore, to ascertain the type of crime the respondents were involved in, with the primary aim of supporting their drug use habits, those who answered yes (n = 113) were further asked to state which offence type they had committed. Based on Table 4 below, 5 respondents (1.7%) reported personal crimes, 3 respondents reported petty crime, (1.0), with 5 (1.7%) who reported drug related offences, and finally a substantial number, 105 respondents (89.0%) reported being involved in property offences. This is an indication that drug addicts might resort to criminal activities which are income generating, i.e. economic-associated crimes in order to sustain their use of drugs. 4 The question was a proving question, i.e. question that was twisted in order to find out whether those filling the questionnaire had really understood the wording as well as what the question/item seek to measure. In the above case, it is impaired that the item was clearly understood by the respondents. The primary reason is because the percentages obtained are similar see Table 4.8 and 4.9. For strongly agree 40 and 43 respondents; for agree 58 and 55; for undecided 63 and 71; for disagree 87 and 88 and for strongly disagree 26 and 26. 5 In fact, this was the initial position adopted in this study. That even in situations where abusers of drug get themselves involved in criminal activities, abusing the drug alone is insufficient to fully example the reason, as well as the causes, of their criminal activities. The results obtained in this research and the results of other empirical researches had actually arrived at the foregoing conclusion, see for example (Ramsay and Percy 1996; Parker 1996; Otero-lopez, et al. 1994; Farrigton et al. 1986 and McCarthy and Hagan 1991 among several others). 8 Table 4 Type of Offence N=118 _________________________________________________________________ ―If yes, which type of offence?‖ ___________________________________________________________________ Frequency Percentage Personal crimes 5 4.2 Property crimes 105 89.0 Petty crimes 3 2.5 Drug related crimes 5 4.2 _____________________________________________________________________ Total 1186 100.0 _____________________________________________________________________ Moreover, the data above (Table 4) shows that the relationship does exist between drug use and involvement in criminal behaviours. Thus, it is further assumed that what is illustrated in the table above, is in accord with the theoretical arguments that involvements in criminal activities by the drug using population might be economic-compulsive. This is true especially among the street drug user population from which the majority of the drug inmates in Government Drug Rehabilitation Centres were drawn. Another opinion item requested the respondents to inscribe which type of drug(s) is related to which kinds of criminal activities. About half of the research respondents who answered the question according to Table 5 below 132 (45.7%) said that heroin is related or may lead the user to commit property offences, 8 respondents (2.8%) documented personal offences, 4 subjects (1.4%) wrote petty offences, and only one respondent (.3%) wrote drug related offences. As far as whether cannabis is related to crime, 27 respondents (9.3%), said it is related to property kinds of offences, 14 respondents (4.8%) reported personal type of offences, 3 respondents (1.0%) wrote that it had to do with drug related offences and only one respondent (0.3%) wrote the use of cannabis is associated with petty offences. Thus, the table (4.14) offers evidence in favour of the conceptual position, which argues that drug use among a user population could be economic-compulsive. This means that drug abusers may be compelled to become involved in income - generating offences in order to support their drug use habits. The table explains that the independent analysis on heroin and ganja is associated with property kinds of offences. Table 5 Type of Drugs associated with Type of Crimes ____________________________________________________________________ Type of Drug Type of crime Frequency Percentage Heroin Property offences 132 45.7 Personal offences 8 2.8 Petty offences 4 1.4 Drug related offences 1 .3 Missing values 144 49.8 Cannabis (Ganja) Property offences 27 9.3 6 The table shows the number of offences, not the number of respondents. It should, therefore, be noted that the number of offences agreed too N=118 exceed by 5 N=113 respondent who answered yes. The explanation is that three respondents reported to have committed one offence more others, and a respondent reported to have committed two offences more than the others 9 Personal offences 14 4.8 Petty offences 1 .3 Drug related offences 3 1.0 Missing values 244 84.4 _____________________________________________________________________ As presented above, it can be concluded that the evidence provided by the self-reported data combined with the opinions expressed by the respondents suggested the existence of a relationship between drug abuse and criminal activities. 1.5.3 Research question # 3 and 4 In order to answers the why questions # 3 and # 4 a regression analysis was conducted. The selected regression analysis was the binary logistic model. The remaining section presents the logit analysis results. Logit analysis was selected in this study. Logit analysis was selected because it allows us to use a dichotomous dependent variable. The dependent variable of this study is dichotomous and measures whether or not the inmate was involved in criminal behaviour to support his drug use habit (It takes a value of 1 if the answer is yes and 0, if otherwise). To understand the effects of the independent variables more fully, Logit analysis allows us to estimate the probability of an event occurring, given a set of independent variables. Hair et al. (1995) argued that one of the advantage of the Logit analysis is that we need only to know whether an event (in the case of this research crime) occurred or not, this allows the use of dichotomous value as the dependent variable. From this dichotomous value, the procedure predicts its estimate of the probability that the event will occur or will not occur, if the predicted probability is greater than .50, then the prediction is yes, otherwise no (Ibid, p.131). The logit model can be written as follows: P Log = ßo + ßi Xi + ß2 X2+…+ ßnXn + ε 1-P Where, P = the probability of committing crime to support drug use habit; Xs = explanatory variables hypothesized to influence the above probability. These variables are Peer Group, Urbanization, Poverty, Environment, Marital Status, Ethnicity, No education/only Primary education, Broken Home and Age ßs= estimated coefficients of the explanatory variables; є = stochastic disturbance term. The formula is sourced from Hair, et al. (1995:131). The criteria for including an independent variable into the logistic regression equation were the predictions drawn from theories. The logit model built in this study therefore includes the above-mentioned independent variables that were found to be theoretically important in explaining the inmates‘ involvement in criminal activities to support their drug use habit. The programme used was SPSS for Widows Version 11.5. 10 Table 6 Estimated Logit Model or Factors Determining the Decision to be involved in Criminal Activities to support Drug use habits ______________________________________________________________ Independent Variables Estimated Std Error Pro. Coefficient Value ______________________________________________________________ Presence of Peer Group Pressure 4.1196 1.2218 .0007 * From Poverty Household -.7275 .5686 .2007 Having Urban Residence 1.9301 .9316 .0383 ** Environmental Influence 1.6113 .7323 .0278 ** Single .3809 .8139 .6398 Malay 1.2284 .8734 .1596 No/Primary Education 1.9822 .8148 .0150 ** From Broken Home .0692 .6815 .9191 Age (21-30) -.0222 .7989 .9778 Constant -3.2523 1.6414 .0475 . ______________________________________________________________ Note: ** Significant at the 5 percent level or better * Significant at the 1 percent or better Results from the table can be interpreted as thus: The results in the above Table 6 (column two) suggest that the log of odds of an inmate, (i.e. drug abuser) committing crime to sustain his addiction to drugs is significantly and positively affected by peer pressure, and if he had resided in an urban area and has attained only primary school or no education. In addition, his environment also influences him. The factors that significantly encourage involvement in criminal activities to support drug use habit are peer group pressure, urban residence, environmental influence and having primary or no education. Other factors like age, being Malay and poor, and coming from a broken household were not significant. This invariably suggests that when all other factors are controlled for, these factors had no independent or significant impact on criminal activities which addicts of drugs are involved in. Nevertheless, the negative sign associated with age suggests that the older inmates are more prone and likely to be involved in criminal attitudes than those in the young category. More interesting is the fact that the coefficient of poverty, thought not significant, carries a negative sign. Those who attributed poverty as one of the causes of their criminal behaviour were found to be less involved in criminal activities. This again, suggests that poverty per se many not be an important predictor of criminal behaviour as far as the sample of this study is concerned. 11 Table 7 Marginal Effect on the Odds to be involved in Criminal Activities to support Drug use habits ______________________________________________________________ Independent Variables Estimated Coefficient Change in Odds ß Exp ß ________________________________________________________ Constant -3.2523 Peer Group Pressure 4.1196* 61.5331 From Poverty Household -.7275 .4831 Urban Residence 1.9301** 6.8903 Environmental Influence 1.6113** 5.0094 Single .3809 1.4636 Malay 1.2284 3.4159 No/Primary Education 1.9822** 7.2588 From Broken Home .0692 1.0717 Age: 21-30 -.0222 .9780 Note: ** Significant at the 5 percent level or better * Significant at the 1 percent or better The results in the above Table 7 above shows that out of the nine (9) explanatory variables, all with the exception of five (5) significantly affects the decision by the drug abuser to commit crime to support drug use habit. However, as predicted the result vividly confirms the early position adopted in this research, that not in all situations do drug abusers involve themselves in criminal activities. And even in those situations where they do so, drug abuse is insufficient to fully explain their decision. Other micro and macro factors should be considered. The results as obtained in the previous table attest to the foregoing. By taking the antilog of the log of odds, in Table 7 we derive the impact of each variable, on the odds of an individual (here, inmate or the research respondent), resorting to crime to support his drug use habit (Column 3, Table 7). The strongest influence, on the odds of resorting to crime is peer group pressure. The odds of resorting to crime increase by 61.5 times, among those subjected to peer group pressure, relative to those who were not, other factors remaining constant. Similarly, urban residence increases the odds of committing crime to support drug use habit by 6.9 times relative to those living in non-urban areas, holding other factors constant. Controlling other factors, the results also suggest that the likelihood of resorting to crime to support the drug habit is 7.3 times higher among poorly educated or non-educated inmates. And environmental influence raises the likelihood of crime by about 5 times. In summary, the results of the above analysis suggest the following conclusion. Peer group pressure is the strongest predictor of inmates‘ involvement in criminal behaviour, to support their drug use habits. The lack of education or just primary education comes close second important predictor. Urban residence and environmental influence are the next in importance. However, poverty, ethnicity, marital status and being from a broken home and age do not seem to be good predictors in the sample of this study. This position is justified in the literature review section in the dissertation, from which this paper was written. 12 1.6 Discussions The findings of this study have revealed that there is a considerable relationship between drug abuse and involvement in criminal activities. This result is in accord with both national and international empirical studies. As documented by the research results, heroin and cannabis were the most popular drugs being abused by the respondents. At the national level, Navaratnam et al. (1990) also ascertain that heroin was the primary drug used by their respondent. In another study by Hj. Mustapha (1996), he discovered that the two main drugs abused in Malaysia were heroin and cannabis, with 88 per cent abusing heroin and 11 per cent abusing cannabis. Government data in Malaysia also documented that heroin and cannabis are the commonly abused drugs (see, for example, Dadah, 1992; National Drug Information System April 2000; January – December 1999; and January – December 2000). At the international level, the National Drug Research Centre of University Science Malaysia (1996), in presenting the Patterns and Trends of Drug Abuse in Selected South Asian Cities, acknowledged that heroin was the main drug abused in Colombo, Dhaka and New Delhi. The findings of this research are also consistent with those found in the United States by Jones (1999). She reported that amongst 11,000 drug addicts who entered drug treatment programs between March and July 1995 the majority were heroin users, and were responsible in part for 700 crimes in the three months before treatment. Bernholz (2002) presenting the drug abuse scenario in Africa found that cannabis was used extensively in all 10 countries, and reported by far as the most prevalent drug; cocaine, and heroin (used in all 10, but widely so in South Africa and infrequently in Ethiopia), synthetic drugs including LSD, and an "other" class that included solvent abuse. The linkage between local preferences and local drug production and distribution encompasses traditional uses and historical aspects, including the legal and centuries-old production of khat (Celastrus edulis) in Ethiopia and Kenya. Makkai and Doak (2000) also indicated in their sample of police detainees in Australia who are criminally active that: (1) 62.9 per cent had one charge against them, (property offences, 40.9 per cent, as the most common violent offences, 31.1 per cent, and offences against justice procedures 11.7 per cent), (2) trafficking charges, excluding drunk driving 9.4 per cent; (3) among the 28 violent offences, the largest proportion tested positive to cannabis, (46.4 per cent) to opiate 32.1 per cent, and to benzodiazepines, 17.9 per cent; (4) of the respondents charged with offences against justice procedures, 64.0 per cent tested positive to cannabis and 32.0 per cent tested positive to opiates. DUMA (Drug Use Monitoring in Australia) shows illicit drug use to be wide spread among detainees. Among the detainees who provided urine sample the results confirmed that 75.1 per cent tested positive to at least one type of drug. Participants were most frequently detained for property offences (40.9 per cent) almost similar to the findings of this research. The range of offences indicates that drug use is a factor predisposing persons to a variety of crimes. Makkai and Doak (2000) thus conclude that large numbers of police detainees, regardless of their offence type, are drug users. Policy wise, they suggest that the promotion of treatment diversion potions should be a priority of the government in order to break the drug crime nexus. The data of this research indicates that socio-economic factors (environment, urbanization) have influence on getting involved in criminal activities in order to support drug use habit by drug abusers. However, it is worth noting that, as was anticipated, these factors are crucial predictors of criminal behaviour in general. Controlling of other variables, poverty according to multivariate (logistic regression) results has emerged to have no link with criminal activities among and within 13 the study sample. The result of the present study is not in agreement with Schinke et al. (Cited by Cabrera 1999), who found that poverty, had stronger influence on drug abuse and crime. Baron (1999) also found that those who were more active in robbery on streets were heavy marijuana users. He posits that homelessness and poverty are predictors of hard drug use. Consequently, constant need of funds to ensure availability of drugs and alcohol among youth necessitates the undertaking of criminal activities. The results of Pfeffer and Cole (1998) are also not in accord with this present research. Their discovery attests that poverty is an important predictor of drug abuse and committing criminal offences. Making a comparison of youth crimes among British and Nigerian children, they discovered that the Nigerian students more frequently gave environmental explanations such as poverty, (33 per cent) and lack of home training (19 per cent) whereas, the British students, (37 per cent) used drugs for fun. Over the course of the past century, criminological research in the ecological tradition has continually discovered that the concentration of interpersonal violence in certain neighbourhoods, especially those characterized by poverty, the racial segregation of minority groups, and single-parent families. A number of studies have used survey data from 5,302 Seattle residents nested within 100 census tracts (Miethe and Meier, 1994) to investigate the connection between social processes and crime. It should be noted that the data presented here indicated that ecological factors, like environment and living in urban centres had a great contribution towards drug abusers involvement in crime to support their drug use habits. Environment has been correlated with criminal behaviour at 0.05, urbanization at 0.01 and peer group at 0.01 significant levels in the bivariate analysis and all the three had also emerged to be strong predicting factors in the logistic model as the most important reasons why drug abusers get involved in crime to support their drug use habit. Environments and neighbourhoods with strong collective efficacy may be more resilient and therefore not experience higher crime rates. However, in dwellings where there is persistent poverty as while as informal control is absent, these areas are bound to be crime-producing environments (Shaw and McKay 1942; Miethe and Meier, 1994). Robert et al. (2002) are of the opinion that gangs typically commit their crimes close to where they live and hang out, so these gangs also disproportionately affect their own ethnic communities, even if some tend not to victimize people in their own neighbourhoods. Consistent with the findings in this study, in their classic work, Shaw and McKay (1942) argued that low economic status, ethnic heterogeneity, and residential instability led to community disorganization, which in turn accounted for delinquent subcultures and ultimately high rates of delinquency. Stephen, et al. (1999), observed that family structure of a child is an important factor in the development of early onset and serious offending. Moffitt (1993) claims that a weak family structure is one of the primary features of a disadvantaged environment. As in the case of the findings in this research, most studies of community violence focus solely on relatively poor neighbourhoods, it seems apparent from the few comparative studies that economic disadvantage gives rise to increased exposure. Esbensen and Huizinga (1999), in a study of 11–15-year-olds in Denver, found that neighbourhood type specifically, neighbourhoods characterized by poverty and unemployment and such variables as ethnic diversity, high density, and mobility was related to rate of personal victimization. In another large study of 2248 Grades 6, 8, and 10 students in New Haven public schools, Schwab-Stone et al. (1995), reported that the poorest children (those enrolled in the free-lunch program) were more often witnesses of severe community violence. It seems more likely that community economic resources protect against exposure to violence in a variety of ways: such as providing attractive 14 alternatives to hanging out on the street, after-school and summer programs; better policing and neighbourhood surveillance and law enforcement. Two situational parameters, location and time, have been found associated with increased risk for exposure to community violence for youth. As in the case of the results of this study, Bell and Jenkins (1993) consider inner city and core metropolitan neighbourhoods as high-risk areas for violence, including both homicide and potentially lethal violence such as assault. Goldstein, et al. (1992), comparing 339 inner-city adolescents with 435 adolescents in a resort community, found that the former were more often victimized and witnesses to assaults, rapes, knifings, lifethreatening events, and murders. Furthermore, there are a number of studies, akin to this study, which have attributed the increase in crime to be environmental and neighbourhood factors (See for example Baron 1999; Ekpenyong, 1989; Ramsey and Percy, 1986; Van, 1996; Farrington, 1986; McCarthy and Hagan 1999). Bowen and Bowen (1999), for example, found in a national probability sample of 2099 middle and high school students that students' perceptions of school danger and of problem behaviour by youth in their neighbourhoods as well as self-reports of exposure in the preceding 30 days predicted school-related problems (e.g., suspensions and school complaints to parents). In addition, like the discovery in this study, Sampson et al. (1997) have devoted extensive attention to measurement of neighbourhood-level social and physical variables and their relationship to crime in general and adolescent delinquency in particular. Sampson's construct of collective neighbourhood efficacy—"social cohesion among neighbours combined with their willingness to intervene on behalf of the common good" (Sampson et al., 1997) results in what he terms informal social control found to significantly inhibit delinquency even when prior neighbourhood crime was taken into account. Appiahene-Gyamfi, (2003) also addressed environmental issue as predictors of criminal offence in a highly urban community in Accra Ghana, his findings are consistent with the present one, he discovered that: (1) the majority of victims of violent crimes were males, but 73 percent of the victims of swindling, extortion, and fraud were females; (2) (34) percent of the fraud, swindling, and extortion victims had come to Accra from the countryside, in some cases for the first time, to transact business or in search of job opportunities; and (3) crimes occur in response to complex interactions among social, economic, political, physical, and psychological conditions and environments, but ultimately, crimes are committed within specific geographic spaces and involve the convergence and interaction of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians. This research supported environment as a predisposing factor to criminal activities, especially, crime committed by addicts of drugs to support their drug use habits, Moffitt (1993:682) also stated: "It is now widely acknowledged that personality and behaviour are shaped in large measure by the interactions between the person and the environment.‖ In addition, Moffitt (1993:680-685) claims that important measures of this type of disadvantaged environment include socio-economic status and family structure. In fact, studies predicting early onset or persistent, serious, and violent offending, or both, have used both socio-economic status and poor familial environment (Sampson et al.1994) as indicators for disadvantaged environments. The findings in this study is also similar the findings of Stephen, et al. (1999), who attributed the relative proximity of blacks in racially segregated urban areas combines with weak social organization and limited access to labour markets to contribute to black interracial homicide offending, while isolating and protecting whites--spatially and economically--from black interracial homicide offending. 15 Findings from previous studies by Brantingham and Barantingham (1991) are consistent with the present one. It was reported in their findings "Crime does not occur in a vacuum, but is influenced by site design, location; by the social setting and situation; by the routine movement of victims and offenders" (P.240). Burgess, (1925) also argued that crime was concentrated at the centre and gradually decreased in concentration when moving further away from the city. Social disorganization theory proposes urban areas that have more poverty also tend to have high residential mobility and racial and ethnic diversity, and therefore, experience more crime. The higher crime rates likely result from residents' inability to maintain informal social control over each other Stephen, et al. (1999). 1.7 Conclusion This paper is based on a research conducted to specifically study the relationship between drug abuse and criminal behaviour using drug addicts in government rehabilitation centre in Penang, Malaysia,. An attempt has been made to answer the following questions: What is the relationship between drug abuse and criminal behaviour? To what extent are drug abusers engaged in criminal behaviour? Why are drug abusers engaged in specific types of criminal behaviour? And why are they engaged in criminal behaviour? The following objectives have been pursued: to understand the relationship between drug abuse and criminal activities; to identify, describe and explain the types of crimes committed by drug abusers; to understand the reasons why drug abusers are involved in specific types of criminal activities; and finally to explain the causes why drug abusers are engaged in criminal activities. To answer the questions as well as to achieve the objectives, a quantitative methodology has been adopted. Drawing a sample from two Government Drug Rehabilitation Centres, in Penang Malaysia, the study has found support for the initial assumption that a relationship exists between drug abuse and criminal activities. The objectives of the research have also been achieved. The study respondents attributed their involvement in criminal activities to both micro factors and the macro factor. The findings suggest that major causes and reasons of criminal activities among the sample are peer group pressure, poor education or no education, living in an urban settlement and environmental influence. For a proper and ample understanding of crime as the dependent variable, some micro and macro factors must be put in place. As revealed in the research, drug abuse added to peer group pressure; urban living, environment and lower level of education were the reasons why abusers of drug get involved in criminal activities. This holds true of the sample of drug addict in Kampung Selamat and Bukit Mertajam in Penang. The results found are consistent with previous empirical studies (see for instance Becker, 1963; Baron, 1999; Otero-lopez, et al. 1994, Goldstein, et al. 1992 among others). Indeed, the findings of this study show that variables drawn from micro factors (learning theories) and macro factors (Strain/Anomie Theories) blended together to give better explanations with regards for the search for the reasons behind why drug abusers become involved in criminal activities. The results have been discussed in the context of the Sociological Perspective, adopting the Integrative Theoretical Framework that merged micro and macro explanations attributes as causal model for problem behaviour, including abusing illicit drugs and getting involved in criminal activities. However, the findings have broader implications of Traditional Theories and the contemporary blending of them, as in the Integrative Perspectives in criminology. 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Penang: Centre for Drug Research, University Science Malaysia. 19 A STUDY ON WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN SOUTH-ASIAN COUNTRIES: A CONTEMPORARY ANALYSIS Shobana Nelasco Department of Economics, Bharathidasan University, Kajamalai, Trichy- 620 023, TN, India [email protected] ABSTRACT Women are marginalized in the human society from the day of its origin in all parts of the world. Like any other region of the world, south Asia is not a region, with this major problem. This paper is an attempt to make a comparative analysis on Women empowerment in seven South Asian countries. Since international comparison provides us a better comparison of status, ranking is compared mainly. This comparison can be done effectively by comparing few indices like Gender Related Development index, Gender empowerment measure, Gender inequality in Education, Gender Inequality in Economic activity, Political Empowerment Measure etc. This paper is a small piece of a major research done over this area. This paper has compared only the comparative women empowerment indicators like Gender Related Development index and Gender empowerment measure for a point of time and found that women are not in equal status throught this South Asian Region. Again Gender Development index ranking and Human Development Ranking alone are compared over a period of time ie. from 1994 to 2011. The overall analysis has brought a conclusion that South Asia is a region that need special attention from the world and international agencies for its gender empowerment and human development as they are ranked beyond 134th Rank in Human Development Index and are placed beyond 98 th rank in case of Gender Development Index except in case of Sri lanka and Maldives where there are continuous crisis. Key words: Marginalization-Empowerment - Gender Related Development index - Gender empowerment measure –ranking of countries The women's advancement is a process, by which women achieve increased control over their own and public decision making. Empowerment means moving from a position of Powerlessness to the one of power. Women Empowerment is a broader concept including economic empowerment assessed by earning capacity, economic status, type of employment, etc., Social empowerment is calculated by health, education etc. Political empowerment is assessed by the percentage of women in parliament, percentage of women in legislature etc. The crimes against women are also an indicator to assess the level of women empowerment. It needs no research to say that women are marginalized in the human society. 20 Marginalization of women: It needs no research to say that women are marginalized in the human society from the day of its origin. Women bear almost all responsibility for meeting basic needs of the family, yet are systematically denied the resources, information and freedom of action they need to fulfill this responsibility. The vast majority of the world's poor are women. Two-thirds of the world's illiterates are female. Of the millions of school age children not in school, the majority are girls. And today, HIV/AIDS is rapidly becoming a woman's disease. In several southern African countries, more than three-quarters of all young people living with HIV are women. Whenever the world food price prices rise, it has significant and severe impact on women and their consumption. While, millions of people eat two or three times a day, a significant percentage of women eat only once. To ensure that their children are fed, they deny themselves even that one meal in many cases. These women are already suffering the effects of even more severe malnutrition, which inevitably will be their children's fate as well. Like any other region of the world, south Asia is not a region, with this major problem. Whenever the women are supported and empowered, the remaining society is benefitted. They give birth to healthy children, they support their family productively in all possible better ways and they help the forthcoming generation to make the world a better place for everyone to live. Area of study-Asia: Asia is the largest continent in the world. Based on the regions, Asian Developing countries1 are divided into South-East Asian countries, the South Asian countries, Central Asian Economies and Pacific DMCs. Southern Asia, is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the subHimalayan countries. South Asia is surrounded (clockwise, from west to east) by Western Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Asia, Southeastern Asia and the Indian ocean. South Asia consists of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Some definitions may include Afghanistan, Burma, Tibet, and the British Indian Ocean Territories. Some definitions may exclude Pakistan. South Asia is home to over one fifth of the world's population, making it both the most populous and most densely populated geographical region in the world. 1 Asian Development Outlook, 2001, Asian Development Bank, Oxford University Press. 21 Methodology and problem of study: Comparative analysis on Women empowerment in seven South Asian countries is carried out in this paper. International comparison provides us a better comparison. It helps us to gain better knowledge about the Women empowerment among nations. This comparison can be done effectively by comparing few indices like Gender Related Development index, Gender empowerment measure, Gender inequality in Education, Gender Inequality in Economic activity, Political Empowerment Measure etc. This paper is a small piece of a major research done over this area. This paper is concentrating only on the comparative women empowerment ndicators like Gender Related Development index and Gender empowerment measure for a point of time only. Gender Development index ranking and Human Development Ranking Gender Related Development Index - 2007 a comparison COUNTRI ES GDI HD I Life expectancy rate at birth Rank Value Rank Female Adult literacy rate % 15 & above Male Female Combined gross enrolment ratio% Male Female Male Estimated earned income% Female Male Bangladesh 123 .536 146 66.7 64.7 48.0 58.7 52.5 51.8 830 1633 Bhutan 113 .605 132 67.6 64.0 38.7 65.0 53.7 54.6 2636 6817 India 114 .594 134 64.9 62.0 54.5 76.9 57.4 64.3 1304 4102 Maldives 94 .600 111 61.5 64.2 92.9 93.1 70.0 70.0 35.4 64.6 Nepal 119 .545 144 66.9 65.6 43.6 70.3 58.1 63.4 794 1309 Pakistan 124 .532 141 66.5 65.9 39.6 67.7 34.4 43.9 760 4135 Sri lanka 83 .756 102 77.9 70.3 89.1 92.7 69.9 67.5 3064 5450 Source: UNDP Human Development Report A comparison of Gender Related Development Index in South Asia The following table attempts to compare the Gender Related Development Index and its components like Life expectancy rate at birth for female to male, Adult literacy rate of age 15 & above the % of female to male, Combined gross enrolment ratio% of female to male and Estimated earned income% of female to male. The data above shows the gender related development index of 7 south-east Asian countries in 2007. 22 The parameters of gender related development index, like GDI rank and its value, HDI rank, Life expectancy rate at birth for female and male, Adult literacy rate in percentage, aged 15 & above, Combined gross enrolment ratio in education percentage for male and female, Estimated earned income for male and female at ppp US $ and difference between GDI and HDI. Gender Related Development Index-GDI: GDI value is calculated using Life expectancy rate at birth for female and male, Adult literacy rate in percentage, aged 15 & above, Combined gross enrollment ratio in education percentage for male and female and Estimated earned income for male and female at ppp US$ I In 2007, Sri Lanka was in the top of GDI among south-east Asian countries with 83rd rank. Maldives was second with 94th rank. Bhutan holds 113th and India holds 114th rank. Nepal got 119th rank. Bangladesh got 123rd rank and Pakistan was in the last with 124th rank. When comparing with the world countries, over all south east countries rank is poor. Highest rank hold by it is 83rd only. Human Development Index - HDI: In HDI rank also, Sri Lanka was in the top among south-east Asian countries with 102nd rank. Maldives was second with 111th rank. Bhutan holds 132th and India holds 134th rank. Pakistan got 141st rank, Nepal got 144 and Bangladesh was in the least with 146th rank. Life expectancy rate at birth: Life expectancy rate at birth is one of the indicators in GDI. Sri Lanka has higher rte with 77.9 for female and 70.3 for male. Bhutan has 67 for female and 64 for male. Three countries, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan has almost same rate with 66.7, 66.9, 66.5 for females and 64.7, 65.6, 65.9 for males respectively. India has 64.9 and 62.6 for female and male respectively which is comparatively low. Adult literacy rate: Adult literacy rate is the best way to understand the women empowerment. Adult literacy rate was higher in Maldives with 92.9 for female and 93.1 for male. Sri Lanka has 89.1 for female and 92.7 for male. In India it was 54.5 for female and 76.9 for male. Other countries have literacy rate less than 50 in female literacy. In Bangladesh, literacy rate was 48.0 for female and 58.7 for 23 male. In Nepal it was 43.6 for female and 70.1 for male respectively. Pakistan has 39.6 and 67.7 respectively. Bhutan has least literacy rate with 38.7 and 65.0 for female and male respectively. Combined Gross Enrolment Ratio in Education: This was used to show how many children were engaged in education (elementary, primary, and higher education). It was higher in Maldives with 70 for both. Sri Lanka has 69.9 and 67.5 female and male respectively. Nepal has 58.1 for female and 63.4 male. In India, it was 57.7 and 63.4 for female and male respectively. It was 53.7 for female and 54.6 for male in Bhutan and 52.5 for female and 51.8 for male in Bangladesh. Pakistan has the least rate with 34.4 for female and 43.9 for male. Estimated Earned Income: Estimated earned income is highest for female in Sri Lanka with 3,064 and least as 760 in Pakistan. Considering the male estimated earned income it was highest in Sri Lanka with 5450 and least as1309 in Nepal. Difference in GDI and HDI rank value: Difference between GDI and HDI rank value was 2 in Sri Lanka, Maldives and Nepal. In Bangladesh and India it was 0. In Bhutan it was -1 and in Pakistan it was -5. Comparative study on the gender empowerment measure 2007 The gender empowerment measure in South Asian countries is the major indicator for comparing the political empowerment of different countries. This is decided by the Gender empowerment measure rank, Percentage of seats held by women in parliament, Percentage of female legislators, senior officials and managers, Percentage of female professional and technical workers and the estimated ratio of female to male earned income. 24 Comparative study on the gender empowerment measure 2007 Countries Gender % Empowerm held Seats % Female %Femal by Legislators Ratio e Prof & Female To Male ent women In Senior Measure Parliamen Officials & Workers Rank t Managers 6 10 22 .51 BANGLADE 108 Estimated Tech Earned Income SH BHUTAN - 14 - - .39 INDIA - 9 - - .32 1997 95 2.3 20.5 .38 MALDIVES 90 12 14 49 .54 NEPAL 83 33 14 20 .61 PAKISTAN 99 14 21 3 .25 SRI LANKA 98 6 24 46 .56 Comparative Gender empowerment measure Ranking: In gender empowerment measure rank Nepal stands at the top rank with 83. Second was occupied by Maldives with 90th rank. Sri Lanka got 98 and Pakistan got 99th ranks respectively. Last is with Bangladesh and its rank was 108. Thus gender empowerment measure is very low in Bangladesh. Looking at Indian position with 1997 data, India is ranked Third among the seven countries. Percentage of seats held by women in parliament: Nepal has the highest percentage with 33 held by women in parliament. In Pakistan and Bhutan women held 14%. In Maldives women held 12% seats. In India it was 9. Both in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka it was 6. India Ranks fifth among the Seven South Asian Countries. It is presented in the following bar diagram, where Nepal tops the list. 25 Percentage of seats held by women in parliament in South Asian Countries 2009 Percentage of seats held by women in parliament 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 BA KA AN IL SR PA KI ST AN AL EP LD N IV ES IA D IN TA N U BH M A N G LA D ES H 0 Countries Percentage of Female Legislators, Senior Officials and Managers: The Percentage of Female Legislators, Senior Officials and Managers was highest in Sri Lanka with 24%. Pakistan stands second with 21%. Maldives and Nepal has 14 and Bangladesh has 10 percent. Considering the status of India based on the 1997 data, it stands last. And hence Indian government needs to consider this area for women empowerment. Percentage of Female Professional and Technical Workers: The Percentage of Female Professional and Technical Workers was highest in Maldives with 49% and next comes Sri Lanka with 46%. In Bangladesh it was 22% and in Nepal it was 20%. And last rank goes to Pakistan with 3%. For India and Bhutan data are not available. Estimated Ratio of female to male earned income: Estimated Ratio of female to male earned income was highest in Nepal with 0.61. In Sri Lanka it was 0.56 and in Maldives it was 0.54. Bangladesh has the ratio of 0.51. In Bhutan it was 0.39 and in India it was 0.32. Since data for 1997 is also given it is seen the ratio has come down from 0.38 to 0.32. Least was in Pakistan with 0.25. These figures are presented in bar diagram. 26 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 KA AN IL SR PA KI ST AN AL EP LD M A N IV ES IA D IN U BH G LA N BA TA N ES H 0 D Ratio of Estimated Female to Male Earned Income Comparative Ratio Estimated Female to Male Earned Income in South Asian Countries in 2007 Countries Trend of HDI, GDI /GII in South Asia Human Development Index (HDI) and Gender Related Development Index (GDI) is compared in this analysis. In 2011 Report, instead of the Gender Development Index, Gender Inequality Index is used. Gender Inequality Index is a composite measure reflecting inequality in achievements between women and men in three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment and the labour market. 27 Gender Development Index and Human Development Index of South Asian Countries Banglades Bhutan India HD GD HD GD I I I I 155 118 Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka GD HD GD HD GD HD GD HD I I I I I I I I 138 94 111 131 154 120 139 70 91 h YE GDI AR HDI 1994 128 144 1995 140 147 147 147 128 139 77 95 148 152 131 138 70 90 1997 123 150 119 145 112 132 77 93 121 144 116 138 76 90 1998 121 121 - 142 108 128 72 89 119 144 115 135 68 84 1999 121 121 - - 105 115 69 77 120 129 117 127 70 81 2000 121 145 - 140 105 124 68 84 119 142 120 138 70 89 2001 112 139 - 136 103 127 - 86 119 144 120 144 80 99 2002 110 138 - 134 103 127 - 84 116 142 120 142 73 96 2003 105 139 - 134 98 127 - 96 106 136 107 135 66 93 2004 102 137 - 135 96 126 - 98 106 138 105 134 - 93 2005 121 140 - 133 113 128 85 100 128 142 125 136 89 99 2007 123 146 113 132 114 134 77 95 119 144 124 141 83 102 2008 116 129 - - 122 119 59 107 110 716 112 125 72 91 2011 112 146 98 141 129 134 52 109 113 157 115 145 74 97 Rvalu 0.213 0.292 0.499 - 0.189 - 0.235 0.357 0.450 e Source: UNDP Human Development Reports 28 In case of both Human Development Index and Gender Development Index, Maldives and Sri lanka are placed in a better position. There is a great gap over these two countries and the remaining countries, though they are in the same region. While analysing the reason few major reasons are assigned. There has been clan clash in Sri lanka over many years, due to the suppression of minority clan. And the women alone stay at home and they are forced to earn for their survival and this crisis has helped them to elevate the position of their women and in turn the human development in this country. Again Maldives, though associated with Asian region, is excluded more from this region. And this island state faces continuous risk for life. And as everyone is aware of the fact that this group of small islands face the crisis of its existence itself, due to the raising of global warming and the subsequent rise in sea water level. This fear is accentuated by the establishment of nuclear plants by nearby countries and the resultant sea water warming. The fight for the survival and living has helped these countries to raise their 29 standard and are ranked in a better position. The other four countries have invariably in same lower position with high ranks. Again Karl Pearson‘s correlation co-efficient is worked out between GDI and HDI for all countries. The result shows that except in case of Nepal and Maldives, in all other countries, high human development is directly related to high Gender development index and hence efforts to raise the HDI will directly increase the raise in GDI. Changes in GDI and HDI over 2007 and 2011 GDI 2007 HDI 2007 GII 2011 HDI 2011 Rank Position Rank Position Rank Position Rank Position Bangladesh 123.0 6 146.0 7 112 4 146 6 Bhutan 113.0 3 132.0 3 98 3 141 4 India 114.0 4 134.0 4 129 7 134 3 77.0 1 95.0 1 52 1 109 2 Nepal 119.0 5 144.0 6 113 5 157 7 Pakistan 124.0 7 141.0 5 115 6 145 5 Sri lanka 83.0 2 102.0 2 74 2 97 1 Maldives While glancing at the Human Development Index, Bangladesh ranks the last 146 and Nepal the next with 144th rank, Pakistan stands in the 141st position, then comes India with 134th rank. Bhutan stands in the third position in South Asia. Maldives and Sri Lanka stands in the first and second position as in the case of GDI. In both the cases Maldives and Sri Lanka are in a better of position. Bangladesh and Nepal are in worst position. This analysis has brought to the light that countries with high Human Development Index will have Gender Development Index. There are lot of changes in 2011 over these two indices. There are shifts in positions among themselves. Maldives lost the first position in HDI and Sri Lanka got the first position, while their GDI rank remains the same. In case of HDI calculations, India has got third position in HDI in South Asian Region, while Bhutan leaves the third and goes to fourth position of India. While looking at the Gender Development Index, India goes to the last position in the region. Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan are under the Low Human Development Index, whereas the other four countries come under the medium human development index in both 2007 and 2011. 30 Conclusions and Findings: First an analysis is done to compare the Gender Related Development Index and its components like Life expectancy rate at birth for female to male, Adult literacy rate of age 15 & above the % of female to male, Combined gross enrolment ratio% of female to male and Estimated earned income% of female to male for all South Asian Countries and found that women are not in equal status. Then Gender empowerment measure is compared. The GEM rank, Percentage of seats held by women in parliament, Percentage of female legislators, senior officials and managers, Percentage of female professional and technical workers and the estimated ratio of female to male earned income etc are compared and found that in all the South Asian countries women are in a far worst position when compared to men. In the next analysis, the Human Development Index (HDI) and Gender Related Development Index (GDI) were compared. Karl Pearson‘s correlation co-efficient is worked out between GDI and HDI for all countries. The result shows that except in case of Nepal and Maldives, in all other countries, high human development is directly related to high Gender development index and hence efforts to raise the HDI will directly increase the raise in GDI. The overall analysis has brought a conclusion that South Asia is a region that need special attention from the world and international agencies for its gender empowerment and human development as they are ranked beyond 134th Rank in Human Development Index and are placed beyond 98th rank in case of Gender Development Index except in case of Sri lanka and Maldives where there are continuous crisis. BIBLIOGRAPHY Key Indicators for Asia and Pacific, ADB Publication UNDP Human Development Report Aiyar, S. A, Narayan, D, and Raju, K. (2007). Empowerment through self-help groups. In D. Narayan and E. Glinskaya (Eds.). Ending Poverty in South Asia: Ideas that work (pp. 104135). Washington DC: The World Bank. Archana Kumari Sahu (2000), ‗Women Empowerment: challenges & prospects‘ Competition Refresher May, 2000 Bridging the Gender Gap: Opportunities and Challenges, Report No. 32244-PAK A Plan to Get Girls in School in Pakistan 31 Hadi, A. (2005). Women's productive role and marital violence in Bangladesh. Journal of Family Violence, 20(3), 181-189. Narayan, D. (2002). Empowerment and poverty reduction: A sourcebook (Ed.). Washington, DC: The World Bank. Narayan, D. (2005a). Conceptual framework and methodological challenges. In D. Narayan (Ed.), Measuring empowerment: Cross-disciplinary perspectives (pp.3-38). Washington, DC: World Bank. Shamila Daluwatte - Attorney-at-Law – Sri Lanka, Paper published in Brandies Gender and Development forum news letter. 32 IS “PARTNERSHIP” A FULFILLED PRINCIPLE BY THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES IN THEIR FIGHT AGAINST SOCIAL EXCLUSION: A CASE STUDY FROM BRUSSELS Ihsan Ikizer Center for Sociological Research. KU Leuven University, Belgium 1. Introduction The concept of social exclusion has attracted the attention of policy makers and scholars since the time it started to be used in the late 1970s. Many researches were conducted on this concept especially within the context of the EU, which is the international organization that has put emphasis most on it in Europe since 1980s. Yet, the local aspect of social inclusion, positive action taken against social exclusion, has not aroused adequate interest. The EU social inclusion principles, that were introduced in 1989 to be taken into consideration in social inclusion efforts, namely multidimensionality, partnership and participation, have not been handled sufficiently in the context of local authorities although they play a very eminent role in combating social exclusion. The roles of the socio-cultural and political setting and factors that facilitate the implementation of the social inclusion principles by local authorities have not been questioned as well. In this paper, as a case study, we will present the problem of social exclusion in Istanbul and analyse the methods of the local authority in response to this problem through the prism of the principle partnership, which is also a sum of the other two principles, namely partnership and participation. 2. The Concept of Social Exclusion It is generally observed that those who remain outside the circle of labour also remain outside social, economic and cultural networks. In other words, they are excluded from the society mainly for the reason that they lack the necessary income to be included in social and economic circles and they are unable to reach general services such as education, health and public transportation. Although those who are socially excluded are mainly people who have limited or irregular income for a decent life, the disabled, people who have a different ethnic and cultural background from the mainstream society, and marginal groups such as LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender) might also suffer from social exclusion. Social exclusion clearly differs from the traditional concept of poverty which is viewed as a static concept, an outcome rather than a dynamic process, mainly concerned with income distribution and defining what constitutes an adequate level of income (Townsend, 1979). In other words, the concept of poverty is restricted to denote a lack of disposable income while the concept of social exclusion refers to a breakdown or malfunctioning of the major societal systems that should guarantee full citizenship. To put forward more simply, poverty is a part of a specific form of social exclusion, which is a broader concept and does not necessarily always encompass an element of poverty.2 Berghman, J., 1995. Social Exclusion in Europe: Policy Context and Analytical Framework. In Room, G. (ed.), Beyond the Threshold. Bristol: The Policy Press 2 33 On the other hand, social exclusion is primarily concerned with relational issues and the dynamic processes which lead to the breaking of social ties in term of the failure of one or more of the following four systems: The democratic and legal system, which promotes civic integration The labour market, which promotes economic integration The welfare state system, promoting what may be called social integration The family and community system, which promotes interpersonal integration3 However, it seems that another reason why the concept of social exclusion has been employed to a large extent by the member states and the EU, was probably the emotive connotation of the concept of poverty. The member states, who have a guaranteed minimum income deemed sufficient to cover basic needs, expressed reservations about the word poverty and preferred the concept of social exclusion as it is a less accusing expression.4 The concept ―social exclusion‖ has become the lynchpin of social policy and has been developed to explain the situation of a variety of groups that have loose bonds with the rest of the society. Like all other concepts, social exclusion has been defined by numerous scholars through the perspectives they stand on. Even it has been found difficult to define as it is a vague term related to numerous economic, social, political, and cultural connotations and dimensions. 5 The catch-all definition adopted by the EU, which has placed considerable eminence on the concept, is as follows: ―Social exclusion is a process whereby certain individuals are pushed to the edge of society and prevented from participating fully by virtue of their poverty, or lack of basic competencies and lifelong learning opportunities, or as a result of discrimination. This distances them from job, income and education and training opportunities as well as social and community networks and activities. They have little access to power and decision-making bodies and thus often feel powerless and unable to take control over the decisions that affect their day to day lives‖.6 The concept has two main defining characteristics. First, it is a multi-dimensional concept. People may be excluded from many areas in economic, social and political spheres as they were listed above and people are often deprived of different things at the same time. Second, social exclusion implies a focus on the relations and processes that cause deprivation. In other words, it is not an outcome; rather it is a dynamic process. People can be excluded by many different sorts of groups, often at the same time, such as from the labour market, from expressing their identities, from participation in policy-making etc. The concept, beyond mere descriptions of deprivation, focuses attention on social relations and the processes and institutions that underlie deprivation and exclusion.7 As it can be understood from this definition, social exclusion is a result of multiple factors, in other words there is no single factor that leads to social exclusion. In most cases, it is seen that Ibid Bruto da Costa et all., 1994. Contribution of the ‗Poverty 3‘ programme to the understanding of poverty, exclusion and integration. Lille: Animation et Recherche (EEIG) 5 Silver, H., 1994. Social Exclusion and Social Solidarity: Three Paradigms. International Labour Review, 133, (5-6), 531578. 6 European Commission (2004), Joint report on social inclusion, 2004 7 De Haan, A., Social Exclusion : Enriching the Understanding of Deprivation www.sussex.ac.uk/cspt/documents/issue2-2.pdf 3 4 34 exclusion occurs as a result of the combination of more than one factor. To give an example, a well-educated professional might suffer from poverty for a period of time, which may not cause him to fall in the vicious trap of social exclusion, as he might still have a chance to return to the labour market and social networks thanks to his educational background. On the other hand, an unemployed single mother with poor vocational skills might highly probably face social exclusion. When we analyse the concept of social exclusion, we come across with five aspects. First, it is multidimensional and implies deprivation in a wide range of indicators of living standards. Usually, this deprivation has a neighbourhood dimension, since it can be caused not only by lack of personal resources but also by insufficient or unsatisfactory community resources. Second, it is dynamic and implies that people are excluded not just because of their current situation, but also because they have little prospect for the future. Within this framework, analysing social exclusion means understanding a process and identifying the factors that can trigger entry into or exit from it. Third, it is a purely relative concept. It implies exclusion from a particular society at a particular point in time (i.e. unlike poverty, we cannot talk about ‗absolute‘ and ‗relative‘ social exclusion). Fourth, it has an agency dimension, in the sense that social exclusion lies beyond the narrow responsibility of the individual concerned. Fifth, its nature is relational, in the sense that it implies a major discontinuity in the relationship of the individual with the rest of society, inadequate social participation, lack of social integration and lack of power.8 3. Local Authorities and Necessity of Partnership Especially after 1980s, with globalization and a more liberal economy, the relations between state and society have also changed. Globalisation and neo-liberal shift in politics have been accompanied by urban fragmentation and widening economic and social inequalities.9 The civil society emerged as a body that affects or even participates in the policy making process, beyond the traditional role of voting in elections once in five years. Public sectors and governmental bodies have started to been seen as rigid and bureaucratic, expensive and inefficient. The hierarchical state is now believed to be ‗too big to solve the small problems in life and too small to solve the big problems‘.10 In fact, this expression is valid not only for the state, but also for the local authorities, especially the large scaled ones. Today, the urban governments or in other words local authorities running the cities, especially in Europe, are under pressure to transform their policy agendas, policy networks and their relations with their citizens.11 The problems of societies are now more complicated and multidimensional, which requires a joined-up thinking and multidimensional approach. States and local authorities are becoming increasingly dependent on other societal actors as they lack either the necessary resources to deliver some services, or legitimacy.12 The traditional forms of governments that are closed to collaboration and participation are fading away. The local authorities are expected to take into account the basic principles of governance such as partnership, participation, openness, Tsakloglou, P. and Papadopoulos, F., 2002. Aggregate level and determining factors of social exclusion in twelve European countries. European Journal of European Social Poliy, 12 (3), 211-225. 8 Elander, I. And Blanc, M., 2000. Partnerships and democracy: a happy couple in urban governance?. In Andersen, H.T. and van Kempen R. (eds.), Governing European Cities. Aldershot: Ashgate 10 Bell, D., 1987. ‗The World and the United States in 2013‘, Daedalus. Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences16 (3). 11 Cars, G. and et al., 2002. Transforming Governance, Institutionalist Analysis and Institutional Capacity. In Cars G. and et al. (eds.), Urban Governance, Institutional Capacity and Social Milieux. Hampshire: Ashgate 12 Pierre, J. and Peters, B. G., 2000. Governance, politics and the state. Macmillan: Hong Kong 9 35 accountability, effectiveness and coherence, as they are thought to be key factors to the effective problem solutions.13 Social exclusion is among the most pressing problems facing citizens and one of the ―wicked‖ cross-cutting issues of governance confronting politicians and policy-makers, while partnership between public, private, voluntary and community organisations are widely identified as an essential element in any solution.14 Today, it is generally accepted that widening social polarisation in most European societies cannot be resolved merely by traditional social welfare policies. Combating social exclusion presupposes changes in existing governance structures, such as by rethinking mechanisms for delivery of services and providing institutional space to allow residents to act as subjects in decision making and change in their neighbourhoods. 15 It necessitates a holistic approach and partnership that brings together different stakeholders around a table. This new more pluralistic form of relationships between policy actors at different levels and in different sectors is clearly different from the formal corporatist relationships with the traditional ‗social partners‘, namely the peak organisations representing employers and trade unions. This new partnership reflects a growing recognition that traditional forms of governmental intervention are not capable of addressing the complex, cross-cutting problems facing citizens and communities such as unemployment, poverty and social exclusion. It also reflects a new search for more flexible and participative form of governmental intervention through the involvement in the policy process of other actors.16 Many researches were conducted on this concept especially within the context of the EU, which is the international organization that has put emphasis most on it in Europe since 1980s. Yet, the local aspect of social inclusion, positive action taken against social exclusion, has not aroused adequate interest. The EU social inclusion principles, that were introduced in 1989 to be taken into consideration in social inclusion efforts, namely multidimensionality, partnership and participation, have not been handled sufficiently in the context of local authorities although they play a very eminent role in combating social exclusion. The roles of the socio-cultural and political setting and factors that facilitate the implementation of the social inclusion principles by local authorities have not been questioned as well. Among these principles, the one which is most emphasized by the EU is probably partnership. The comment by the ‗European Community‘s Observatory on National Policies to Combat Social Exclusion‘ points out the EU‘s view on partnership clearly: ‗the debates about social exclusion are, as much as anything, debates about the new partnerships which must be forged within our European societies‘. Partnership, especially at the local level, is an increasingly important referent in major recent social and economic policy statements emanating from the Commission. A local partnership approach has become a basic feature of many EU programmes and initiatives, including the LEDA programme to promote local economic development, the URBAN initiative aimed at deprived neighbourhoods in cities, the LEADER I and II European Governance (White Paper, 2001), the EU Commission, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2001/com2001_0428en01.pdf 14 Benington, J. and Geddes, M., 2001. Social Exclusion, partnership and local governance – new problems, new policy discourses in the European Union. In Benington, J. and Geddes (eds.), Local Partnerships and Social Exclusion in the European Union. New York: Routledge 15 Allen, J. Cars G. and Madanipour, A., 2000. Social exclusion in European neighbourhoods: Processes, experiences and responses. Research Report for the European Commission. 13 Benington, J. and Geddes, M., 2001. Social Exclusion, partnership and local governance – new problems, new policy discourses in the European Union. In Benington, J. and Geddes (eds.), Local Partnerships and Social Exclusion in the European Union. New York: Routledge 16 36 programmes for rural development, the Poverty 3 programme, aimed at the integration of the most excluded social groups, and the so-called Territorial Employment Pacts. The new arrangements for the Structural Funds post-2000 also place increased emphasis on partnership.17 The concept of partnership is presented as ‗through collaborative, inclusionary, consensusbuilding practices . . . the stakeholders . . . can discuss their common concerns, get to know each other across their divisions and conflicts, and develop strategies that most can own and abide by.18 Across Europe, there are a wide range of schemes which have attempted to tackle urban social exclusion by involving local people in area-based regeneration schemes through the medium of partnerships.19 There are some studies indicating that when local partnerships work effectively, they can have a significant positive positive effect on social exclusion. 20 However, there are some critical approaches to the efficiency of local partnerships established against social exclusion in European cities. To convey some criticisms against local partnerships, it is claimed that some of these partnerships are not constructed as ‗inclusion coalitions‘ in a way which allows a truly comprehensive and ‗multidimensional‘ response to social exclusion, and partnerships frequently fail to involve ‗key actors‘ at both ends of the spectrum, especially those who are the most excluded.21 Some local partnerships for excluded social groups raise the questions as to the effectiveness of participatory mechanisms of partnership, and whether ‗partnership governance‘ reinforces rather than reduces processes of exclusion. There is frequently an absence or inadequacy of mechanisms enabling the individuals ‗representing‘ social interests in local partnerships to consult with, and act on behalf of their ‗constituencies‘. 22 Although we are aware of the existence of a critical approach towards local partnership against social exclusion, this research avoids from discussion on ‗efficiency‘ of partnership, and focuses on the implementation of this principle, which is advised and required by the European Union. Brussels (Belgium) Kingdom of Belgium, a relatively small country with a population of 10.8 million, is a federal state and it is composed of three Regions (the Flemish, the Walloon and the Brussels Region) and three Communities (the Flemish, the French and the German-speaking Communities). Belgium is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy governed by a federal government.23 It has an economy based on mainly services, with a percentage of around 75, and it has a GDP per capita as high as 35.000 US Dollars. 24 However, this strong economy does not prevent people from falling into poverty and social exclusion. As of 2009, in Belgium, the at-riskof-poverty is around 15 %, equaling to around 1.600.000 people, which is less than the EU average of 17 %.25 The poverty rate is least in the region of Flanders (around 10 %) followed by Geddes, M., 2000. Tackling Social Exclusion in the European Union? The Limits to the New Orthodoxy of Local Partnership. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 24 (4). 18 Healey, P., 1996. Consensus building across difficult divisions: new approaches to collaborative strategy making. Planning Practice and Research, 11, (2), 207–16. 19 Atkinson, R. and Davoudi, S., 2000. The Concept of Social Exclusion in the European Union: Context, Development and Possibilities. Journal of Common Market Studies, 38 (3), 427-48. 20 One of these studies is the one conducted by European Foundation, which examined partnerships in ten European countries, between 1994 and 1997. EF/98/16/EN 21 Geddes, M., 2000. Tackling Social Exclusion in the European Union? The Limits to the New Orthodoxy of Local Partnership. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 24 (4). 22 Bassett, K., 1996. Partnerships, business elites and urban politics: new forms of governance in an English city. Urban Studies, 33 (3), 539–55. 23 OECD Data, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/10/2537007.pdf 24 OECD Country Statistical Profile, Belgium 2010, http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/country-statisticalprofile-belgium_20752288-table-bel 25 Eurostat, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-18012010-AP/EN/3-18012010-AP-EN.PDF 17 37 the Walloon (around 18 %) and it is the highest in the Bruxelles Capitale Region ( around 26 %).26 The in-work poverty in Belgium is 4 %, equaling to 170.000 people, which is much less than the the EU average of 8 %. Among the risk groups, what draws our attention is that 46 % of people who come from a non-EU member country, suffers from poverty.27 In Belgium, especially with the effect of deindustrialization and the rise of tertiary sector, the number of the unemployed was multiplied by five times between 1970 and 1991, when there were around 352.000 unemployed people, more than half of which were out-of-work for more than two years.28 As of December 2010, Belgium had an unemployment rate of 8.1, equaling to 550.000 people, around one fifth of which is below the age of 25. This rate is less than the EU average, which is 9.6.29 To fight unemployment, especially amoung young people, Belgium introduced employment induction mechanisms, such as ‗employment-training contracts‘, ‗the promotion of on-the-job training‘ and vocational training workshops.30 Belgium is a country that mixes Bismarckian and Bevereidgan aspects of welfare state and it might be labelled as a state that has relatively advanced social security and social assistance system. Social assistance benefits such as family benefits, income for the elderly and the disabled, and integration income are distributed via ‗Social Welfare Centers‘ (OCMW – CPAS) in municipalities and the funding is ensured by the federal government. To give some figures pertinent to social assistance in Belgium, as of April 2009: - More than 680.000 people received unemployment benefits. - More than 96.000 people received integration income (for those who are unemployed and who never worked). - More than 86.000 old people received income guarantee for the elderly. - Around 2 million children were qualified for family benefits.31 The ‗General Report of Poverty‘, published by the federal government in 1994, had included views of various stakeholders including the poor themselves. Upon that report, in 1998, a partnership agreement titled ―Co-operation Agreement on the Continuation of the Policy on Poverty‖ was signed among the Federal State, the Communities, and the Regions. This agreement institutionalised the social and political dialogue between the associations which allow the poor to take the floor, and the local authorities and the public administrations. 32 With the same agreement, ‗the Service for the Fight against Poverty, Insecurity, and Social Exclusion‘ was The annual national at-risk-of poverty threshold is set at 60% of the national median income per equivalent adult. In order to allow comparisons between countries the threshold is expressed in this table in Purchasing Power Standards (PPS), which is an artificial reference currency unit that eliminates price level differences between countries. For Belgium, the threhold for poverty risk is monthly 860 Euros for a person living alone and 1.805 Euros for a couple who has two children. (NAP Inclusion Report for Belgium, 2008 -2010) 26 Brussels Capital Health and Social Observatory, available at: http://www.observatbru.be/documents/graphics/rapport-pauvrete/rapport-pauvrete2010/1_barometre_social_2010.pdf ―Brussels Observatory on Social and Health Matters‖ is an institution that conducts measurements and analyses in the domain of social inclusion since 1992. 27 NAP Inclusion Report for Belgium, 2008 -2010 28 Castillo, I.Y.D, 1994. ―A Comparative Approach to Social Exclusion, Lessons from France and Belgium‖ in International Labour Review, 133 (5-6). 29 National Bank of Belgium, Economic Indicators for Belgium, weekly publication, 04/02/2011 http://www.nbb.be/doc/dq/e/dq3/IEE.pdf 30 OECD Data, From: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/10/2537007.pdf 31 Federal Public Service Social Security, Report on Social Security titled ―Everything You Have Always Wanted To Know About Social Security, July 2010. Available at: http://www.socialezekerheid.fgov.be/docs/en/alwa2010_en.pdf 32 Citizens as Partners: Information, Consultation and Public Participation in Policy-Making, OECD 2001. OECD Publications: France 38 founded, replacing the former anti-poverty unit. This centre is in charge of publishing detailed report on poverty in Belgium once in every two years.33 Third Sector has a long history in Belgium dating back to the beginning of the 20th century, when the mutual help associations became active. In Belgium, the concepts of the third sector or voluntary sector are not preferred, but rather the concepts of ‗social economy‘ and ‗associative sector‘ are used to define the institutions and the associations that are run not-for- profit.34 According to the figures of 2004, there are around 17.000 NGOs in Belgium and the sector employs, excluding teachers in schools run by the NGOs, around 272.000 people, which is nearly equal to one tenth of all employees in the country. The total income of the sector is around 23 billion US Dollars, which is around 6 % of the Belgian GDP. These figures might seem very high when compared to other European countries; however, many hospitals and schools run by the NGOs are also included. Only 25 % of these NGOs do have services related with social inclusion, while the remaining NGOs are active in various fields from hobbies to human rights. 35 In general, beneath a strong voluntary sector, there is usually state and society support. According to a report of the University of Liege, the number of volunteering activities in Belgium fluctuate between 1 million and 1.4 million. This figure corresponds to around 14 % of the Belgian population, which is nearly same with the EU average of 14 %. 36 Participation in associations is high especially in Flanders, the biggest region in Belgium. According to a research, nearly half of people living in Flanders are active members.37 On the other hand, we see that the regional governments and the federal government also attache importance on this sector, as they all have a minister in charge of social economy.38 Social Exclusion in Brussels The Brussels-Capital Region has a population of around 1.088.000 and it is made up of 19 municipalities. There is a regional parliament in Brussels, with 89 members, and the city is governed by a regional government. Belgium is a country, which has received a significant influx of immigration and Brussels has become one of the most preferred cities for migrants. As of 2009, it is predicted that there are around 970.000 people of different origins living in Belgium and around 300.000 foreigners reside in Brussels, nearly 10 % of which work for the international institutions, such as the EU and NATO.39 This high percentage of foreigners (26 Official website of Service for the fight against poverty, insecurity, and social exclusion, http://www.armoedebestrijding.be/welcome.htm 34 European Research Network, EMES, Report on ―Images and Concepts of the Third Sector in Europe‖, by Jacques Defourny and Victor Pestoff (eds.), available at: http://www.emes.net/fileadmin/emes/PDF_files/Working_Papers/WP_08_02_TS_FINAL_WEB.pdf 35 ―Associations in Belgium, A Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of the Sector‖, 2008, Foundation of King Baudoin, Available at: http://www.kbs-frb.be/uploadedFiles/KBSFRB/05)_Pictures,_documents_and_external_sites/09)_Publications/PUB_1796_LesAssociationsEnBelgique_2008 .pdf 36 La mesure du volontariat en Belgique : analyse critique des sources statistiques sur l'importance du volontariat dans le secteur associatif belge, Centre d'Economie Sociale de l'Université de Liège et par le Hoger Instituut voor de Arbeid, November 2007. Taken from a report published by the EU titled ―Volunteering in Belgium‖. Available 33 at: http://europa.eu/volunteering/en/press-media/resources-library/2 Citizens as Partners: Information, Consultation and Public Participation in Policy-Making, OECD 2001. OECD Publications: France 38 ―Associations in Belgium, A Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of the Sector‖, 2008, Foundation of King Baudoin, Available at: http://www.kbs-frb.be/uploadedFiles/KBSFRB/05)_Pictures,_documents_and_external_sites/09)_Publications/PUB_1796_LesAssociationsEnBelgique_2008 .pdf 39 Ministry of Brussels Capital Region, Brussels Institute for Statistics and Analysis, Figures on Brussels, 2011. 37 39 %) also seems to be a reason for the high risk of poverty rate in Brussels Capital Region, which is 10 % higher than that in the region of Flanders.40 Unemployment rate in Brussels is around 8 %, which is also nearly twice than the Belgian average. It is also interesting that around 235.000 people from the Flemish region and around 124.000 people from the Walloon region commute to Brussels to work, while totally 60.000 people commute from Brussels to these two regions.41 As it is the case in many capitals, there is a high inequality of income among inhabitants living in different districts. For example, districts like lower Saint-Gilles, the Marolles, lower Molenbeek, Laeken, lower Schaerbeek and Saint-Josse-ten-Noode are locations where high concentration of poverty is seen. In these districts, there is an unemployment level of over 25 %, rising to more than 40 % among young people. The number of people receiving benefits in these districts is five times higher than in the rest of the city. The common denominator of these areas is that they are home to many migrants, nearly half of whom live below poverty threshold. For the migrants, as well as low-skilled people, access to employment is much more difficult.42 The number of households in Brussels, which are welfare dependants, is on rise, and as of end of December 2009, it has become around 32.000, which is three times higher than that in the rest of Belgium. In Brussels, around 102.000 inhabitants were receiving unemployment benefits as of 2010. Children constitute the group that is most affected from poverty. In Brussels, more than a third of children live in households that have no earned income. Social Exclusion in the District of Schaerbeek As it was stated above, there are 19 municipalities in Brussels and each municipality is responsible for social inclusion of the inhabitants, and more specifically, distribution of benefits provided by the government. In order to shed light on the social inclusion system, we have selected one district, Schaerbeek, for two reasons: it is a relatively big city in terms of population (around 116.000, the second district after Brussels-City) and it is one of the districts that suffers from social exclusion most. In ıother words, the features of a vast population and ‗red‘ indicators of social exclusion have led us to select this district. Schaerbeek has a multi-cultural society. Nearly 30 % of the inhabitants have nationalities other than Belgian and more than half of these non-Belgians come from countries that are not within the EU borders. It is a common characteristics of districts with a high rate of migrants in Europe that in such kind of neighbourhoods, there is high percentage of unemployment and as a consequence of that, high risk of poverty, and Schaerbeek is no exception. Nearly 27 % of the population lives in poverty, which is 12 % more than the Belgian average. The situation is more severe for children aged below 18 and around 37 % of children in Schaerbeek live in households that have no earned income. The significant factor of children living in lone-parent households is Available at: http://www.bruxelles.irisnet.be/cmsmedia/en/mini_bru_2010.pdf?uri=ff8081812dbf66f1012dc19959b6003d 40 Brussels Capital Health and Social Observatory, available at: http://www.observatbru.be/documents/graphics/rapport-pauvrete/rapport-pauvrete2010/1_barometre_social_2010.pdf 41 Ministry of Brussels Capital Region, Brussels Institute for Statistics and Analysis, Figures on Brussels, 2011. Available at: http://www.bruxelles.irisnet.be/cmsmedia/en/mini_bru_2010.pdf?uri=ff8081812dbf66f1012dc19959b6003d 42 ―The report on the state of poverty in Brussels 2010‖, Brussels-Capital Health and Social Observatory, Joint Community Commission Available at: http://www.observatbru.be/documents/graphics/rapport-pauvrete/rapport-pauvrete2010/1_barometre_social_2010.pdf 40 also seen in Schaerbeek. The rate of lone-parent households in all households with children is as high as 32 %, and as it is the case elsewhere, these households are mostly headed by mothers. The unemployment rate is also far higher than the average in the country. It is a great problem in the district, which might be accepted as the main cause of widespread poverty. The unemployment rate, which lasts less than one year, is around 36 %, while the persistent unemployment lasting between one year and two years is around 16 %. What is striking that, the unemployment rate for those who have been out of the labour market between two years and five years is 24 % and the same rate for more than five years is 22 %. This persistent and ‗chronic‘ unemployment rate seems to explain the reason for the high poverty rate in the district.43 As it is the case in many other European capitals, Brussels is the city that is home to the NGOs in Belgium most, which has totally around 17.000 NGOs. Around 40.000 paid employee work for around 5.500 NGOs in Brussels, and nearly 2.000 of which have no paid staff. Around 12.000 of these employees work for NGOs that have services pertinent to social inclusion.44 It is possible to talk about a partnership culture in Schaerbeek taking into consideration the functioning bodies created with the objective of ensuring participation of inhabitants and their representatives, which are NGOs. To give an example, the ―Consultative Commission on the Handicapped People‖, founded in 2007, directs all policies regarding the disabled living in Schaerbeek. This commission has 16 members, who are all either inhabitants or representatives of NGOs working pertinent to the disabled people, and 6 invited people, either councilors or experts. The representatives are appointed by the Municipal Assembly for a period of three years. What draws our attention is that nearly three fourth of this commission is either representatives of NGOs, indicating partnership with NGOs, or inhabitants, indicating a direct participation. In many cities, similar bodies allocate less chairs for the voluntary sector and inhabitants.45 There are also 6 community centers in Schaerbeek, which have been functioning since 1996. These centers, which are headed by inhabitants delegated by the Municipality, ensure participation of the inhabitants. Views of inhabitants concerning policies that have repercussions on their practical lives are conveyed to the Municipal Assembly. Apart from these, there are other consultative committees such as ‗Participatory Councils‘ in the Municipality, ‗neighbourhood associations‘ that are supported by the Municipality and ― Commission on Environmental Consultation‖. As a final example of citizen participation, official consultations have to be opened with regard to certain acts to be executed by the municipality in the neighbourhoods.46 There are partnerships between NGOs and the Municipality of Schaerbeek in different fields of social inclusion as well as other areas, without a requirement by the central government. There is ―The report on Schaerbeek, 2010‖, Brussels-Capital Health and Social Observatory, French Community Commission Available at: http://www.observatbru.be/documents/graphics/fiches-communales/2010/15_schaerbeek_fr.pdf 44 ―Contours et statistiques du non-marchand en Belgique‖, Les Éditions de l‘Université de Liège, 2002, Michel MARÉE and Sybille MERTENS, Centre d‘Economie Sociale de l‘Université de Liège. 43 45Official Website of Municipality of Schaerbeek, ―Commission Consultative pour la Politique des Personnes Handicapées », available at : http://www.schaerbeek.be/site6/plone/vie-democratique/democratie-locale-1/democratie-locale#commissionconsultative-pour-la 46 Ibid 41 one directorate in the municipality reserved for affairs concerning subsidies and partnership with NGOs. For example, in the field of training and employment, a sine qua non aspect of social inclusion, ‗Local Economy Section‘ of the Municipality receives applications for employment and training and diverts these demands to the partner associations that have services for the unemployed.47 There are over 600 NGOs in Schaerbeek, around three fourth of which have activities pertinent to social inclusion. The Municipality supports these NGOs through some subsidies, provision of infrastructure for some of their services and coordination. The Municipality, apart from providing subsidies for projects in various fields, supports activities on certain themes. For example, under the program of social cohesion, the Municipality decided to provide grants for 40 associations, that have activities on the immigrants who are illiterate or who do not speak native languages of Belgium. This might be a presented as a social inclusion partnership, as language is a main component of social inclusion, especially for the migrants.48 What we see in Schaerbeek as different from other cities that we have examined is the municipal body that coordinates the services of the Municipality and NGOs. This body, ‗Schaerbeek Coordination of Social Action‘, is a type of partnership between the Center of Social Aid, which is responsible for social inclusion works of the Municipality, and ―Coordination Sociale‖, an umbrella organisation of associations serving in the area of social services. The main aim of this partnership is prevention of repetitive services of different association and of the Municipality in the area of social inclusion and organising services of different institutions in a way that complement each other without overlapping. The center has a steering committee composed of mainly representatives of NGOs and there are working groups focusing on certain themes. Some training programs are also organised by the center as well as social campaigns aiming at increasing sensibility about social exclusion.49 Thanks to this center and other committees that include representatives of NGOs, it can be said that the social inclusion agenda of the city is prepared in partnership with the voluntary sector. The total budget of Schaerbeek was around 203 million Euros in 2009, and the amount spent for social inclusion (mainly social assistance and health) was around 50 million Euros, which is equal to around 25 % of the budget. Nearly 30 million Euros of this amount is allocated for CPAS (Center of Social Public Aid), which provides social aid for those who have no income or limited income. Taking into consideration that this budget is for a total population of around 116.000, it might be labeled as relatively sufficient.50 CONCLUSION It might be stated that Schaerbeek, a district in Brusels, has examples of ‗functioning partnerships‘ with the NGOs. Especially the ‗Coordination Center‘, which plans the activities of NGOs and the municipality in the area of social inclusion seems to be a ‗good practice‘, which ensures more efficiency in provision of social services. Having numerous active NGOs in the field of social inclusion and a relatively sufficient amount of budget allocated for social inclusion seem to have contributed a lot to the present partnership level in the district. Apart from that, joint preparation of social inclusion agenda with the voluntary sector and experience in partnerships might have facilitated the process. The citizen participation in some of social inclusion services, which is usually ensured through NGOs, has also been realized, though to a limited extent, in direct way without intermediaries. Annual Report of the Municipality of Schaerbeek, 2009-2010,. Available at: http://www.schaerbeek.be/site6/plone/vie-democratique/documents-strategiques Some of these NGOs are as follows: ― Jeunes Schaerbeekois au Travail‖, ― Schaerbeek Action Emploi ‖, ―Agence Locale pour l‘Emploi de Schaerbeek‖ et ―la Mission Locale de Schaerbeek‖. 48 Ibid 49 Official web site of Schaerbeek Coordination of Social Action. Available at: http://www.cass-cssa.be/ 50 Analysis of the Budget of Schaerbeek, 2009, Official website of the Municipality of Schaerbeek, Available at: http://www.schaerbeek.be/site6/plone/accueil?set_language=fr 47 42 VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION: SEEING THROUGH THE EYEVIEW OF GLOBALIZATION DASO, PETER OJIMBA Department of Technical Education, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Abstract This paper seeks to define the concepts of vocational and technical education through the eyeview of globalization. Globalization as a concept has different shades of meaning as varied as the authors or writers posit. On one continuum globalization is portrayed as the process of increasing inter connectivity between societies such that events in one part of the world more and more have effects on peoples and societies far away. On the other continuum, globalization is equated with internationalization whereby cross-border relations between countries are described. Other shades of meaning used to describe globalization include: liberalization, universalization, westernization or modernization and deterritorialization. However, a general concept of globalization can be stated as the intensification of worldwide relations linking one part of the globe with other parts in ways that what happens in one place is relayed by events occurring in other distant places. Having ex-rayed the concept of globalization, the paper seeks to examine vocational and technical education globally as it relates to other countries of the world. The concepts of vocational and technical education modus operadi in various countries of the world and their comparative standards were delved into. Concluding remarks stated that vocational and technical education whether in Hong Kong, Sweden or United States of America principally deals with the acquisition of skills. The paper recommends that the concept of globalization should be used to view each country‘s understanding of vocational and technical education, hence, eliminating conceptual barriers. Keywords: Vocational, technical, globalization Introduction This paper seeks to define the concepts of vocational and technical education through the ambit of globalization. One of the phenomena identified as the major dynamics of change in the 21 st century is globalization. Baylis and Smith (1997) identified globalization as the process of increasing inter connectivity between societies such that events in one part of the world more and more have effects on peoples and societies far away. Thus a globalized world is one in which political, economic, social, educational and cultural events become more and more interconnected and also one in which the impacts of these events in one society affect extensively the lives of people in other societies. Hence, the objective of this paper is to precisely state the concepts of vocational and technical education as they relate to various countries of the world. Furthermore, Scholte (2000) as cited by Popoola and Oni (2005) established five distinct definitions of globalization that are in common usage. Though the definitions overlap and are 43 related, the elements they highlight are significantly different. In the first instance, globalization is equated with internationalization. In this context, globalization is viewed simply as an adjective to describe cross-border relations between countries. It describes the growth in international exchange and interdependence. Therefore, with growing flows of trade and capital investment, there is the possibility of moving beyond an international economy (where the principle entities are national economies) to a stronger version – the globalized economy in which district national economies are subsumed and re-articulated into the system by international process and transactions. In the second set of definitions identified by Scholte (2000) and cited by Popoola and Oni (2005), globalization is observed as liberalization. In this direction, globalization refers to ―a process of moving government – imposed restrictions on movements between countries in order to create an ―open‖, ―border less‖ world economy. Those who have argued with some success for the abolition of regulatory trade barriers and capital controls have sometimes clothed this in the mantle of ―globalization‖. The third set of definitions considers globalization as universaliztion. In this link, the word ―global‖ is used in the sense of being ―worldwide‖ and globalization is seen as the process of spreading various objects and experiences to people at all corners of the earth. A classic example of this would be the spread of computing, television and so on. The fourth concept of globalization depicts the term with westernization or modernization. In this regard, globalization is understood as a dynamic, whereby the social structures of modernity (Capitalism, rationalism, industrialism, bureaucratism etc) are spread the world over, normally destroying pre-existent cultures and local self determination in the process. Scholte‘s fifth concept of globalization as discussed in Popoola et al equates the term as deterritorialization. In this direction, globalization entails a reconfiguration of geography so that social space is no longer wholly mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances and territorial borders. Of the five definitions of globalization, Scholte argued that it is only the conception of globalization as deterritorialization that offers the possibility of a clear and specific concept of the term. The notion of supra territoriality (or trans-world or trans-border relations), the author proclaimed, provides a way of appreciating what is global about globalization. From the foregoing, a general concept of globalization can be stated as the intensification of worldwide relations linking one part of the globe with other parts in ways that what happens in one place is relayed by events occurring in other distant places (Okrah, 2004). In this sense, globalization is seen as the complex interconnectedness of peoples‘ present and future – a phenomenon which is becoming the dominant character of the world‘s political, cultural, economic and natural environments (Khan, 2003). Having explained the concept of globalization, we can now proceed to define vocational and technical education. The Concept of Vocational Education Vocational education deals with the training or retraining designed to prepare individuals to enter into a paid employment in any reorganized occupation (Okoro, 1993). The Nigerian National Policy on education defines vocational education as a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life. 44 Vocational education or vocational education and training (VET) is an education that prepares trainees for jobs at various levels from a craft or trade to a professional position in engineering, accounting, nursing, medicine and other health practitioners, architecture, pharmacy, law etc. Craft vocations are usually based on manual or practical activities, traditionally non-academic and totally related to a specific trade, occupation or vocation. Vocational education may be classified as teaching procedural knowledge. This can be contrasted with declarative knowledge as used in education in a usually broader scientific field, which might concentrate on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge, characteristic of tertiary education. Vocational education can be at the secondary, post secondary level, further education level and can interact with the apprenticeship system. Increasingly, vocational education can be recognized in terms of recognition of prior learning and partial academic credit towards tertiary education (e.g. at a university) as credit; however, it is rarely considered in its own form to fall under the traditional definition of higher education (http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd). Vocational education is related to the age-old apprenticeship system of learning. Apprenticeships are designed for many levels of work from manual trades to high knowledge work. Interestingly, as the labour market becomes more specialized and economies demand higher levels of skills, governments and businesses are increasingly investing in the future of vocational education through publicly funded training organizations and subsidized apprenticeship or traineeship initiatives for businesses. At the post-secondary level vocational education is typically provided by an institute of technology or by a local community college. However, vocational education has diversified over the 20th century and now exists in industries such as retail tourism, information technology, funeral services and cosmetics as well as in the traditional crafts and cottage industries (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vocateduc). The Concept of Technical Education Technical education is that aspect of education that gives its recipients an opportunity to acquire practical skills as well as some basic scientific knowledge (Nigerian National Policy on education, 1981). Puding (1994) defined technical education as that type of education which fits the individual for gainful employment in recognized occupations as semi-skilled workers or technicians or sub-professionals. In his own views, Uwaifo (2009) posited that technical education is the training of technical – oriented personnel who are to be the initiators, facilitators and implementers of technological development of a nation. He opined that this training of its citizenry on the need to be technologically literate, would lead to self-reliance and sustainability. He stressed that technical education more than any other profession has direct impact on national welfare. Furthermore, technical education contributions are widespread and visible ranging from metal work technology, mechanical/automobile technology, electrical and electronic technology, building and woodwork technology etc. Consequently, technical education can serve as change agents not only for technical systems but also for many other societal changes. The practical nature of technical education makes it unique in content and approach thereby requiring special care and attention. The inputs of technical education are so visible to the extent that even an illiterate could see when failures occur. Having critically examined the concepts of vocational and technical education, we proceed to see them through the eye-view of globalization. In this ambit, vocational and technical education are 45 discussed under the umbrella of vocational education and training (VET). They are discussed under the following categories: Vocational education and training in Australia Vocational education and training in Common Wealth of Independent States Vocational education and training in Finland Vocational education and training in German Language Areas Vocational education and training in Hong Kong, Hungary and India Vocational education and training in Japan and Korea Vocational education and training in Mexico and New Zealand Vocational education and training in Norway, Paraguay and Sweden Vocational education and training in Switzerland Vocational education and training in the United Kingdom Vocational Education and Training in the United States of America They are vividly described below: Vocational Education and Training (VET) in Australia In Australia vocational education and training is mostly post-secondary and provided through the vocational education and training (VET) system by registered training organizations. This system encompasses both public, TAFE and private providers in a national training framework consisting of the Australian Quality Training framework (http://www.training.com.cus 2007). Australian Qualifications Framework and Industry Training Packages (http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/trainingskills/poilcy), which define the assessment standards for the different vocational qualifications. Australia‘s apprenticeship system includes both traditional apprenticeships in traditional trades and ―traineeship‖ in other more service – oriented occupations. Both involve a legal contract between the employer and the apprentice and provide a combination of school – based and workplace training. Apprenticeships typically last three to four years, traineeships only one or two years. Apprentices and trainees receive a wage which increases as they progress (http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/ 27/11/4/63/38). In Australia, the National Centre for Vocational Education Research NCVER (http://www.never.edu.au) is a not-for-profit company owned by the federal, state and territory ministers responsible for training. It is responsible for collecting, managing, analyzing, evaluating and communicating research and statistics about vocational education and training (VET). In Australia, the boundaries between vocational education and tertiary education are becoming more blurred. A number of vocational training providers such as NMIT, BHT and WAI are now offering specialized Bachelor degrees in specific areas not being adequately provided by universities. Such applied courses include Winemaking and viticulture, aquaculture, information technology, music etc. Vocational Education and Training in Commonwealth of Independent States The largest and the most unified system of vocational education was created in the soviet union with the professional no-technich-eskoye Uchilische and Technikum. But it became less effective with the transition of the economies of post-soviet countries to a market economy. 46 Vocational Education and Training in Finland In Finland vocational education belongs to secondary education. After the nine-year comprehensive school almost all students choose to go to either a Lukio (high school) which is an institution preparing students for tertiary education or to a vocational school. Both forms of secondary education last three years and give a formal qualification to enter university. In certain fields (e.g. the police school, air traffic control personnel training), the entrance requirements of vocational schools include completion of the Lukio thus causing the students to complete their secondary education twice. Furthermore, in Finland, the education in vocational school is free and the students from low-income families are eligible for a state student grant. The curriculum is primarily vocational and the academic part of the curriculum adapted to the needs of a given course. The vocational schools are mostly maintained by municipalities. After completing secondary education, one can enter higher vocational schools or universities. It is also possible for a student to choose both lukio and vocational schooling. The education in such cases last usually from 3 to 4 years. Vocational Education and Training in German Language Areas Vocational education is an important part of the education systems in Austria, Germany, Liechtenstein and Switzerland (including the French and the Italian speaking parts of the country) and one element of the German model. For example, in Germany a law was passed in 1969 which regulated and unified the vocational training system and codified the shared responsibility of the state, the unions, associations and chambers of trade and industry. The system is very popular in modern Germany in 2001, two thirds of young people aged under 22 began an apprenticeship and 78% of them completed it, meaning that approximately 51% of all young people under 22 have completed an apprenticeship. One in three companies offered apprenticeships in 2003; in 2004 the government signed a pledge with industrial unions that all companies except very small ones must take on apprentices. The vocational education systems in the other German speaking countries are very similar to the German system and a vocational qualification from one country is generally also recognized in the other states within this area. Vocational Education and Training in Hong Kong, Hungary and India In Hong Kong, vocational education is usually for post-secondary 3,5 and 7 students. The Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (IVE) provides training in nine different vocational fields, namely; Applied Science, Business Administration; Child Education and Community Services; Construction; Design: Printing, Textiles and clothing; Hotel, Service and Tourism studies; Information Technology; electrical and electronic engineering, and mechanical, manufacturing and industrial engineering. In Hungary, at the end of elementary school (at age 14) students are directed to one of three types of upper secondary education: one academic track (gymnasium) and two vocational tracks. Vocational secondary schools provide four years of general education and also prepare students for the maturate. These schools combine general education with some specific subjects referred to as pre-vocational education and career orientation. At that point many students enroll in a post-secondary VET programme often at the same institution, to obtain a vocational qualification although they may also seek entry to tertiary education. Demand for vocational 47 training schools both from the labour market and among students has declined while it has increase for upper secondary schools delivering the maturata (http://www.oecd. org/dataoecd/24/27/41738329). However, vocational training in India is provided on a full time as well as part time basis. Full time programs are generally offered through I.T.Is industrial training institutes. The nodal agency for granting the recognition to the I.T.Is is NCVT which is under the ministry of labour, Government of India. Part time programs are offered through state technical education boards or universities who also offer full time courses. Vocational training has been successful in India only in industrial training institutes and that too in engineering trades. There are many private institutes in India with courses in vocational training and finishing, but most of then have not been recognized by the Government. India is a pioneer in vocational training in Film and television and information technology. Vocational education and training in Japan and Korea Japanese vocational schools are known as Senmon gakko. They are part of Japan higher education system. They are two year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are computer technology, fashion and English. However, in Korea, vocational high schools offer programmes in five fields; agriculture, technology/ engineering, commerce/ business maritime/ fishery and home economics. In principle, all students in the first year of high school (with grade) follow a common national curriculum. In the second and third years (11th and 12th grades) students are offered courses relevant to their specialization. In some programmes, students may participate in workplace training through cooperation between schools and local employers. The government is now piloting vocational master schools in which workplace training is an important part of the programme. Around half of all vocational high schools are private. Private and public schools operate according to similar rules, for example, they charge the same fees for high school education, with an exemption for poorer families (http://www.oecd.org.edu/learning for jobs). Vocational education and training in Mexico and New Zealand In Mexico, both federal and state governments are responsible for the administration of vocational education. Federal schools are funded by the federal budget in addition to their own funding sources. State centres for scientific and technological studies (CECYTE) and institutes of training for work (ICAT). These institutions are funded 50% from the federal budget and 50% from the state budget. The state governments also manage and fund ―decentralized institutions of the federation), such as CONALEP schools. Compulsory education (including primary and lower secondary education) finishes at the age of 15 and about half of those aged 15 to 19 are enrolled full time or part time in education. All programmes at upper secondary level require the payment of a tuition fee. The upper secondary vocational education system in Mexico includes over a dozen subsystems (administrative units within the upper secondary education). Vocational education and training provided under the upper secondary education include: training for work; technical 48 professional – baccalaureate and the programme awarding the technological baccalaureate (htt://www.oecd.org/edu/learning for jobs). However, New Zealand is served by 39 industry training organizations (ITO). The unique element is that ITOs purchase training as well as set standards and aggregate industry opinion about skills in the labour market. Industry training as organized by ITOs has expanded from apprenticeships to a more true life long learning situation with, for example, over 10% of trainees aged 50 or over. Moreover, much of the training is generic. This challenges the prevailing idea of vocational education and the standard layperson view that it focuses on apprenticeships. One source for information in New Zealand is the industry training federation (http://www.itf.org.nz). Another is the ministry of education (http://www.educationcounts. govt.nz). Polytechnics, private training establishments, Wanaga and others also deliver vocational training among other areas. Vocational education and training in Norway, Paraguay and Sweden Nearly all those leaving lower secondary schools enter upper secondary education and around half follow one of 9 vocational programmes. These programmes typically involve two years in school followed by two years of apprenticeship in a company. The first year provides general education alongside introductory knowledge of the vocational area. During the second year courses become more trade specific. In Norway, apprentices receive a wage negotiated in collective agreements ranging between 30% and 80% of the wage of a qualified worker, the percentage increasing over the apprenticeship to vocational technical colleges, while those who wish to enter university need to take a supplementary year of education. The National Council for vocational education and training advices the minister on the development of the national vocational education and training system. The advisory councils for vocational education and training are linked to the nine vocational education programmes provided in upper secondary education and advise on the content of VET programmes and on trends and future skill needs. (http://ww.oecd.or/dataoecd/45/34/41506628). In Paraguay, vocational education is known as bachillerato Tecnico and is part of the secondary education system. These schools combine general education with some specific subjects, referred to as pre-vocational education and career orientation. After nine years of primary school, the student can choose to go to either a vocational school or a high school. Both forms of secondary education last three years and are usually located in the same campus. After completing secondary education, one can enter into the universities. It is also possible for a student to choose both Tecnico and Cientifico schooling. In Sweden, nearly all of those leaving compulsory schooling immediately enter upper secondary schools and most complete their upper secondary education in three years. Upper secondary education is divided into 13 vocationally – oriented and 4 academic national programmes. Slightly more than half all students follow vocational programmes. All programmes offer broad general education and basic eligibility to continue studies at the post-secondary level. In addition there are local programmes specially designed to meet local needs and individual programmes. In Sweden, a 1992 school reform extended vocational upper secondary programmes by one year aligning them with three years of general upper secondary education increasing their 49 general education content, and making core subjects compulsory in all programmes. The core subjects (which occupy around one-third of total teaching time in both vocational and academic programmes) include English, artistic activities, physical education and health, mathematics, natural science, social studies. In addition to the core subjects, students‘ pursue optional courses, subjects which are specific to each programme and a special project. Vocational programmes include 15 weeks of workplace training over the three-year period. Schools are responsible for arranging workplace training and verifying its quality (http://www.oecd.org/edu/ learning for jobs). Vocational education and training in Switzerland Nearly two thirds of those entering upper secondary education enter the vocational education and training system. At this level, vocational education and training is mainly provided through the ―dual system‖. Students spend some of their time in a vocational school; some of their time doing an apprenticeship at a host company and for most programmes, students attend industry courses at an industry training centre to develop complementary practical skills relating to the occupation at hand. Switzerland draws a distinction between vocational education and training (VET) programmes at upper secondary level and professional education and training (PET) programmes, which take place at tertiary B level. In 2007, more than half of the population aged 25-64 had a VET or PET qualification as their highest level of education. In addition, universities of applied sciences offer vocational education at tertiary A level. Pathways enable people to shift from one part of the education system to another (http://www.org/dataoecd/ 12/5/4278682). Vocational and education raining in the United Kingdom The first trades‘ school in the UK was Stanley Technical Trades school (now Harris Academy South Norwood) which was designed built and set up by William Stanley. The initial idea was thought of in 1901, and the school opened in 1907 (Owen, 1912). The system of vocational education in the UK initially developed independently of the state, with bodies such as the RSA and City and Guilds setting examinations for technical subjects. However, the Education Act 1944 made provision for a Tripartite system of grammar schools, secondary technical schools and secondary modern schools, but by 1975 only 0.5% of British senior pupils were in technical schools, compared to two-thirds of the equivalent German age group (Wolf, 2002). Successive recent British Government have made attempts to promote and expand vocational education. In the 1970s, the Business and Technology Educaiton Council was founded to confer further and higher education awards, particularly to further education colleges in the United Kingdom. In the 1980s and 1990s, the conservative government promoted the Youth Training scheme, National vocational Qualifications and General National Vocational Qualifications. However, youth training was marginalized as the proportion of young people staying on in full-time education increased (Wolf, 2002). In 1994, publicly funded modern Apprenticeships were introduced to provide ―quality training on a work based (educational) route (http://www. keele.ac.uk/depts./so/youths chron/educat/9197 educ.htm). Numbers of apprentices have grown in recent years and the 50 department for children, schools and families has stated its intention to male apprenticeships a ‗mainstream‘ part of England‘s education system (DIUS/DCSF, 2008). Vocational Education and Training in the United States of America Vocational education and job training program has been an integral part of national development strategies in many societies because of the impact on human resources development, productivity and economic growth. The provision of vocational technical schools in America has a long history. Before the industrial revolution (between 1750 and 1830). The home and the ―apprenticeship system‖ were the principal sources of vocational education. Societies were forced by the decline of handwork and specialization of occupational functions to develop institutions of vocational education. However, vocational education became popular in the elementary schools in the United States of America after 1880 and developed into courses in industrial training, book keeping, stenography and allied commercial work in both public and private institutions. Some of the early private trade schools in the US include Cooper Union (1859) and Pratf Institute (1888), the Hampton Institute (1868) and Tuskegee Institute (1881). The agricultural high school (1888) of the university of Minnesota was the first regularly established public vocational secondary school that introduced extensive public instruction in agriculture. The number of public and private vocational schools has greatly increased since 1900. There was an impetus on vocational education during world war II (1939-1945) when the armed services had great need for technicians that the civilian world could not supply. Further upsurge on vocational training was from the service men‘s Readjustment Act of 1944 (the G.I. Bill of Rights) which allowed world war II veterans to receive tuition and subsistence during extended vocational training. In addition, there was the Manpower Development Training Act (1962), the Vocational Education Act (1963), the Vocational Education Amendment (1968). All these helped to improve the US workforce and ensure that vocational training is available for economically (and physically) challenged youths. Generally, the US appreciate skills acquired through vocational training. Conclusion Various concepts of globalization have been adduced in this paper by various authors and writers. The birds‘ eye-view of globalization has been utilized to ex-ray the concepts and state of the art concerning vocational education and technical education in various countries of the world. In this paper, vocational education and training has dimensional views as it relates to various countries of the world. It is however pertinent to adduce the fact that vocational education whether in Hong Kong, Sweden or America principally deals with the acquisition of skills. Hence, seeing vocational and technical education with the eye-view of globalization, the paper concludes that each country of the world has her own hierarchy of development and modus operandi. 51 REFERENCES Baylis, J.S. and Smith, S. (1997). The globalization of world politics. New York: Oxford University Press http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz – 11/3/2012 http://www.itf.org.nz – 9/3/2012 http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/80/youthschron/edu.9197.htm http://www.oecd.org.edu/learning for jobs - 10/3/2012 http://www.oecd.org.edu/learning for jobs - 10/3/2012 http://www.oecd.org/data.oecd/43/34/41506628 http://www.oecd.org/data.oecd-6/3/2012 http://www.oecd.org/edu/learning for jobs http://www.oecd.org/edu/lerning for jobs - 13/3/2012 http://www.org/data.oecd/12/5/42578681 Khan, M. (2003). Teaching globalization. The globalist . available online at http://ww.theglobalist.com Okoro, O.M. (1993). Principles and methods of vocational and technical education. Nsukka: University Trust publisher Okrah, K.A. (2004). African education reform in the era of globalization: Conflicts and Harmony: African Symposium. 4(4). Available online at http://www2.nese.edu/nesu/okrahdec04.htm Oni, C.S. (2005). Programmes for educating vocational teachers. Ife Journal of Educational Studies, 4(1). Popoola, B.I. and Oni, C.S. (2005). Concepts and issues of globalization in Nigerian education: Implications for teaching and learning. Paper presented at the 5th ICET World Assembly, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Pudding, L.C. (1994). Youth and vocational technical education in Nigeria. studies in technical teacher education (STTED). Journal of Federal College of Education, Omoku. 1, 56-60 Scholte, J.A. (2000). Globalization: A critical introduction. London: Pal grave Uwaifo, I.K. (2009). Vocational and technical education in Nigeria. issues, problems and prospects. Journal of Vocational Education. 3(4), 60-67 Wolf, A. (2002). Does education matter? Myths about education and economic growth. London: Penguin. 52 Gender Differentials and Determinants of Child Health in India Koyel Sarkar Center for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India. [email protected] Abstract Any country‘s level of development is determined by the quality of its human capital. In this regard children‘s health hold prime importance as they are the future generation of the country and their health status will determine the level of development. However, India is a land of diversity and thus the area of health is equally influenced by a whole lot of socio-cultural features that differs from place to place and person to person. On one side there is shortage of services and their proper regional distribution while on the other side there is differential utilization of the existing services. It is this differential utilization of child health care that is important and therefore in this paper an attempt to study the various factors affecting child health has been made.Higher mortality among girls can be attributed to socio economic and cultural factors which give more importance to boys. A spatial analysis using the Arc Gis, reveals that a general neglect of girl child in evident in the country especially in the northern states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, etc. However, the longitudinal analysis (Binary Logistic Regression) shows that in Uttar Pradesh, the scenario is way different from the rest of states. The study shows that education of the mother and the standard of living has a strong positive influence over child health. Also, more educated mothers are more likely to have less number of births and their age at first birth is usually high. This automatically leads to better child health. However, the employment status of the mother has varying influence in child health. Working mothers usually have less time for their children and so daily monitoring of their child‘s food habits is usually not possible, but since they are in constant social interaction they are aware of the importance of vaccinations on child‘s health and so get their children vaccinated. Thus these mothers usually tend to have vaccinated but underweighted children. However, social factors like religion, caste and also the place of residence do not seem to affect child health much. Keywords: Gender Differentials, Child Health, Socio-Cultural Features, Mother‘s Education INTRODUCTION Any country‘s level of development is determined by the quality of its human capital. In this regard children‘s health hold prime importance as they are the future generation of the country and their health status will determine the level of development. The World Health Organization defines health as ―the state of complete physical, mental and social well – being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity‖. Since children‘s health determines the health of the country in future, the government has put in a lot of efforts to improve the standard of living of the people, health and family welfare. Keeping in mind that women are the primary caretakers of the household and their health will determine the family‘s health, the country has made maternal and child health services an integral part of the various 5 year plans and promotion of maternal and child health has been one of the most important objective of the family welfare programmes in India. More recently, efforts to improve maternal and child health have been enhanced by the activities of the 53 family welfare programme and by the introduction of the Child Survival and Safe Motherhood Programme (CSSM). The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has also sponsored special projects under the Maternal and Child Health (MCH) care programme including the Oral Rehydration Therapy programme, the establishment of regional institute of maternal and child health in states where infant mortality is high. Particularly for child‘s health, the vaccination of children, against the six diseases (tuberculosis, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, poliomyelitis and measles) has remained a major focus. The National Immunization Programme is being implemented under the national health policy whereas the Universal Immunization Programme, introduced in 1980‘s with the objective to cover at least 85% of all infants against the six vaccines preventive diseases have been successful to a large extent covering major parts of the country. Among the others are the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), Millenium Development Goals, etc. whose major focus remain child health. However, India is a land of diversity and thus the area of health is equally influenced by a whole lot of socio-cultural features that differs from place to place and person to person. These sociocultural features tend to affect both the demand side factors as well as the supply side factors in terms of health. On one side there is shortage of services and their proper regional distribution while on the other side there is differential utilization of the existing services. It is this differential utilization of child health care that is important and therefore in this paper an attempt to study the various factors affecting child health has been made. OBJECTIVE The prime objective of the paper is to assess child health status in the country. Specifically, the paper aims to: a. Spatially study the variation in condition of child health and the incidence of ―gender bias‖, if at all exists, in child health care in the country, and b. To study the independent socio-economic determinants, more importantly how the mother‘s background characteristics tend to influence child‘s health in Uttar Pradesh. DATABASE Data for this study is primarily taken from: a. Data on IMR and CMR (all India, district level) has been taken from Population Foundation of India, census based estimates for 2001. 54 b. The children‘s file of Uttar Pradesh, from National Family and Health Survey 3 has been used which was conducted in 2005-06 by the International Institute of Population Sciences, Mumbai. METHODOLOGY For this study, five variables have been chosen which would determine the child health conditions in country. The first three variables, infant mortality rate (IMR), child mortality rate (CMR) and mortality differentials between girl and boy child help to analyze the child health status and also gender bias (if at all exists) in the country. The next two variables, children ever had vaccination and weight by age (from NFHS 3) help to reach the second objective which is to analyze the factors that affect child health in Uttar Pradesh. The present study uses the following techniques to reach the objectives: a. A spatial variation of infant and child mortality along with mortality differentials between girl and boy child have been mapped with the help of Arc Gis on all India district level. b. Bivariate Analysis to find the association between the independent and dependent variable and their level of significance. c. Binary Logistic Regression in SPSS has been carried out to examine the relationship between each of the independent variable and the dependent variable, while controlling the influence of the other variables. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM In spite of all the developmental efforts done by the government through various policies and programmes like, National Population Policy (NPP), Family Planning or Welfare Programme (FPP / FWP), Reproductive and Child Health (RCH), Child Survival and Safe Motherhood (CSSM), MDG, NRHM, etc. child mortality, underweighted children, prevalence of chronic and preventable diseases like tuberculosis, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, poliomyelitis, measles, etc. in India remains to be significantly high specially in the north Indian States of UP, Bihar, MP, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, etc. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS The present study assumes that gender bias does exist in child health care in household level and mother‘s education, employment status and other determinants like urban areas, high standard of living will lead to better child health. Also in terms of social stratifications it is assumed that Hindus and general castes will have better child health conditions than the others. 55 ANALYSIS Infant Mortality, Child Mortality and Mortality Differentials: a spatial distribution (country level) According to the objective of the paper, the analysis has been done on two specific areas, i.e., gender differences on the spatial variation of child deaths and the socio-economic determinants affecting child‘s health. To understand the second objective we must first look into the spatial variation on child health in terms of mortality situation in the country. Infant and child mortality is an important indicator of child health as less mortality will mean better health conditions. It also shows the level of social development, spread of medical facilities, etc. in any region. On the other hand, a gender difference in mortality rates along with mortality differentials between them has a greater importance as this can also show the presence of ―gender bias‖ in a region. More so, the gender bias becomesclearer if done in terms of ages. Infant mortality (less than 1year of age) as well as Child mortality (1 to 4 years of age) is highest in Uttar Pradesh (73 and 96) and lowest in Kerala and Goa (15 and 16) respectively. Apart from Uttar Pradesh, high levels of infant and child mortality are found in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh in the central region, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in the northeastern region, Jharkhand, Orissa, and Bihar in the eastern region, and Rajasthan in the northern region. These are regions with low levels of literacy, standard of living, development, etc and therefore suffer from adverse health conditions. In contrast, all states in the southern and western regions have lower levels of infant and child mortality. However, variations within the states are also evident and to get a clearer picture, a district level analysis of IMR, CMR and mortality differentials among male and female children have been done: a. Female Infant Mortality Rates and Female Child Mortality Rates: At the age of less than 1 year maximum female death over most of the country is seen in the districts of the Indo-Gangetic plain, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, North eastern states and few districts of southern states. The southern peninsular part of India has fewer deaths. Exception of few border districts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra high death group can be attributed to the high sex ratio in spite of having less number of absolute deaths. The pattern is similar when we look at the female death differences by the age one to five years. The districts with low deaths are all located in the southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra. The zone with maximum female deaths is concentrated in central region i.e., entire UP, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and also few districts in the North East. 56 b. Superimposition of IMR and CMR with Mortality Differentials: However, a high female death does not imply a gender bias by itself. The difference between the sex-wise mortality rates gives a better picture. For this purpose the mortality differentials between male and female have been plotted on maps at district level. The overlapping exercise helps identify broad regions of gender discrimination as manifested in differential mortality rates. Maps were drawn overlapping IMR and CMR with the difference between the male and female mortality rates to look at the regional pattern of gender difference in mortality. A triangle of high mortality differentials can be identified in northern India running from eastern Rajasthan to Bihar to Haryana. Within the entire region the gap between male and female deaths is high. This Triangle Zone has been called ―a zone of survival disadvantage for girls‖ by some scholars. In south India, high differences are observed in districts lying on the border of Karnataka and Maharashtra as well as Kerala. The entire country can be divided into four groups: Regions having low IMR, CMR and low MD: These can be said to be the better off regions where the general living conditions for infants is good and there is no gender issue as well. It includes most of southern peninsular districts in India. Regions having low IMR, CMR and high MD: These are the regions of real concern. The female deaths are low. This indicates that basic requirements for survival of kids are available. However, the mortality differentials are high. This indicates there is deliberate neglect of the girl child, so that she is unable to live as well as her male counterpart. This zone includes few districts of Kerala, northern Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, western Rajasthan, Haryana, and Bihar. Regions having high IMR, CMR and high MD: These are regions where the high FD indicates that the general conditions for survival of infants are not suitable. However, high mortality differential shows a preference for male child and a neglect of female child. This region includes northern UP, central Madhya Pradesh and southern Rajasthan. Regions having high IMR, CMR and low MD: These are areas where kids die of other reasons. Gender is not an issue. This is a very narrow tribal belt in central India as can be seen from the maps. 57 Child Health: (Uttar Pradesh) From the above analysis we have seen the worse of states in terms of child health and gender bias in child health is UP, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Since studying all these states together would make the work more complicated and simple mapping will not give us a clearer picture of how the socio-economic determinants affect child‘s health, I have taken Uttar Pradesh on which a longitudinal analysis has been worked out focusing primarily on what effect does the socioeconomic characteristics have on children. Conceptual Framework We all know how education acts as a black box in improving health conditions through boosting knowledge, social interaction, skills, autonomy, self confidence, etc. In this study, we will analyze of how certain independent variables of mother‘s like education, place of living, age at first birth, etc are intimately connected and attempt to explain child‘s health. Already known, that higher education of the mother will lead to better human, social and economic capital. The advantages of knowledge, communication, skill, autonomy, etc. thus gained automatically reduce her age at first birth, birth order, etc. If the mother is working, on one hand her social interaction will increase, she will be more aware of conditions of better health even if she is less educated and thus will lead to better health of her child. While on the other hand, it may also happen that due to working outside and being occupied with other work, she may not have enough time for her child and this may result into adverse health conditions. Few characteristics are inborn in certain social stratifications like caste, religion, etc. which are expected to be linked with child health. Therefore these have also been studied. 58 Bivariate Analysis Keeping the above conceptual framework in mind, we can now show the actual relationship between each of the independent variables and the dependent variable (children ever had vaccination and weight by age of the children) with the help of bivariate analysis. Independent Variables Ever had vaccination Weight by age Frequency % No 236 3.3 Yes 5068 71.9 Normal Underweight 4298 2124 61 30.1 Missing values Missing % 1747 24.8 629 8.9 Children ever had vaccination: The dependent variable shows a clear trend with education of the mother, age at first birth, birth order of the child, occupational status of the mother, place of residence, social groups, and standard of living. Higher educated mothers are more likely to get their children vaccinated than less educated mothers. Mothers, who had their first child at a lower age of less than 18years, are likely to have higher birth orders and so less likely to get their children vaccinated. Most mothers with high age at first birth have their children vaccinated. Working mothers generally tend to be more socially aware and so are more likely to have their children vaccinated than mothers who work at home. Among the social groups the OBC‘s and the Hindus receive the highest percentage of vaccinations; the SC‘s and Muslims being the least. As in case of place of residence due to more facilities in urban areas, children get more vaccinated. Children‘s weight by age: Clearly, women with less education, low age at first birth and high birth order are the ones with underweighted children. Women who are employed and work away from home have less time for their children and so end up in underweighted children. In the social groups, the SC‘s, and the Hindus have more of underweighted children. Due to poverty people with low standard of living and lack of good nutritious food in rural areas result in more underweighted children. Therefore the expected results are: high education, higher age at first birth and low birth order among mother‘s leads to healthy children. Being more aware, mothers who are employed and are working outside get their children vaccinated but unfortunately end up in underweighted children. This is because working women have less time for tracking their children‘s food habits which is not a single day affair and requires a daily check. Overall, SC‘s result in unhealthy 59 children, Hindus though get their children vaccinated, have underweighted children. On the other hand, Muslims in spite of having less vaccinated children end up in normal weighted children; this may be because of the high protein intake in the dietary habits (meat, etc.). Mothers living in rural areas and with a low standard of living end up in having unhealthy children. Binary Logistic Regression Though bivariate analysis throws light on the relationship between the dependent and independent variables, it does not control the influence of the other variables and therefore logistic regression is carried out to find out the net effect of each independent variable on the dependent variable while controlling the influence of other variables. Net Effect of Background Variables on Vaccination of the Child: The binary logistic regression analysis show that keeping all other variables constant, education of the mother has the strongest effect on children‘s vaccination. Higher the education, more likely is the children to get vaccinated. Age at first birth and birth order show moderate significance in affecting vaccination of children. Mothers with high age at first birth, above 24years, are likelier to get their children vaccinated than mothers with low age at first birth and lower the birth order of mothers, higher gets the chance of vaccination of children. Occupational status of mothers does affect vaccination of children but moderate to less. Mothers who are working are more likely to get their children vaccinated than mothers who do not work. Again, mothers who are working away from home are even more likely to get their children vaccinated than mothers who are working at home. This is because simply working does not influence the knowledge, skill, awareness among women; it is actually influenced by working outside where more social interaction, communication, exposure is met. Social stratifications like caste, religion or place of residence does not influence the vaccination of children. However, standard of living has moderate positive influence over children‘s vaccination i.e., higher the standard of living higher is the chance of children getting vaccinated. Net Effect of Background Variables on prevalence of Underweighted Children: The binary logistic regression analysis show that keeping all other variables constant, the prevalence of underweighted children is the least among the secondary educated mothers and surprisingly even higher educated mothers tend to have more underweighted children. The reason for this unexpected result maybe that mothers with higher education tend to be employed which may leave them with very less time for proper child care. Age at first birth of the mother 60 as well as the place of living has very little influence on the child weight by age. However, higher birth orders of the mother have more chance of children being underweighted. Mothers working away from home usually have less time for their child care and so end up in having more underweighted children. Standard of living shows the maximum influence, as mothers enjoying high standard of living usually have the least underweighted children. The reason may be that even if these mothers are working outsides, they may have babysitting facilities at home who can take proper care of the child. CONCLUSION Higher mortality among girls can be attributed to socio economic and cultural factors which give more importance to boys. A general neglect of girl child in evident in the country specially in the northern states of UP, MP, Rajasthan, etc. such neglect can be attributed in the practices such as abandonment of the girl child, shorter duration of breastfeeding, restricted nurturing, lack of access to proper nutrition, less medical care at times of illness, etc. However, the longitudinal analysis shows that in UP, the scenario is way different from the rest of states. According to data availability and to study how background variables affect child‘s health, the study has been done. It shows that education of the mother and the standard of living has a strong positive influence over child health. Also, more educated mothers are more likely to have less number of births and their age at first birth is usually high. This automatically leads to better child health. However, the employment status of the mother has varying influence in child health. Working mothers usually have less time for their children and so daily monitoring of their child‘s food habits is usually not possible, but since they are in constant social interaction they are aware of the importance of vaccinations on child‘s health and so get their children vaccinated. Thus these mothers usually tend to have vaccinated but underweighted children. Social factors like religion, caste and also the place of residence do not seem to affect child health much. There are however certain limitations to the study. Health has multiple dimensions. Studying it on the basis of only children ever had vaccination and weight by age does not give the actual picture of child health in any region. Moreover, the study is based on the demand side factors like, whether the children are being vaccinated or not, whether the children eat proper nutritious food, etc. but the supply side factors like the availability of health care services, etc have not been incorporated in the study. Including these factors could have possibly resulted in a different conclusion as to what are the actual reasons for the ill health of children. Minor errors can also be possible due to small sample size. 61 However, in spite of these limitations, the study can be considered successful in achieving the target objectives. Mother‘s education, employment status, standard of living has a strong affect on children‘s health in Uttar Pradesh. Therefore the government should focus more on education of mother, increasing their age at marriage to result in high age at first birth, promotion of small family norms, etc. to achieve better child health and overall development. REFERENCES Arnold Fred, Kim Choe Minja And Kim Choe T. K. Roy: ―Son preference, the family-building process and child mortality in India‖; Population Studies; Vol. 52, No. 3, November, 1998, pp. 301-315. Arokiasamy Perianayagam: ― Regional Patterns of Sex Bias and Excess Female Child Mortality in India‖; Population (English Edition, 2002-), Vol. 59, No. 6, Nov. - Dec., 2004, pp. 833863. Chaudhury Rafiqul Huda: ―The Effect of Mother's Work on Child Care, Dietary Intake, and Dietary Adequacy of Pre-School Children‖; The Bangladesh Development Studies; Vol. 10, No. 4, December 1982, pp. 33-61. Croghan Thomas W., Beatty Amanda, Ron Aviva; ―Routes to Better Health for Children in Four Developing Countries‖; The Milbank Quarterly, Vol. 84, No. 2, 2006, pp. 333-358. Joshi ArunR.: ―Maternal schooling and child health: preliminary analysis of the intervening mechanisms in rural Nepal‖; Health Transition Review; Vol. 4, No. 1, April 1994, pp. 1-28. Kravdal Oystein, ―Child Mortality in India: The Community-Level Effect of Education‖; Population Studies, Vol. 58, No. 2 (Jul., 2004), pp. 177-192. Measham Anthony R., Rao Krishna D., Jamison Dean T., Wang Jia, Singh Alaka; ―Reducing Infant Mortality and Fertility, 1975-1990: Performance at All-India and State Levels‖; Economic and Political Weekly; Vol. 34, No. 22, May 29 - Jun. 4, 1999, pp. 1359-1367. Pande Rohini P., Astone Nan Marie; ―Child Mortality in India: The Community-Level Effect of Education‖; Population Research and Policy Review; Vol. 26, No. 1, February, 2007, pp. 1-29. Sivakami M.: ―Female work participation and child health: an investigation in rural Tamil Nadu, India‖; Health Transition Review; Vol. 7, No. 1 April 1997, pp. 21-32. Streatfield Kim, Singarimbun Masri, Diamond Ian: ―Maternal Education and Child Immunization‖; Demography; Vol. 27, No. 3, August, 1990, pp. 447-455. 62 Tinkew Jacinta Bronte, Dejong Gordon F.; ―Do Household Structure and Household Economic Resources Predict Childhood Immunization? Evidence from Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago‖; Population Research and Policy Review; Vol. 24, No. 1, February, 2005, pp. 2757. Winikoff Beverly; ―The Effects of Birth Spacing on Child and Maternal Health‖; Studies in Family Planning; Vol. 14, No. 10, October, 1983, 63 TRADITIONS UNDER SIEGE: DISSECTING SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC PRESSURES IN OLA ROTIMI‟S KURUNMI AND OVONRAMWEN NOGBAISI Samuel Okoronkwo Chukwu-Okoronkwo Department of Theatre Arts, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria. E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Ola Rotimi‘s Kurunmi and Ovonramwen Nogbaisi are replete with palpable formidable pressures of incursive influences. The incursive elements represented in both Oyo and Benin Empires, as chronicled in these works have their overbearing socio-political, as well as economic influences on the people, thus exposing them to chaotic internal and external assaults and dislodging them from their customary modus vivendi or established way of life – socially, politically and economically. This paper examines these works on the background of these rather unprecedented incursions and critically analyzes their implications on the people‘s established way of life. Keywords: agelong structures, dissect, influencing pressures, dislocation, disintegration, INTRODUCTION Tradition is defined by A Dictionary of Social Sciences as an institution whose perpetuation is institutionalized. It emphasises the socio-political structures, ethics, religion, art and more which one generation hands over to another (Kalu, 1975); such whose continuity is firmly established. This paper highlights distinctive dominant traditions – time-hallowed beliefs and practices in the socio-political and economical life of the people as represented in both Oyo and Benin Empires, as chronicled in Rotimi‘s Kurunmi and Ovonramwen Nogbaisi respectively, which suddenly came under strong siege of both internal and external incursions, to dislocate and disintegrate agelong existing structures. Kurunmi and Ovonramwen Nogbaisi are, therefore, two of Ola Rotimi‘s plays in which the people‘s traditions – their established socio-political and economic ways of life – are unprecedentedly plunged into the vortex of a strong wave of disintegration both by internal and external influences, the pressures of which this paper tries to explore. In these works, Rotimi had consciously employed such techniques of dramaturgy that remained adequate for the expression of the rich and complex cultural base from which his creative impulse developed, and which also had popularized them (Nasiru, 1979); a popularity which Obafemi and Yerima (2004) in corroboration overtly attributed to the reachability of his employed techniques. KURUNMI AND OVONRAMWEN NOGBAISI, TRADITIONS UNDER SIEGE: SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC PRESSURES IN PERSPECTIVE Rotimi‘s Kurunmi and Ovonramwen Nogbaisi are quite replete with palpable pressures of incursive influences – internally and externally. The incursive elements represented in both Oyo and Benin Empires, as chronicled in these works no doubt have their overbearing socio-political, as well as economic influences that greatly threaten the people from their customary established mode of life – socially, politically and economically. This section examines these works on the background of these rather unprecedented incursions and critically analyzes their implications on the life of the people. 64 KURUNMI In Kurunmi, the tradition of the Oyo Empire, as practiced from time immemorial, is unprecedentedly ploughed into chaos by the ensued controversy over Alafin‘s rather selfish decision to change the succession policy to the office of Alafin. Sensing the imminence of his death, Alafin Atiba has called the supreme council of the empire to get them acknowledge his son, Adelu, as his successor, contrary to the dictates of tradition which required him to commit ritual suicide on Atiba‘s death, having enjoyed great power while he (Atiba) lived. Alafin Atiba‘s decision is based, perhaps on his claim to dynamism in leadership: a stance which is claimed to find essence in the mutability of tradition for the development of the society. Under the cloak of this claim of dynamism by Atiba, however, lies a contrived intrigue to carve out an empire for his children. Thus in order to achieve this intention, he had to ensure the support of Ibadan Chiefs as well as other leading Chiefs in the empire, in what appeared to Are Kurunmi as a conspiracy against their tradition as they have known it from generations immemorial. This he vehemently opposed and revolted against, insisting that tradition must prevail over individual and self wish: He agues: Kurunmi: There has been no exception to the rule, and wealthy Atiba can‘t now corrupt us to grant him special favour. (pp. 19 – 20) Time may pass but the laws of our fathers, tested and hallowed by the ways of men, live on (Untampered). That is tradition. (p. 20) He maintains that, Whenever an Alafin dies, his first son, that Alafin‘s first son, must also die with him. (p. 19) He stresses also that tradition is static; as such, neither time nor tide can affect it. Kurunmi: Time may pass but the laws of our fathers, tested and hallowed by the ways of men, live on (Untampered). That is tradition. (p. 20) Therefore, for Kurunmi, any attempt to tamper with tradition is a big threat to the cosmic order of the people. This is because of his conviction, as Crow (2000) notes, that tradition is the basic ―defining characteristic of humankind and the source of a people's identity‖ (p.40). He further emphasizes to his people the values and sacredness of tradition. Kurunmi: My people… tradition… is what makes us men. This is what makes us … people, distinct from mud… The pride of man my people, is in his tradition – something to learn from for the peace of his present: something to learn from for the advance of his tomorrow. The day the tall iroko tree loses its roots is the day the baby ant shits on its head. The day a people lose their tradition is the day their death begins… they become… Doomed. (pp. 15 – 16) Therefore, it is this conflict over the succession policy to the office of Alafin that had ignited the resultant war in which Ijaiye forces were pitched against Ibadan forces. Though what incidentally becomes evident about the prevailing circumstance is that it transcends the conflict over the succession policy. Obadiegwu (1992: 46) opines that ―at deeper levels, it is clear from the play that there is a rivalry between Ibadan and Ijaiye‖. Obature (1982) has corroborated the above statement by observing that ―since their inception, both towns (Ijaiye and Ibadan) had been jealous rivals‖ (37). Besides, Obadiegwu also sees Kurunmi in the main, as an intra-class or sociopolitical struggle among the ruling elites of Oyo Empire; and concludes that, 65 The conflict over tradition and change as presented by Rotimi in the play is merely a smokescreen to mask the real aim of the ruling class of Oyo dynasty. (p. 52) However, Kurunmi does not only contend with internal threat in his defence for the tradition of his people, he contends too with external threat represented by Reverend Mann. This alien missionary force which he represents does not only pose a threat to the indigenous and primordial socio-political existence of the people, but also to their manner of worship – religion. This is captured in the play in Reverend Mann‘s dialogue with Are Kurunmi when he, Mann, tries to get him to persuade his people to embrace Christianity: Kurunmi: Imagine me for a moment. I go to your country, and I tell your father: ‗Mr. So-and-So, from this day on, I want you to give up the ways of your fathers; cast away your manner of worship; neglect your rituals; Mr So-and-So, snub the shrines of your fathers; betray your gods.‘ Now Reverend Mann, how do you think your father would feel? Rev. Mann: The people of Oyo have accepted the Faith, and in Ibadan, the Reverend Hinderer is doing very well, not to mention Reverend Townsend in Abeokuta, and others – Kurunmi: My friend, you do not answer my question. Instead, you talk of Ibadan and Oyo and – the people of Ibadan are no people. They are horses full of muscles, small in sense. And as for Oyo, I am not surprised… (p. 35) Kurunmi, therefore, queries Reverend Mann in puzzled curiousity: ―But you ... must you too join them to uproot the sacred tradition of our race?‖ (p. 35) Perhaps, he has been so overwhelmed by the prevailing circumstances to sum up his pessimism on the development by proclaiming in seeming desperation that, ―it is the tragedy of our race‖ (p. 36). For with the eventual enthronement of Adelu as Alafin, there ensues a war in which Kurunmi solicits the assistance of the Egbas in fighting against Ibadan and her allies. Thus, he leads his people to war as Banham & Wake (1976) note, ―in response to the neglect of tradition in the inheritance of the crown of Oyo‖ (p. 45). Kurunmi chooses war, therefore, in order to protect the sacred tradition of his people under a great threat of dissolution. However, Ijaiye is eventually defeated in the battle field with the Egbas taking to their heels; as the tragedy which Kurunmi earlier foresaw finally swoops on him. So, on hearing the news of this defeat, with the death of all his five sons, Kurunmi commits suicide by taking poison. His death, therefore, marks the climax of the devastation by the overbearing pressures that assailed them as a people, and whose seeming aspirations he had been so fashioned to carry. OVONRAMWEN NOGBAISI In Ovonramwen Nogbaisi on the other hand, we see Benin Empire facing internal dissension as well as insurrections by vassal states, besides British imperialistic intrusion. Rotimi has, therefore, woven the conflict of the play around Ovonramwen‘s futile struggle against these forces which threatened to destabilize his kingdom, and which eventually got him defeated, climaxing to the consequent fall of Benin. Internally, the dissension experienced in Benin Empire is sequel to the succession conflict to the throne between Ovonramwen and his half brother, Orokhorho. Assassinations and counter-assassinations, therefore, followed Ovonramwen‘s eventual enthronement. This is manifest as the play opens with the trial of Oba‘s arch rivals: Obaruduagbon and Esasoyen. 66 Ovonramwen: Obaruduagbon! Esasoyen! – I ask you, why did you kill Uwangue Egiebo? Obaruduagbon: We ask the Oba: why did he kill our brother of the House of Iwebo? Ovonramwen: Brothers, ha! Rebels – all: Obazelu, Obarage, Eribo, Osia – the whole rout: revels! (To the chiefs) Or who here was so blind to the obstacles which those scoundrels hurled upon my rise to the throne of Adolo, my father? (To prisoners) Your brothers threw ashes in the face of a rising wind; in reply, the wind smothered them with the same ashes from their hands. And you – you killed Uwangue Egiebo. Why? Esasoyen: Uwangue Egiebo was your Chief Adviser. Ovonramwen: And what offence, that? Obaruduagbon: If a provoked houseboy cannot match his wicked master strength with strength, he maims the master‘s favourite goat! ... Ovonramween: Because the moon is dim, the eyes of little stars cast a carefree glitter. Obaduagbon, Esasoyen, and the rest of you ... your stars have this day consumed themselves in the heat of their own unwisdom. This night, you all die... (pp. 4 – 6) The eventual execution of Obaruduagbon and Esasoyen meets with disdain from most of the Benin chiefs whose loyalties to the Oba begin to wane. This perhaps explains their seeming disobedience on Oba‘s advice to be cautious with the whitemen and allow them enter Benin during the Ague festival in order to avoid trouble. At the fall of Benin, these are the very ones who persuade him to forget his status and self and submit to the British force by paying homage to Captain Roupel. These are also the very ones who in order to save themselves, betray him when he tries to hide from the whitemen, the second time, at the fall of Benin. Also, incessant insurrections from the vassal states against Benin domination continue to threaten the stability of the empire. In Akure, the Udezi has fashioned for himself state swords – an action which is symbolic of rebellion. Udezi‘s action arouses Oba‘s furious and puzzled curiousity. He questions: Ovonramwen: So is has come to this? Little tiny stars criss-crossing, under-cutting, outshining each other to rival the moon itself! Even he – Udezi! He has fashioned for himself two royal swords, I hear. Two swords of state to buttress his vanity. Okpele: That is what they say, Your Highness. Ovonramwen: Go you then and tell him: it was not to watch rascals sport with the Benin Empire, that Ovonramwen Nogbaisi became King over this sacred domain. [With quiet emphasis] I want those cursed swords … seized! (p. 9) Udezi is therefore forced to surrender those swords. The people of Agbo too are not left out in the rebellion against Benin domination and oppressive tribute. The Oba informs us that: ―the people Agbo have, of late, been getting too hot‖ (p. 21). So it becomes necessary that Ologbosere prepares a full squad of Benin soldiers to go and quell the Agbo revolt and dampen 67 their hotness. Even the people of Ekpoma too are directing their own protest against the oppressive administration of Oba‘s imperial representative in their area. Ovonramwen does not hesitate to express his frown at their action too: Ovonramwen: The snail pulls forward, the shell also pulls forward. Big towns rebel, baby towns also thrust forward. Or what is the cause of the present unease in little Epkoma? (p. 11) Despite all the internal forces that militate against Ovonramwen‘s reign in Benin Empire, what becomes the immediate cause of the spate of events that culminate to the eventual fall of the empire is the external British incursion. The British trade mission, led by Consul Philips, makes an arrogant and stubborn attempt in blatant disregard of all warnings, to enter Benin on the occasion of the Ague festival. The abomination and calamity of this action is expressed in Benin Priest‘s sad reaction to the news of the coming of the whitemen. Ohonsa: (Bitterly) Your Majesty! It is the custom that for seven days while this ceremony of Ague goes on, there must be no drumming in the land, and no visits to Benin by strangers. For two hundred years my fathers before me led this ceremony of Ague without trouble! Why I ask Your Majesty, is it in my lifetime that the madness of drumming and strange visits should break up this solemn worship and so bring eternal curse upon my head? (pp. 27 – 28) Therefore, more representational of the siege on traditions in Ovonramwen Nogbaisi is the British imperialistic incursion. This determined interference which further complicated Oba Ovonramwen‘s task of controlling the increasing rebellion in his kingdom, and of reasserting the authority of Benin over the vassal states, constitutes the greatest force of siege attendant to traditions in Benin Empire. This is a force which hinges on their trade mission to the continent. British trade mission, therefore, spearheaded the attendant social and political implications that culminated into the destabilization experienced in Benin Empire. Consul General Philips was blunt and unequivocal about British imperialistic mission to Benin Empire. Listen to his rhetorics: What then are we in Africa for? What object brings us here? Commerce… commerce brought us to Africa; commerce determines our action in Africa… (p. 32) Therefore, The conduct of trade in the colonies demands direct contact with the interior that produces the product! (p. 31) It therefore does not matter, the rapacity and ruthless determination with which this expedient mission is pursued; for they must not only consolidate on the grounds they seem to be gaining in this territory, but must also do that with determined urgency if they hope not to be ousted from this prominent commercial zone that has continued to prove rather intractable. This explains Consul Philips‘ stubborn and adamant decision to enter Benin against Akavbiogbe‘s warning and advice during the Ague festival hence his reaction to Mr. Campbell‘s reservation on the insistence to hastily enter Benin in spite of Oba‘s objection. 68 Philips: Commerce, Mr. Campbell! That is your answer! The conduct of trade in the colonies demands direct contact with the interior that produces the goods! Meanwhile Overami has placed juju on all produce from that interior. I get the complaints gentlemen. (Besides) As her majesty‘s prime representative in this protectorate, I also get the blame from London for every blasted minute that passes without an effective enforcement of the 1892 trade treaty with Benin. Of course, there would be objections from Overami: of course, Overami is bound to resort to devious means, excuses, strategems, threats, even lies to delay free trade by the Whiteman with the people of this territory. But for how long … must British trade policy remain crippled by the whims and ritual taboos of a fetish priest-King? Forever? (pp. 31 – 32) Eventually, that arrogant defiance and stubborn insistence exhibited by Consul Philips, the leader of the British team, in entering Benin during the Ague festival, despite all warnings, cost them seven lives. Benin chiefs could not take their incursion lightly. They could not comprehend why they must force themselves into Benin with such blatant disregard; an action which as Shaka (2008, 2002) indicates underlines Rotimi‘s unequivocal indictment of British imperialism as infringing on otherwise existing institutions and structures. However, true to Esasoyen‘s words regarding the Whiteman‘s supremacy at Ovonramwen‘s pronouncement of death sentence on him and Obaruduagbon, Benin really could not stand the wrath of the British who were, indeed, stronger, as the gruesome incident triggered off a spate of more incidents that culminated into the eventual fall of the kingdom. Herein lies the fact, that the British trade mission in Benin remained an insidious devastation to the established economic and socio-political existence and stability of the kingdom. The height of British economic greed is made more glaring by Rotimi at the fall of the empire with the plundering of the palace shrine by Consul Moore and his fellow British officials. They ransacked and removed elephant tusks, carvings and bronze-work materials from the shrine, all of which were believed to have later found their way in several British museums. Rotimi‘s Ovonramwen Nogbaisi dramatizes not just the economic fall of a kingdom, but also its socio-political destabilization. We see in the play, a sheer disruption of the primordial and harmonious socio-economic life of a people and the final imposition of British colonial rule on them. Conclusion In Rotimi‘s Kurunmi and Ovonramwen Nogbaisi, what is most evident is the established economic, social and political life of a people plagued by strong wave of intractable and disintegrating elements, both internally and externally. That these traditions/structures eventually fell under the weight and pressures of their siege explains the overbearing effects of their influences. References Banham, M. & Clice, W. (eds.) (1976). African Theatre Today. London: Pitman Publishers ltd. Crow, B. (2000). ―Tradition as Theme and Form in Three Nigerian Dramatists‖. ARIEL: A Review of International English Literature, 31: 3, July: pp. 29 – 51. Kalu, O. U. (1975). ―Traditions in Revolutionary Change‖. Ikenga. [Journal of the Institute of African Studies, UNN], Vol. 3, 1. Pp 53 – 58. Nasiru, A. (1979). ―Ola Rotimi‘s Search for a Technique‖. In Ogungbesan, K. (ed.) New West African Literature. London: Heinemann Educational Books Inc. Obadiegwu, C. C. (1992). ―Drama, War and Society‖. (Unpublished) M. A. Thesis, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. 69 Obafemi, O. & Yerima, A. (2004). Ideology and Stage-Craft in the Nigerian Theatre. Lagos: Booksplus Nigeria Limited. Obateru, R. (1982). ―Ijaiye – Past, Present and Future‖. Nigerian Magazine, 142: 36 – 44. Reading, H. F. (1978). A Dictionary of Social Sciences. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd. Rotimi, O. (1971). Kurunmi: An Historical Tragedy. Ibadan: Oxford University Press. Rotimi, O. (1974). Ovonramwen Nogbaisi: An Historical Tragedy in English. Benin City: Ethiope Publishing Corporation. Shaka, F. (13th and 14th April, 1998) ―Celebration Melodies for the Dramatist‖. The Guardian. Shaka, F. (2002). ―The Leadership Question in Ola Rotimi‘s Plays: A Critical Appraisal‖. Theatre Experience (A Journal of Contemporary Theatre Practice) Vol. 1, No. 1, June: 12 – 29. 70 CHUPPI TODO (BREAK THE SILENCE) – CAMPAIGN AGAINST CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE THROUGH EDUCATIONAL FILM ON SAFE AND UNSAFE TOUCH Sanjay K Singh Founder Chuppi Todo Campaign India [email protected] Abstract Child sexual abuse (CSA) is common in India with 53% children sexually abused (Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India 2007). Moreover, 50% of sexual offenders are known to the victim and boys are equally at risk as girls.With such overwhelming statistics a need for an intervention that prepared children to understand the fundamentals of touch and ways to deal with it was envisaged in the form of an educational film − ―Chuppi Todo‖ or Break the Silence. The hypothesis of the film is that if children understood unsafe touch they would say no to it and report it, thus, breaking the whole wheel of silence and guilt that perpetuates this malaise. Additionally, 30 seconds TV spots have been made that increase public awareness about CSA and encourage children to talk about it with the slogan ―Don‘t keep mum, speak to your mom‖. The format of the campaign includes interaction with children about child rights, screening of the film ―Chuppi Todo‖ on a large screen in schools and communities, followed by a discussion with child rights professionals/psychologists. The impact of the film in terms of awareness creation about CSA and how to seek help is measured through a pre and post-film questionnaire that is statistically analysed.In the current campaign, the Plan India supported Chuppi Todo film is being screened by more than 15 NGOs of Delhi. The campaign is also being supported by Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights (DCPCR).Infosys-supported pilot study was conducted in 2010 with chuppi todo film in seven cities of India by alumni of TISS and the results showed more than 92% increase in awareness levels about safe and unsafe touch. Result of Campaigning at the Community Level: Quantitative Data Analysis The effect of the use of quality films on child sexual abuse as an intervention tool for increase in awareness was measured by way of pre and post- screening questionnaires that were filled by 20 randomly selected candidates. The results of the comparison of the same question before and after the film are illustrated below in the form of graphs and the significance of the results is also discussed. Sharing of information after an unsafe touch This information was measured through the question ―If someone tries to touch your private parts, whom will you share this information with?‖ This question tries to find out who the most competent authority is for the child who they trust enough to share their feelings in the case of an unsafe touch. While the pre-screen answers showed various answers ranging from parents to friends, post screening showed that 90% would share with all their confidants i.e. parents, teacher, and friend. 71 Graph 1. Pre and post-screening comparison of responses of children about person they would share information with in the event of an unsafe touch. Types of touches This question is very important in the context of child sexual abuse. It was asked to assess the level of awareness about the classification of touches. While the pre-screening responses were unclear and based on calculated guess with some children even ticking more than one answer, the post-screening response was correct in a resounding 92% cases. Graph 2. Pre and post-screening comparison responses of children regarding knowledge of the number of touches. Knowledge of Childline number This question assessed the children‘s know of the Childline number in case of any help required. The Chuppi Todo films have been produced in a way to include the child line number so that children are empowered to report and seek help even when the awareness generation programme has move on. While the pre-test responses showed a lot of guess work as the frequency shows almost uniform distribution, the post screening response was almost 100% in favour of the correct answer. 72 Graph 3. Pre and post-screening comparison responses of children regarding Childline number. Offenders of child abuse are persons already known to children Since according to the report by the Ministry of Women and Child Development, more than 50% of abusers are known to children this fact had been built into one of the messages conveyed by the film. We posed this question to children to reiterate this fact and to assess whether it had been assimilated. 94% children gave the correct answer in the post screening survey as opposed to 49% in the pre-screen survey; thus, justifying that the message had been well received through the film. Graph 4: Pre and post-screening comparison responses of children regarding knowledge of offenders of child sexual abuse already known to children Quality of the film This question was posed to take the feedback about the overall presentation of the film Chuppi Todo. All 100% of the respondents liked the film with more than 85 % finding it good. 73 Graph 5. Response showing quality of film Qualitative Analysis of Effect of Chuppi Todo Film Screenings in the Community The research concern: The Study of Impact of Chuppi Todo films on children for awareness related to safe and unsafe touch in the context of child sexual abuse in resettlement colonies (Alamb, Bal Vikas Dhara, Navsrishti, Baliga Trust, CASP/ Plan) of Delhi from 7 May 2011 to 3o June 2011. The reasons for choosing this concern: 53% children in India are sexually abused. This black trauma is locked in the dark secret mazes of children‘s minds and the keys are thrown in a deep ocean bed which lays buried in the subconscious mind. Once in a while the black trauma is manifested in different abnormal behavior patterns in real life situations. How to avoid unsafe touch? What is an unsafe touch and what to do? What went through your mind, why couldn‘t you say no? Prevention is better than cure…the irreversible impact of CSA can be nipped in the bud if we really take this menace seriously…because the abuser is on the prowl and is taking advantage of our culture and tradition. The only way is to prepare our children to handle the worst case scenario…the fundamentals of touches Stake holders: Children groups Parents NGO Child line Police Teachers Objectives: a) To study the awareness level of children about child sexual abuse b) To study impact of Film Chuppi Todo as an intervention or instrument for awareness about safe and unsafe touch in context of child sexual abuse. c) To explore stakeholders‘ information level about the safe and unsafe touch Data collection: 74 Area: The field area is resettlement colonies (field areas of Plan partners Alamb, Bal Vikas Dhara, Navsrishti, Baliga Trust, CASP/ Plan) in Delhi. Pre and Post-screening questionnaires were used to check the awareness level. FGD using Non-participant observation method: For data collection, Focus Group Discussions (FGD) with non-participant observation method was used. The help of NGOs (Alamb, Bal Vikas Dhara, Navsrishti, Baliga Trust, CASP/ Plan – the Partner unit of Plan India) working in various resettlement colonies of Delhi was taken to organize FGDs. In-depth unstructured interviews with the groups selected from the children who came to see Chuppi Todo film: In-depth unstructured interviews of members of various children groups were conducted. The interviews were on a one-to-one basis keeping in mind the sensitive nature of the topic. The data was collected till saturation point of divergence was reached. Parents in-depth unstructured interviews: In-depth interviews of parents were also taken to assess the level of openness and awareness about child sexual abuse. The purpose was to understand the level of awareness related to safe and unsafe touch in the context of child sexual abuse. The data was collected till saturation point of divergence reached. In-depth unstructured interviews of Heads of NGO working in Mangolepuri: The data was collected till saturation point of divergence was reached. FGD guide funneling…broad to narrow 75 CONCEPTUAL MAPPING Chuppi Todo Film for awareness about Safe and unsafe touch Wide prevalence of CSA It can happen with any child Don’t keep quiet Who is the abuser? Problem situation CSA Widespread prevalence Silently tackled Most children quietly suffer, and don’t talk about CSA Parents sometimes miss out the behavioral changes Stakeholders Children and Adolescent group Parents NGO RULE NO. 1 There are parts of the human body that are supposed to be private and they are usually covered by undergarments. Child line Police It is not okay to touch someone else’s private parts. Teachers It is not okay for someone to touch his or her own private parts in front of you. Types of sexual abuse It is not okay for someone to ask you to touch his or her private body parts. Touching or fondling only It is not okay for someone to take photos Sexual manipulation It is not okay for someone to show you Intercourse/ Rape or video of you with your clothes off. photos or videos of people without clothes on. RULE NO. 2 If someone tries to break this rule, say "NO", shout and RUN AWAY. Types of touches Safe touch RULE NO. 3 TELL someone you trust Unsafe touch Duration of abuse One time Ongoing RULES of touches: Consequences of child sexual abuse: Psychological Confusing touch Physical consequence Information about Abuser Known or unknown Bad performance at school Low self esteem Shame, guilt and anger Relative (nature of relationship) Age of abuser Effect off chuppi Todo Film screening Increased awareness level in community Social withdrawal Inappropriate sexualized behavior Fear, shock and confusion Children seeking help of Child line Children seeking help of Juvenile Welfare Police Officer Abuse level coming down Better level of communication between parents and children 76 Context: The study was carried out for the period 7 May 2011 to 30 June 2010 in resettlement colonies of Delhi. (a) Geographical: Resettlement colonies of Delhi (field areas of Plan partners viz. Alamb, Bal Vikas Dhara, Navsrishti, Baliga Trust, CASP/ Plan) (b) Time: 7 May 2011 to 30 June 2010 (c) Socio-economic: The area covered under this project was around resettlement colony. Most of the people came to Delhi in search of livelihood from various states of India and settled here with their families. They are from different states, namely, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra as well as from different social, economic, and religious backgrounds. The majority of the people live in very small houses of only 8-15 yards. The average family size is over five members. Women mainly work as domestic helpers. Some older children collect polythene bags and other reusable objects from the garbage, or work as tea stall helpers, home-based artificial jewellery makers, and so on. The area is densely populated. Most of the houses are made up of brick, but in some areas the lanes are very narrow and lack ventilation. Many of them visit their native places during the summer holidays or festivals. Major economic activities of the people are daily wage labour and petty vending. Stake holders to extend the campaign Children Children groups Parents Teachers Adolescence groups NGO Child Line Effect of Campaign Awareness level increases Awareness about Juvenile Police unit Youth groups becoming stronger against CSA Adolescent group more aware about CSA Parents know how to handle children and recognize symptoms of abuse Children are aware about good and bad touches Children are able to share feelings related to CSA The abuser is scared leading to less occurrence of CSA Children feel confident to interact with police Awareness about Child line number 77 Knowledge about CWC Information on abuser Either known or not known Nature of relationship Age of abuser Types of sexual abuse Talking about sexual advances Touching the private parts Sexual manipulation Intercourse Duration of abuse One time One going Rules of touchesThe manner in which abuser entices Enticing giving incentives Black mail ThreateningProblem situation CSA Widespread prevalence Silently tackled Methods for campaigning Film screenings in community for various stake holders Tie up with local cable network across Delhi for TV spots and film screenings Advertisements with Delhi-based channels (Delhi Aajtak) and FM radio 95 FM Partnership with Live Media – network of TV screens at strategic locations like malls, offices etc. Capacity building with NGO representatives and tie up with them One-to-one interactions Journalists sensitization to disseminate information further Hypotheses: 1. The level of awareness now related to safe and unsafe touches in context of child sexual abuse is very high in resettlement colonies of Delhi (field areas of NGOs Alamb, Bal Vikas Dhara, Navsrishti, Baliga Trust, CASP/ Plan). 2. Chuppi Todo film as a means of communication has worked beautifully in the field areas and this can be replicated in other areas. 3. Children now know the difference between safe and unsafe touch. 4. The children now know how to handle abuser and they know how to use child line. 78 The Way Ahead The campaign has firmly established that screening of communication material, followed by a one-to-one discussion is a very successful methodology in communicating about CSA. Moreover, the overall response all stake holders including children of this campaign were overwhelming. 1. The current campaign was a Delhi-based one as the media campaigning and the visits to the community were undertaken only in Delhi. However, the products made for the campaign i.e. the film for children and the television spots hold universal appeal. The campaign was very well received ant there is potential for this campaign to be converted into a national level one after taking into account the language considerations. 2. The previous Chuppi Todo campaign, conducted in 2010, was with schools while this one was with the community. Hence, it is time to combine the community and schools together to make a major national level campaign in the best interests of child. 3. The films have gained international recognition as they were also screened at The Golda Meir Mount Carmel International Training Center (MCTC), at Haifa, Israel. MCTC is one of first training centers established by Israel‘s Agency for International Development Cooperation (MASHAV) attended by Sanjay K. Singh. This training was attended by delegates from 22 countries. Nepal, Belgrade, Georgia, Israel too, have shown an interest in replicating a campaign of this nature in their respective countries. However, the communication material has to be made fresh and able to capture the audiences in their respective countries the way the films did in India. Chuppi Todo was also screened at APCAAN-IPSCAN international seminar. 79 COMPREHENSIVE CHILD SURVUVAL PROGRAMME: A STUDY ON IMPACT OF ASHA ON FAMILIAL PRCATICES OF NEWBORN CARE IN INDIA Nida Siddiqui Department of Sociology and social work, A.M.U, Aligarh, U.P India [email protected] ABSTRACT: Comprehensive child survival programme was started under N.R.H.M (national rural health mission) & its primary target are neonates (children up to the age of 1 month) & infants (children up to the age of 1 yr.), to save them from untimely and preventable deaths. A UNICEF report revealed that over 700 neonates die among 1097 infants in U.P every day. This accumulates to some 3 lakh neonatal deaths annually. Incidentally expert‘s view that over 80% of these children can be saved. Familial practices of new born refer to the usual care practices carried out by mother as well as their members without knowing whether this practice is helpful or injurious to child.Familial practices are the act of caring out and supervising minor children. There is no doubt that for all children the first few months and it may be extended to five years are of great importance to child for their health. This age group has vast percentage of new born death. Childcare is one of the most important tenets of healthcare in India. It involves the optimal use of household resources for child feeding, protection from infection, and care for the sick child. The issue of 'caring capacity' refers to all household members - male and female, who are potential caretakers of children. In the present study the researcher has tried to explore the relation between the impact on ASHA and familial practices practiced by the community members by collecting data through 200 respondents. Keywords: Child survival, Familial practices, ASHA, Newborn care, N.R.H.M INTRODUCTION: Childhood mortality is a major public health problem worldwide. More children die in India than in any other country in the world. India contributes three times more child deaths than Nigeria, the country with the next highest number of deaths. Of every 1000 children born alive, barely 900 make it past their 5th birthday. In Sri Lanka 980 children survive, and in East Asia and the Pacific region 960 children survive to their fifth birthday. And of these total child deaths, more than 70% are infant deaths in India. About 70% of infant deaths are neonatal deaths.51Under-five child mortality has declined by one-third from 109 per 1000 live births in 1991-92 to74 in 20050652. Despite this progress, current child mortality rates in India are high compared to other countries of similar socio-economic conditions. The first five years are very crucial for the 51 The need for a focus on child health and nutrition, http//.202.71.128.172 /nihfw/nchrc/sites/ default / files/ CARE_Booklet_A, accessed on 17th November 2011 52 National Family Health Survey (NFHS 3), 2005 – 06, India: Volume I, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, September 2007. 80 survival of a child. In fact the most vulnerable period of a newborn‘s life is the period during birth and first week of life. According to an ICMR study nearly three quarter of all neonatal deaths occur during the first week of life, the remaining 25% of deaths occur between week two to four.53 These precious lives can be saved easily through timely intervention by inculcating proper care taking practices by the family members or care taker of the baby. This ―home based new born care‖ called as familial practice is well articulated in government policy which aimed at improving newborn survival. The key policy document that articulates this is the eleventh plan document (20072012). Familial practices of new born refer to the usual care practices carried out by mother as well as their members without knowing whether this practices is helpful or injurious to child health for instance giving pre-lacteal, giving first bath to baby before completing six day, applying anything umbilicus and keeping knife and match box near new born babies. Further it is extended to describe looking over other newborn care practices like feeding practices. Familial practices are the act of caring out and supervising minor children. It involves the optimal use of household resources for child feeding, protection from infection, and care for the sick child. The issue of 'caring capacity' refers to all household members - male and female, who are potential caretakers of children. However, in practice, the main responsibility for childcare lies with the mother. According to 11th five year plan ASHA‘S will be trained on identified aspects of newborn care during their training.54The present study help in understanding the value of these home based care practices which are strengthened by the role played by these ASHA‘ s BACKGROUND The ‗Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illnesses‘ program was launched as a pilot project in Lalitpur District in the year 2005.However, the Government of Uttar Pradesh perceived a felt need to adapt IMNCI to the context of the state since it was observed that IMNCI did not address maternal health, and AWWs and ASHAs needed to be trained on cultural issues like communicating the message taking note of the cultural sensitivities of the beneficiaries. Thus, a comprehensive child survival programme (CCSP) was designed to contextualise IMNCI to the Uttar Pradesh milieu. To address the issues of maternal health and proper communication by the community and health workers, the CCSP training included a two day additional training on maternal health and communications. CCSP was launched Uttar Pradesh in2007‐08. It was scaled up in three phases. Implementation was planned through Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs), for the following reasons: - To avoid an overlap between the work of AWWs and ASHAs; - The implementation of ICDS is weak in Uttar Pradesh; and - Ease in conducting training of ASHAs as they are a part of the Health Department. Comprehensive Child Survival Programme was initially launched during the year 2007-08, as a pilot project, which gradually was implemented in 12 blocks of Aligarh District with NRHM( launched on April 2005) as assistance providing agency and UNICEF as a funding agency. 1) OBJECTIVES To find out the feeding practices carried out by the respondents. 53 Home based new born care operational guidelines, Ministry of health & family welfare government of India 2011,http//202.71.128.172/nihfw / nchrc / sites / default / files / Government % 20Guideline %20- %20Home %20Based %20Newborn %20Care %20(HBNC) %20Operational %20Guidelines accessed on 17th November 2011 54 Home based new born care operational guidelines, Ministry of health & family welfare government of India 2011,http//202.71.128.172/nihfw / nchrc / sites / default / files / Government % 20Guideline %20- %20Home %20Based %20Newborn %20Care %20(HBNC) %20Operational %20Guidelines accessed on 17th November 2011 81 2) 3) To find out the care taking practices undertaken by the respondents. To study the impact of ASHA‘S on the familial practices carried out by the respondents. With a view to strengthen proper feeding and care taking practices for improving the health of infants. METHODOLOGY Aligarh is one of the 78 Districts of Uttar Pradesh State. Total 12 blocks, 859 Villages are in this District. Total Population of Aligarh is 2,992,286. 1,607,402 Males, 1,384,884 Females55. The literacy rate is 58%.The study was conducted in six blocks of Aligarh district namely (Dhanipur, Charrah, Jawan, Atrauli, Lodha, Khair. The data was collected from a sample size of 200 respondents who were selected through purposive random sampling, with the help of interview schedule comprising both of open ended as well as close ended questions. Out of 200 informants, 186 were mothers constituting 93% and 14 were caretakers who include Grandmother, mother-in-law, mother, sister & other family members constituting only 7%. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Number of Babies The study has highlighted the importance of maternal health, proper infant care and feeding practices and the impact of ASHA‘s on the respondent‘s practices. The need of the hour is to adopt healthy feeding practices which can save untimely and invaluable deaths among the infants. The findings are as discussed below: Sex of the Baby Out of the total sample size i.e. 200 informants, 106 were the mother /caretaker 110 of male & 94 were those of females (Figure1). 106 It is found in different research that the 105 attitude of the parents differs according to the 100 sex of the baby. Female children are Male disadvantaged relative to male children 94 Female 95 .Discrimination may operate in many areas 90 including health care, educational opportunities, feeding practices, household 85 chores and the distribution of family Sex resources (Fred, Arnold 1991)56Cultural pattern in India discriminate against female Figure 1 children and this has translated into poorer health for this group. Indian culture confers greater value on male infants seeing them both as producers and heirs. Traditionally, the male infant death rate was always greater than the female infants. But in India, the female infant death rate was only lower during the first week of month of life, after which it surpasses male infant death. This represents the complete representation of both the sexes in the total sample population.57 55 www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/View_data/Village_Profile.aspx accessed on th 28 October 2011 56 Fred Arnold .,1991,,” Sex preference for children and its demographic and health implications” Demographic and health surveys, World conference proceedings Washington DC,Vol.1:24961 57 Ghosh S.,1991,” Discriminatory all way” ; Health for millions 172: 19-23 82 Out of 200 babies, it was found that 99 were Low Birth Weight (LBW), normal babies (2.5kgs or more) were 41 and 57 babies weight were not measured. This shows that level of awareness among the respondents regarding weight checkup is good as 50% (Figure 2) of them had undertaken this important measure.On the other hand low birth weight also indicates a grim picture prevailing which accounts for 50% of the baby. Weight of the Baby at Birth 57 29% 99 50% <2.5 kgs 2.5 kg-3.0kg Not Known 41 21% Figure 2 Place of Delivery 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Home Figure 3 show that there were 70 home delivery and 130 institutionalized delivery. In the present study it was found that 20 % of the respondents ( Figure 6) who had institutionalized delivery had opted for breastfeeding which shows that there is a direct relationship between the type of delivery and breastfeeding practices. Similarly a study conducted on ―Infant feeding practices in Tamilnadu‖ on 912 children born during 1990-1994 revealed that place of delivery has played a significant role in infant feeding practices.58 Institution Figure 3 Total Number of ASHA Number of ASHAs Visit after Delivery on asking Informants 120 96 100 Not visited 80 60 60 40 20 Once Figure 4 show that 168 families were visited by ASHA‘s and 32 were left out of 200.On asking informants about ASHA visits, they responded that 7 ASHAs visited only once, 15 ASHAs visited twice, 96 ASHAs visited thrice, & 60 ASHAs visited more than 3 times. Twice Thrice 26 7 15 More than Thrice Initiation of Breast Milk after Birth 0 Frequency < 1hr 67, 36% Figure 4 76, 40% 1day 1-2days 21, 11% 24, 13% > 2 days Figure 5 58 Gunasekaran, S. ,Sankarapandian and Vansatha,L.,1995“Infant Feeding Practices in Tamilnadu’’ Health and Population perspectives and issues 23 17-24 83 INFORMATION REGARDING NEW BORN FEEDING PRACTICES OF THE FAMILY:The developmental potential of the society depends upon the level of physical and mental state of its children, for which early childhood lays the foundation. The infant mortality rate in India is very high and deaths during the weaning period are 10 to 15 times higher than industrialized countries59. Better feeding practices can make an important contribution to the reduction of mortality rates and in protection against the infantile malnutrition during the formative years of human life. In the present study out of total sample size, 188 babies were breastfed and 12 were not given breast milk.76 babies were breast fed (figure 5) within 1 hour of birth, 24 were breastfed within 1 day of birth, 21 were breastfed within 1-2 days and 67 babies were breast fed after 2 days. In spite of the recommendation given by WHO and UNICEF initiate breastfeeding within the first hour of the birth of the child,60only 40 % of the child received colostrum, the yellowish, sticky breast milk produced at the end of pregnancy, is recommended by WHO as the perfect food for the newborn.61Besides this, a study on the association between the use and knowledge of colostrums on neonatal and post natal deaths conducted in Varanasi found that the neonatal and post neo natal deaths were very low for females familiar with the importance of colostrums and feeding it.62 Initiation of Breast Feeding on whose Advise 37 Total Number 40 Self 30 ASHA 20 10 ANM 14 9 8 Figure 6 show that out of the total breastfeeding cases i.e. 76, the breast feeding was initiated on one‘s own initiative in 9 cases, 37 by ASHAs advice, 14 by doctors advise, 8 by family advice, 7 by others advice and 1 by ANMs advice. This shows that the ASHA‘S are playing an important role in improving the health status of the infant. Medical Doctor List of Persons who advised for Exclusive Breast Feeding Family Members 1 0 40 Category 35 Figure 6 No. of Babies Self 30 20 ASHA ANM 18 Medical Doctor 10 4 0 Family 2 3 Others 0 Category Figure 7 59 Gunasekaran .S, Determinants of infant and child mortality in rural India, kalpaz publications,newdelhi,2008 pp-65 60 Breastfeeding,http://www.who.int/child_adolescent_health/topics/prevention_care/child/nutrition/breastfeedin g/en/index.html accessed on 10 December 2011 61 Breastfeeding, http://www.who.int/topics/breastfeeding/en/ accessed on 10 December 2011 62 Singh K and Srivastava P., 1992, “The effect of colostrums on infant mortality: urban rural differentials”. Health and Population perspectives and issues. 1992 Jul-Dec;153-4:94-100 84 However there is the problem of lack of exclusive breastfeeding received by the respondent‘s children/ relatives. Out of 200, 59 babies only were exclusively breast fed which constitute only 30 % of total sample. Exclusive breast feeding is defined as no other food or drink (even water) except for breast milk.63 The breast feeding was sustained by own conscience in 18 cases (Figure 8), on advice of ASHA‘s in 35 cases, by doctors advice in 4 cases, by family advice in 2 cases and by other reasons in 3 cases. The extra feed (other than breast milk) was given to 141 babies which includes water to 102 babies, honey to 8 babies, gripe water to 7 babies, janam ghutti to 96 babies, cow‘s milk to 28 babies, buffalo‘s milk to 34 babies, goat‘milk to 12 babies and 14 babies were given other feeds. Figure 8 shows that the frequency of breast feeding was less than 8 times in 85 cases and more than 8 times in 115 cases. Frequency of Breast Feeding 43% 57% Less than 8 times 8 times or more than 8 times Figure 8 Figure 9 shows that out of 200 babies, 94 were given pre-lacteal feed which include powder milk in 8 cases, ghee with sugar in 2 cases, sugar with water in 11 120 cases, cow‘s milk in 22 cases, honey in 7 cases, water 102 Water 96 100 in 13 cases, janam ghutti in 10 cases, tea in 7 cases and Honey 80 pehua in 14 cases. Recent scientific research ( Troung Gripe Water 60 Janam Gutti Si anh et al 1995) makes it clear that young infants do 34 Cow Milk 40 28 not require anything other than breast milk not even 14 Buffalo Milk 20 8 7 water. Breast milk has enough water in to it to meet 2 Goat Milk 0 hydration requirements even under extremely hot and Other Type of Feed dry conditions of the country. Feeding other than breast milk, including water is not only unnecessary Figure 9 but also increase the risk of diarrhoea, risk of premature termination of breast milk intake.64In Scotland, long term benefits for children 7 years of age, who were exclusively breast fed for at least 15 weeks from birth, included a significantly reduced probability of ever having a respiratory infection or wheeze, and a lower systolic blood Number of Baby Type of Extra Feed given along with Breast Milk 63 Gibney Michael j, Margetts M Barrie, Kearney M John and Arab Lenore,(2004)Public Health Nutrition, published by Blackwell Publishing Company,Oxford pp-253 64 Pandaya Rameshwari,2008 Women welfare & empowerment in India, vision for 21st century, New century publications, New Delhi pp65 85 pressure. Swedish preschool infants who were breast fed for less than 13 weeks were found to have a significantly increased risk of Haemophilus influenza meningitis, the risk decreasing with every additional weak of exclusive breast feeding. In Latin America, it has been estimated that 13.9% of all the infant deaths could be prevented by exclusive breastfeeding, translating into 52000 preventable deaths for that area65.Although exclusive breastfeeding is advised till about 6 months of age, the NFHS-1 data revealed that about 51% of the lactating mother in the country practice exclusive breastfeeding at 3 months of age.66The prevalence has not shown a significant improvement even in the second round of NFHS which shows that only 19.4% of the infants are exclusively breastfed at 6 months of age and 54.2% at 3 months of age. 67Further percentage has dropped from 54.2 to 51% at 2 – 3 months of age in the 3rd round of NFHS.68 INFORMATION REGARDING NEWBORN CARE PRACTICES OF THE FAMILY:List of External Things been Applied on Umbilicus 60 No. of Babies Out of 200, in 88 cases external lubricants were applied on Umbilicus while in 112 cases (Figure 10) it was as per the norm. It was not applied on the advice of ASHA in 8 cases, ANM in 6 cases, Medical/Doctors in 8 cases, family members in 22 cases, 57 50 Oil 40 Ghee Powder 30 Antiseptic Cream 20 10 15 8 Kajal 4 4 Others 0 0 Items (Figure 10) relatives in 16 cases, others in 1 case and in 27 cases the mother didn‘t applied on her own.A lot of external things were applied on umbilicus which includes oil in 57 cases, ghee in 8 cases, powder in 15 cases, antiseptic cream in 4 cases, and kajal in 4 cases. 65 Gibney Michael j, Margetts M Barrie, Kearney M John and Arab Lenore,2004 Public Health Nutrition, published by Blackwell Publishing Company, Oxford pp-265 66 Indian Institute for Population Science.1995.NFHS (MCH & Family Planning), India 1992-93, Bombay, IIPS 67 Indian Institute for Population Science.2000.( NFHS -2) 1998-99, Bombay, IIPS 68 Indian Institute for Population Studies & Macro International.2007 NFHS.(NFHS-3 )2005-06 India, Vol-1, Mumbai: IIPS 86 S.No. Percentage 1 First bath given to Total Number infant Immediately after birth 63 2 With in 1 hour 2 1% 3 Within 1 day 9 4.5% 4 Within 1-3 days 44 22% 5 6 (Table 1) After 3 days Total 84 200 42% 100% 31.5% Table 1 shows that the number of babies who are given first bath immediately after birth was 63 in which bath was given within 1 hr in 2 cases; bath was given within 1 day in 9 cases, and within 1-3 days in 44 cases. Rest of the babies were given bath after three days due to the advice of ASHA in 33 cases, Mother in 26 cases, family in 11 cases, doctor in 6 cases, relatives in 22 cases and client own self in 30 cases. INFORMATION RELATED TO KNOWLEDGE OF MOTHER/CARETAKER REGARDING CARE PRACTICES:The method used to keep the baby warm included wrapping the baby in warm clothes in 142 cases, applying hot oil in 3 cases, applying medicines in 13 cases, 06 cases by using KMC and 27people were unaware how to keep baby warm.Out of 200 mothers & caretakers only 29 were aware about Kangaroo Mother Care and out of them only 10 were performed it. On asking the informants, 40 will contact ASHA, 94 will contact to Doctors, 14 will contact to Family Members, 16 will contact their husband, 12 will contact their mother and neighbours and 8 think that they don‘t need to contact anybody. On asking that when will you will take the baby to the hospital – 93 responded that in case of fever, 21 responded in case of cold & Cough, 4 responded in case of too much weeping, 37 responded in case of diarrhea, 11 responded in case of Pneumonia and pain, 5 in case of vomiting, and 31 don‘t know about the danger signs. On asking the informants about seeking help, 52 responded the name of husband, 59 from Family Members, 66 from ASHA, 03 for Doctors, 07 from Grand-Mother, 5 from Mother, 02 from neighbours and 11 clients themselves and 04 will ask nobody On asking informants in case of illness, 153 will visit Doctors, 02 to family members, 03 to husband, 01 to religious leader (Pandit), 14 to RMPs, 09 to Private Practitioners and 05 to their concerned ASHAs. CONCLUSION Thus on the basis of above data collected it is quite clear that the advantages of breastfeeding are many ranging from inexpensive, readily available form to convenient and hygienic quality, it has been found by several researches that even the children who are living in unhygienic conditions and are breast fed are protected against certain diseases and have high immunity power which suits best to our Indian society where the common mass is still deprived of basic facilities. The impact on the mother are also welcoming as it is a natural way to delay the menstrual cycle and 87 thus creates a natural spacing between children, moreover mothers who breastfed their children are more protected against diseases like ovarian cancer and feels less sick. Breast feeding is actually a god‘s gift to all the women and their babies, especially if one talks of condition where the resources are few, as it is a natural method and the women need not be dependent on any external factor. But most of the time it is seen that this opportunity is not used properly, even in the present study it was found that in cases where breast feeding was done there were certain drawbacks like in-exclusive breastfeeding, discarding of colostrum. It was also found in84% of the cases respondents were reported to have been visited by ASHA‘s, while 18.55 % reported to have initiated breastfeeding on the advice of ASHA, 33% were reported to seek help from ASHA in case of any problem, while 17.5% were reported to have been advised to do exclusive breastfeeding by ASHA‘s and 16.5% were reported to gave bath to their babies after 3 days on the advice of ASHA. This shows that ASHA‘s are quite successful in making their impact among the respondents and they are the one who were found to be trusted by the respondents, so, the need of the hour should be to promote such ground level initiatives as the problem persists among the common and the deprived masses who are still too far from satisfactory and for their upliftment and betterment leaders like ASHA‘s are required who besides performing role of a mobilizer, caregiver, counselor, advisor, mediator is the one who is one from them and for them only. REFERENCES 1)Breastfeeding,http://www.who.int/child_adolescent_health/topics/prevention_care/child/nu trition/breastfeeding/en/index.html accessed on 10 December 2011 2)Breastfeeding, http://www.who.int/topics/breastfeeding/en/ accessed on 10 December 2011 3)Fred Arnold .,1991,,‖ Sex preference for children and its demographic and health implications‖ Demographic and health surveys, World conference proceedings Washington DC,Vol.1:24961 4)Ghosh S.,1991,‖ Discriminatory all way‖ ; Health for millions 172: 19-23 5) Gibney Michael j, Margetts M Barrie, Kearney M John and Arab Lenore,(2004)Public Health Nutrition, published by Blackwell Publishing Company,Oxford pp-253 6)Gunasekaran,S.,Sankarapandian and Vansatha,L.,1995―Infant Feeding Practices in Health and Population perspectives and issues 23 17-24 Tamilnadu‘‘ 7)Home based new born care operational guidelines, Ministry of health & family welfare government of India 2011,http//202.71.128.172/nihfw / nchrc / sites / default / files / Government % 20Guideline %20- %20Home %20Based %20Newborn %20Care %20(HBNC) %20Operational %20Guidelines accessed on 17th November 2011 8)Indian Institute for Population Science.1995.NFHS (MCH & Family Planning), India 1992-93, Bombay, IIPS 88 9)Indian Institute for Population Science.2000.( NFHS -2) 1998-99, Bombay, IIPS 10)Indian Institute for Population Studies & Macro International.2007 NFHS.(NFHS-3 )2005-06 India, Vol-1, Mumbai: IIPS 11)Pandaya Rameshwari,2008 Women welfare & empowerment in India, vision for 21st century, New century publications, New Delhi pp65 12)Singh K and Srivastava P., 1992, ―The effect of colostrums on infant mortality: urban rural differentials‖. Health and Population perspectives and issues. 1992 Jul-Dec;153-4:94-100 13)The need for a focus on child health and nutrition, http//.202.71.128.172 /nihfw/nchrc/sites/ default / files/ CARE_Booklet_A, accessed on 17th November 2011 14)www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/View_data/Village_Profile.aspx accessed on 28th October 2011 89 BRANDING IN SERBIAN RURAL TOURISM Milena Vukić, Milena Popović, Marija Kuzmanović [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] University of Belgrade, Faculty of Organizational Sciences, Jove Ilica 154, Belgrade, Serbia Abstract To become competitive in the global world market, as a relatively new destination for rural tourism, we need to know how to use existing resources and to prove capable of coping with new challenges. The road to this great accomplishment goes through branding, because only with the help of branding it is possible to achieve recognition of Serbian rural product. That, first of all, implies a reformatory process of searching for our renewed, that is redesigned identity, networking of various industries, as well as their integration. In such a context, rural tourism of Serbia should not be isolated within a particular segment of the whole, rather it should master those universal principles upon which the world is organized today, which is a unique and dynamic tourist product, and should be gradually turned into a brend thanks to its added value. Keywords: rural tourism branding, image of rural areas, tourist product, semiotic analysis, branding attraction. INTRODUCTION Today, when most products have the same quality, and the market becomes saturated, branding is becoming a very powerful force. Thanks to branding, it is possible to achieve recognition for each product, and therefore the tourism product (offer) as well, and to make differentiation from competition. Some countries opt for an integrated product branding of the country as a tourist destination, while others see their opportunity in branding partial tourism products. Starting from the rich cultural and historical heritage, natural and built attractions, it is possible to create a destination product, and make it recognizable as a tourist destination. For a tourist destination, brand is very important because it represents more than products and services, as it includes trust and emotions. Destination becomes a brand only if it is permeated with high values. In the international market, there is still not enough awareness of Serbia as a tourist destination, mainly due to the fact that there is no recognizable tourist product to convey the image of desired positioning of tourism. Villages of Serbia, with its expanses of intact forests, mountains, vineyards and hunting-fishing zones, could become a trademark of Serbia as tourist destination in total, as they already have a strong identity. THE IMAGE OF RURAL AREAS AS A BASIS FOR THEIR BRANDING Branding a tourist destination can be very complex. In the case of rural tourism, rural destination could be branded, or it could be products, services and employees, given they create key benefits in interaction with customers, so that rural product of Serbia represent a mix of brands. Branding is the process by which tourist organizations try to create desired perception of a tourist destination as a specific product, as well to encourage consumers to associate the country with a tourist destination. It is a process by which a country stands out and individualize its offer compared to the offer of competing countries. The brand consists of a name, phrase, symbol, logo, design, and a combination of all these elements which helps to recognize the product, and as means of differentiation from the competition (Kotler, Bowen and Makens, 2005). Branding is actually giving power of the brand 90 to specific products and services. Branding is based on making a difference. To brand a product, it is necessary to instruct and educate consumers. "What" is the product, ―what‖ is achieved by using different elements of the brand, and "why" consumers should pay attention. Branding involves creating mental structures and it helps consumers to organize their knowledge about products and services in a way that will clarify the decision. Branding a tourist destination means communicating the values, vision and mission to the staff in various tourist organizations, to the country's population and its tourists. A brand is more than a product or service and must not be a promise that can not be achieved. People who promote the development of certain forms of tourism have to be responsible for promoting and ensuring a favorable brand image. It is achieved by developing awareness of the destination, then knowledge, as someone who is aware of the existence of rural tourism in Serbia need not to know anything about its tourist offer. Introducing a consumer with the tourist product aims at creating good feelings and preferences, as one country could be liked by tourists but not the preferred one compared to competing countries. In order to build consumer preference, consumers must be introduced to advantages of the country, that will lead to decision to visit it. Marketing advantages that each destination can achieve from branding include the following (Kotler et al., 2005): • Tourism product is easy to identify and differentiate thanks to brand; • Global brand increases the range of tourism product acceptance, by agencies and tourists; • The reaction of consumers to the price increase is more inelastic; • The reaction of consumers to the price reduction is more elastic; • Simplifies the selection of products, reducing the risk when buying and provides emotional benefits; • More effective marketing communications; • Less sensitivity to competitive marketing actions; • Increased loyalty. For a destination to become a brand, it is necessary for all tourist organization to participate in the process of branding, national, regional and local, as well as to establish cooperation with all stakeholders. Attention must be paid to the following activities: infrastructure development, tourism product development, protection of natural environment, changes in organizational culture and promotion. In order to identify the needs and wishes of consumers, it is necessary to continuously work on market research. Other phases are: development of brand identity, brand launching (introduction), brand implementation and monitoring, evaluation and revision of the brand (Morgan, Priitchard and Pride, 2006). Brand as a reflection of quality needs a developed quality system. It is necessary to invest in accommodation facilities, security, traffic control, sanitary services, public services. The villagers and homeowners must be educated when it comes to tourism. For a Serbian village to create a positive image, it is necessary to establish contacts with visitors, with employees and population of tourist destination, because an image must be created from within. Employees must be ambassadors of positive impressions and they must believe that the performance of their tourist product is authentic. Only then can visitors enjoy a unique and unforgettable experience which can not be experienced elsewhere. It is necessary at the same time to create a product and build an image. Branding should provide a new dimension to brand identity, connecting with people on a personal, holistic level, where in addition to closeness, pillars of branding are sensory experience, imagination and vision also. While creating a brand image of the village, one should know that the brand represents a set of strategic ideas arising from personal fascination and personal fantasies, such as social interaction, aesthetic experiences and events. To build the image of rural destinations, it is necessary for them to possess the appeal that will keep travelers at least several 91 days. Passengers should be allowed to continually explore things, which would consist of linking rural tourism with other forms of tourism such as wine, mountain and spa tourism. Numerous studies show that the country's image significantly affects the re-visit of a certain destination. Many have rated this factor as one of the most important when making decisions on re-visit destination. Other factors include: natural beauty, climate factors, traffic connectivity, security, etc. The rich cultural heritage, hospitality of people, healthy food, wine tours, fresh air and much more, are just some of the attractions that have not been used in sufficient scale in designing the image of rural products. Image of Serbia as a tourist destination hasn‘t been built adequately, which may have a negative effect on creating the image of Serbian rural tourism. PRODUCT PORTFOLIO IN RURAL TOURISM The term "tourism product" can be used just conditionally, since it includes a series of partial "products" (different products) used by tourists to meet the needs, in their discretion. The main part of the "tourism product" includes services. Most of the total tourist expenditure is attributed to various services and only a small part to the material and tangible products. Other spendings include pure services such as transportation, guides, excursions, treatments, cultural events and so on. Tourist destination product is a set of tangible and intangible elements, which, as a combination of attractive, receptive and communicative factors, could meet the customers needs and desires of tourists, chosing the right combination of these elements in their own discretion. Rural tourism is usually the second or third holiday, and lasts longer than 10 days. The product is very seasonal, with demand peaks in spring (March - May) and autumn (September - October). It is highly price elastic. Many authors believe that every rural tourism destinations should have their product portfolio consisting of attractions that could be "seen", attractions that could be "bought", and attractions in which you can ―participate‖. • attractions that could be "seen" are primarily passive; they mainly include tours of local sights, monasteries, traditional houses, historic places. • attractions that could be "bought" are part of rural products which are tangible, and visitors could take home: souvenirs, food and drink. These last two categories are particularly important in realizing the economic benefits, in expression of local identity, and in creating the vital network-market of farmers, shops selling local products, village fairs and tours of food and beverage suppliers. • attractions in which you can "participate" can be hiking, horseback riding, bird watching. Market niche here may be represented by creative workshops and schools of painting, sculpture, yoga (Hall, Kirkpatrick and Mitchell, 2005). Product portfolio in rural tourism could be composed of specialized products being specialized, which is the most common case, or of "tailor made" products, where visitors can create their own offer (product mix). For the organizers of these trips, specalized product is much more relied on existing market segments, allowing to focus on the image of the destination itself. Increasing the line width and depth of rural products can include many segments of consumers. Since the rural tourism relies mainly on domestic tourists, following steps are necessery to ensure long lasting development of this product: • Development of a central reservation system in rural tourism at the destination (country, region) level, and subsequently connecting to the rural tourism booking systems of Europe; • Creating a system of standard offers of rural facilities (quality housing, food, staff, putting bids on the Internet); • Create a calendar and schedule of local events, festivals and events, aimed at promoting domestic sales; • Initiation of inter-regional (and / or cross-border) cooperation; 92 SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS In marketing, communicating with consumers relies on so-called.semiotic analysis. The application of semiotics in branding is of great benefit due to the fact that all signs and symbols in the environment are consciously or unconsciously interpreted by consumers, where the meaning of things is created depending on their socio-cultural experiences and traditions. Brands are positioned and brand image is built using characters, image, and consumers develop positive or negative attitudes that affect the purchase (Hall et al.,2005). With all attempts to convey intangible qualities of material culture, analysis of the meaning of advertising is not an exact science. Opportunities for rational and convincing interpretation of messages are numerous, which makes no version everlasting. In a case of rural tourism, the subject of semiotic analysis are controlled messages and symbols, designed to project the image of rural areas to potential consumers and stimulate connection and desire for visit. The interest, in addition to signs that promote a specific place, should be based on identifying and interpreting values and myths of rural, but also the wider political, economic and cultural context, in which these meanings are created and consumed. Semiotic analysis is used primarily to identify the type of product or service to be offered in market. Then the entrepreneur or tourist organizations choose to select the logo that marks a specific product or destination (as a visual element of the Serbian village, some of the motives of the handworks that would become universal for the total of Serbia could be chosen). Also, it is important to asocciate the sign of the product and the way it is perceived by consumers. In Serbia, certain chaos in the promotion of villages could be observed. Non-existing printed material in many cases is just the beginning of the problems we are dealing with, when it comes to promotion. What is the bigger problem is that we have shortcomings with the placement of our services when the online promotion, as a far cheaper form of promotion. Each rural tourism promotional material should include written text, images, but also slogans (short phrases pronounced by attractive font size, position or design) and maps. Most promotional materials of rural areas of Serbia applies only to rural households (mainly accommodation and breakfast, specialized shops selling souvenirs and local products) rather than pointing to the possibility of using offers from a wider environment. Slogans and logos are the two most common techniques used to establish the image and identity of a product (in this case the destination) in the minds of consumers. Like any system of signs, these systems often have a second or even more meanings, besides the literal meaning of which particular care should be taken when positioning in foreign markets. Slogans should be short, simple and easy to remember, but first of all they should captivate consumer‘s attention and arouse strong positive impressions with branded destination. Analyzing the propaganda of rural areas in the United States, one could come to the conclusion that there are at least four dominant themes ie. code in the promotional slogans (Butler, Hall and Jenkins, 1998): "Environment" - nearly half of slogans (45%) have been using this theme that can be divided into three specialized code: the experience of place, nature and landscape. Rural areas offer an experience of "fun", "discovery", "satisfaction", "magic" and "much more to explore". Natural connotation is conveyed by labels that include "land, water, air and fire," "sand, sun, snow", while the landscapes are full of "wild", "resources", "Wonderland". "Ideal Community" - 26% of the slogans have been ideal community as a promotional theme. Tourists are invited to "come to the village", "to relax and enjoy" in "friendly community" where "you come as a guest and leave as a friend." "Location advantages" - going to the village has its advantages, according to 15% of the slogans. Some of them let you know that you are "in the economic center", "the cradle of country music" or "where the fun begins". 93 "Legacy" - the historical identity have been stressed in only 14% of rural communities, using phrases like "turn the clock back in time", "return to childhood", "discover the best of your past". They have also been using 4 groups of symbols in branding their rural areas: symbols that represent 64% of the natural environment - there are wild animals, trees, water, flowers and vegetation, insects. Symbols which represent the legacy 20%, of historical buildings, ancient objects, tools, ancient clothes. Symbols related to agriculture 16% - grains, livestock, farm tools, rural buildings and recreation 12% - sports equipment, cars, camp fire. THE ROLE OF ATTRACTIONS IN BRENDING OF RURAL TOURISM Attractions as a set of elements inside destination environments, which serve alone or in combination as the main motive for visiting tourists, represent just one of several components of tourist system. Other components include: an informational component that includes a greater emphasis on promotional mix and other information affecting the demand to be directed to offer; features of the tourists, their cultural level, seasonality of tourist traffic; traffic infrastructure and housing, food, fun, entertainment and so on. Rural manifestations events are not just a product, but also experience and enjoyment that affect the tourists to feel like part of the story. The main characteristics of the events are following: limited in duration, occur rarely or only once, offering social experience, they are unusual, raising awareness of the region, creating a positive image and attract tourists and thus affect the development of tourism in general (Bodwin, Allen, O‘Toole, Harris and McDonnell, 2007). Rural manifestations and their organization have a very important role in the economy, culture and the promotion of rural areas. Organizers of such events can use many tactics to cover their costs, such as sponsorships, rental of advertising space as well as space for displaying, selling food, drinks, souvenirs, etc.. But if you compare all these events, small number of them have a primary role to return money to the organizers but most of them helps to attract tourists who otherwise would not have opted for this form of tourism. Various activities throughout the year help in overcoming the problem of seasonality. The events which can be organized regardless the season are: schools in the countryside, exploring old tools, sports competitions, animal feeding, farm sightseeing and walk through nearby forest. Most people engaged in organizing events instinctively knows or quickly learns that all local events should be based on existing cultural and natural resources because they are a strong foundation for creating a strategy of one place branding. Since ancient times there were wine roads going through our country as well. In recent years, small wineries are popular, that addition to production of wine possess cellars for tasting and drinking wine, a few small apartments, homemade food accompanied by the flavor and aroma of wine. This is an interesting model for which the state is interested as well, as higher education institutions, for placing on the domestic and foreign markets. In mid-September in Vrsac, Days of vintage" are organized, acompanied with competition in the trampling of the grapes, selling exhibition of grapes and wine, as well as competition for the best vineyard. Although most of the events is used to support the existing image of the village, creating a new event would be an effective way to create a new image of this region in the minds of urban consumers. This would greatly impact the positioning of rural products in urban markets. In the promotion of such events and destinations, we could use the help of foreign countries practice that know how to make the interesting from the simplest facts, especially when it comes to the hometowns of celebrities. Such festivals are GlennMiller of Iowa, or Judy Garland Festival in Minnesota. In addition to celebrities, we can use many other subjects, the Festival of White daisies could easily be started, so the Avala tower gatherings, as the Miroč mountaing gatherings became popular, or religious gathering, Lady of Medjugorje, in Croatia. 94 ATTRACTIONS THAT COULD BE BOUGHT Our country has a significant rural eco resources upon which healthy organic food could be successfully produced. Representatives of Ministries and the National Association for the development of organic production, "Serbia Organica", agreed that the Serbian demand for organic products is growing, but the future of the industry lays in exports to European markets. Natural food without chemical additives are not found in all parts of Serbia, because only a small number of stores in Belgrade and Novi Sad in its range has products of organic origin. Food from organic farming is presently produced on 2400 acres. There are about 80 registered organic producers in Serbia. The largest portion, almost 90% of organic products from Serbia is directed to export markets of the European Union, United States and Japan. We live in difficult and turbulent times and have less and less time to think about ourselves, the environment and food we use in our diet. Only when the damage to our health is recognised we begin to understand what we lost and how it is difficult to recover. Village and rural areas offers tremendous opportunities, not only to improve our health from time to time, but to permamently bond ourselves to the rural eco pantry. In the developed world, there are concepts of healthy foods relied mostly on food production in rural and attested areas. Such food could be bought in supermarkets and is often called organic, eco or healthy, natural food, green treasury etc. Some hotels invest in advance for certain biocultures at certain hosts, and thus promote a healthy natural organic food that is served in their hotels. The state should use credit policy, low interest rate loans and grants to encourage and help rural people in the controlled production of healthy food with the application of HACCP. Mediation of state institutions between the hotels and producers of organic food on the other side would be very important, which could be best seen in the example of Greece (Skuras, Dimara and Petrou, 2006) In branding of these products, retail environment as well as their packaging is of great importance. Generally, the service environment includes external and internal appearance of buildings, with additional furniture, equipment, etc, but also the spirit of people indoors, and a host of other factors. Service ambience plays an important role in facilitating service delivery activities. The service environment should provide information to tourists on services offered. It also plays an important role in the socialization process of employees and visitors, communicating the expected behavior, roles and relationships between employees and guests. The service environment represents at the same time a kind of service package, and should be designed to affect the image of the product, but also to cause sensory and emotional reactions. The service environment serves to differentiate the company from the competition or similar centers. It should also affect the socialization of consumers, enabling them certain roles, behavior and relationships. There are numerous elements that affect the spirit. environment, the most important are: music (eg faster tempo and louder music raises the level of vibrancy and activities of people), smells (a strong influence on mood, emotion and evaluation, and purchase intentions and behavior in the store), color (warm and cool colors have different effects on consumers), temperature, lighting, noise. Retail space with farm products should be inspired with rural motifs and consistently reflecting the brand image. Purchase of rural products can easily become a family entertainment and an unforgettable and exciting experience, if consumers are enjoying what they see, smell, hear and feel. It is very simple to organize branded entertainment playgrounds, such as small farm with cows, pigs, chickens and other animals near the parking lot, which would be the attraction for kids and parents. It is possible to play original cartoons where they the addresses of rural households from which products come could be read. The whole environment should provide great credibility in terms of freshness of products, so consumers could enjoy a variety of flavors, and be served with coffee, juice, or buy some traditional Serbian food at the kitchen that exists inside the store during their tour. Thes eshops 95 should be focused on providing what is usually related to Serbian village products: quality, freshness, abundance, and a friendly atmosphere. Good packaging of rural products is necessary for several reasons. In addition to marking and shortening the time for seeking such products, it should establish sensual relationship with the product also. Its design should be such to emphasise itself on the shelves, and thus increase our expectations and even force us to think about buying this product category. Budgets for advertising these products are very small so packaging is the element that will attract customers' attention. To be functional, it should enable the product: • Easy visibility and recognition • informations • To create emotional needs and • Provide product protection, shipping, handling and storage until use. The current packaging design of rural products generally looks the same. Besides the basic functions to protect the goods from the farms to shop, and provide the relevant product information (weight, composition and product bar code) it must also tell a story which will create an emotional dimension to the brand. New living trends such as the environment, humane treatment of animals, caring for the environment, healthier lifestyles and increasing need to explore new products support the branding of healthy foods and transmission of sensory and emotional message through interesting packaging. CONCLUSIONS The positioning of Serbian rural areas in the world market implies the existence of a quality tourism product, design of a communication strategy that would make the tourism product become recognized aso the tourists prefer it over other competing destinations. Therefore it is necessary to keep in mind that destination image is one of the important factors in creating a destination brand. Branding this form of tourism means communicating values, mission and vision to tourists. For Serbian village to became a brand, it must cause a feeling of credibility of its own quality. The modest additional offer of households could be overcame by linking with other forms of tourism, but what should be done mostly is to raise awareness of rural tourism entrepreneurs, and convince them that tourism is a great opportunity. Considering the life of tourists is becoming more complex and faster, and they have less time to spend, the ability of brands to simplify the decision where to spend your vacation is priceless. Branding of Serbian village is a long-term process and the results could not be achieved in the short term. The brand must fulfill and surpass all expectations of guests - related to products / services, and experiences that awaits them, as guests should always be surprised with little things. Branded destinatios or products are synonymous with certain quality. Satisfied tourists could easily re-opt for a rural household, where loyalty allows predictability and certainty in demand. It is necessary to ensure good and continuous communication that will give tourists a good reason and clear explanation of reasons why they should chose Serbia, as a rural tourism destination. The brand should be always represented through visual identities such as logo, slogan, promotional material, internet presentations, etc. The positioning of Serbia as a relatively new rural tourism destination should always emphasise the belonging to the rural tourism products, tourist product of Serbia, and then point to the diversity of its elements compared to competitors in the region. 96 REFERENCES 1. Bodwin, G., Allen, J., O‘Toole, W., Harris, R.. and McDonnell, I. (2007). Events Management, Butterworth and Heinemann, Oxford. 2. Butler, R., Hall, C.M. and Jenkins, J. (1998). Tourism and recreation in rural areas. John Wiley&Sonsltd, England. 3. Hall, D., Kirkpatrick, I. and Mitchell, M. (2005). Rural Tourism and Sustainable Business. Channel View Publication, England, 90. 4. Kotler, P., Bowen, J. and Makens, J. (2005). Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism. Pearson Education. 5. Morgan, NJ., Priitchard, A. and Pride, R. (2006). Destination Branding- creating the unique destination proposition. Butterworthand Heinemann, Oxford. 6. Skuras, D., Dimara, E. and Petrou, A. (2006). Rural Tourism and Visitors‘ Expenditures for Local Food Products. Regional Studies, Vol. 40.7, pp. 769–779. 97 The Americans led developed countries have been behaving communism Xu Han-You. Professor of China Academy of Management Science Doctor in charge of western internal medicine. Department of internal and emergency medicine, clinical institute, Workers hospital of Nanyang textile corporation, Henan province, China. Address: Department of internal and emergency medicine,Workers hospital of Nanyang textile corporation, Nanyang city Changjiang RD No.200, Henan province, China. Post Codes: 473125. Telephone: 0086-15518962531. Email:[email protected] or [email protected]. Word Count: 2897. ABSTRACT There is a new breakthrough politics theory that was first concluded by the author. The new theory is being supported by lots of facts. The new theory may prevent worldwide war and bleeding and promote peace and development. It is known to all that the politic system of China is so called mainly communism. Lots of facts indicate that the Americans lead developed countries have been behaving communisms. From the civil war of the America to the No. 1 country in the world, from the foreign and inner policy of the United States, the United States of the America has been doing the communism in principle. So as the other developed countries, like United Kingdom, Sweden, etc.. The United States has a long history of extending a helping hand to those people overseas struggling to make a better life, recover from a disaster or striving to live in a free and democratic country. It is this caring that stands as a hallmark of the United States around the world -- and shows the world their true character as a nation in expanding democracy and making a better life for all. The Americans lead developed countries used to spend lots of on the international issues, like peace, development and security, even waging war to achieve their fair viewpoint. Though there are some disagrees with their behaving. Though the Americans lead developed countries do not consider communism as their philosophy. But the principle spirit is the same as that of the countries of communism. In fact, they are the new types of communism countries. The new breakthrough politics theory can pave the way for peace and development around the world and prevent worldwide from war and bleeding. If we adopted to the new politics theory. The world would be better and better. Keywords: Communism; China; Americans; Developed countries; Peace and development; Politics theory. 98 1. Introduction When the world-wide people are striving for peace, equality, fairness and development. The world is not peace or fair. The bleeding and unfair events are outbreaking from time to time. The development has not reached up to now. The politic difference among the countries has been preventing the mankind from peace, equality, fairness, development and happy life. The countries of communism politics system and the countries of capitalism politics system are separated by man-made philosophy barrier. The barrier had been causing some wars and make worse effect on peace and development. The man-made philosophy barrier should not be the obstacles to world-wide peace, equality, fairness and development. Because the communism politics system and other politics systems, mainly the capitalism politics system of the American led developed countries, are not different in principles. The author has found that the Americans lead developed countries have been behaving communisms. There are lots of facts to indicate that conclusion. The man-made philosophy barrier in the world will be ended when we understand that the Americans lead developed countries have been behaving communism. 2. Present Comparison: When we compare the present communist system to the capitalism system. We shall compare the Chinese politics system to the politic system of the United States of American. Because the Chinese politics system is the principal representative of communist system. While the politic system of the United States of American is the representative of capitalism system among the developed countries and other countries. The capitalism system was named not by the United States of American led developed countries. But was named by the countries of communist system, especially the Chinese politicians and scholars. But what the communist system is at present countries of communist system? It is known to all that the Chinese politics system is so called mainly communism system. But in China, it is said that the Chinese politics system is a country of multiple politics systems at present. The well known definition of the Chinese politics system is called ―one country, two systems‖ by the politicians of China. That is to say there are at least two politics systems in China. One is communist system. One is capitalism system. The two systems are living in the same environment at P, R, China. Theoretically to say, the communist system is super to the capitalism system. China should not do back from the totally pure communist system to the present ―one country, two systems‖. While practically to say, the Chinese communist system is the same as Chinese capitalism system. Because the ―one country, two systems‖ in China is just to do well for the Chinese people and even for the world people. But at present, It is reported by The New York Times that the Americans led developed countries troops have helped make Afghanistan safe for Chinese own investment. 1 The multiple united developed countries troops have been fighting for peace, fair and freedom in Afghan. They have spent lots of money and life to pursue their goal. There are something of peace and safe at present in Afghan. The environment for peace and development are coming at Afghan. The investment in Afghan is good for all countries. But China first grabbed the chance. Which seems it is not fair at the special situation. Which the investment environment is difficulty to get and guard. But there is no sense that any government objects to that reality. As the politicians, diplomats and soldiers alike stress, the war in Afghanistan was never motivated by 99 commercial prospects. Had an American company won the investment in Aynak of Afghan, some Afghans noted wryly, critics inevitably would have accused the United States of waging war to seize the country‘s mineral wealth for his own purpose. Moreover, if China succeeds in developing Aynak and generating revenue for the Kabul government, that helps achieve an American goal. Two years ago, the China Metallurgical Group Corporation, a Chinese stateowned conglomerate, bid $3.4 billion — $1 billion more than any of its competitors from Canada, Europe, Russia, the United States and Kazakhstan — for the rights to mine deposits near the village of Aynak. Over the next 25 years, it plans to extract about 11 million tons of copper — an amount equal to one-third of all the known copper reserves in China. The New York Times also reported that Afghanistan is not the only place where the United States and China find themselves so oddly juxtaposed in the post-9/11 world. 1 China is investing more in extracting Iraqi oil than American companies are. It has reached long-term arrangements to buy gas from Iran, even as the government there comes under the threat of Western sanctions for its nuclear program. China has also become a dominant investor in Pakistan and volatile parts of Africa. Comparing the China, the communist system country, to the Americans led developed countries, the countries of so called capitalism systems, the China should be more intention for international peace, democracy and development. Not just for China himself. While the Americans led developed countries, the countries of so called capitalism systems, just have helped make Afghanistan, Iraqi, and other countries or areas safe for more Chinese investments. Therefore, at least at these points, the Americans led developed countries, the countries of so called capitalism systems, are more communism than China. Simply to say, the communism behavior is striving to build peace, happy life and development for all mankind people around world. The Americans led developed countries have been paving the way for other countries to development, including the big per cent the China got, at the hard gained peace environment. So the Americans led developed countries are communism. 3. Past history summarized: The Past history of the United States is a basic knowledge. Which may be known to all. 3.1. The national development The national evolution of the United States of America was companying their motives for peace, development, equality, fairness and freedom word-wide. The United States had been the colonizations of Spanish、Dutch、French、British. The Thirteen Colonies of the United States of America began a rebellion against British rule in 1775 and proclaimed their independence in 1776. They subsequently constituted the first thirteen states of the United States of America, which became a nation state in 1781 with the ratification of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. The 1783 Treaty of Paris represented the Kingdom of Great Britain's formal acknowledgment of the United States as an independent nation. The legacy of the American Civil War includes ending slavery in the United States, restoring the Union, and strengthening the role of the federal government. The social, political, economic and 100 racial issues of the war decisively shaped the reconstruction era, which lasted through 1877, and brought about changes that would eventually help make the country a united superpower. President Woodrow Wilson declared U.S. entry into World War I in April 1917 following a yearlong neutrality policy; the U.S. had previously shown interest in world peace by participating in the Hague Conferences. American participation in the war proved essential to the Allied victory. Wilson also implemented a set of propositions titled the Fourteen Points to ensure peace, but they were denied at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. As with World War I, the United States did not enter World War II until after the rest of the active Allied countries had done so. The United States first contribution to the war was simultaneously to cut off the oil and raw material supplies needed by Japan to maintain its offensive in China, and to increase military and financial aid to China. Contribution came to the Allies in September 1940 in the form of the Lend-Lease program with Britain. On December 7, 1941 Japan launched a surprise attack on the American naval base in Pearl Harbor, citing America's recent trade embargo as justification. The following day, Franklin D. Roosevelt successfully urged a joint session of Congress to declare war on Japan, calling December 7, 1941 "a date which will live in infamy". Four days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, on December 11, Nazi Germany declared war on the United States, drawing the country into a two-theater war. United States battled against Japan and Germany. The United States had contributed lots of to the Japanese‘s surrendered unconditionally, ending World War II. Following World War II, the United States emerged as one of the two dominant superpowers. The U.S. Senate, on December 4, 1945, approved U.S. participation in the United Nations (UN), which marked a turn away from the traditional isolationism of the U.S. and toward more international involvement. 3.2. The Civil Rights Movement in the United States The Civil Rights Movement in the United States was the model for peace, development, equality, democracy, fairness and freedom world-wide. The Civil Rights Movement in the United States has been a long, primarily nonviolent struggle to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans. The movement has had a lasting impact on United States society, in its tactics, the increased social and legal acceptance of civil rights, and in its exposure of the prevalence and cost of racism. The American Civil Rights movement has been made up of many movements. The Civil Rights Movement in the United States usually refers to the political struggles and reform movements between 1945 and 1970 to end discrimination against African Americans and other disadvantaged groups and to end legal racial segregation, especially in the U.S. South. Meanwhile, the American people completed a great migration from farms into the cities and experienced a period of sustained economic expansion. At the same time, institutionalized racism across the United States, but especially in the American South, was increasingly challenged by the growing Civil Rights movement. The activism of African American leaders Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King, Jr. led to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which launched the movement. For years African Americans would struggle with violence against them, but would achieve great steps towards equality with Supreme Court decisions, including Brown v. Board of Education and Loving v. Virginia, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair 101 Housing Act of 1968, which ended the Jim Crow laws that legalized racial segregation between Whites and Blacks. Martin Luther King, Jr., who had won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to achieve equality of the races, was assassinated in 1968. Following his death other leaders led the movement, most notably King's widow, Coretta Scott King, who was also active, like her husband, in the Opposition to the Vietnam War, and in the Women's Liberation Movement. Over the first nine months of 1967, 128 American cities suffered 164 riots. The late 1960s and early 1970s saw the strengthening of Black Power, however the decade would ultimately bring about positive strides toward integration. 3.3. The Women's Movement in the United States The Women's Movement in the United States further addressed the freedom for equality, fairness and democracy for all kind of people. A new consciousness of the inequality of American women began sweeping the nation, starting with the 1963 publication of Betty Friedan's best-seller, The Feminine Mystique, which explained how many housewives felt trapped and unfulfilled, assaulted American culture for its creation of the notion that women could only find fulfillment through their roles as wives, mothers, and keepers of the home, and argued that women were just as able as men to do every type of job. In 1966 Friedan and others established the National Organization for Women, or NOW, to act as an NAACP(National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) for women. Protests began, and the new "Women's Liberation Movement" grew in size and power, gained much media attention, and, by 1968, had replaced the Civil Rights Movement as the U.S.'s main social revolution. Marches, parades, rallies, boycotts, and pickets brought out thousands, sometimes millions; Friedan's Women's Strike for Equality (1970) was a nation-wide success. The Movement was factioned early on, however (NOW on the left, the Women's Equity Action League (WEAL) on the right, the National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC) in the center, and more radical groups formed by younger women on the far left). Along with Friedan, Gloria Steinem was an important feminist leader, co-founding the NWPC, the Women's Action Alliance, and editing the Movement's magazine, Ms. The proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, passed by Congress in 1972 and favored by about seventy percent of the American public, failed to be ratified in 1982, with only three more states needed to make it law. However, many federal laws (i.e. those equalizing pay, employment, education, employment opportunites, credit, ending pregnancy discrimination, and requiring NASA(National Aeronautics and Space Administration), the Military Academies, and other organizations to admit women), state laws (i.e. those ending spousal abuse and marital rape), Supreme Court rulings (i.e. ruling the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied to women), and state (Equal Rights Amendment)ERAs established women's equal status under the law, and social custom and consciousness began to change, accepting women's equality. The Americans lead developed countries used to spend lots of on the international issues, like peace and security. Even waging war to achieve their fair viewpoints. Though there are some groups disagree with their behaviors. The facts are that they have reasons to reach their aims. The history of the United States expresses that from the colonization of the America, the American Civil War, the U.S. entry into World War I to the American participation in World War II; from the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, the Women's Movement in the 102 United States, to the "World Superpower‖, the United States of America had been striving for peace, development, fairness, the communism principle! There are lots of facts to say that the Americans lead developed countries have been behaving communism. From the colonization of the America to the United States of the No. one country in the world, from the foreign and inner policy of the United States, the United States of the America do the communism in principle. Which can not write in the limited pages. So as the other developed countries, like United Kingdom, Sweden, etc.. 4. The Americans lead developed countries have been building lots of foundations to help the word-wide people The United States of Americans has a long history of extending a helping hand to those people overseas world-wide struggling to make a better life, recover from a disaster or striving to live in a free and democratic country. It is this caring that stands as a hallmark of the United States around the world and shows the world its true character as a nation. U.S. foreign assistance has always had the twofold purpose of furthering America's foreign policy interests in expanding democracy and free markets while improving the lives of the citizens of the developing world and extending assistance to countries recovering from disaster, trying to escape poverty. There are lots of foundations or organizations alike in the United States to help world-wide needed people recover from disaster, cure the fatal diseases, overcome the poverty, enhance the freedom and democracy, et al.. The foundations or organizations alike are consisted of government official foundations and private ones. To see a few examples as followings: The William J. Clinton Foundation; Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; United States Agency for International Development (USAID); Drug Free America Foundation, Inc.; The Carter Center: Creating a world in which every man, woman, and child has the opportunity to enjoy good health and live in peace, et al. The other developed countries also have developed lots of foundations or organizations like the United States‘. But the foundation in China is scarce. 5. Great hope for peace and development The author just takes examples the three aspects of facts. The Americans lead developed countries have been building lots of foundations to help the word-wide people. The Past history of the United States as a basic knowledge indicated the American people had striving for peace, development, equality, democracy, fairness and freedom world-wide. The present Comparison to China indicates that the Americans lead developed countries have been doing more achievements to striving for peace, development, equality, democracy, fairness and freedom world-wide. The facts only in my above mentioned three aspects can concluded that the Americans lead developed countries have been behaving communism. All which the above mentioned facts may prove the Americans lead developed countries do behave communism. Though they do not consider communism as their philosophy. But the principal spirit is the same as the communist party countries‘. Why the Americans lead developed countries do not come together with the communist party countries to do the communism achievement? Even the communist party countries‘ are not perfect communism. 103 When the world wide politicians understand that the Americans lead developed countries have been behaving communism. Their philosophy difference between the Americans lead developed countries, or no- communism countries and communism countries is near to zero. The confrontations, contradictions, or even wars among them are to be ended. The worldwide peace and development are more easy to reach. The Americans lead developed countries have been behaving communism. Which is a breakthrough politic theory. The new theory may prevent worldwide war and bleeding and promote peace, equality, fairness, freedom, democracy and development. The new theory may pave the way for developing great peaceful United Nations of communism. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Conflict of Interest statement: The financial Supported by author himself. There is no conflict of interest. The Ethical Approval is not applicable. References 1, MICHAEL WINES. 2009. ―UNEASY ENGAGEMENT: China Willing to Spend Big on Afghan Commerce.‖ The New York Times, December 29, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/30/world/asia/30mine.html?_r=1&scp=189&sq=&st=nyt( accessed January 2, 2010). 104 DEMOCRATIC CHANGE IN THE GULF MONARCHIES IN THE 21ST CENTURY Dr. M. Azam Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan, [email protected] Abstract The paper deals with the socio-political change that the Gulf countries, namely Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, have undergone in the last decade particularly in the post-9/11 period. Various aspects of the Gulf societies have been examined to see the nature and volume of change taking place in the Gulf region. The study seeks to analyze the reforms introduced by the governments during this period. It is argued that the region has experienced some radical changes in the body politic during the last decade. It is also argued that the changed international political environment has played an important role in the changes occurring in these six countries. Keywords: democracy, democratization, Gulf States, civil society, human rights Introduction After the inset of the twenty-first century, the pace of political change in the Arab world gained a momentum. Particularly in the post-9/11 period political environment in the Arab countries acquired a visible pattern of change characterized by democratic awareness and aspirations, resulting into recent revolutions in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya and upheavals in others. Gulf monarchical societies were no exception to this political change as demonstrated by political demands and protests in Bahrain and other states. This study is an attempt to explore the nature as well as level of change and reforms in the Gulf countries during the last decade. Developments in the constitutional, political, economic, educational sectors have been taken into account. Reforms in the areas of human rights and media have also been discussed. The questions addressed in this study include (i) Did the democratization process moved further after 2000? and (ii) Were there any practical measures taken by the regimes in the direction of democratic rule? A thorough look at the practical measures taken and reforms introduced by the ruling regimes and changes taking place in the region have been outlined. Constitutional Developments Unprecedented constitutional developments took place in the Gulf monarchies during the last decade. It is observed that the historical increase in the area of electoral politics in the Gulf countries became possible because of the constitutional development in the region.i Taking the lead, Bahraini government introduced a new constitution in 2002, followed by the Qatari government, which implemented its new constitution one year later. The difference between the two constitutions is the public consent for the new constitution. The Qatari constitution was implemented after a popular referendum in which 96 percent of the Qatari voters, men and women, voted for it in April 2003. In fact, it was reinstatement of the 1973 Constitution, which effectively meant the promulgation of the new constitution.ii 105 Both of the new constitutions of Bahrain and Qatar were, in fact, consequential strides towards transformation of the political systems of the two countries into constitutional monarchies. In the new Bahraini Constitution, psychological as well as physical torture and ill-treatment of prisoners have been legally prohibited. The provision helps the citizenry enjoy a better sense of self-respect and dignity. Both of the constitutions instituted the concept of ‗separation of power.‘ Legislation authority, in Bahrain, is now put in the hands of a bicameral legislative body. The body consists of the Nuwab Council (lower house) and the Shura Council (upper house). The former comprises elected representatives whereas the latter is an appointed consultative chamber. Both of the chambers consist of 40 members. Members of the lower house are elected through universal adult suffrage. In Qatari constitution, powers have been distributed among the three organs of the government. The Emir and his cabinet exercise the executive authority. Legislative authority is entrusted to the Shura Council and judicial authority to the courts. The process of separation of powers also moved forward in Kuwait where the portfolios of prime minister and crown prince were separated for the first time in the history of the country. The prime minister is now answerable to the parliament and can face legal inquiries. These reforms are in fact very significant with reference to transparency, good governance and institution building. For example, there had been no legislative elections in Bahrain for almost last three decades. Though the referendum was held in 2003 in Qatar, the Emir approved and promulgated the constitution in June 2004. Qataris aged 18 and above were given the right to take part in elections in May 2008 when the Shura Council ratified the election law. The law institutionalized secret and direct balloting.iii The Council previously possessed no legislative powers when it was made up of 35 appointed members. Now, it has attained powers to review and amend the draft budget. Number of its members has been increased to 45 (30 elected and 15 appointed). If a bill is endorsed by two-third majority in the Council, it becomes a law after the Emir‘s approval.iv The Council passes the budget and oversees government activities. It also holds powers to grill ministers and send them home by passing a vote of no confidence.v The new constitution of Qatar also ensures rights and freedoms of the Qatari people. Freedoms of expression and religious activities and right of assembly and right to form associations have been provided for. No amendment is allowed limiting the freedoms and rights of the people they enjoy constitutionally. To an analyst, ‗The new constitution…is one of the most modern in the Arab world.‘vi By establishing the Supreme Constitutional Court, the Amir of Qatar also took a new measure towards the constitutional development. After the reforms were introduced by King Abdullah in February 2009 in Saudi Arabia, The Economist remarked that ‗in all likelihood,…the council…will choose Abdullah‘s successor, in what might prove to be, even if restricted to…princes…, the first quasi-democratic transition of power in Saudi history.‘vii Conservative judges in Saudi courts were replaced with reform-minded judges by King Abdullah.viii A conservative head of the judiciary was also replaced.ix The King removed the head of the Supreme Judicial Council, Sheikh Saleh Luhaydan, and a number of other senior judges. Luhaydan ‗was notorious for rulings such as one that said it would be legal to kill the owners of TV channels broadcasting ‗immorality‘.x Political Developments Unprecedented reforms in the political sector were witnessed in the post-9/11 period in the Gulf countries. A wave of political pluralism caused a visible change in the region. Electoral as well as parliamentary politics have experienced visible gains. Political systems have become somewhat participatory. First ever elections in all the six states, except Kuwait, were held after the beginning of the 21st century. ‗An unprecedented wave of popular voting‘ penetrated the Gulf. It was noted that Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar have ‗recently generated some excitement among democrats optimistic about the possibility of political liberalization, as elections have begun to play some role in these countries.‘xi 106 Table: Year of First Elections in the Gulf Countries Country Qatar UAE Saudi Arabia Oman Bahrain Kuwait Year of Elections 2007xii 2006 2005 2003 2002xiii 1962 A trend of increased interest among the voters for electoral politics, with varying degrees, is also visible in the Gulf countries. In Qatar, for example, voter turnout in 2003 polls for the municipal councils was between 25 and 35 percent in different municipalities. But, the turnout arose to 51 percent in April 2007 polls for the municipal councils. Liberals, in some instances at least, also made their presence felt and gained a place in electoral politics and power structures in the Gulf monarchies. In Kuwait, for example seven liberal candidates won seats out of 50 in May 2008 election for the National Assembly. Parliament in Bahrain had become a part of its history after its dissolution in 1975. In 2002, it was launched anew and the government held first parliamentary elections in the same year. First ever municipal elections were also held in Bahrain in 2002. Three hundred and twenty (320) candidates contested for 50 municipal seats. The elections were judged as free and fair municipal and parliamentary both. Open campaigns were launched by the opposition. Large rallies were also held even by the boycotting political associations. One hundred and seventy-seven (177) candidates contested 40 seats in the Bahraini parliament.xiv Correspondingly, Oman also held its first ever parliamentary elections in 2003xv on the basis of universal franchise.xvi The first ever elections in the United Arab Emirates were held in 2006. Twenty members of the Federal National Council were elected. Remaining twenty members were appointed by the government. In Saudi Arabia, municipal councils were created by the king in 2003. Fifty percent of the municipal members were to be elected by the people.xvii The government held first elections in 2005 for 178 municipal councils. The elections were extremely contested. For only seven seats in Riyadh, there were 646 contestants. Voter turnout remained between 25 and 35 percent. Indeed, successful electoral experiences in the neighboring countries of Qatar and Bahrain encouraged Saudi government for holding Municipal elections in 2005. Although political parties are not allowed in any of the six GCC countries, political groups and societies are tolerated in some of these states, like Bahrain and Kuwait.xviii In Bahrain, more than 15 societies, in fact, function like political parties. They form their blocs in the parliament and field their candidates in elections. These political societies represent leftists, fundamentalists, Marxists, and liberals, etc. The Bahraini government allows them for organizing open forums and distributing weekly magazines.xix Political society leaders in Bahrain took an extraordinary step when they opposed a proposed law on political societies in 2004. National Democratic Institute helped them in preparing a substitute for the proposed legislation. The draft of the proposed legislation was submitted to the Nuwab Council where it was approved in July 2005.xx The Consultative Council in Saudi Arabia was a purely advisory body, but in November 2003, its status was revamped as a partly legislative body through a royal decree. Thus, its members got the power to table new bills.xxi Further powers were granted to the Council in 2005. Previously, the Consultative Council used to submit its decisions and recommendations to the cabinet. The amendment in Article 17 permitted it to submit its recommendations directly to the king. xxii It was also in 2005 that the members of the Saudi Consultative Council were accredited to debate the national budget, quiz the cabinet members and obtain state revenue data. In April 2005, seats in the Consultative Council were increased from 120 to 150. The government‘s inclination 107 towards reform in the country reflected in the fresh nominations to the Council. Well known economists and education experts made two-third of these nominations.xxiii Since the Council‘s jurisdiction has expanded and its membership has diversified, its role has become more important in the Saudi political structure. Parliaments and legislative bodies in the Gulf countries, though with varying degrees, have gained vigor and become bolder compared to the past. These legislative institutions have started asserting their power and authority more energetically. In 2006, for example, the emir of Kuwait was impeached by the parliament. The Kuwaiti parliament, in fact, reshapes the bills put forward by the government.xxiv Similarly, in Bahrain, a government sponsored bill was refused by a parliamentary committee. The bill was intended to control public meetings and street protests. The committee declared it unconstitutional, saying, it would hinder rights and liberties of the people.xxv The Council of Deputies in Bahrain also laid the foundations of another parliamentary practice when three ministers the Minister of State, the Minister of Finance, and the Minister of Labor were grilled in January 2004.xxvi It was perhaps because of such courageous steps that Bahrain was welcomed by the International Parliamentary Union in 2003. Saudi Consultative Council also moved a step forward when its members debated the women‘s right to drive cars in 2005. In some of the GCC countries state media was also employed in order to popularize the debate on various issues. It was for the first time in the history of Saudi Arabia that the weekly Consultative Council sessions were decided to be televised. Oman, even earlier than Saudi Arabia, decided to broadcast question and answer sessions of the Majlis al-Shura in 2003. Some of the hearings at the Majlis al-Shura were also relayed for television watchers.xxvii Civil Society and Media In the past, civil society could not flourish in the Gulf countries mainly because of legal hurdles. In Kuwait, for example, Public Gatherings Law of 1979 required prior permission from the government for holding public gatherings. Similarly, in Bahrain, Public Gatherings Law of 1973 did not permit holding rallies near security-sensitive areas and places like shopping malls, airports, and hospitals. In Qatar, law did not allow establishing professional associations. In a changed regional and international environment, the Gulf monarchies loosened the grip over civil society. In Kuwait, 15 clauses of the Public Gatherings Law of 1979 were repealed by the Constitutional court in 2006. In the same year, Public Gatherings Law of 1973 of Bahrain was amended by the Parliament and ban was lifted from holding rallies near security-sensitive areas, hospitals, and airports, etc. Workers were allowed to establish unions without government permission. Qatar, even two years earlier, in May 2004, took measures with reference to strengthening of its civil society when the right to set up professional associations was granted to the people.xxviii In the same year, 2004, the government of Qatar allowed workers to set up autonomous unions. The unions were allowed to discuss with the employers and work out solutions to the problems related to time schedules, working conditions, and wages. If the issues are not resolved through negotiations, the workers are permitted to go on strike. In Saudi Arabia, none of the independent trade unions or voluntary associations existed before 2003 when civil society actors were brought under the legal structure. Saudi Journalists‘ Association was the first ever officially approved civil association in the country that was granted license in January 2003. Later, many civil society organizations were licensed, like Saudi Pharmacist Society. Establishment of a Saudi association of lawyers was approved by the Ministry of Justice in 2003.xxix In order to minimize the regime‘s sway over NGOs in Saudi Arabia, a first-ever draft law was modified by the Shura Council in December 2006.xxx The draft law was passed by the Council one year later, in December 2007. Under this law, National Authority for Civil Society Organizations was set up. Its purpose was to oversee the NGOs. The law also explained the procedural requirements for establishing and functioning of civil society organizations.xxxi 108 Student unions caught very little attention in the reform agenda. First ever student union elections were held in May 2006 in Saudi Arabia. In 2002, Bahraini government allowed human rights organizations to undertake political activities. In Bahrain, 65 new associations were set up in just one year, 2002. Among them were 11 political and 13 professional. More than 300 civil society organizations had come into existence in Bahrain before the beginning of year 2004. In 2006, Kuwait had 55 societies pursuing different agendas like religious, gender reform, political and economic liberalization. Forty thousand (40,000) people were members of these societies. Bahraini NGOs also pursue diverse agendas including religious, civic, and cultural. Besides trade unions, NGOs of all of these types have growing in number in Bahrain. Likewise, civil society has become visible in the United Arab Emirates after 2000. Kuwait approved its first human rights association in 2004.xxxii Through a declaration in March 2003, six of the political associations in Bahrain called for further reforms to expand political rights and individual liberties. The need for women empowerment and elimination of corruption was also emphasized in the declaration. Media and freedom of expression also witnessed positive changes and reforms during the period under study. Oman set up Gulf Press Freedom Organization. Objectives of its creation were strengthening freedom of expression, improving human rights conditions, and providing professional assistance to media persons in the Gulf countries and Yemen. Saudi Journalists‘ Association was licensed in 2003 and was established in 2004. The association comprises a ninemember board and a chairman. All of the members are elected by Saudi journalists. Three hundred journalists cast their votes in the first election held in 2004. In addition to the professional media organizations, private television channels were also permitted by the ruling regimes in the Gulf. In 2003, for the first time, Kuwait committed itself to permit non-state-run local satellite television channels when a private TV channel was launched. The channel was located in Dubai Media City. Before the beginning of 2005, two of the satellite channels, based in Kuwait, had become functional, including Al-Ikhbariya which was established in 2004. In 2003, Emirati authorities licensed a private satellite TV channel AlArabiyya. In Qatar, in 2004, al-Jazeera established al-Jazeera Media Training and Development Centre. Al-Jazeera‘s English news channel was established in November 2006. When a female from Saudi Arabia presented inaugural news bulletin on Al-Ikhbariya, it was itself a piece of news as it was unusual in Kuwait. A number of legal measures were taken in Bahrain for strengthening media and freedom of expression in the country. In 2002, the government passed new press laws. Under the new laws, none of the publications can be shut down unjustifiably. Upper house of the Bahraini parliament, the Shura Council, passed a law in May 2007 that ‗would remove criminal penalties for journalistic offences.‘ The next year, in May 2008, the Council put an end to imprisonment of journalists and stated clearly that editors may not be sued for articles they did not write. A series of National Dialogues in Saudi Arabia, inaugurated by King Abdullah was also a demonstration of the acceptance of people‘s right to express freely. Human Rights To improve human rights, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates established human rights organizations. Legal structures were also reviewed in some of the GCC countries in order to advance the human rights conditions. The masses were allowed to demand their rights, lodge protests, and hold rallies. The government of Qatar established its National Committee for Human Rights in 2003. Next year, Kuwait Society for Human Rights (KSHR) was licensed. Further one year later, Saudi Arabia established its Saudi Human Rights Agency. In 2006, the United Arab Emirates formed its first human rights association. Qatar‘s National Committee for Human Rights comprises 13 members. Eight of its members represent various ministries while five are taken from well-known public figures. The Kuwait 109 Society for Human Rights had been working informally for last eleven years when it was licensed in 2004.xxxiii For local workers in Saudi Arabia, a temporary accommodation was founded in 2007 and in the same year, a law was worked out to check human trafficking. Bahraini courts have discountenanced the police ‗to hold detainees for more than 60 hours‘ after 2001, when the State Security Act was abolished. The first law on labor unions was formulated in 2002 in Bahrain.xxxiv Political prisoners were granted general amnesty when state security courts were done away with in 2002. In the same year, right to strike for safeguarding their economic interests was conferred on workers. Next year, Oman also allowed strikes in 2003. The government of Qatar accorded workers the right to set up autonomous unions in 2004. Workers‘ community in the Gulf region has started exercising its right to protest and strike. In the United Arab Emirates, for example, many protests were reported in a single year of 2007. Just in the month of February 2007, Abu Dhabi and Dubai, both experienced strikes and protests lodged by construction workers. Three thousand (3,000) workers in Abu Dhabi went on strike for five days. The management accepted their demands by raising daily wages, including pay for Fridays, and providing basic health insurance to workers. In Dubai, a busy highway was occluded by three to four hundred protesting workers. A rather new phenomenon was witnessed in Saudi Arabia when the government-owned National Society for Human Rights, in its first report in 2007, objected on the conduct of mutawwa‘in. First Christian church (St. Mary‘s Roman Catholic Church) in Qatar‘s history was established in March 2008 in Doha. At the same time, five more churches were under construction in the country.xxxv Sunni regimes in the Gulf have long withheld religious rights of the Shia, despite the fact that the latter constitute majority in Bahrain. Not only Shia, Saudi authorities have been discriminating against followers of schools of thought other than the Hanbali one. However, they have commenced to make small adjustments during the last decade. Bahraini government, for example, not only allocated a separate television channel for the Shia, but also broadcast Shia events on the state television. The concept of religious pluralism has made a start on gaining acceptance in Saudi society. For the first time, Wahhabi scholars showed their willingness to interact with Shiite and Sufi sheikhs, after the initiation of the national Dialogue by King Abdullah. Shia and sufis were invited to participate in the National Dialogue in 2004. Shias in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia were permitted to observe their religious rites publicly. King Abudllah has also extended the number of Shia representatives in the Shura Council.xxxvi In May 2006, powers of the mutawa‘in (Public Decency Police) in Saudi Arabia were curbed through a decree commanded by the Interior Ministry. The decree pronounced that ‗their (of the mutawa‘in) role ends as soon as the culprits are arrested and handed over to the regular police.‘ Reshuffle by King Abdullah in February 2009 made a headline ‗Bold Reform‘ in AlHayat newspaper when two influential but conservative religious figures were laid off. xxxvii For the first time, all four schools of Sunni Islam are represented in 21-member board of senior clerics.xxxviii The Bahraini government also effectuated a couple of measures for ameliorating human rights. As a signal towards alleviating discrimination against the minorities and other excluded groups, the king, for example, appointed two Jews as members of the Consultative Council in 2002 along with liberals, secularists, and women. Women and foreigners legally residing in the country and owning some property, were permitted participation in elections. Concluding Discussion It can be safely said that a considerable progress has been made during the last decade in the areas of political reform and human rights in the GCC region. Apart from the visible developments, masses in the Gulf monarchies have acquired a sense of consciousness over the past years. Now people lay claim to their rights. They have got down expressing their demands for democratic reforms, more strongly. Now people have got more courage to lodge protests, go on strikes, and put petitions forward boldly for reform, even in a country like Saudi Arabia. A 110 considerable change in the attitude of the reformers and masses of these countries and in the behavior of the governments has taken place in the post-9/11 period. Unlike past decades, people now do not go along with certain human rights violations and do not acquiesce to the undesirable governmental activities. People of Bahrain, for example did not accept the detention of Abdul Hadi al-Khawaja, who is a human rights activist. Opposition held street demonstrations against his arrest in 2004. Women in the GCC region have acquired a new confidence first time in the history. In April 2009, some of the Saudi women started a campaign ‗Let Her Get Fat‘ as a protest against the government‘s decision of closing down all-female health centers not monitored by a public hospital or clinic.xxxix In August 2009, hundreds of female Saudi students blocked roads and a university and staged a sit-in against the alleged malpractices of the university administration vis-à-vis admissions.xl In an editorial it was commented that the recent protest by approximately 1,000 Saudi women is rare evidence of what is increasingly being viewed as a suffragette-style movement in the making…. This incident is a clear sign that women are gaining the confidence to assert their rights and are joining forces to lobby for changes in archaic customs and laws that do little to uplift their status.xli Likewise, in the United Arab Emirates, women have been empowered to the extent that the nation ‗no longer talks of whether it is permissible for women to perform a political role. Rather, the debate is about the nature of this role.‘xlii People, particularly the democracy activists have mustered up enough courage that they frequently forward petitions for radical political reforms. Most request petitions for democratic reforms were reported from Saudi Arabia. More than one hundred Saudi lawyers, academics, professionals, political activists, business-persons, and religious scholars signed the petition ‗A Vision for the Present and the Future of the Nation‘ and proffered to the king in January 2003. The petition drew an immediate response. Within the same month, the Crown Prince invited 40 of the petitions‘ signatories for parleys. Another petition ‗In Defence of the nation‘ was drawn up in September 2003 and put forward to the King, the Crown Prince, and the Defense Minister. Among more than 300 Saudis who signed the petition were Shiites, Sunnis and 50 women from different regions of the country. In December 2003, a third petition ‗An Appeal to the Leadership and the People: Constitution Reform First‘ was prepared and submitted. xliii A petition signed by 77 Saudi activists was submitted to 20 officials besides the King.xliv A diverse range of reforms were asked for through these petitions like constitutional monarchy and elimination of ‗secret tribunals‘ etc. Apart from these petitions focusing on political reform, some other petitions were also made to the government authorities. In September 2007, for example, a petition was made by the Society for Protecting and Defending Women‘s Rights to King Abdullah to allow women for driving cars. The petition was signed by more than 1,100 male and female Saudi activists.xlv As one of the responses on part of the Saudi government to these petitions a series of National Dialogue was initiated in June 2003. The second and third rounds of the National Dialogue were held in December 2003 and June 2004. The second round was titled ‗Extremism and Moderation: A Comprehensive Methodological View‘ and the third ‗Women: Their Rights, Duties and Relations of Education to Them‘. Participants of these dialogues included intellectuals, academia, opinion-makers, religious scholars, university professors and activists, males and females. Until 2008, five rounds of National Dialogue conferences had been completed. It is observed that in Saudi Arabia, ‗a growing opposition by enlightened religious elements and liberal dissidents are challenging the regime.‘ A petition by well-known activists, academics, and journalists was made in Kuwait in 2003. The petition urged the government for changing the national constitution and making it more democratic. Some of the political societies asked the government of Bahrain to discuss political reform with them.xlvi The new constitution was a step forward on the journey towards greater public participation. The people of Bahrain, however, desired for more political reforms. To explore the ways and 111 means for a true constitutional monarchy, a ‗Constitution Conference‘ was convened by four of the societies the National Democratic Action, the Islamic Action, the Wefaq, and the Nationalist Bloc in 2004. They issued a public petition gathering more than 75,000 signatures.xlvii In May 2009, Ninth Democracy, Development and Free Trade Summit was inaugurated by the Emir of Qatar in Doha.xlviii Sheikha Mozah bint Nasser Al-Misned of Qatar established the Arab Democracy Foundation (ADF) in May 2007.xlix In fact, a ‗paradigm shift‘ has taken place in the region. This shift has given birth to a new sociopolitical culture in the Gulf States. Due to this shift, mindset of the rulers vis-à-vis the ruled has been reoriented. Notes and References 1 Gianluca Paolo Parolin, ‗Generations of Gulf Constitutions: Paths and Perspectives,‘ in Abdulhadi Khalaf and Giacomo Luciani, Constitutional Reform and Political Participation in the Gulf, Dubai: Gulf Research Center, 2006, p. 80. 1 Andrzej Kapiszewski, ‗Elections and Parliamentary Activity in the GCC States,‘ in Abdulhadi Khalaf and Giacomo Luciani, p. 110. 1 Gulf Yearbook 2008-2009, Dubai: Gulf Research Center, 2009, p. 42. 1 Civil Society and Democratization in the Arab World: Annual Report 2004, Ibn Khaldun Center for Development Studies. 1 Andrzej Kapiszewski, ‗Elections and Parliamentary Activity in the GCC States,‘ pp. 117–8. 1 http://indylaw.indiana.edu/news/browsearchive.cfm, accessed on Apr. 22, 2009. 1 ‗Tiptoeing towards Reform,‘ The Economist, Feb. 19, 2009. 1 Abeer Allam, ‗Saudi Arabia delays elections for two years,‘ Financial Times, May 20, 2009. 1 _______, ‗Senior Saudi calls for political reforms,‘ Financial Times, Apr. 28, 2009. 1 ‗Tiptoeing towards Reform,‘ The Economist, Feb. 19, 2009. 1 Alfred Stepan with Graeme B. Robertson, ‗An ―Arab‖ more than ―Muslim‖ Electoral Gap,‘ Journal of Democracy, Vol. 14, No. 3, (Jul. 2003), p. 37. 1 In Qatar, first parliamentary polls were held in 2007 whereas first municipal elections were held in 1999. Municipal elections were held again in 2003. 1 In Bahrain, first municipal elections were held in 2002 whereas, parliamentary elections were held first time after 1975. 1 Civil Society and Democratization in the Arab World: Annual Report 2004. 1 Marc Valeri, ‗Liberalization from Above,‘ in Khalaf and Luciani, p. 197. 1 Joseph A. Kechichian, Political Participation and Stability in the Sultanate of Oman, Dubai: Gulf Research Center, 2005, p. 53. 1 Gianluca Paolo Parolin, ‗Generations of Gulf Constitutions,‘ p. 82. 1 http:www.cipe.org/blog/?p=56, accessed on Mar. 31, 2009. 1 www.cipe.org/blog/?p=56, accessed on Mar. 31, 2009. 1 www.ndi.org/bahrain, accessed on Dec. 23, 2009. 1 Andrzej Kapiszewski, ‗Elections and parliamentary Activity in the GCC States,‘ pp. 96–7. 1 Amr Hamzawy, Testimony before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights and Oversight, Jun. 14, 2007. 1 Jordon Times, Apr. 14, 2005 cited in Nicole Stracke, Institutional Change in Saudi Arabia, Dubai: Gulf Research Center, 2006, p. 26. 1 Civil Society and Democratization in the Arab World: Annual Report 2004. 1 Andrzej Kapiszewski, ‗Elections and parliamentary Activity in the GCC States,‘ pp. 114–5. 1 Abdulhadi Khalaf, ‗Bahrain‘s parliament,‘ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, May 16, 2004, cited in Andrzej Kapiszewski, p. 113. 1 Naomi Sakr, ‗Media Policy as a Litmus Test of Political Change in the GCC,‘ in Khalaf and Luciani, p. 137. 112 1 Gianluca Paolo Parolin, ‗Generations of Gulf Constitutions,‘ p. 76. Amr Hamzawy, Testimony, Jun. 14, 2007.; Arab News, Jun. 4, 2003, cited in Steffen Hertog, ‗The New Corporatism in Saudi Arabia,‘ in Khalaf and Luciani, p. 248. 1 Civil Society and Democratization in the Arab World: Annual Report 2008, p. 162. 1 Saudi Press Agency, Jan. 1, 2008 cited in Gulf Yearbook 2008-2009, p. 43. 1 Gulf News, Jun. 29, 2003, cited in Andrzej Kapiszewski, p. 111; Fatima Al-Sayegh, p. 120. 1 Naomi Sakr, ‗Media Policy as a Litmus Test of Political Change in the GCC,‘ p. 153. 1 U.S. State Department Democracy Reports, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/afdr/2008/nea/129903.htm, May 2008; Hasanain Tawfiq Ibrahim, Political Reform in the Gulf Cooperation Council States, Dubai: Gulf Research Center, 2006, p. 49. 1 www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=384&key=173&parent=16&rep ort= 76, accessed on May 20, 2010. 1 Abdulaziz H. al-Fahad, ‗Ornamental Constitutionalism: the Saudi Basic Law of Governance,‘ cited in Gianluca Paolo Parolin, p. 77; F. Gregory Gause III, ‗Can Democracy Stop Terrorism?‘ Foreign Affairs, Vol. 84, No. 5; ‗Tiptoeing towards Reform,‘ The Economist, Feb. 19, 2009. 1 ‗Saudis welcome government shakeup as ‗bold reform‘,‘ www.dailystar.com/lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=2&article_id=99391, Feb. 16, 2009, accessed on Jun. 27, 2009. 1 ‗Tiptoeing towards Reform,‘ The Economist, Feb. 19, 2009. 1 http://u.tv/News/Female-SAudi-Arabian-ministers-TV-stance-confounds-rightsadvocates/4798b6ba-94a8-41e5-a1a5-658b93403759, Jun. 8, 2009, accessed on Jun. 13, 2009. 1 Dawn (Islamabad), Aug. 3, 2009. 1 ‗Winds of Change,‘ editorial, Dawn (Islamabad), Aug. 5, 2009. 1 Gulf Yearbook 2008-2009, p. 66. 1 Andrzej Kapiszewski, ‗Elections and parliamentary Activity in the GCC States,‘ p. 93. 1 Abeer Allam, ‗Saudi Arabia delays elections for two years,‘ Financial Times, May 20, 2009. 1 http://www.ndi.org/content/saudi_arabia, accessed on Dec. 23, 2009. 1 Farah al-Nakib, ‗The Constitutionality of Discrimination: A Search for Women‘s political Equality in Kuwait,‘ in Khalaf and Luciani, p. 187. 1 Andrzej Kapiszewski, ‗Elections and parliamentary Activity in the GCC States,‘ p. 114; http:www.cipe.org/blog/?p=56, accessed on Mar. 31, 2009. 1 Dunia Al-Mohammedi, ‗Qatar hosts summit on democracy, development and free trade,‘ May 11, 2009. www.al-shorfa.com/en/article/090511_democracy_summit_nws/, accessed on Jun. 3, 2009. 1 http://www.adf.org.qa/, accessed on May 10, 2010. 1 113 THE PARADOX OF ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION: THE CASE OF THE NIGER DELTA REGION Justina Adalikwu-Obiske, PhD Ebere E. Obisike, FRSPH, DHSc Canadian Canadian University College, Lacombe Canadian University College, Lacombe [email protected]@cauc.ca ABSTRACT Globalization presents contradictions, leading to its manifestation as good and bad – a double edged sword. For the proponents of globalization, it is a unifying force, an economic process that offers people a variety of choices, leading to an improved quality of life. One can also argue that globalization is good given the example of China and Indian where most people have moved from abject poverty. However, the negative aspect of globalization has resulted in a tremendous income inequality in most developing nations. There is a high rate of unemployment in these countries as both skilled and unskilled youths have become increasingly marginalized and disfranchised from the promise of ―development.‖ The position of this paper is that, the processes of globalization in the last few decades have continuously restricted people‘s lives, widened the gap between the rich and poor, north and south, resulting in a fragmented globality. And for the particular case of the Niger Delta region, economic globalization has resulted in the disenfranchisement of the youths. The discussions of this socio-economic phenomenon in this paper will be based on the field work that commenced in 2004 to 2010 in Obagi, Obelle, Omoku, Ogbogu, and Obite communities. Key Words: Globalization, Economy, Oil Exploration, Marginalization, Disenfranchisement INTRODUCTION Economists describe globalization as the abolition of tariff and non-tariff barriers (Weisbrot et al., 2002) or the practice in which national and international policymakers encourage domestic deregulation and external liberalization (Cornia, 2001). While we are not taking anything away from the above assertions, we posit that globalization goes beyond changes in rules and regulations guiding domestic and international economic development. In general terms, we argue that the processes of globalization affect people‘s daily lives in various areas such as the environment, health, economic, politics, culture, prosperity of communities and the physical wellbeing of individuals. In addition, given the uneven interactions of all the participants of economic globalization, we assert that economic globalization presents contradictions, leading to its manifestation as good and bad – a double edged sword. For the proponents of economic globalization, it is a unifying force, an economic process that offers people a variety of choices, leading to an improved quality of life. One can also argue that economic globalization is good if one takes into account, the example of China and Indian where most people have moved away from abject poverty. However, the negative aspect of economic globalization has resulted in a tremendous income inequality in most developing nations. This socio-economic phenomenon has in turn led to more social unrest in most developing countries because income inequality has become very precarious as the overall social exclusion has become more magnified. There are various ways in which local citizens have been prevented from obtaining the basic necessities of life. For instance, there is a high rate of unemployment in these countries as both skilled and unskilled youths have become increasingly marginalized and disenfranchised from the promise of ―development‖ as presented by the proponents of globalization. The position of this 114 paper is that, the processes of economic globalization in the last few decades have rapidly and continuously restricted people‘s lives, widened the gap between the rich and poor, developed and undeveloped, north and south, resulting in an uneven globality. And for the particular case of the Niger Delta region, economic globalization has resulted in the social exclusion and disenfranchisement of the youths. The discussions of this socio-economic phenomenon in this paper will be based on the field work that commenced in 2004 to 2010 in Obagi, Obelle, Omoku, Ogbogu, and Obite communities. For clarity and to encourage intellectual discussions on the pertinent issues in this paper, we will discuss the means by which economic globalization affects the inhabitants of the Niger Delta region as a thorough understanding of these mechanisms will inform the decision making process and assist local, national and international stakeholders to devise and implement socio-economic policies that will alleviate the negative outcomes of economic globalization while promoting its intended positive effects. To enable us do this, we have adopted both macro and micro-sociological perspectives as we plan to aid understanding of the complexity of economic globalization and the global determinates of community development and well-being. LITERATURE REVIEW Nigeria is located on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa (Fried and Gaydos, 2007). According to Adalikwu (2005), Nigeria is a multi-ethnic country whose economic base has shifted from agriculture to oil exploration. However, Fried and Gaydos (2007) assert that notwithstanding the fact that much of Nigerian‘s income is derived from the export of petroleum, the agricultural sector still provides employment to several legal residents of Nigeria. Although the country has abundant human and natural resources, it ranks among the 13 poorest countries in the world (World Bank, 2001). According to the World Bank (2000), about 70 percent of the Nigerian Population lives in poverty. In 1997 it was estimated that 70 percent of the population lived on one dollar daily while about 90 percent survived on two dollars a day (World Bank, 2000). Fried and Gaydos (2007) believe that Nigeria‘s complex political history, widespread corruption, and heavy reliance on oil revenues are largely responsible for the very low standard of living in Nigeria. Similarly, Adalikwu (2005) posits that the processes of political and economic forces at the international and national levels have contributed to the exacerbation of inequalities and ethnic divisions in Nigeria. For instance, the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, has been systematically deprived of any meaningful development since Nigeria‘s independence in 1960, and has also become the center of a tense triangular conflict between many ethnic communities, the Nigerian government, and the oil producing multinational corporations (Adalikwu, 2005). Shah (2005) supported this assertion by arguing that developing countries‘ poverty and social inequalities are complicated issues. For example, Shah (2005) stated that it is not sufficient to say that the poor are poor because of their own governance and management but because the rich have the power to enforce unequal trade agreements that favour their interests more than the poor. This explains why Sala-i-Martin (2002) and Ellis (2003) posited that economic globalization encourages inequality because trade increases the disparity in returns to education and skills, globalization marginalizes certain groups of people or geographic regions, and opening up lags behind development of adequate institutions and governance. Adalikwu (2007) expanded on this theory by asserting that the exploration of oil in Nigeria and the Niger Delta region in particular, without sufficient plans for the protection of the people and environment, has led to the continued damage and degradation of the natural environment, people‘s health, and their means of livelihood. There has been continuous and uncontrolled activity in the exploration and extraction of crude oil, which involves uncontrolled gas flaring, use of old oil pipes, pipe blow outs, oil well/pipe leaks, and numerous oil spillages, resulting in the death of many people, including women and children. In addition, until June 2003, as in much of today, all the interest groups and stakeholders in Nigeria and the Niger Delta region 115 have no clear economic direction and these weak institutions and legal environment hindered the benefits that would have accrued from oil earnings (Adedipe, 2004). Although the proponents of globalization can argue that economic globalization has contributed to the economic growth in some industrialized nations, it is very clear that it has negatively affected the economic growth of most developing countries that have been denied the institutional tools that will enable them compete with developed countries. According to Whelan (2004), globalization is not only spreading and enlarging market structures; it also has the ability to control trading policies and initiate economic reforms that are not always favourable to either domestic or international economic growth. There is no doubt that both domestic deregulation and external liberalization of trade have facilitated the distribution of economic goods and services across different countries, the fact remains that the laws that govern these process tend to favour one economic and political region over the other. It is this uneven application of local and international economic rules and regulations that is perpetually hindering the development and well-being of the less developed countries and their citizens. The activities of transnational corporations in less developed countries, particularly in the oil sector have been purely to exploit both human and natural resources which have contributed to the perpetual environmental degradation (Sweetman, 2000:3) and increased burden of disease and social inequalities. However, the major issue with economic globalization in less developed countries is that most of its economic policymakers represent the interests of the big multinational corporations that control the global economy and exploit indigenous resources and peoples by controlling the socio-economic and political affairs worldwide ( Whelan, 2004). METHODS AND PROCEDURES The purpose of this paper was to establish that the processes of globalization affect people‘s daily lives in ways that have resulted in social exclusion in view of the effects on the environment, prosperity of communities, and the physical wellbeing of individuals. Given the uneven interactions of all the participants of economic globalization, we present it as a double edged sword by which some have access to necessities of life while others are prevented from obtaining the basic necessities of life. In order to achieve the objectives of this paper, data collected from Obagi, Obelle, Obite, Ogbogu, and Omoku communities will be presented and analyzed. The reason for the population and sample of these five communities is that, they constitute areas of on-going oil exploration and extraction by oil Multinational Corporations (MNCs) in parts of the Niger Delta region of Nigeria and the local indigenes have observed the effects of the exploration of crude oil over five decades. Hence, they constitute information-rich cases through which much could be learned about issues of central importance to the objective of this paper. In-depth interviews were conducted with subjects who were purposively selected in these communities based on the criterion that the technique gives one an opportunity to select respondents that have and would give information that is relevant to the phenomenon under investigation. The instrument which involved in-depth interview protocol was based on sixty-two items. The in-depth interviews consisted of open-ended questions and required the hiring of translators who translated the questions from English into the local languages and conducted the interviews based on these questions for those who did not speak the English language. Most importantly, these interviews concerned the quality of their lives (access to basic human needs), the effect of crude oil exploration on their economic activities, particularly their household economy. The participants in the in-depth interviews included two community leaders (a chief and a youth leader) in each of the five target communities because of their in-depth knowledge of the political and economic relationships between their communities, the oil MNCs and the government. 116 Using a thematic analysis, the data from the in-depth interviews is presented using critical ethnography of the subjects‘ lived experiences prior to the commencement of oil exploration based on their personal recollections. The subjects‘ present economic situation is also presented in relation to the historical structural change in their communities. Based on these analyses, we explained how economic globalization, through the activities of the oil MNCs, affected the lived realities of local citizens. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS To explore the complex phenomena hidden in data collected from the five communities in our study, we made use of Atlas.ti 6.2 computer programme for qualitative analysis of large bodies of textual data, such as interview transcripts. This programme was also used to measure and analyze the relationships between categories and variables that we pre-determined. Accordingly, in transforming our qualitative data into useful knowledge, Atlas.ti 6.2 became functional in the visualizing of emerging relationships from the study and was also useful in the graphic presentation of these relationships as shown in this section of our paper. Our study confirmed that, the vast wealth produce from the oil found in the Niger Delta region has not trickled down to local masses. While the people in this region have experienced the adverse effects of oil extraction for over five decades, they have not had any tangible benefit from the oil wealth. Instead, their quality of life and environment have been degraded as a result of oil exploitation. For instance, people in the five communities of our study area as in the entire Niger Delta region are primarily peasants famers, fishers, food processors, craftspeople and artisans who sustain themselves from their own land and labour. In this regard, any destruction or destabilization of the ecosystem would have detrimental consequences on the people given that their only means of sustenance and household economy depends on land and the natural environment (Adalikwu, 2007). Data collected from these communities revealed the adverse impacts of oil exploitation and exploration in Obelle, Obagi, Obite, Ogbogu and Omuku. These adverse impacts include alienation from land, environmental pollution, low agricultural production, poverty and poor quality of life. The following is the analysis of the relationships between these five variables that represent the paradox of economic globalization. Our data revealed that there is a relationship between the activities of the oil Multinational Corporations (MNCs) in these communities and alienation from land. The activities of the oil MNCs are the cause of people‘s alienations from their land, which ultimately impact on their means of sustenance where the traditional means livelihood is farming. This alienation from land is supported by the Nigerian Land Use Act of 1978, which has dispossessed the people of any right to ownership of land in the region. The diagram below also shows that the non-viability of farming as an occupation is a consequence of the activities of the oil MNCs which renders the local indigenes incapable of providing the basic economic needs for their families. 117 Alienation from land Is part of Poverty Is associated with Is associated with Is cause of Is associated with Is associated with Is part of Is cause of Low Agricultural Production Quality of life: Poor Health Activities of oil MNCs Is associated with Is part of Is part of Environmental Pollution Atlas.ti 6.2 network oil multinational activities view of the negative consequences of Poverty is associated with alienation from land because; when people do not have accesses to viable farmland their means of livelihood is negatively affected as agricultural production decreases. This situation in our opinion is a good recipe for poverty as people are rendered unable to provide the basic needs of their families and instead become economically dependent which is indicative of the paradox of economic globalization. Thus, we argue that when people whose mainstay comes from farming do not have access to adequate and fertile farmland, they are rendered poor as they are unable produce enough food for their families and for commercial purposes. The activities of MNCs have also been associated with environmental pollution through gas flares, oil spills, use of old oil pipe lines, laying of surface oil pipe lines, use of open oil wells with rusted oil well heads, and pipe blow-outs some of which are shown in the pictures below: Gas Flare in Omoku City Gas Flare in the Centre of Omoku City 118 Gas Flare in Obagi Open Oil Wells with Rusted Oil Well-Heads in Obite Surface Laid Rusted Oil Pipe Lines in Obagi These pictures support the assertion that the presence of oil MNCs in these communities is the cause of chronic environmental pollution which is negatively impacting the environment and health of the indigenes. Based on the data used for this paper, we posit that the state of oil exploration and extraction in the Niger Delta region has led to environmental pollution and health issues for the indigenes. The paradox of economic globalization is further illustrated in the quest of the Nigerian government to create a favourable environment for foreign investment and trade. This phenomenon has essentially dislocated and disenfranchised the masses. Thus, we assert that the forces of economic globalization have privileged the private over the public sphere through economic policies like trade policies and structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), which further marginalizes the masses. International trade policies do not adequately establish trade laws that protect local citizens, instead the focus is on the maximization of profit and efficiency of human and material resources in host communities to the detriment of the indigenes. On the other hand, SAPs have primarily resulted in the poor people of the world becoming poorer and marginalized from their means of livelihood, a situation by which the indigenes in our area of study have not been immune from. It is also interesting to note that, 90 percent of Nigeria‘s foreign exchange earnings and 80 percent of the federal revenue is from the Niger Delta region‘s oil wealth (Adalikwu, 2007), yet the region lacks simple necessities of life with no adequate health facilities and infrastructure for basic education. Based on the data collected from the five communities of this study, we can infer that both the Nigerian government and the various oil MNCs in the Niger Delta region are more interested in oil exploration and extraction than in helping the people in these communities by providing proper infrastructure that promotes a good quality of life. 119 CONCLUSION There are overwhelming data to support the assertion that the processes of economic globalization in the last few decades have rapidly and continuously restricted people‘s lives, widened the gap between the rich and poor, developed and undeveloped, north and south, resulting in a fragmented globality. Based on the findings of our study, the experiences of the people of Obagi, Obelle, Omoku, Ogbogu, and Obite show the paradox of economic globalization. While one of the most important mechanisms of globalization is increased trade in goods and services across national and international borders, our study has shown that the dynamics of economic globalization have severely impacted the lives of people in the Niger Delta region due to the uneven interactions between the masses, Nigerian leaders and the oil MNCs. For instance, while the increased oil exploration and extraction in Obagi, Obelle, Omoku, Ogbogu and Obite have alienated the people of these communities from their farmlands, polluted their environment and robbed them of their traditional means of livelihood, both the national and the international policymakers are either too slow or too incompetent in making policies that will ensure the even distribution of the oil wealth thereby, stripping these communities of the resources that would have enabled them to re-educate themselves in a way that will empower them to effectively compete with people from other regions and against their foreign counterparts. REFERENCES Adalikwu, J. (2005).Globalization and its Impact on Women‘s Lives in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria.‖ In Francis Njoku et al. (eds.), A CIP International Journal of Philosophy and African Studies. Enugu, Nigeria: SNAAP Press Ltd, pp: 157-173. Adalikwu, J. (2007). Globalization and the uneven application of international regulatory standard: the case of oil exploration in Nigeria. (URN etd-04262007-172805). Retrieved February 20, 2012, from University of Saskatchewan Library Electronic Theses & Dissertations database Adedipe, B. (2004). The impact of oil on Nigeria‘s economic policy formulation. Retrieved: January 6th, 2012, from: http://www.odi.org.uk/events/docs/117.pdf. Cornia, G. (2001). Globalization and health: Results and options. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 79(9), 834-841. Ellis, F. (2003). Livelihoods and rural poverty reduction in Uganda. Word Development. Vol. 21(6), 997-1013. Fried, J. & Gaydos, M. (2007). World Health Systems: Challenges and Perspectives. Chicago, Illinois: Health Administration Press. Sala-i-Martin, X. (2002). The disturbing rise of global income inequality. Discussion Paper, Department of Economics, Columbia University. Shah, A. (2005). Causes of poverty http://www.globalization.org/TradeRelated/ Poverty/asp Weisbrot, M. et al. 2002. The scorecard on globalization 1980-2000: Its consequences for economic Social well-being. International Journal of Health Services, 32 (2), 229-253. Whelan, S. (2004). One third of the world‘s urban population lives in a slum. Retrieved: January 6th, 2012, from: http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/feb2004/slumf17.shtml. World Bank. (2000).World development indicators. Washington, DC: The World Bank. World Bank. (2001). Health systems development project-11: Government of Nigeria. Washington, DC: The World Bank. 120 WOMEN RIGHTS: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO HIDDEN DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Vijaya Lakshmi Sharma and Noor Mohammad Department of Sociology and Social work Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (India) E-Mail [email protected] ABSTRACT Violence is most pervasive yet least recognised human rights abuse in world .It is also a profound health problem , sapping women‘s energy ,compromising physical health and eroding self esteem .Despite its high costs ,almost every society in the world has social institutions that legitimises ,obscure and deny abuse.Violence against wives is one of the leading causes of female injury in India. In India four lakh women commit suicide due to it. It is the second largest cause of death among women in India .The latest NCRB-71 reports that the incidents of domestic violence are growing at a record of 13.3%.69. Though domestic violence exists at a high level and is increasing but the reporting rates of this crime is very low ,which is known as hidden domestic violence .A silence is maintained to protect the honor of family and community or may be to protect herself from fear of re-victimisation.The family of the victim also do not come for support. According to estimates only one in four and that too extreme violent cases of domestic violence is actually reported.This study is diagnostic cum descriptive and is based on case study of 25 violence victims of Agra district (India). The present study will investigate relation between spouse abuse and social sanction of domestic violence .The study will discuss 1) The role parents play in compounding their daughters problem..2) The pressures of family and relatives towards the victim of wife abuse 3) how society indirectly provides social sanctions despite legal provisions against domestic violence Keywords: HIDDEN DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, HUMAN RIGHTS, LOW REPORTING, SOCIAL SECURITY Violence constitutes a major form and process of oppression of women .Violence has always been used as a means to subjugate women and keep them in position of subordination. A narrow definition of violence may define it as an act of criminal use of physical force. Gender based violence may take many different forms and there may be distinctive patterns, or manifestation of gender violence associated with particular communities , cultures or regions and historical epochs , however gender violence is present in all society , it is a structural phenomenon ―embedded in the context of culture ; social , economic and political power relations …….(which)reduce women to economic and emotional dependency ,the property of some male protector . Societies organised around gender, hierarchical power relation give legitimacy to violence against women 70. There is a great host of historical evidence to show that women have always suffered from domestic violence 71. However, this problem has only become publicly evident when there has been a strong feminist movement, enabling the collective 69 National crime records bureau2007 (Schuler credit programs , patriarchy and men‘s violence against women in rural Bangladesh , social science and medicine). 71 (Martin, 1976; Tomes, 1978; Dobash and Dobash, 1979; Freeman, 1979; Smith, 1989; Clarke, 1992). 70 121 organisation against its occurrence72 .Domestic violence has been recognised as an area that needs more detailed and in-depth research, particularly on the general population (Smith, 1989). The true extent of violence is generally agreed to be difficult to ascertain. It is supposed to be one of the most hidden figures of any crime.73Figures derived from agencies like the police are necessarily selective and cover only a small proportion of victims. These represent the ―tip of the iceberg‖ and in some cases, for instance those derived from women‘s refuges, point more to the limited availability of such resources rather than the overall extent of the problem. The definition of domestic violence against Women ― Any act , omission or conduct by means of which physical ,sexual or mental suffering inflicted ,directly or indirectly ,through deceit , seduction ,threat , coercion or any other means , on any women with the purpose or effect of intimidating punishing or humiliating the or of maintaining her in sex stereotyped roles or of denying her human dignity , sexual selfdetermination ,physical mental and moral integrity or of determining the security of her person , her self-respect or her personality or of diminishing her personality or of diminishing her physical or mental capacities1 .Under such a definition any structural feature that perpetuate gender based discrimination could arguably quality as violence 74 . The Indian report of the UNESCO project on women and violence states that ―Violence in general, is a coercive mechanism to assert ones will over another in order to prove or feel a sense of power. It can be perpetuated by those in power against powerless in retaliation against coercion by others, to deny their powerlessness Any hierarchical system of social organisation, where there are categories of dominant group subordinate groups, is inevitability accompanied by the victimisation of the latter through various means –subtle pressure, through the power of ideology, through mechanism of socialisation that reward compliance and punish non compliance and also through open force‖75 The most comprehensive and wide ranging definition of violence against women was given in the first article on the UN Draft Declaration on the Elimination of violence against women in sept1992 ―Any act of gender based violence that results in , or arbitrary deprivation of liberty ,whether occurring in public or in private life .There is increasing consensus ,as reflected in this definition that abuse of women and girls regardless of where and how it occurs , is best understood within a gender and how it occurs ,is best understood within a gender framework because it stems in part from women s and girls subordinate status in society.76 The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) tates that ―Violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which has led to domination over and discrimination against women by men to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men77 India has taken decisive steps to prevent domestic abuse against women in recent times through section 489A, and the new act i.e. Domestic Violence Act 2005 but even after the coming of this act the victimized women are conditioned by society to accept violence silently because theses women are helpless have no other option but to bare the pain, an Indian girl is taught to believe 72 (Freeman, 1979; Brokowski et al., 1983; Pence and Paymar, 1993). Dobash and Dobash, 1979; Hanmer and Stanko, 1985; Worrall and Pease, 1986 74 The definition in the draft Pan American Treaty against violence 73 75 The Indian report of the UNESCO project on women and violence first article on the UN Draft Declaration on the Elimination of violence against women in sept1992 77 The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) 76 122 that her rights will be violated because they are dependent on men and they the makers of their rights and that‘s why a victimized women rarely question back her husband. SOME FACTS ABOUT WIFE ABUSE IN INDIA World report on violence and heath, 2002 ,shows that -10-69% of women reported being physically assaulted by intimate male partners at some point in their lives78 -Up to 70%of female murder victims are killed by their male partners -Every six hours in India a young married women is burnt alive beaten to death or driven to commit suicide -It is estimated that more than 15000 women suffer from dowry related violence every year. 79 -Amartya Sen calculated that between 60 million and 107 million women are missing worldwide. 80 -Intimate partner abuse resulted in 2,340 deaths in 2007. Of these deaths, 70% were females and 30% were males. (Bureau of Justice Statistics 2007. 81 -79.2 Indians believe that the law domestic violence act 2005 will divide the families.82 -Domestic violence is one of the leading cause of female injuries in almost every country. In India 10% of broken hands can be attributed to it -Nearly four laks of women are killed due to wife battering -Latest NCRB-07 reports that the crime against women are increasing at the rate of 6% Per year 83 -In this the category of torture which records incidents of domestic violence is growing at a rate of 13.2%. Statistics reveal that 45%of Indian women are slapped kicked or beaten by husband84 About 74.8 of women who reported violence have attempted to commit suicide based on a sample of 10000 women.85 However, even these shocking statistics do not begin to give voice to the fear and betrayal experienced by victims of domestic violence. Furthermore, experiencing violence of this kind can greatly hinder victims from enjoying a full range of their human rights, particularly the right to bodily integrity Domestic violence is recognized as a violation of the basic rights of women, and freedom from such violence is an important aspect of women‘s welfare. Domestic violence has severe health and social consequences for women86. Any campaign for women‘s rights and an end to violence against women must confront the prevalence of violence within intimate relationships. The special circumstances of this violence have implications on four levels which must be addressed First, on the local level, the intimate nature of domestic partnerships will change the way victims respond to being assaulted; thus, campaigners must not overlook the victim‘s unique perspective when establishing initiatives to provide direct aid to victims. Second, the society the victim is part of has incredible influence on whether domestic violence is tolerated; so campaigners need to work towards changing attitudes 78 World report on violence and heath, 2002 World report on violence and heath, 2002 80 Amartya Sen _Identity and violence 81 (Bureau of Justice Statistics 2007 79 82 ) Domestic Violence In India Images: Hindustan Times Poll On Domestic Violence Act Of India 83 National crime records bureau2007 national crime records bureau 2007 85 UNESCO 86 (WHO, 2002)86. 84 123 that foster and condone such violence. Third, although the State is often the level at which campaigners against gender-based violence work, many States retain separate laws to govern home life which, instead of protecting the family as intended, can actually serve to make it more difficult for individuals within the family to escape violence; thus, campaigners should lobby to improve these policies. Fourth, human rights discourse at the international level has traditionally neglected to confront domestic violence, and campaigners need to be catalysts towards ensuring that international human rights systems . Most stories of domestic violence in India usually contain only one of these two themes: (1) a husband beats his wife and she is a helpless victim at his mercy, and (2) a husband beats his wife, but she triumphs over him and is liberated from the shackles of patriarchal control. The reality of domestic violence in India, however, lies in the MIDDLE THIS STUDY This study is based on 25 victims of domestic violence (initially it was of 50 cases but due to non cooperation of respondents it was confined to 25cases) in Agra district. For this study only those women were randomly selected who have filed cases under domestic violence act of 2005.victims from the age group of 15-45 were randomly selected .They belonged to different economic status ,caste, region (rural and urban)and religion. Informed consent for the survey was obtained from the respondent at the start of the individual interview HIDDEN DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Though wife abuse exists but documentation rate of this crime is comparatively very low which is known as' hidden domestic violence'. According to estimates only one in four and that too extreme violent cases of domestic violence is actually reported .Data from different surveys indicate a high prevalence of domestic violence against women in all societies. However, prevalence data show only one side of the problem: the seriousness of the problem in terms of how widespread it is in our societies. Another side of the problem, one that has received less attention, is that most of the cases of domestic violence are unreported. That is, reported cases of domestic violence against women represent only a very small part of the problem when compared with prevalence data. This part of the problem is also known as the ‗hidden‖ part of domestic violence. An image where reported cases of domestic violence against women (usually the most severe end of violence) and homicide of women by their intimate partners represents only the tip of the iceberg. According to this metaphor, most of the cases are submerged, allegedly invisible to society this suggests that we are not dealing very well with this problem. Of course, it is important to further understand why female victims of domestic violence don‘t report or seek help. This study is interested in hidden period of domestic violence that is the time period during which act of violence is perpetrated and finally the case is being filed by the victim. In this study the aim to understand the violence from woman victim‘s perspective. It is because the victim is the one who experiences the violent behavior. 124 Age group of respondents (figure 1) Age Wife Husbands At the time At Present Present of Age Age time wife age Percentage 15-19 1 4% - 6 24% 20-24 7 28% 1 4% 14 56% 7 28% 25-29 7 28% 9 36% 2 8% 14 56% 30-34 8 32% 10 40% 3 12% 4 16% 35-40 1 4% 3 12% 40-45 1 4% 2 8% 25 100 25 100 25 100 Above 25 100 of marriage marriage husband age Percentage Total the This figure shows that 80 percent of females are married between the age group of 15-24.and 84 percent of males are married between the age of 20-29.60 percent of cases are filed between the age of 25-34. Family structure and Residential area(figure2) Joint Nuclear Total 18 07 25 Residential Urban Rural Area 20 5 Family type 25 Majorty72percent of the respondents belonged to joint family 28percent belonged to nuclear family.80percent belonged to urban residential area and 20percent belonged to rural area 125 Education (figure3) Education Wife Percentage Husband Percentage Uneducated 3 12% 5th 1 4% 4 16% 8th 4 16% Xth 1 4% 2 8% XIIth 5 20% 8 32% Graduate 5 20% 5 20% Post-graduate 6 24% 2 8% 4 16% Other(engeeiner ) Total 25 100 25 100 Figere3 shows that 24percentof respondents were postgraduate, 20percent graduate and higher secondary consecutively.12prcent of victims were uneducated ,16percent were educated up to 8 th class ,on the other hand 16percent of males were engineer.20percent had a graduation degree,8percent were educated up to postgraduation.16percent only up to 5th class and no one was uneducated. Commencement of conflict and violence committed against respondents (figure4) Just after marriage 15 60% 1-4 years 7 28% 2 8% Above20 years 1 4% Total 25 100 5-9years 10-14years 15-19years 126 This figure shows that in 60percent of cases violence has started just after marriage, the reasons may vary according to respondents, and then it declines gradually with the increasing years of marriage. Causes of violence (figure 5) Dowry 14 56% Illicit relation 8 32% Girl child 3 12% Over workload 3 12% No job of husband 3 12% Drinking 2 8% Divorcee wife 1 4% Property of wife 2 8% This figure shows that reasons of violence varied with the respondents. Dowry is still on the top after 50 years of legislations. It is still considered the right of the groom to get hefty amount of money to get married. in 32percent of cases illicit relation of partner was main cause. Today also giving birth to a girl child is considered as a sin of females. Like in 12 percent of cases giving birth to girl was main cause of violence. Wife is also a target of husband‘s frustration and violence when he himself is not in a job. Divorce is still considered a taboo in Indian society, a prospective groom demands extra amount of dowry for getting married to a divorcee women, and if he does not get it he has right to hit his female partner. A newly married girl duty is to oblige everybody from in law‘s to brothers sisters children‘s and other relatives available in the house. She has to cook, clean ,wash dust and do everything alone, the overwork load is also a reason for starting psychological and verbal violence, as she does not get proper rest and works continuously for long hours . Consequences of violence on the respondents (figure6) Leaving husband home Forcefully removed form the house by husband Parents interference and taking her with them He left home None Total 01 14 4% 56% 06 24% 2 2 25 8% 8% 100 127 figure 6 shows social security of violence. In 84 percent of cases the wife is either dragged out or is father has taken her back. In 56percent of cases the victims were dragged out of there house and no one has cared to call her back., in 24percent of cases father/family members of the victims took her back because the victims were beaten and locked in the room without proper food and water. The victims came out with the help of police, relatives, and neighbors. In more than half of the cases the daughter in law had been either thrown out of his husbands house or has returned to her natal home with the exception of one who filed case. She returned to her in laws home after working out for compromise. Domestic violence accelerated upon her return to her husband home and reached a climax In one case the victim was found tied with a rope in jungle by a stranger . In 8% of cases the husband left home (the person with drinking habit left family at the age of 55, the other person left her for another girl). Abused women most often seek help from their own families. Initially when the violence were discussed by the victims the family members and other relatives did not take any action and when the daughter were abandoned or was in fatal condition she was called back .There were no reporting during this period .After some months of communication between the parents or relatives ,the victims were resend to the same environment and the abuse cycle continued. It was found that family discord violence and harassment are more commonly associated with female suicides in India .It has been noted that female suicide due to harassment dowry problem and problem related to family roles is high in India. like in three cases the kerosene was poured on the wife for killing them. Many perceive a ―discussion‖ on domestic violence in the Indian society as disrespect to the Indian culture, divorce as detrimental to the upbringing of the children if there are any, and continue to live in denial about the severity. Respondents view about returning back in husband‟s home (figure 7) Yes 18 72% No 7 28% Total 25 100 figure7 shows that although there is hidden violence against female and no social security is given but still 72percent of victims want to return to there husbands house and only28percent did not compromise on her stand. It also shows that there are hidden pressures from family, society and other institutions to maintain outer harmony in the family. Hidden period of violence and violence reporting period (figure8) Time period Left/sent back Percentage Case filed after Percentage leaving 0-1years 1-2years 3-4years 5-6years 7-8years 9-10years 11-14years 15-19years 20above 7 6 5 1 1 1 2 1 1 28% 24% 20% 4% 4% 4% 8% 4% 4% 7 11 5 2 28% 44% 20% 8% 128 This figure shows social security of victims. In 28 percent of cases the victim bears all sort of violence for one year. Forms of violence varied according to respondent.(given in fig 9).24percent of victims bears violence for two years and also maintained silence about it while 20percent of victims for four years .It is persistent to note here that in majority of cases neither the women nor her family reported the violence to the police or took any action against violence , although it is a punishable offence. During this period also ,violence is of severe type, like in five cases victims were tried to murder by burning or shooting by pistol but they had maintained silence about the incident. Victims, It is found that family discord violence and harassment are more commonly associated with female suicides in India .It has been noted that female suicide due to harassment dowry problem and problem related to family roles is high in India. Women bears this kind of torture because it is her house and her husband, and it is her duty to maintain harmony in the family. .When the victims reaches her natal house her parents generally re -send her to the same environment after some sort of compromise .At this time there is no security of violence .The victim have low esteem and is depressed at this time The case against abusive husband is only filed when she has been dragged out of the house and sent back to her father. In 84percent cases were filed because victims had no house to live and husband does not accept her. It is also important to note that the cases are not immediately filed, when she returns her natal home .Her parents try to communicate with the husband and try to resolve the issue and make compromises .During this time period victim‘s life is at bay. So the role parents play in compounding there daughter problem must be accepted as part of the pressure acting on the young women .It was observed in many cases she had been persuaded by her own parents to bear every thing quietly, not discuss her misery with others and encouraged to go back to a violent home finally the case is filed when the victims and guardian have no way left. The period between leaving home and filing a case may take a very long time like in 28percent it took a whole year for victim to wait and watch in 44percent of cases the time was between two years. In 20percent of cases the victim waited for 3 to 4 years for her husband to call her back, and avoid filing of case. In 8percent of cases the victim waited for more than 5-6 year. It is a really long time to wait without any mistake of hers. Forms of violence perpetrated (figure9) Physical violence Any form of physical violence Pushed her, shook her, or threw something at her Slapped her Twisted her arm or pulled her hair Punched her with his fist or with something that could hurt her 23 6 19 8 4 Kicked her, dragged her, or beat her up 9 Tried to choke her or burn her on purpose Threatened her or attacked her with a knife, gun, or any other weapon did not provide food etc locked her in room Sexual violence Had illicit relationships with other females 8 7 9 7 7 129 Forced her to perform any sexual acts she did not want To Emotional violence 2 25 Any form of emotional violence Said or did something to humiliate her in front of 15 others threatened to hurt or harm her or someone close to her 6 25 This figure shows different forms of violence which were perpetrated against wives. THE INDIAN SOCIETY Family is the basic building unit of social institutions. It weaves the very fabric of culture .Arranged marriage have been the integral part of the Indian society since ages . Basically a marriage is termed arranged when it is arranged by people other than those getting married . The other people involved in the arrangement of marriage can be parents, matchmaking agents, matrimonial sites or trusted third party. Marriage alliances have immediate effect on women. Newlywed was also most vulnerable in family not only from husband but also in laws and other relatives .She has to work for long hours cook clean and manage home take care of everybody from a small kid to the eldest from the first day of marriage .And if she is unable to do she is victimised within the four walls of their own home and not by strangers but by the same person whom they call their own and also is expected to keep silence about it Domestic violence is a silent crisis that happens daily and with impunity behind closed doors and within close relationships in many Indian homes. Community gender norms tacitly sanction domestic violence. The strongly held belief that marriage as a social institution should be preserved at all costs and that family honor is important forces women to remain silent on the issue and live with abuse. Unfortunately this is a shared philosophy with the criminal justice system, further victimizing the woman. ‗Survivalist corruption‘ (Prasanna, 1995) adds fuel to the fire. independent legal and social status The cultural and social isolation of being in a unknown family: Owing to the fact that Indian women step into a husband home after their marriage, and given the fact that a large number of marriages in India are still ―arranged‖ to a degree where the couple interact with each other only after the wedding. Food, clothing, mannerisms and other cultural aspects appear alien to the her lifestyle and value system. Very often, women in India are not fluent in speaking to others ,may have a very hard time either communicating with people from another culture or understanding them or making friends. In such a state, she may find it very difficult to find someone that she can confide in about her marital problems. Often this cultural isolation leads to acute depressions. Social taboo – While lack of information discourages the women to speak up,. Divorce is still a huge taboo in the Indian communities. Many perceive a ―discussion‖ on domestic violence in the Indian society as disrespect to the Indian culture, divorce as detrimental to the upbringing of the children if there are any, and continue to live in denial about the severity other reasons * Victim fears they will be beaten more severely if they try to leave, abusers often threaten to find and kill or harm the victim and their families. 130 * Victim depends on the batterer for food, shelter, economic security Victims believe they will have no one to talk to, understand or believes in them. Victims believe their children need two parents, and do not want to raise them alone. The victim wants to keep the family together and live up to a religious commitment to remain with their partner. The victim does not believe they can take care of themselves or their children alone. Victims want to be loyal to the relationship and stand by their partner. Victims believe that no one else will want them. The victim rationalizes that things could be worse with someone else. The victim is ashamed of the situation and believes that others will think negatively of them. Victims believe others will think they are low-class or stupid for being involved in an abusive relationship. REFERENCES 1) Amartya Sen.: Identity and violence 2) Bureau of Justice Statistics 2007 3)Dobash and Dobash, 1979; Hanmer and Stanko, 1985; Worrall and Pease, 1986 4).Domestic Violence In India Images: Hindustan Times Poll On Domestic Violence Act Of India 5). first article on the UN Draft Declaration on the Elimination of violence against women in sept1992 6) Freeman, 1979; Brokowski et al., 1983; Pence and Paymar, 1993 7).Indian report of the UNESCO project on women and violence 8)Martin, 1976; Tomes, 1978; Dobash and Dobash, 1979; Freeman, 1979; Smith, 1989; Clarke, 1992). 9) National Crime records bureau 07 10) Schuler credit programs , patriarchy and men‘s violence against women in rural Bangladesh , social science and medicine). 11) The definition in the draft Pan American Treaty against violence 12)The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) 13) World report on violence and heath, 2002 131 WHERE ARE THE PEOPLE? CULTURAL HERITAGE DISCOURSES GENEALOGY, ITS TRENDS AND ITS CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES Juliana Forero and Liangping Hong School of Architecture and Urban Planning Huazhong University of Science and Technology,China [email protected] , [email protected] ABSTRACT This document aims to analyze the genealogy of the concept of cultural heritage from the Middle Ages to the twenty-first century, to establish the reason why it is still necessary to understand the cultural heritage in a much more comprehensive way where the material and immaterial aspects mutually interact according to its socio-cultural functions. The impact of the market economy over the cultural heritage definition and management after the second part of the twentieth century makes evident why cultural heritage protection has to be redirected and redefined. It has to involve the communities‘ perspective and interests, even if they do not correspond to the market of culture and the cultural heritage economical values interests. Keywords: Cultural Heritage, Heritage Protection, Market of Culture, Socio-cultural Dimensions, Heritage Management. INTRODUCTION It is clear that the concept of cultural heritage refers to the set of assets inherited from the past and directly related with the identity and memory of a specific culture in a specific territory (Querol, 2010). However, when it comes to cultural heritage is difficult to explain and understand why and how the interaction between the identity, memory and territory becomes one of the most important issues of the everyday life of the people. The historical context where the concept of cultural heritage was born, its transformation during the history, and the way it has been allocated in different cultures, have created a permanent confusion about the central object of the cultural heritage protection: what gives the significance to the cultural heritage: is it the artifact or the subject? What does it has to be protected: the object or the social significance of the heritage? The general anthropological definition for culture refers to the spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize the human groups; it includes knowledge, beliefs, customs or any other capabilities acquired by humans to interact with the environment. During the history of the cultural heritage, its cultural connotation has been substantially ignored, even after the twentieth century when the social function of the cultural heritage was recognized. Although many organizations and experts have elaborated more precise theories and definitions considering its historical, social, material and immaterial aspects, in the practice the cultural heritage protection have been focused on its material, economical and political values, almost ignoring the community component. On the other hand, the rules or procedures for the management of the cultural heritage determined by the UNESCO and national governments, among other international organizations, seem to be enough guides to work on cultural heritage protection aspects. Although it is true that those organizations have done a lot of efforts to normalize, standardize and organize when, how and why should be protected the cultural heritage, since cultural heritage corresponds to a particular expression of a particular culture, those regulations cannot be applied as universal parameters. It is necessary to review where and when those policies and regulations were created, what for and under which cultural perspective. The concept of cultural heritage was born in Europe, into a historical moment that corresponded to that continent‘s history. Then it became a concept to understand the cultural expressions of other cultures but it has always been understood under 132 the ―western‖ cultural perspective, which differs from Easter, south American and African ones(Choay, 2007; Ballart, 2005). In addition, the cultural heritage protection has become more and more influenced by its economical value. The market economy and the cultural industry seem to rule the cultural heritage protection goals. It has created a big gap between the cultural communities‘ interests and the economical interests over the protection of the heritage. This is totally contradictory not only with the concept but also with the social function that it is supposed to have and to be protecting: the cultural identity. These are the reasons why many communities do not really understand what does the cultural heritage means, how to identify it, why does it have to be protected and how to do it. Even before the discourse of cultural heritage, the communities already knew and understood which the bases of their cultural identity are, but they do not understand the need to make cultural heritage inventories and why are they useful. Specially, since the communities do find their cultural expressions interaction between the material and immaterial fields, they do not really understand why the cultural heritage distinguishes material and immaterial aspects (E. Sanchez, 2011l). This document aims to analyze the genealogy of the concept of cultural heritage to finally establish why it is necessary to understand the cultural heritage in a much more comprehensive way where the material and immaterial aspects mutually interact. Their protection should really involve the communities perspective and interests, even if they do not corresponds to the cultural heritage economical values and interests. This protection processes should be more consistent while protecting the identity of a culture and a territory, not only for the immaterial cultural heritage, but also for the material one. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE CULTURAL HERITAGE CONCEPT The birth of the concept cultural heritage, as we understand it today, is a twentieth century social construction, but it was incubated since the fifteenth century. Even before the cultural heritage was in fact called cultural heritage, the monuments and works of art out of the daily life of the ordinary people, became the bases for what later would be cultural heritage. Only, until the second part of the twentieth century, the notion of the context was introduced and so, the second stage of the cultural heritage concept history started. Nevertheless, in the contemporary way of treatment, protection and conservation of cultural heritage, is still present the perspective of the centuries before. From the Middle Ages to the twenty-first century, passing through the Renaissance, Baroque Period, the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, there have been many different perspectives of what have been understood as cultural heritage. Each of these western historical periods contributes to what is nowadays define as cultural and historical heritage (Querol, 2010; Macarrón, 2008). It is important to notice that the predominant history of the cultural heritage has never included the Eastern social and cultural processes related with the evolution of that concept during the history. From the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment Period During the Middle Ages the scholars considered the ancient world was impenetrable because of the big damages, destructions and modifications to its monuments, constructions and works of art. The ancient Visigoth Churches were first transformed into Mosques and then turned to Christian Churches and cathedrals (Macarrón, 2008). The religious icons, monuments and objects were substituted or repainted. Independently of the knowledge and value they had, those were immediately assimilated by the religious practices of the church in charge, without the establishments of any symbolic differences that this could have bring into a historical perspective. Preservation activities were just for a practical reutilization of the buildings or its parts (Choay, 2007). 133 Later, in the Renaissance Period the new vision of the universe, deity and the anthropocentric culture, along with the development of the sciences promote new ways to understand and treat the antique creations, buildings and works of art. The incipient taste of the Greco-Roman antiquities was a very important base for the cultural heritage concept construction (Ballart & Tresserras, 2005). However, the value of those antiques was not based on its historical relations; it was based on the exposition of a superior civilization that the Greek constructed (Choay, 2007). The cultural heritage started to be link not only to the pleasure of the art itself, but also with the notion of prestige. Still, as in period the history as an argument was not included into the preservation project (Choay, 2007; Rivera, 2003). However, under the name of ―antiques‖ the ―historical monument‖ notion was born; Three centuries later the antiques were named historical monuments (Choay, 2007). This term was also characterized by the origin of the Archeology and the collecting boom, caused by the Greco-Roman inheritance. Also, the discovery of the New World brought the firsts ethnological recompilations, folk objects and the ―peculiar‖ indigenous productions (Macarrón, 2008). It contributed to the first conceptualization of the History as a discipline, and the art as an autonomous activity. Later the notion of historical monument linked the history and the art together (Choay 2007; Macarrón, 2008). Into this context the antique buildings obtained a new value: they became the testimony of an ended past. The sculptors and architects started to be consider the ones that discover the classical art and the testimony of the ―evidence of the great man‖ of the history. The Renaissance conservation was full of contradictions. The destructions and reutilizations of the materials found in antique monuments and paintings were used to construct or decorate other places without any criteria. In this environment of grandeur and luxury aesthetic, but also plundering, measures and regulations became necessary for the preservation of the ancient buildings (Macarrón, 2008). The Popes started to be in charge of the conservation of the antiques. Nevertheless, although the conservation processes were supposed to be modern and objective, those were full of plundering and crippling. The Popes who were showing interest in the conservation of the antique buildings were also involved into the Roma‘s devastation and its antiques. The historical monuments never stopped of being used as supply portfolios of the new constructions of the Popes (Choay, 2007). During this period of the history the notion of museum also started to be shaped. Some authors argue that at that time the concept museum was used for the first time, others consider that this happened few centuries later. Even though, it is true that the collecting practices distinguish by its private and secular character, resulted in a variety of types of spaces and concepts for the treatment of the antique‘s collections, that prefigured some of the future museums (Ballart & Tresserras, 2005; Choay, 2007). Within Renaissance in Rome there were three principal perspectives around the cultural heritage: historical, artistic and one related with the conservation. Those contributed to the emergence of a new idea of what later was called historical monument. At this period it was still limited to a reduced audience compose by a minority of scholars, artists and princes (Choay, 2007). Years later, during the Baroque Period the European scholars did not stop enriching the notion of antiques. They explored new places with vestige in Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor making an inventory of the ruins in Rome and Greece. They created the category ―National Antiques‖ and the conservation of painting, sculptures and antique objects was institutionalized, preparing the subsequent architectural monuments concept. All of these actions constituted an enormous effort for the conceptualization and inventory of the antiques. The experts dedicated to these processes of meticulous and patient investigations were called ―Antique Dealer‖. For the antique dealers the bases of the testimony of the history were the collections of material productions of the civilization. The historical buildings became a very important tool for them. 134 The monuments of the architecture became particularly rich sources of information (Choay, 2007). Another important concept was ―National Antiques‖, which opened a new field to inventory. The professional specialization for the antiques‘ conservation and restoration became activities with its own character, accompanied by research, experimentation and theoretical and practical discussions. The museums and the academies were created (Macarrón, 2008). The Enlightenment antique dealers started to distinguish between the real monuments and figurative monuments. For them what matter were the object itself and not its destiny. The Enlightenment scholars brought up the natural sciences approach for the analysis of the antiques: they propose the same controllable type of description and so reliable, which gave the antique dealers its prominence during this period. It also brought another important characteristic of this time related with the treatment and conception of the later called cultural heritage: the dependence over the illustrators, not the painters; the first ones were supposed to be more precise, the second ones had other techniques that could not guarantee the precision of the antique‘s descriptions (Choay, 2007). The democratization of the knowledge that characterized the Enlightenment was also related with the antiques treatment and understanding (Choay, 2007). The ideal of the democratization of knowledge and making it accessible to everyone was done by the replacement of the documents to the real objects. It was done through the model of museums and literature of arts. Nonetheless, for the historical monuments it was the starting of a predatory fragmentation, which were use to enrich the private and public collections, not the democratization process. This gave an incentive to a form of leisure that still did not have the name of tourism, but that had an effect on the conservation of historical buildings. French Revolution The French Revolution contribution to the historical buildings and monuments protection was the step from the theory to the action. The abstract iconographic conservation of the antique dealers became real and practical, with the bases for the legal and technical devices for its protection. These contributions were possible because of two main factors: 1.Was the first time the historical buildings, monuments and antiques of the clergy, the Crown and the emigrants were transfer to the Nation. 2. The new ideology of government: now it was not only about the conservation of an object, it was also about the wealth and the diversity that the Nation has, it was about the national responsibility of its conservation (Choay, 2007; Macarrón, 2008). The treasure given to the Nation had economical value and to designate which should be the value, the metaphor of heritage was immediately adopted. The key terms were: inheritance, heritage, succession, patrimony and conservation. Terms that transformed national antique‘s status. The antiques turned to exchange values, in material possessions that had to be preserve and kept to prevent a financial crisis. Nevertheless, the knowledge about the heritage was still exclusively in hands of the minority, the role of the antique dealers and its conservative perspective still ruled. Besides, the knowledge and the perspective around the national art, the criteria for the selection and the technique to treat the historical constructed architecture and works of art still were not done. The immovable goods (churches, castles, residences, etc.) presented also other kind of problems that the revolutionists were not prepared to solve: 1. the commissions did not have technical and economical infrastructure for the maintenance of the buildings; 2. it was necessary to bring new uses for the buildings that have lost their original destiny. The demolition of some historical buildings during that time was the way to express the rejection of clergy, monarchy and feudalism powers, values and emblems already obsolete (Choay, 2007). During that period, the historical monuments were liberated from any ideological or stylistic restriction. From that time its theoretical or virtual corpus covers not only the Greco-roman 135 antiques that were already recognized as historical monuments, but also the national antiques (Celtics, intermediary or Gothic) and the classic and neoclassic architectural constructions. Also some specific values were given to the historical monuments: national, cognitive, economical and artistic (Choay 2007; Macarrón, 2008). After 1989 all the elements required for an authentic conservation of historical heritage policy seem to be collected. The creation of term ―historical monument‖ became the corpus for the inventory and the legal devices. The concept of heritage was affected for a strong economical connotation that contributed to its ambivalence. At the same time, the notion of historical monument was still imprecise for a great majority of people during some decades. Further, the history of the architecture was still almost nonexistent, and either, there were no analysis criteria that will allowed the systematic treatment required for the buildings that had to be conserved (Choay, 2007). Industrial Revolution The industrial revolution divided the society history and its context in two parts: before and after. It happened also with the concept of cultural heritage and its components. During the nineteenth century was introduce the new status for the antiques, referred to the hierarchy of the historical monuments‘ values, its space-time surroundings, its legal status and its technical treatment. The industrial era contributed to reverse the values attributed to the historical monuments giving the prevailing aesthetic values, while virtually it was given the universal meaning to the historical monuments concept. The decade of 1820 breaks with the antiques and the French revolution perspective (Choay, 2007; Macarrón, 2008). The antique dealers were replaced by the art historians, who consider the antique architecture the object of a systematic investigation, paying attention to its chronology, technique, morphology, genesis, sources; as well as its decorations, frescos, sculptures, glassworks and iconography. The historical monuments and buildings became counterpoint of the natural, rural or urban panorama, and its value were based on contrast with the landscape (Choay, 2007; Macarrón, 2008). The historical monuments were assigned to the past. They became a past that no longer stays in the present as it has no future. This crack time inscribed the historical monuments into the infinitive past. The industry replaced the art. The architecture history was divided into two categories: traditional architecture and modern architecture. Since then the architecture became the link between the past and the identity of a society, the domestic architecture and the urban complexes started to be recognized as historical architecture. The architecture started to be an active integrant of a new monument: the antique urban complex (Choay, 2007). The historical monuments became an obstacle for the modernization and its demolition became a need for the new urbanization processes. The maintenance of the antique buildings was almost forgotten. In the nineteenth century the protection and conservation of the heritage to be efficient needed the creation and recognition of the protection law and conservation as a discipline (Choay, 2007). Since the conservation and restoration of the historical buildings required specific knowledge, the nineteenth century invented the ―architects of the historical monuments‖. They were educated for the understanding of art history, construction history and the scientific and technical terms related to the materials (Choay, 2007; Macarrón, 2008). Twentieth Century The most important contribution of the twentieth century to the cultural heritage concept was the inclusion of the social function of the cultural heritage as one of the categories of analysis. The historical monument started to be treated as a social and philosophical object. The monument was linked not only the history but also to the interpretation of the history its socioidentity processes. 136 The historical monument and the monument concepts started to be distinguished. The historical monument was defined according to its historical values, which made possible its inventory and nomenclature, recognizing two new values: remembrance and contemporaneousness. During the articulation of the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries, the historical monuments conservation reached the status of discipline. Later, in 1931 was celebrated the First Historical Monuments International Conference, opening the debate about the historical monuments and the city relationship. After this meeting the Athens Charter was elaborated, bringing up very new conceptions about the historical monuments. Nevertheless, these conceptions received a limited diffusion as the participants of this forum were only European countries (Choay, 2007). Still, nowadays one of the most important problems for the cultural heritage protection is that the international laws are based on the European legal system, without including other traditions (IAPH,2003). However, until the decade of the 1960‘s the conservation of the historical monuments was still focused only in the big religious and civil buildings. After that decade, the historical monuments constitute just one part more of the historical heritage that a society has constructed (Choay, 2007). During the 1960‘s the cultural heritage concept was reformulated to be based on the concept of culture, it means the history as the only category to understand the heritage was replaced by other one much more complex and that changed the nature and the sense of the cultural heritage (IAPH, 2003). Since the culture category identifies the way the individuals and groups live, what a human been is, what it was, what have been forgotten and what would it be, during the decades of the 1960‘s and 1970‘s, the heritage stopped being only related to individual buildings and started to include groups of buildings and urban fabric: blocks and neighborhoods, villages, complete cities and even sets of cities (Choay, 2007; IAPH, 2003; Unesco, 2011). The industrial archaeology and the Modern Movement architecture also became part of the memory related to the cultural heritage, as well as the notion of cultural landscape, recognizing the interaction of a community with its environment (Rivera, 2003). During the second part of the twentieth century the conservation of the cultural heritage some other changes occurred. The notion of cultural and artistic heritage was included as well as the notion of natural heritage. Also, were consolidated the international organization for the protection of the heritage and along with it, the regulations for the cultural heritage protection in national and international levels were increasedli. The last decades of the twentieth century were characterized by the cultural sustainability emerging needs. With it, the cultural heritage became an important tool for the development processes and policies all around the world. It was taken as a tool for the social, cultural and economical development, and at the same time, as a social cohesion instrument. Whit it the cultural heritage also became an important resource for the identity territorialisation into a globalization process (IAPH, 2003). However, the theoretical and practical research about the relation between sustainable development and cultural heritage is still short (Van Der Hammen, Lulle & Palacio, 2009). Most of the emphasis about are focus on technical issues related with the degradation or damage that the urban cultural heritage can suffer from the climate change or other phenomenon related, or related to sustainable tourism. Other investigation, in spite of recognizing the cultural heritage as a social well-being, reduce the cultural heritage to the built heritage, and the method use to identify and preserve it reduce the cultural heritage to a list of monuments, buildings and conservation areas (Tweed & Sutherland, 2007). As a result, the Spirit of the Place perspective for the comprehension of the cultural heritage started to emerge, trying to understand the heritage from an integral perspective without dividing or classifying the heritage and involving the community into the cultural heritage protection practices. Although the Spirit of the Place has not been theorized in depth, it started to be developed and applied through some international conventions, charters and declaration inspired 137 on the Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance (1979)lii. This has been the only cultural heritage category approximation to the different cultures realities, besides the western ones. The Invention of the Urban Heritage Why did the urban heritage have to wait so long to be equally considered as a conservation objet nondeductible from the historical monuments? There are two principal reasons: 1.The city definition and the framework for its study were not so clear until the twentieth century. 2. The absence of cartographic documents before the nineteenth century and the difficulty to find archives related to the production and transformations of the urban space in the time. In the same context, the history of architecture forgot about the city and its historical expressions (Choay, 2007; Macarrón, 2008). The conversion of the city as an object of historical knowledge was caused by the transformation of the urban space during the French Revolution. The notion Urban Heritage came up into the adverse context of the urbanization. The historical city was conceived as a strange object, fragile and valuable for the art and the history, and as the same objects for exhibitions in the museums, so the experts considered it had to be taken out of the life circuit. As a consequence it brought a big contradiction: while the historical city is transformed in historical, the city loses its historicity (Choay, 2007). How to conserve and take out of the life circuit those historical urban fragments without depriving them of its activities and habitants? This problem was set out after the II world war. Gustavo Giovannoni was the first one who talked about urban heritage. He was the first who gave the antique urban complexes value of use and value of museum, integrating them into a general conception of territorial planning. This implied a new model of conservation of the historical urban complexes for the history, for the art and for the present (Choay, 2007). Under this approach the historical city itself became a monument, but at the same time a living fabric. Giovanonni funded the doctrine of the restoration and conservation of the urban heritage, resumed in three principles: the urban heritage has to be integrated to the urban, local, regional plan. 2. The historical monument concept is not only related to a single and isolated building. It corresponded to urban dialectic and cannot be disconnected from that; also, for the first time it was recognized the spirit (historical) of the places, materialized in the special configurations. 3. The urban heritage requires procedures for its preservation and restoration as the monuments does. THE CULTURAL HERITAGE TODAY: CULTURAL INDUSTRY AND THE CULTURAL HERITAGE The second part of the twentieth century was characterized by the emergence of the cultural industry. Edgar Morin defined the modern times culture according to the Mass Culture phenomenon, where the peoples behaviors homogenization is the principal social process, based on the consumerism and pragmatism. In this context, the cultural heritage is an object for use and consumption (Ballart, 2005). The market of the culture made the cultural heritage one more of its objects for use and consume. The heritage became part of the regular consumer demand of the contemporary societies, as well as part of education, leisure and tourism. The recognition of the cultural heritage as a resource brought much more extended conscious of its richness but also of its vulnerability. In this context, the occidental values became the contributors to the ecumenical cultural heritage practices. This expansion was symbolized by the ―Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage‖ adopted by UNESCO in 1972 (Choay, 2007), which define the cultural heritage according to the western classification of the antiques and 138 architecture recognized centuries before only in Europe: monuments, groups of buildings and sites. In this convention the heritage can be recognize when it is ―of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science‖: isn‘t it true that those three notions have always been determined by the Eurocentirc perspective? Whit it the universal system of thought and western values on cultural heritage issues were proclaimed. Since that convention, the relation between the cultural industry and the cultural heritage started to be also characterized by the universalization of the western – European values system. The monument, the historical city and the urban and architectural heritage express the way the western societies have assumed its own temporal and identity relationship (Choay, 2007). On the same line, the cultural industry and cultural consume took up again the big knowledge democratization project inherit from the Enlightenment Period, based on the eradication of the differences and its most representative phenomenon the historical monuments audience. The privileges of enjoyment and leisure time, and its correlative, cultural tourism became the most significant mass culture consumer‘s call (Choay, 2007; Ballar, 2005). The monuments and the historical heritage acquire a double status: first as knowledge and pleasure works dispensing available to everyone; and also as cultural manufactured product, packed and spread due to its consume. Thanks to the cultural industry, the cultural heritage value becomes also an economical value (Choay, 2007). Now purpose for the cultural and historical heritage protection is directly related to the private and public sector incomes growth. With it, the new trends on cultural heritage are composed by its valorization and its integration to the contemporary life. The valorization trend is not referring any more to the values of the heritage itself. Refer to the values of the heritage capital gain. Off course the importance of the monument is still take into account, but mainly the economical connotation leads its valorization. This new trend is now under the profitability signal, which has been developed with the aim to valorize the cultural heritage: conservation and restoration, staging, animation and modernization of the heritage into a valuable exchange and its presentation (Choay, 2007; Ballar, 2005). The integration in the contemporary trends refers to the reutilization of the places. This is one of the most audacious and difficult ways for cultural heritage valorization. It is about the reintroduction of the monument into the live circuit uses of the city. The industrial and preindustrial architecture, the cities and historic areas are part of this process. The social value of the historic cities and areas developed into real state and touristic interests, which with difficulty can correspond to any social aspect. Since then, the re-appropriation and revalorization of the historic cities and historic city areas have become the flag of many nations. But this covers a lot of interventions over the cultural heritage to make it a cultural consumable product. In other words, though the cultural heritage discourse the city is reused for economical benefits. The industry of cultural consume have prepared the procedures of packing of the historic centers and historical complexes ready for the cultural consume. The city is put on stage: illuminate, clean and makeup for its media image. The historical cities and historic areas of the city are full of graphics signage and guidance, but also of colorful stereotypes like alleys, squares, paved and tiled walkways in an antique style, etc. Besides, there are outdoor leisure stereotype places like coffee shops, art crafts shops and restaurants, among others. All of these things to improve the economical benefits of the cultural heritage through the cultural tourism (Choay, 2007; Ballar, 2005). The government‘s laws and conventions for the protection of the cultural heritage are justified by the economical inputs of the cultural activities related to the heritage. This situation became a subject for discussion not only in national level, but also in an international level. Since the second part of the twentieth century international organizations like OEA, UNESCO, European Council, ICOMOS, OMT, among others, through conventions, charters and laws, s recognized the economical value of the cultural heritageliii. These documents highlight the evolution of the cultural heritage concept during the last sixty years which have been expanded but also link more 139 and more to the economical interest of the market, still based under the western- European logic (IAPH, 2003). New trends and challenges In the history of the cultural heritage, the cultural notion may have been included into the cultural heritage discourses but not into its practicesliv. Nowadays there are more and more conventions, charters and declarations where the socio-cultural aspects of the heritage are recognized, but at the same time those regulations also give priority not only to the material but also to the economical value of the heritage, which place the communities‘ interests apart. At the same time, since the cultural industry, directly or indirectly, represents an important part of the countries income, the valorization of the cultural heritage became an important corporation. Nonetheless, there are clear sides and negative effects over the cultural heritage: the exclusion of the socio-cultural dimensions of the cultural heritage, like for example the exclusion of the residents and along with it their traditional and daily activities. According to the cultural industry, how does the urban heritage should be understood? Where are the places for the residential activity and the community services (small commerce, schools, medical centers, etc)? When the social demand is a priority? In the last decades, some new appreciations of the cultural heritage have emerged. One of these is the perspective of the spirit of the place, which farther than recognizing the heritage as an important element for the social cohesion and cultural identity consolidation of the communities, it establishes the need of not threaten them. This perspective is a sustainable proposal where the communities‘ interests are fundamental for the understanding of the management and performance of the cultural heritage. Under the perspective of the spirit of the place the relationship between cultural heritage and economic development is articulated by the inclusion of the socio-cultural elements, it means the protection of the cultural heritage become sustainable. These new appreciations and the role that the cultural heritage could develop during the evolution to a real integration of the community, the heritage and the development processes, bring new challenges: the capacity for the design of new cultural heritage management models that could include a comprehensive and inclusive understanding of the cultural heritage, which in the practice really involves the social and cultural functions. Although over the last decades new appreciations of the cultural heritage have emerged, the traditional model established since the Enlightenment Period is still ruling. The new models for cultural heritage management have to represent the contemporary society, not only the economical dimensions, but mostly the social and cultural ones. These models have to preserve and interpret the cultural significance of the place where the cultural heritage is present, its aesthetic, historical, social and spiritual values, as well as the community of the place and their continuous daily life. And the most important, is time to recognize the particularities of the culture and the identity without having the western economic and cultural system values as the only lenses for understanding the cultural heritage. 140 REFERENCES Aguirre, Amanor. (2008). ―Nuevas ideas de arte y cultura para nuevas perspectivas en la difusión del patrimonio‖. 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No. 8, 61-85. 141 TRENDS IN INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY IN NIGERIA: A WAKE-UP CALL ASSESSMENT FOR INTERVENTION TOWARDS ACHIEVING THE 2015 MDGS. By: Ojewumi Titus Kolawole, Department of Demography and Social Statistics, Faculty Of Social Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State. [email protected] 07039441471 Abstract A child‘s right to survival is fundamental. It is the building block towards the realisation of a child‘s potential and on it hinges other basic rights of the child. Yet, many children do not enjoy this right. This paper examined trends in infant and child mortality in Nigeria as a wake–up call for intervention towards achieving the 2015 MDGs target. Between 1990 and 2008, under-five mortality in Nigeria only falls from 199 to 157 against the 62 MDGs target by 2015. Currently, about 5.9 million babies are born in Nigeria every year, and nearly one million children die before the age of five years. One quarter of all under-five deaths are newborns – 241,000 babies each year. Many deaths occur at home and are therefore unseen and uncounted in official statistics. However, Vaccine Preventable Diseases (VPD) are the major causes of childhood mortality in Nigeria due to low vaccination uptake, poor health care system, inadequate personnel etc. The study therefore, call for an urgent action and greater national priority on child survival through interventions that will be integrated at community and family levels, targeting pregnant women, under-five children and accessing the hard-to-reach in order to meet the 2015 MDGs. Source of Information ―This paper compiles information and data on the Trends in Infant and Child Mortality in Nigeria. Facts have been drawn from a wide range of sources including the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), Federal Office of Statistics, National Planning Commission, UNICEF reports, Survey reports, Academic articles, Policy and Programme documents etc.‖ INTRODUCTION Over the years, studies have revealed that the progress countries have made toward reaching their goals of reducing by two- third childhood mortality based on the 1990 progress has been mixed, with a few countries on-track toward achieving the target, others having little or no success, and some countries actually losing ground (Bryce J, Terreri N, Victora CG, Mason E, Daelmans B, Bhutta ZA, et al, 2006). For about two decades, the annual number of under-five deaths only fall from around 12.4 million to about 8.1 million in 2009 – nearly 22,000 per day or 15 every minute (You D, Jones G, Wardlaw T, United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation, 2010). Though, when considering the trend from different reports since 1990, it is clear that under-five mortality had fallen. This is evidence that progress on child mortality is being made across all regions of the world, with many regions having reduced the under-five mortality rate by 50% or more (UNICEF, 2010). However, evidence from UNICEF, WHO, the World Bank, and the UN Population Division report(s) shows that the highest rates of mortality in children under age 5 years continue to occur 142 in sub-Saharan Africa where, in 2009, one in every eight children (129 per 1000 live births) died before their fifth birthday—a level nearly double the average in developing regions (66 per 1000) and around 20 times the average for developed regions (6 per 1000) (UNPD, 2010). Under-five mortality is increasingly concentrated in the developing countries: 70% of the world‘s under-5 deaths in 2009 occurred in only 15 countries while half of the deaths occurred in only five countries: India, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Pakistan, and China, whereas India and Nigeria together account for nearly one-third of the total number of under-5 deaths worldwide (21% and 10%, respectively) (You D, Jones G. et al, 2010). In Nigeria, underneath the statistics lies the pain of human tragedy, for thousands of families who have lost their children. Even more devastating is the knowledge, according to recent research, that essential interventions reaching women and babies on time would have averted most of these deaths since preventable or treatable infectious diseases such as malaria, pneumonia, diarrhoea, measles and HIV/AIDS account for more than 70 per cent of the estimated one million under-five deaths in Nigeria (UNICEF, 2010). Currently, about 5.9 million babies are born in Nigeria every year, and nearly one million children die before the age of five years. One quarter of all under-five deaths are newborns – 241,000 babies each year. Many deaths occur at home and are therefore unseen and uncounted in official statistics (FMOH, 2011). Though, when considering the mortality trends in Nigeria since 1960, it is very clear that child deaths are falling, but not quickly enough as the current rate of progress is well short of the MDG target of a two-thirds reduction by 2015. Report from 2008 NDHS also revealed that currently, 75 children per 1,000 live births die before their first birthday (40 per 1,000 before the age of one month and 35 per 1,000 between one and twelve months). Overall, 157 children per 1,000 live births, or about 1 child out of 6, die before reaching age five (NDHS 2008). NIGERIA UNDER-FIVE MORTALITY LEVEL AND TRENDS, (1960 – 2009) Levels and Trends in Child Mortality, 1960–2009 Year 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 U5MR 279 255 234 214 196 179 165 153 143 Year 2001 2003 2004 2005 2008 2009 U5MR 183 201 197 194 157 138 SOURCE: COMPILED; WORLD BANK 2006, NDHS 2008, UNICEF 2010. 1999 140 Nigeria Under-Five Mortality Graph (1960 – 2009) Source: WORLD BANK 2006, NDHS 2008, UNICEF 2010. 143 Between 1960 and 2000, the death rate for children under five has only reduced by 14 per cent, from 279 to 143 deaths per 1,000 live births. That means that, 14,000 fewer under-fives die each day. However considering the trends in under-five mortality in Nigeria since 1960, there is no doubt that the trends has been on decrease, although the decrease is small over the years up to 1990. However, despite the fact that under-five mortality has decreased by 18 percent between 1990 and 2000, the country still witness a reversal in the achievement made so far as the underfive mortality increase from 140 to 201 per 1,000 live births between 1999 and 2003 (NDHS 2003; UNICEF 2010). Though, recent progress has been made towards reducing under - five mortality from 201 to 157 between 2003 and 2008 according to NDHS 2008 reports and UNICEF 2010 reports. But Nigeria is currently off track in meeting the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 4 – a two-thirds reduction in child mortality (on 1990 levels) by 2015. NIGERIA UNDER- FIVE MORTALITY GRAPH FOR (1990 – 2009) Source: UNICEF, 2010 According to the UN inter-agency group for child mortality estimation, Nigeria has achieved only an average of 1.2% reduction in under-five mortality per year since 1990; it needs to achieve an annual reduction rate of 10% per year from now until 2015 to meet MDG 4 (IGME 2010). While some progress has been made to reduce deaths after the first month of life (the neonatal period), there has been no measurable progress in reducing neonatal deaths over the past decade. Data from the 2003 and 2008 NDHS and the 2007 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), reports shows that under-five mortality only fell by 22% from 201 deaths per 1000 live births in 2003 to 157 deaths per thousand live births in 2008. Whereas, neonatal deaths improved marginally from 48 per 1000 live births to 40 per 1000 live births during this period (MICS 2007, NDHS 2008, UNICEF 2010). 144 CHILDHOOD MORTALITY BY REGION IN NIGERIA (2003) Childhood Mortality National Region Number of deaths per 1,000 births Total Urban Rural North North North South South South Central East West East South West Infant mortality (between birth and first birthday) 100 81 121 103 125 114 66 Under-five mortality (between birth and fifth birthday) 201 153 243 165 260 269 103 120 176 69 113 Sources: N B S, 2007, NDHS, 2003 CHILDHOOD MORTALITY BY REGION IN NIGERIA (2008) Childhood Mortality Number of deaths per 1,000 births South South South National Total Urban Rural North Region North Central West East North West South East Infant mortality between birth and first birthday) 75 67 95 77 109 91 95 Under-five mortality (between birth and fifth birthday) 157 121 191 135 222 217 153 84 138 59 89 Source: NDHS, 2008 An examination of mortality levels and trend across the successive five-year periods based on data from the 2003 and 2008 NDHS shows that under-five mortality decreased from 201 to 157 deaths per 1,000 live births. Though ‗this translates to about one in every six children born in Nigeria dying before their fifth birthday‘, but there was a substantial decrease in child mortality rate. Meanwhile, infant mortality rate also fall from 100 to 75 deaths per 1,000 live births. Also, analysis from this figure shows that childhood mortality rates differ substantially between urban and rural areas, and has also reduced when comparing between 2003 and 2008 for all categories. For instance, the under-five mortality rate fall from 153 to 121 deaths per 1,000 births in the urban areas, compared with the fall from 243 to 191 deaths per 1,000 births in rural areas. Among the zones however, under-five mortality slightly reduced from113 to 89 deaths per 1,000 births in South West, and from 260 to 222 deaths per 1,000 births in North East between 2003 and 2008. Meanwhile, the South West zone has the lowest rates for all childhood mortality estimates compared with the other zones. Infant mortality is lowest in South West (59 deaths per 1,000 births) and highest in North East (109 deaths per 1,000 births). NIGERIA ON THE BURDEN OF DISEASES The 1993 World Development Report revealed the sub-Saharan Africa model on the burden of diseases, by stating that Nigeria lost 41 years of healthy life per 1,000 populations due to Vaccine Preventable Diseases (VPD). The state of the world‘s children indicated that, VPD has been implicated in the deaths of more than 20 percent of children under - five (UNICEF/Nigeria, 2001). The study further indicates that the main causes of neonatal deaths are birth asphyxia, severe infection including tetanus and premature birth. While, common causes of child mortality 145 and morbidity include diarrhea, acute respiratory infections, measles, and malaria. Mosley and Chen (1981) also viewed morbidity and mortality of the child as being influenced by underlying factors of both biological and socio-economic, operating through proximate determinants. Studies have also shown maternal education to be a significant factor influencing child survival (Caldwell, 1979; Adewuyi and Feyisetan, 1988). Polio: The World Health Organization reports shows that Polio is a highly infectious viral disease that invades the central nervous system and can cause paralysis, especially in the legs. One in 200 infections leads to irreversible paralysis and 5–10 percent of those paralysed die when their breathing muscles are paralysed. In 2003, the country had the highest prevalence of circulating wild polio virus in the world (WHO, 2003). Widely endemic in five continents since 1998, polio is now concentrated in parts of the Indian sub-continent and sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria (World Health Organization, 2005). The year 2002 seems to be an exception in that there appears to be an increase in cases due to probable resurgence of infections or heightened AFP surveillance. Between January and August 2002, a total of 77 wild polio cases were confirmed (CDC 2002). Although these cases are mainly restricted to particular regions of the country (in particular the northwest and central regions), polio eradication in Nigeria still remains a challenge as routine immunisation levels nationally and throughout these regions are low (NDHS 2008). Measles: Measles continues to be a serious problem in Nigeria. Measles is still endemic in Nigeria and is a major cause of childhood illness and death. A study in 2006 revealed that Between January and August 2004, at least 35,856 children were affected by measles in Nigeria and also shows that the trend of measles cases in Nigeria follows a seasonal pattern with periods of high transmission (January – June with peaks in March) and low transmission from July to December (FMOH, 2006). While, the analysis of the disease burden by age group revealed that in 2004, 58% of the measles cases were reported among under 5 years of age, with 30% in the 5 to less than 15 years of age and 12% in 15 years or above (MICS, 2007). Considerable progress was made in routine immunization against measles worldwide, particularly in Africa, protecting millions of children against this often fatal disease. In 2008, coverage reached 81 per cent in the developing regions, up from 70 per cent in 2000. However, projections show that without sustained funding for immunization activities in priority countries, mortality from measles could rebound quickly, resulting in approximately 1.7 million measles related deaths between 2010 and 2013 (UNICEF, 2010). Malaria: Malaria is by far the most important cause of morbidity and mortality in infants (38% and 28%) and young children (41% and 30%) (NHMIS, 1999). Findings from this source also revealed that about 75 percent of malaria deaths occur in children under five with about 11 percent of maternal deaths, especially for first-time mothers. Malaria contributes largely to neonatal and perinatal mortality as well as anaemia in young children, thus undermining their growth and development (NHMIS 1999). It was estimated in 1999 that 50 percent of the population has at least one episode of malaria each year, whereas children less than age five suffer from two to four attacks a year (NHMIS, 1999). Malaria is endemic throughout Nigeria. In 2009, the Federal Ministry of Health FMOH revealed that Malaria accounts for nearly 110 million clinically diagnosed cases per year, 60 percent of outpatient visits, and 30 percent hospitalisations. An estimated 300,000 children die of malaria each year. It is also believed to contribute up to 11 percent maternal mortality, 25 percent infant mortality, and 30 percent under-five mortality (FMOH, 2009). In addition to the direct health impact of malaria, there are also severe social and economic burdens on communities and the country as a whole, with about 132 billion Naira lost to malaria annually in the form of treatment costs, prevention, loss of work time, etc. (FMOH, 2009). 146 Diarrhoeal Illnesses: These illnesses are the second most common cause of infant deaths and the third main cause of under-five mortality in the World. The World Bank (2001) reveals that Nigeria has lost 43 healthy years of life per 1,000 from diarrhoeal illnesses. Data from Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS, 1999) and Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS, 1999) also buttress this fact; both surveys report a high prevalence of diarrhoea among children in the two weeks preceding the surveys. Figures were 15.3 percent among children under five (1999 MICS) and 15.5 percent among children under three (1999 NDHS). In addition, the 2008 NDHS shows that 10 percent of the children under five had a diarrhoeal episode in the two weeks preceding the survey and 2 percent had blood in the stool. The prevalence of diarrhoea varies by age of children. Diarrhoea is more prevalent among children whose households do not have an improved source of drinking water (12 percent), compared with households that have an improved source of drinking water (8 percent). The proportion of children with diarrhoea is higher in rural areas than urban areas (11 and 8 percent, respectively). The prevalence of diarrhoea varies among zones: children in North East zone are more susceptible to episodes of diarrhoea (21 percent) than children in other zones. The lowest proportion of children with diarrhoea is in South-South (4 percent) (NDHS, 2008). Also, studies have shown that pneumonia, diarrhoea, malaria and AIDS accounted for 43 per cent of all deaths in under-fives mortality in Nigeria in 2008, and more than a third of all child deaths were attributable to malnutrition (UNICEF, 2009). Childhood Malnutrition: Progress in nutrition is assessed from indicators of malnutrition, breastfeeding, salt iodisation, and vitamin-A supplementation for children under five. WHO/UNICEF (1989) recommends that children be exclusively breastfed for the first four to six months of life, and thereafter introduced to appropriate and adequate complementary foods along with breast milk. Past studies in Nigeria revealed that more than 50 percent of all childhood deaths have under-nutrition as an underlying factor (NPC/UNICEF, 1998). The 2008 NDHS shows that despite the slight improvement, Nigerian infants are not getting the maximum benefits of exclusive breastfeeding, given that about 40 percent of infants ages 2–3 months were already receiving supplements, thus putting them at risk of diarrhoeal infections, an underlying factor in malnutrition (NDHS, 2008). For older children, the problem is lack of adequate complementary feeding. Adequate complementary foods must contain the recommended dietary allowances (RDA) for energy, measured by caloric intake and protein. Among children ages 12– 23 months, 13 percent were still on breast milk when they ought to have been introduced to adequate and appropriate complementary foods. The majority of children receive more cereal and root based carbohydrates as opposed to protein-rich foods. From the figures reported in the 1990, 1999, and 2003 NDHS, the trend in the nutritional status of Nigerian children has worsened with regard to stunting and wasting (from 36% in 1990 to 46% in 1999 and 38% in 2003 for stunting and 11% in 1990 to 12% in 1999 and 9% in 2003 for wasting). However, according to 2008 NDHS, 41% of children under five children are stunted or too short for their age. Stunting is more common in rural areas (45%) than urban areas (31%). Stunting ranges from 22% in the South East zone to 53% in North West zone. Wasting (too thin for height), which is a sign of acute malnutrition, and has increased from 9% in 2003 to 14% in 2008. Presently, almost one-quarter (23%) of Nigerian children are underweight, or too thin for their age (NDHS, 2008). HIV/AIDS: Since it was first reported in 1986, the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria has steadily risen when considering its level and trends. The rate among women attending antenatal clinics has increased from 1.8 percent in 1991 to 5.8 percent in 2001 while among teenagers and young adults, the prevalence rate was 6 to 6.5 percent (FMOH, 2001). Furthermore, reports from Policy/Nigeria 2002 revealed that about 3.4 million people in Nigeria were HIV-positive 147 and that this number will rise to more than 4 million in 2005 (POLICY/Nigeria, 2002). However, the 2010 HIV sentinel sero-prevalence survey among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in Nigeria revealed a national HIV prevalence of 4.1%. The prevalence ranged from 1.0% in Kebbi State to 12.7% in Benue State. A total of 16 States and FCT had prevalence above 5%. Five of the six States in the South South Zone, three of the five in the South East Zone, five of the seven in North Central Zone, two of the six in North East Zone, and one of the six in South West Zone had prevalence of 5% and above (FMOH, 2010). Also, analysis of the HIV prevalence among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in Nigeria from 1991 to 2010 shows that HIV prevalence increased steadily from 1.8% in 1991 through 4.5% in 1995 and peaked at 5.8% in 2001. Thereafter, it declined to 4.4% in 2005 and stabilized between 4.4% (2005) and 4.1% in 2010 (FMOH/NACA and UNAIDS, 2010). The implication of these data on child survival are manifold and grievous, since infants born to HIV-positive mothers are at 30percent risk of becoming HIV infected (NPC/UNICEF, 2001). Therefore, with our population, high fertility rate, and poor coverage of PMTCT services, the number of paediatric HIV infections is expected to increase significantly in the next few years if nothing is done to reverse the current trend. REASONS FOR SLOW PROGRESS TOWARDS ACHIEVING THE MDG GOAL 4 Several studies have reported that child survival in Nigeria is threatened by nutritional deficiencies and illnesses, particularly malaria, diarrhoeal diseases, acute respiratory infections (ARI), and vaccine preventable diseases (VPD), which account for the majority of morbidity and mortality in childhood (UNICEF, WHO, World Bank, UNPD, 2010). In addition to all these are childhood malnutrition, poor immunisation status, household poverty, and food insecurity, while other factors includes maternal illiteracy, poor living conditions (housing, water, and sanitation), and poor home practices for childcare during illnesses. Also, the alarming rise in prevalence of HIV/AIDS among pregnant women with resultant mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) adds to the burden of child mortality and morbidity in Nigeria. Low Utilization of Maternal Health Care Services According to studies, the gains for many indicators of coverage of care for women and children were less significant. In 2008, 58% of pregnant women attended one or more antenatal visits, slightly lower than 61% in 2007. Also, around 39% of deliveries were with a skilled birth attendant in 2008, down from 44% in the 2007 MICS. Exclusive breastfeeding among children less than 6 months fell from 17% in 2003 to 13% in 2008. Treatment for childhood diarrhoeal disease, malaria and pneumonia have dropped or remained stagnant. Coverage of care remains on average much worse in the North East and North West of the country and this possibly explains one of the reasons for high level of maternal and child mortality in the region (MICS, 2008, NDHS, 2008). Poor Immunization Status With the establishment of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative in 1988, immunization has resulted in a 99 percent reduction in the worldwide incidence of poliomyelitis (WHO; 2006). By reducing morbidity and mortality, Immunization is expected to contribute significantly to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goal to achieve a two-thirds reduction in mortality rates for children under the age of 5 years between 1990 and 2015 (Brenzel L, Wolfson LJ, FoxRushby J, Miller M, Halsey NA & WHO; 2006). However, the country‘s immunization programmes have been characterized by intermittent failures and successes since the initial introduction in 1956. Following repeated and limited initial success, the immunization programme was re-launched in 1984, but studies show that individual, community and systemic factors affect the equitable uptake of childhood immunization in Nigeria, as in other countries in sub-Saharan Africa (UNICEF; 2001). Currently, Nigeria is among the ten countries in the world 148 with vaccine coverage rates below 50 percent, having been persistently below 40 percent since 1997 ((Hersh B. 2005; WHO, 2003). Therefore, low childhood immunization uptake, inequitable access to immunization services, deficient vaccine supplies and equipments had been revealed as major factors contributing to childhood mortality in Nigeria (Lambo E. 2005). In addition, a study by Babalola revealed that current coverage rates for the various childhood vaccines in Nigeria are among the lowest in the world (Babalola S, Aina O. 2004). For instance, a study by Bryce J. e tall revealed that Measles was responsible for 5 percent of the child deaths in Africa (Bryce J, Boschi-Pinto C, Shibuya K, Black RE. 2005), and of the estimated 282,000 under five deaths in 2003 (Stein CE, Birmingham M, Kurian M, Duclos P, Strebel P, 2000; WHO, 2003); half of these death occurred in Nigeria (Hersh B. 2005). According to Omer S.B. e tall, vaccines are among the most effective preventive health measures in reducing child mortality, morbidity, and disability (Omer SB, Salmon DA, Orenstein WA, Hart P, Halsey N. 2009; Nyarko P, Pence B, Debpuur C. 2001). The introduction of appropriate vaccines for routine use on infants has resulted in drastic reductions in vaccine-preventable diseases (Omer SB. e tall; 2009). The Expanded Program on immunization (EPI) in middle- and low-income countries has prevented more than 2 million child deaths from the Tuberculosis, Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis, Polio, and Measles each year since its initiation in 1974 (WHO, UNICEF; 2005). Therefore, having missed the 2005 Nigeria‘s first Millennium Development Goals target, the country may however not meet the other goals by 2015 unless current trends are reversed (Alaba O. A, Alaba O. B, 2009). High Unmet Needs of Family Planning With an unmet need for family planning of 20 percent (15% for spacing, 5% for limiting births) and a contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) of 15 percent, Nigerians are still having more children than planned and at shorter than desired birth intervals (2008 NDHS). A multivariate crosscountry analysis research on effect of birth intervals on childhood morbidity and mortality reports that Nigerian mothers had short birth intervals and these intervals posed substantial mortality and nutritional risks for children (Rustein, 2001). The study also reveals that intervals of at least 36 months are associated with the lowest mortality and morbidity levels, with the IMR dropping by about 28 percent and the U5MR declining by 23 percent. Other benefits include a reduction in the annual number of deaths of children less than five years by 165,000 and a drop in the TFR of longer birth intervals of 8 percent. Apart from poor budgetary allocations for FP/RH activities, there is also a marked level of resistance to family planning use in Nigeria because of socio-cultural and economic factors (2008, NDHS). High Level of Maternal Morbidity/Mortality Maternal mortality in Nigeria is high, varying between 840 and 545 deaths per 100,000 live births with wide geographical disparity ranging from 166 per 100,000 live births in the southeast to 1,549 per 100,000 live births in the northeast (1999, 2008 NDHS). Nigeria contributes to 10 percent of the world‘s maternal deaths with an average of seven for every 1,000 births. With about 2.4 million live births annually, about 17,000 Nigerian women die annually. Or to put it another way, one woman dies every 30 minutes from complications of pregnancy and childbirth (NPC/UNICEF, 2001). These indicators have a negative impact on child survival, since children who lose their mothers experience an increased risk of death or other complications. Studies have shown that children who lose their mothers during childbirth, particularly female children, are 10 times more likely to die than those whose mothers survive (Strong, 1992). For each woman who dies, approximately 20– 30 others suffer short- and long-term disabilities from complications of pregnancy and childbirth. Major causes of maternal morbidity and mortality are haemorrhage, infection, unsafe abortion, hypertensive disease of pregnancy, and obstructed labour. Apart from malaria, diarrhoeal illnesses, ARI, and VPD, a large proportion (30–40%) of 149 infant morbidity and mortality globally and within Nigeria can be attributed to preventable factors during pregnancy and delivery (WHO, 1996; Lawoyin, 2000). Low-birth weight, which underlies a significant percentage of early deaths in infancy, is largely due to poor maternal weight gain during pregnancy, arising from maternal morbidity (malaria) and HIV/AIDS, among others (Njokanma and Olarewaju, 1994). EFFORTS TOWARDS REDUCING CHILD MORTALITY IN NIGERIA There had been series of strategies available from documents employed by Nigerian government towards reducing child mortality in the country since 1960. Nigeria as one of the signatory to both the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child and following the ratification of the CRC in 1991, the government of Nigeria simplified and translated this document into the three major Nigerian languages. Nigeria also ratified the Declaration and Plan of Action for Children arising from the WSC, held in New York in 1990. This action was followed up with the preparation of a National Programme of Action (NPOA) for the Survival, Protection, and Development of Children, adopted in 1992. In 2000, there was also an End of Decade Review (EDR) of the progress made towards achieving these set goals. Regarding child health, the country has adopted and implemented to a certain extent a number of major global initiatives affecting children, such as the Safe Motherhood Initiative and its follow-up Making Pregnancy Safer, Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI), and Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI). Others are RBM Initiative, Elimination of IDD, VAD Control, and NPI, the latter with a special emphasis on the eradication of poliomyelitis. In addition in 2001, the National AIDS Control Agency (NACA) established Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) projects in 11 teaching hospitals nationwide. NIGERIA POLICIES AND PLANS TOWARDS CHILD SURVIVAL Nigeria has in place several policies and plans that affect the survival of children and their mothers. Some of these have been adopted and are being implemented, whereas some are drafts or under review. These documents include the National Health Policy of 1988 (revised in 1996), Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Policy (1994), National Immunisation Policy and Standards of Practice (1996), which is currently being revised. Others include the National Acute Respiratory Infections Programme: National Policy and Plan of Actions, 1991–1995; Breastfeeding Policy (1999); Essential Drug Policy; National Nutrition Policy, compiled in 1995, adopted in 1998, and published in 2001; National Reproductive Health Policy (2001); and National Policy on Population and Sustainable Development (2001 draft) and revised in 2004. In addition, the Water Supply and Sanitation Policy was adopted in 2000. As well as policy on Fortification of Food with Vitamin A; National Programme of Action for the Survival, Protection, and Development of the Nigerian Child (1992); and National Policy on Women (2000), which strives to enhance the status of women, and the MCH component of the National Primary Health Care Development Programme, aimed at improving the health status of women and children. The Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) also strongly supports and is implementing all aspects of the RBM Initiative backed by the Guidelines for Malaria Control in Nigeria (1989), National Malaria Control Policy (1997), National Anti- malarial Policy (2001), and the Strategic Plan for Rolling Back Malaria in Nigeria, 2001–2010. NIGERIA AND DONORS PARTNERS The Nigerian government has enjoyed and still enjoys the goodwill of many international donors and partners in the area of child survival and maternal health. As a result of the decline in public funding in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the health sector became highly dependent on donor funding and technical input from development partners. WHO, the World Bank, African Development Bank (ADB), USAID, through its implementing partners (IPs), UNICEF, and the 150 Department for International Development (DFID) are key players. Funds from these agencies support the formulation of policies, plans, and guidelines; advocacy and dialogue; health sector reforms; capacity building; child and maternal health service delivery, including access to adequate immunisation services; and vitamin-A supplementation. Other areas that receive support from these agencies include NGO capacity and network building, research, and awareness about child survival issues. Others partners that significantly contribute to child survival in Nigeria include the Interagency Coordinating Committee (ICC) for the Polio Eradication Initiative (PEI) and routine immunisation to which Rotary International via Polio Plus, the Canadian and Japanese governments, and the European Union (EU) belong. Other funding sources include the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Global Alliance on Vaccine and Immunisation (GAVI), with the Global Fund for AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria. REASONS FOR FAILURE DESPITE SERIES OF PLANS AND EFFORTS TOWARDS CHILD HEALTH IN NIGERIA In spite of various plans, strategies and polices, the rate of improvement in child survival indices has been slow and one of the worst in sub-Saharan Africa, principally because of the following major factors: Poor planning and funding by the government. Limited inter-sectoral approaches and lack of decentralised management capacity Non-sustainability of donor-funded and inadequate monitoring and evaluation. CONCLUSION The primary aim of this paper was not to calculate U5MR for Nigeria but to see the trend in the progress made since 1990, which will serve as a wake –up call assessment towards achieving the 2015 MDGs target and to examine those factors that contributes to lack of projected decline in mortality rate in Nigeria. The expectation is that U5MR will continue to drop and may even plummet to a moderate figure of 55/1000 by the year 2015. However, the steep decline over the years from the very high rate of 29%/1000 in 1990 to 14%/1000 in 2000 gives hope, though such decrease is not in consonance with the expectation of the world on under five mortality. However, the subsequent increase from the 14%/1000 in 2000 to 17%/1000 in 2001 and 19%/1000 in 2004 are indications of reversal in the down-trend achievement made since 1990. Meanwhile, the recent decrease in child mortally between 2004 till date shows that Nigeria has the capacity to meet the MDGs 4 by 2015. The challenges that we face regarding the health of under-five Nigerian children today cannot be put off, since they are not insurmountable. That is, we have the tools, resources, and knowledge to address our nation‘s most critical child survival problems and build on the considerable achievements that have been made since the World Summit for Children in 1990. Progress in reducing under-five mortality depends on the commitment by academics, governments, international agencies, health care professional associations, donors and nongovernmental organizations to work together towards achieving Millennium Development Goals 4. RECCOMENDATION If MDG 4 is to be achieved and needless loss of under–five child death prevented, it is essential that national governments, international agencies and civil societies increase attention to systematically preventing and tracking under-five deaths. Partners must work together now to increase their efforts and resources, focusing not just on one intervention or cause but on developing a functional continuum of basic services that save lives and improve health for millions of newborns and children. That is what is needed now is urgent action and greater national priority placed on children‘s issues so that significant gaps and the growing disparity in child health and survival do not reverse the progress already made. Therefore, the essential set of 151 interventions judged to be feasible with high levels of implementation in low income countries like ours comprise both preventive and curative options and they include, among others: Improve national treatment of VPD – government in collaboration with ministry of health must develop strategies to improve adequate breastfeeding, vaccinations, zinc and vitamin A supplementation, insecticide-treated mosquito nets, oral rehydration therapy, antibiotic treatment of infection and treatment of malaria across the nation. Develop integrated approach to child health - Tackling under-five mortality will need an integrated approach to child health. These essential interventions can be implemented through a mix of delivery channels that are already in wide use, including outreach and community and facility-based services, while also taking advantage of longer-term opportunities such as community capacity to deliver integrated services. This will help address neonatal causes of under-five mortality and diseases that still have high mortality rates, most notably pneumonia, diarrhoea and malaria. Institutionalising PHC Nationwide – Government should embark on enduring process of institutionalising PHC in the country with the provision of necessary skills, management techniques, and capacity building through the active involvement, participation, and sense of ownership by communities at village and district levels. Strengthening women empowerment programme -- Increased education of women, improved sex equality, comprehensive family planning services so that women can space or limit births, and strengthening of women's empowerment in decision making about seeking care are essential elements of strategies that will improve maternal health and reduce neonatal and child deaths. Build stronger partnerships – No single country, donor or development agency can on its own provide everything that children need. Partnerships can allow different agencies to tackle different tasks, pursue complementary goals and achieve bigger and better results. At the national level such partnerships can be based on the ‗Three areas‘ (i) agreed-upon national health action framework, (ii) national health coordinating authority with broad-based multi-sectoral support and (iii) country-level system for monitoring and evaluation. REFERENCES: Ahmad OB, Lopez AD, Inoue M (2000). The decline in child mortality: A reappraisal. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 2000; 78:1175-91. Alaba O. A, Alaba OB, (2009): Malaria in rural Nigeria: Implications for the Millennium Development Goals. Africa Development Review 2009, 21:73-85. Babalola S, Aina O, (2004): Community and systemic factors affecting the uptake of immunisation in Nigeria: A qualitative study in five states. National Report, Abuja: PATHS; 2004. Black RE, Morris SS, Bryce J, (2003),: Where and why are 10 million children dying every year? 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FMOH/NACA and UNAIDS, (2010). UNGASS country progress report – Nigeria Estimation and Projection Package, 2009. http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysi/tools/estimationandprojectionpackageepp/ Hersh B: Beyond next steps in measles control. 5th Annual Measles Partners for Measles Advocacy Meeting; Geneva, Switzerland 2005. Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (IGME) (2010). http://www.childinfo.org/mortality_igme.html Lambo E (2005): Achieving the Health Millennium Development Goals in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Science and Technology. A presentation given at an Africa-Canada-UK Exploration January 30 to February 1, 2005 Canada House, London 2005. Mosley, W.H. and I.C. Chen (1984): ―An analytical framework for the study of child survival in developing countries‖ Population and Development Review, A supplement to Vol.10. Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, 1999, 2003 and 2008. 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(1995). ―A study of neonatal deaths at the Ogun State Omer SB, Salmon DA, Orenstein WA, deHart P, Halsey N (2009): Vaccine Refusal, Mandatory Immunization, and the Risks of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. N Engl. J Med. 2009, 360:1981 Rutstein S.O. (2005) Effects of preceding birth intervals on neonatal, infant and under five year mortality and nutritional status in developing countries: evidence from the demographic and health surveys. Intl. J Gynaecology Obstetric 2005; 89: S7-S24. Stein CE, Birmingham M, Kurian M, Duclos P, Strebel P. (2003): The global burden of measles in the year 2000-a model that uses country-specific indicators. J Infect Disease 2003,187(suppl.1):S8-14. 153 The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria Nigeria portfolio: http://portfolio.theglobalfund.org/Country/Index/NGA?lang=en# UNICEF, WHO, The World Bank, the United Nations Population Division (2010), Levels and Trends in Child Mortality, Report 2010. 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Saving Newborn Lives in Nigeria: Newborn Health in the context of the Integrated Maternal, Newborn and Child Health Strategy, By Federal Ministry of Health, Nigeria, 2011 University Teaching Hospital, Sagamu, Nigeria.‖ Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene POLICY Project/Nigeria. (2002). Reproductive Health in Nigeria, Situation, Response, and Prospects: Key Issues. Abuja: POLICY Project. World Bank. (2001). World Development Report. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. World Health Organisation (WHO), (2006). World Health Report 2006: Working for Health. Geneva: World Health Organization. World Health Report (2005): Make Every Mother and Child Count. Geneva: World Health Organization. You D, Jones G, Wardlaw T, United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation, (2010). Levels & trends in child mortality: estimated developed by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation. New York: UNICEF; 2010. 154 CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION AND INFORMATION ERA: REJUVENATION OF HIGHR EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN Muhammad Safdar PhD Scholar Department of Education International Islamic University Islamabad, PAKISTAN [email protected] Cell # 0092 306 679 9816 Dr. N. B. Jumani Dean/Professor Faculty of Social sciences International Islamic University Islamabad, PAKISTAN [email protected] [email protected] Cell # 0092 333 516 3083 Muhammad Abdul Malik PhD Scholar Faculty of Education Preston University Islamabad, PAKISTAN [email protected] Cell # 0092 345 687 7041 Shakil Ahmad Ghazi PhD Scholar Faculty of Education Preston University Islamabad, PAKISTAN [email protected] Cell # 0092 3006536718 Information technology is a driving factor of globalization and over the past decades, globalization has now become a new world order. It has created not only the competitive environment but also enhanced the global competition on this planet. In Pakistan, to meet the unprecedented challenges created by globalization and information era, the Higher Education Commission (HEC) was established in 2002. In the recent years HEC has launched a sea change of initiatives for the promotion of higher education. Among them some significant measures are Foreign Faculty Hiring Programme (FFHP), PhD indigenous fellowship programme, establishment of Pakistan Education Research Network (PERN) and PERN-2, digital library, Pakistan Research Repository (PRR), ICT ranking of the universities, University-Industry technology Support Programme (UITSP), faculty development, curriculum reforms, provision of video conferencing facility to the universities, sponsorship to the presenters of national and international conferences and tenure track system etc. 155 PURPOSE Main purpose of the study is to assess the reforms, fundamental initiatives and achievements of HEC in response to the unparalleled challenges created by the globalization phenomenon and information era on this planet. METHODOLOGY It is a qualitative study and various data recourses are being studied intensively and analysed to gauge the gigantic efforts and leap frog progress of HEC for the promotion and upliftment of higher education in Pakistan. DATA RESOURCES Reports and publications of following data resources are being used for this study: Government of Pakistan (GoP) Ministry of Education (MoE) The Higher Education Commission (HEC)of Pakistan United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Organization of Economic and Cultural development (OECD) World Trade Organization (WTO) INITIATIVES AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF HEC Pakistan Education Research Network (PERN) Establishment of PERN was a revolutionary step taken by HEC in 2004. Initially universities were connected at 128 Kbps Intranet/Internet bandwidth which was increased to 155 Mbps in 2005-06. The total bandwidth was increased from 155 Mbps to 310 Mbps at 50% cost reduction. PERN 2 was launched in 2007 to strengthen PERN and it aimed to provide gigabyte connectivity to all higher education institutions in Pakistan. Through this mega project more than 100 times enhanced bandwidth will be provided to all universities as compared to present bandwidth (Rahman, 2008). Digital Library The digital library programme of the Higher Education Commission (HEC) is the corner stone of its information and communication technology (ICT) strategy which was launched in January 2004. It is playing fundamental role to address the knowledge gap or ―digital divide‖ between Pakistan and developed countries. Initially 11,000 scientific journals were provided for access to the researchers which were increased to 23000 electronic journals, covering approximately 75% of the world‘s peer reviewed scientific journals and 45000 e-books from 220 international publishers. (Rahman, 2008) 156 Pakistan research repository More than 2000 PhD and 100 M.Phil full text theses are available online in high-quality digitized format. ICT Ranking of Universities For best possible utilization of ICT in higher education, HEC has launched ICT ranking process in Pakistani universities. University –Industry Technology Support Programme (UITSP) Most important feature, funding support has been offered by HEC to initiative projects in which both industry and universities collaborative, through a matching grant scheme. These grants provide for a funding ratio of 20% industry and 80%HEC support towards the development of new research ideas. (Achievements of HEC, July 2004-June2006 and HEC Annual Report, 2005-06) Faculty Development A mega programme in the Pakistan‘s history, 5000 indigenous PhD fellowships was launched in 2004. ( HEC Annual Report, 2005-06) Publications Research output has been increased sharply over the past five years especially 58% increase in 2006 to 2007, 47% increase during 2005 to 2006 (HEC Annual Report, 2005-06). The percentage of publications has doubled from 2003 to 2004 (Amina, 2006) and likewise 33 % increase from 2004 to 2005 and overall 360% increase in international publications in the last four years (Rahman, 2008). CONCLUSION Incorporation of ICTs has created digital divide between developed and developing countries and due to this digital gap developed and technologically oriented nations are heading fast while developing countries are lagging behind in global race of competition. Globalization has produced knowledge base economy and high competitive environment. In fact, the present world scenario proves to a great extent ―survival of the fittest‖. In this situation, to keep at par with global standards the Higher Education Commission (HEC) was established in 2002. HEC took revolutionary initiatives to boost up higher education sector in Pakistan and has given top priority to the provision and utilization of information and communication technology which is sole potent driving factor behind globalization. Rejuvenation of higher education was not possible without a focused attention on ICTs (Naqvi, 2008). Paper publication in national and international reputed journals has been increased radically. For the first time in Pakistan‘s history three universities succeeded to enlist in world‘s top 600 universities. HEC has been termed as a model to be replicated by other developing countries. World Bank‘s team has given Pakistan a complementary three stars and British Council Report has given the rising star status to Pakistan. Doubtless to say, this is the golden era in the history of Pakistan‘s Higher Education and as a result of these initiatives in higher education in Pakistan, the nation is trying to grab the track of development. 157 REFERENCES Amina, S. (2006) Accessing Electronic Information: A Study of Pakistan Digital Library. Oxford. Field, M. H. & Fegan, J., (2005). Globalization and Across-Border Education: Paradims and Challenges. In Field, M. H. & Fegan, J. (eds.). Education Across Borders: Philosophy, Policy and Pedagogy-New Paradigms and Challenges Tokyo; Waseda University Media-Mix Co. Ltd. Government of Pakistan (2003) National Information and Communication Technology Strategy for Education in Pakistan, Islamabad. Government of Pakistan (2007) Education in Pakistan: A White Paper. Islamabad. Haloneon, T. (2004) World Commission on the Soicial Diomension of Globalization, (ILO, 2004). Hasan, J. K. (2006) A Global Guide to Management Education 2006. Higher Education Commission (2004) Annual Report 2003-04, Islamabad. Higher Education Commission (2005) Annual Report 2004-05, Islamabad. Higher Education Commission (2005) Medium Term Development Framework 2005-10, Islamabad. Higher Education Commission (2006) Annual Report 2005-06, Islamabad. Higher Education Commission (2007) Achievements of the Higher Education Commission (HEC) July 2004-June 2006, Islamabad. Higher Education Commission (2007) News and Views, December, 2007, Islamabad. Higher Education Commission (2008) Annual Report 2006-07, Islamabad. Higher Education Commission (2008) Research Performance, Islamabad. Retrieved on August 20, 2008 from www.hec.gov.pk Isani, U. A. G. and Virk, M.L. (2005) Higher Education in Pakistan, Islamabad. National Book Foundation. Jung, I. (2005) Innovations and Good Practices of Open Distance Learning in Asia and the Pacific. Ratna, G. (1994) New Educational Technologies; Their Impact on Relationships of Dependance and Inter dependeance for Third World Countries. (http://www.jstor.org) Visited on Jun 21, 2007. Siddique, A. H. (2004) Teaching Competencies and Educational Technology, Study Guide of M.Ed. (829) Teacher Education in Pakistan. Allama Iqbal Open University. Ivy Printers Rawalpindi. Sajjad, W. (2008) Information Technology Sourse of Strength in 21st Century, retrieved on March 30, 2008, from www.app.pk. Sarah, S. (2008) The News, 02 November 2008: Lessons Learnt: An Evaluation of Higher Education Commission‘s Performance in the last six years. Islamabad. The News, 02 November 2008: HEC‘s Advanced Net work for researchers fully operational. Islamabad USAID (2008) Global Education Data, Retrieved on March 29, 2008, from www.unaid.org. UNDP (2007-08) Human Development Report 2007-08, retrieved on March 29, 2008, from www.undp.org. UNESCO (2005) Role of Information and Communication Technologies in Managing Globalization at the National and Regional Levels, Moscow. 158 UNESCO (2004) Higher Education in Globalized Society. Retrieved December 29, 2007, from www.unesco.org. WTO (2008) International Trade Statistics 2003, Retrieved March 29, 2008, from www.wto.org. 159 STREET CHILDREN AND IT‟S INFLUENCE ON EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT IN SOUTH WESTERN STATES IN NIGERIA. By Dr.(Mrs) Ola Tolulope Monisola 1 Ekiti State University, Ado -Ekiti, Faculty of Social Science, Department of Sociology. [email protected] . Oyinlola Oluwagbemiga 2 Sound Health Development Initiative, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria [email protected]. Adeyemi Olalekan³ Sound Health Development Initiative Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. Email: [email protected] Bamisaye Folashade Centre for Social Reconditioning and Development Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State [email protected] Abstract Street children constitute a violent category in most societies; they have considered what society considers appropriate relationships with major institutions of childhood such as family, education and health. The study sets to examine background characteristics of street children, surviving strategies of street children, abuse experienced by street children, problems encountered on the street. A simple random sampling technique is adapted to selected 250 eligible respondents with the aid of EA maps. A well-structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. The instrument was divided into two sections. The result shows the neglect is most common street children and abuse experienced by children in the study area is highly increasing. Also, it was discovered that socio-economic status serves as a predictor to existence of street children in country i.e the more the age, the more the level of abuse. This study recommended therefore, a better social supports for children, the need to establish street rehabilitation strategy to come-in to serve as a very effective way to support street children as it occurs at locations where they live. Keywords: Street Children, educational attainment, Socio-Economic Status, Street Rehabilitation Strategy (SRS). 160 Introduction In a bid to embrace physical, intellectual, social, and emotional changes which occur from birth of all children geared towards fighting against the prevailing magnitude of street children as called for urgent attention. Although people change throughout their lives, developmental changes are especially dramatic in childhood. During this period, a dependent, vulnerable new born grows into a capable young person who has mastered language, is self-aware, can think and reason with sophistication, has a distinctive personality, and socializes effortlessly with others. Many abilities and characteristics developed in childhood last in a lifetime. Street children are perhaps the most vulnerable section of the society who suffers from human deprivations of all forms (Ekundayo,2001). Many children are forced to live and earn on the street due to their vulnerable and distressed situation. Some of them are run-away or abandoned children, they have been characterized with various disgusting health issues,(Ekundayo and Adebayo,2001). The United Nation Data on Children(2009), there are. nearly 270 million street children in the world today, and the number is rising daily. That means nearly one of every 60 people living on the planet is a child living on the streets. Half of them die within first four years of their street life. In other words, a child who ends up in the street at age 8 has a 50% chance of dying before the age of 12 (United Nation Data,2009) There are many unfortunate incidents which cause children as young as 3 years old to end up on the streets. The vast majority of these children have been abused and abandoned by their own families. In Nigeria, for instance, the Punch Newspaper (2010 pg 14) it was revealed that 64% of street girls interviewed and were turned out to be victims of incest. Other reasons include extreme poverty of a family, death of parents, unstable socio-economic situation in the country, and armed conflicts that cause many people to flee their homes, therefore instigating many families to fall apart. Once on the street, children must resort to begging, robbery, and even prostitution in order to survive. Many join gangs where they are introduced to crime, violence, and drugs. They become addicted to inhaling glue, paint thinner, and/or other toxic substances destroying brain cells and organ tissues. Street educators in Nigeria, Mexico, Burkina Faso, Russia, China and other countries regularly find numerous grossly intoxicated kids as young as 6 years old trying to escape the pain, hunger, and desolation of street life in the poisonous fumes. It is however imperative to note that the United Nation Policy on education revealed that education serves as the human right of all children (United Nation 1948) and that all children must receive basic primary education. The UN government passed that every child shall be entitled to education the provision of which shall be the responsibility of the government and parent. (Nigerian Gazette 2001), this implies that formal education for street children is a right 161 and they should not be denied, the best strategy for effective performance is to offer a comprehensive rehabilitation services that would enhance a high educational attainment of children on the street regardless of their social-economic backgrounds. The study examines the prevalence of street children and its influence on academic attainment in some major cities in Nigeria, which are Ibadan and Ado-Ekiti all in south west geo-political zone of the country. Overview of Prevalence of Street Children in Nigeria Street children phenomenon is a major human development problem that is been experiences all over the developing world. A major cause of this phenomenon in Nigeria is the lack of access to basic education and drop out in schools as a result of poverty and the harsh effect of the structural adjustment programme which exist to ameliorate poverty in country. And also bridging the existing gap in Nigerian access to infrastructural facilities through the unlimited provision of basic educational services for the less privileged in the country, also reducing the prevalence of children on street embracing superlative in educational programmes. The phenomenon of street children has become prominent globally with serious implications for the survival of these children. The presence of streets children in major cities of the world has transcended the level where it was viewed as strictly uncommon occurrence to a worrisome global problem. Worldwide, the problem of children roaming the street endlessly is escalating and alarming (Le Roux, 1998). Global estimates of street children stood between 10-100 millions and the number was increasing rapidly since 2002 (UNFPA, 2003). The phenomenon has not only attracted public concern but has also become a matter of priority to governments as well as, national and international organizations (Panter-Brick, 2002). Africa in particular where the problem of street children is relatively new unlike the situation in Asia, the presence of large number of children has now become a major issue (Kopoka, 2000, Mehta, 2000). Sub-Saharan Africa with less than 30 per cent of its population residing in cities is the least urbanized region of the developing world. Nevertheless, the region in the recent times is experiencing the highest urban growth rates in the world (Mehta, 2000). Decades ago, Africa witnessed rapid and wide ranging socioeconomic and political changes. There is rapid urbanization, run away population growth, wars, internal crises and increasing disparities in wealth. Also, the introduction of structural adjustment programme in a country like Nigeria and globalization affected the structure of African society. It is instructive to note here, that, the emergence of large numbers of children on the streets of Africa today was partly a reflection of the extreme poverty and the lack of social services that are endemic in many highly populated urban areas in Africa. Nigeria, the largest 162 black African country with more than 140 million people is not spared of this scourge. Although there is a considerable problem of thousands of street children in Nigeria, their precise numbers which vary from city to city and often depending on the season of the year is not known. However, the level of technology which is presently at its lowest ebb has been given as one of the significant factors why no-one can accurately give the number of street children in Nigeria (Ebigbo (2003). Children on the street are those who engaged in some kind of economic activity ranging from begging to vending and prostitution. Most go home at the end of the day and contribute their earnings to their family. They may be attending school and retain a sense of belonging to a family. Because of the economic fragility of the family, these children may eventually opt for a permanent life on the streets. Children of the street actually live on the street (or outside of a normal family environment). Family ties may exist but are tenuous and are maintained only casually or occasionally. But homes and families are part of the larger society and the underlying reasons for the poverty or breakdown of homes and families may be social, economic, political or environmental or any combination of these. It is worthy to note here that there are two main kinds of street children are found in some major cities in Nigeria: those who live and work on the street, (children of the street) and those who work on the streets full or part-time but who return to their homes each night (children in the street). Street Children and Educational Attainment Education can be referred to as an act or process of developing and cultivating, (whether physically, mentally, or morally) ones mental activities or senses; the expansion, strengthening, and discipline, of ones mind, faculty, etc.; the forming and regulation of principles and character in order to prepare and fit for any calling or business by systematic instruction. The result of these, as determined by the knowledge skill, or discipline of character, acquired; the act or process of training by a prescribed or customary course of study or disciple (Tawio, C.O, 1986), Similarly, Fafunwa (1979:26) defines education as ―the aggregate of all the processes by which a child or adult develops the abilities, attitudes and other forms of behaviour which are of positive value to the society in which he lives, that is to say, it is a process of disseminating knowledge either to ensure social control or to guarantee rational direction of the society or both.‖. The nature of Street Children has been growing steadily in the last two decades. An estimated 10 million children in Africa live without families, mostly in towns as ‗Street Children‘ (UNICEF, 1984:39). While the aforesaid estimates tend to be realistically low, it must also be noted that in the last two decades or so, Africa has experienced unprecedented level of crisis ranging from such natural disasters as famine resulting from drought to ethno-religious wars, wars of attrition 163 and the devastating impacts of HIV/AIDS. All these put together have added a quantum leap in the number of Street Children in Africa estimated currently to be in the range of 40 million (UNICEF 2007). Initially, the majority of primary and secondary educational institutions were established and run by missionaries. A relatively few were Government-owned, Education is very important for sustaining and developing the people. With education, people are able to endure, mature. Acquire experience, wisdom and the capability to fend for themselves as well as serve their communities and nation. Education is also both an instrument of stability and of change: stability in the sense that good traditions are documented, taught, imbibed and practised, and changes because it equips people to meet new challenges. In the same vein education is a tool for inculcating moral values in the citizen. The establishment of street educators teaching is one of the important tasks of street educators. Educating street children involves helping them acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes in specific areas of need. In order to be effective, the teaching of street children should be planned. One will have to understand the needs of street children and the local situation before you embark on any teaching. It is a waste of resources and efforts to train street children on issues that are not useful or relevant to their lives. Family relationships form a vital development pathway for children. Social learning and cognitive theories help explain how violent parent-child relations are shaped by the wider community and society. Social learning theory argues the fact that virtually all learning occurs on a vicarious basis by observing other people‘s behaviour and evaluating whether this has desirable outcomes (Bandura, 1975). Under this theory, children are abused because parents have learned (from relationships, community and/ or wider society) harsh child-management practices which are believed to be effective or will prepare children for the hardships of adult life. When the issue of Nigeria educational system today is raised, the first sets of thoughts that comes to mind are: decline in standard, deterioration of facilities, examination malpractices, mass promotion syndrome and the like before any other thing else. This calls for an in-depth study and analysis aimed at tutoring each and every stakeholders in the education system on how their actions and inactions have individually and collectively contributed to the collapsing state of education in Nigeria. In any case, knowledge and skill acquisition which education is all about cannot be over emphasized. According to the World Bank (1999: 25), ―successful development entails more than investing in physical capital, or closing the gap in capital. It also entails acquiring and using knowledge as well as closing the gaps in knowledge‖. Thus, to successfully confront the challenges of development, a developing country must undertake three major tasks: Acquired and adapt global knowledge and create knowledge locally. Invest in human capital to increase the ability to absorb and use knowledge; and Invest in technologies to facilitate both acquisition and the absorption of 164 knowledge. The invaluable roles and contributions of education in the development of an individual and the society cannot be over emphasized. Many countries including Nigeria, take education as an instrument for the promotion of national development as well as effecting desirable social change (NPE, 2004) this perhaps, might be responsible for the continuous growing concern of all stakeholders in education industry on changes that are likely to affect it as well as the implications such changes will have on the management and administration of education. There is therefore, the urgent need to really look into the future of our nations education Vis-à-vis the challenges ahead with a view to achieving effectiveness, quality and relevance in the entire system of children on the street. Relevance of education does not seem to be relevant to our aspiration and needs these days, Udoh, Akpa and Gang (1990) submit that many educators expressed concern about the lack of relevance of the Nigeria educational system in meeting the pressing economic, social and cultural needs of the national by providing education for the street children aimed at promoting education at the grass root level. Statement of Problem Like every other social fact, Street Children tends to defy any universal issues one way the other. The phenomenon street children arise as a result of these children being ‗abandoned‘ by or themselves ‗abandoning‘ their families and homesteads. Street Children has been growing steadily in the last two decades as children are been deprived of their right to education, the right to teach them effectively. Preventing and reducing the violence that children are forced to experience will eliminate significant factors pushing them onto the streets and negates the improvement in their quality of life, many marginalized groups are left uncared for and end up becoming a burden on NGOs. Among those who are not covered by most of these plans are street children; a group that constitute a major loss of human capital as they are potential criminals; people who, as a matter of fact live a life of dependency. At this juncture, this study investigate the poor parental guidance forwarded to child which its aftermath effect leads to street activities which begging, hawking, and prostitution all this activities have been characterised as child abuse, as such there need for relative interventive measure. Objective of the Study The specific objectives of the study are to 1. To examine poor parental guidance as the causes of street children. 2. To examine various issues related to the causes of street children. 3. To access the perceptive of the perceptive of various stakeholders in the business of child rearing and development (United Nations, World Health Organisations). 165 Research Question 1. What is the prevalence nature of street children in South Western State ? 2. Do socio-economic status of street children influence street activities ? 3. What is the perception of parent towards child upbringing? 4. Do children on the street have hope for educational attainment? 5. Do street children have a surviving strategies on the street? Scope Of The Study This study will be limited to the prevalence of street children and its influence on academic attainment in south western State Nigeria, this is based on the fact that street children are prevalence in area. METHOD AND PROCEDURES Research Design/ Method of Data Collection The selection of respondents for this survey was based on EA map that was collected from National Population Commission, South western State of Nigeria from which number of children on streets was selected. Of these children on the streets, a simple random sampling was used to select the children of the survey. Sample Size Determinant The prevalent rate of street children across the world is not universal but prevalent of 0.5 for the purpose this study and better sample size and since the target population is above 10000. At 95% confidence interval, the sample size is derived using the formula; N = (P{1-P}(Z2)/d2 N-Sample size P- Prevalence rate Z- Normal distribution df- Degree of freedom P= 0.5 q= 0.5 Z2=1.962 N= [0.5(1-0.5) (1.962)/0.052)] {0.5(0.5) (3.8416)/0.0025} N=216.82 The figure was approximated to 250 for the purpose of effective coverage. Research Instrument The questionnaire was structurally designed and worded in a simple and straightforward manner. To collect acute but adequate information necessary for the purpose of this study open as well as close ended questions were asked. To simplify the procedure of administration, the questionnaire was classified into sections. Section A of the questionnaire addressed information with respect to age, marital status, level of education and religion. Also contained questions on the socio- 166 economic characteristics of the respondents with respect to their income of parent, occupation, and number of children The other Section of questionnaire dealt with information relating to daily activities of street children, street hawking, and street begging. RESULT Table 1.1 percentage distribution of background characteristics of street children Characteristics Sex Male Female Frequency Percentage 115 46 135 54 118 47 60 27 45 24 27 18 33 13.2 90 36 114 13 46 5.2 165 66 72 13 153 93 68 104 21 57 29 Age 2-5 6-10 11-15 15-17 Education Status None Primary education Secondary Education Post-secondary Education Religion Christianity Muslim Traditional Is parent currently working Yes No Parental Occupation Farming Trading 5.2 61.2 39 27.2 41.6 8.4 22.8 Civil Servant Artisans Sources: 2011 Survey 167 From the above information it reveals that,54% of the respondents were female while 46% were male, 47% of the respondent were within the age range of 2-5 years, while respondent within the age range of 6-10, 11-15, 15-17 years had 24, 27, 18 percent respectively, the study reveals that most respondents had secondary education this is represent by 46%, 66% of the respondent were Christian while, Muslim and traditional religion were 29% and 5.2% respectively, over 61% of the respondent had a parent currently, also in the same vein, over 41 % of the respondent practice trading as an occupation, while 27.2% were respondent having 27.2% as faming, 8.4% were for civil servant, while 22.8% were for artisans. PERCENTAGE OF PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED ON THE STREET Issues Frequency Percentage Causes of street activities Death of parent/s or no caregiver Parents living separately Poverty Ill-treatment from Home Illiteracy/Truancy Classification of jobs 36 56 102 17 39 86 77 87 115 135 14 22 41 7 16 Jobs with no moral condemnation Jobs with moral condemnation Jobs with moral/ without moral condemnation 85 102 63 34 31 35 Family contact Frequent 46 Rare Never 54 Family Situation 34 41 25 Parent/s had/are stayed in your area Parents never stayed in area Don‘t know parent/s whereabouts 168 Based on the above information, it however reveals that, 41% of the respondents engage in street activities all because of poverty, also 35% of the respondent engage in jobs with moral/without condemnation, also 54% of the respondents rare never sees their family members, parent never atayed in area such children can do stay in the area this supported with 41% percentage) PERCENTAGE OF ABUSE EXPERIENCED BY STREET CHILDREN Forms of Abuse Frequency Percentage Health related issue 95 38 Problem with police 81 32 Big Boys (Alayes‘) 15 6 Accommodation 29 12 Feeding 14 6 Ritual makers 16 6 From the above table, it shows that street children experience various forms of abuse, health related issue represents 95(38%), Problems with police 81(32%), Big boys ―Alayes‖ represents 15(6%), accommodation 29(12%) also, feeding 14(6%), it was also discovered that street children experience abuse from ritual makers representing 16(6%). To this end, street children are prone to health related issues. 169 PERCENTAGE OF SURVIVING STRATEGIES OF STREET CHILDREN Surviving Strategies Frequency Percentage Hawking 55 22 Haulage/Pushing 102 41 cart/Carrying loads 50 20 Bus conducting 17 7 Selling stuff at a particular 26 10 Daily proceeds usage 126 50 Feeding and general upkeep 24 9.6 100 40 Carrying it wherever one 87 35 goes 30 12 How belongings were 108 43 25 10 clothing 21 8 Items 88 35 38 15 103 41 Money Making Activities spot Beg for Alms of self Keeping money with individuals in the garage kept Inside dilapidated building Inside vehicles With shop owners Putting on more than one Sleeping places Inside dilapidated/abandoned 170 building Inside vehicle Shops Based on the above information, it shows the surviving strategies of street children, 41% of the respondent make money through Haulage/Pushing cart/Carrying loads, while other respondent make through various strategies which hawking, bus conducting, being for arms, in the same vein, 50% engage in feeding and general upkeep of self ,, also 43% keep their belongings with shop owners, 41% of the respondent sleep inside shop while others sleep inside dilapidated/abandoned building, and some sleep inside vehicles. Conclusion and Recommendation The UN Policy on education is that it is a human right (UN 1948) and that all children must receive basic primary education, but the case of street children in south western state of Nigeria have been characterized with various forms of violence and disgusting health issues, the study reveals problem encountered on the street by the children, also their surviving strategies which varies, abuse experienced by street children as also called for urgent attention by Community Based Organisations, Policy makers, social welfare institutions in Nigeria, to take-up to the challenge of improving on welfare of children on the street. The study however recommends that, establishment of resources centres, strengthen hiv and aids education; Some of the children rescued from the streets have been found to be HIV positive. There are also some children who have been sexually active while on the street. Such children need counselling and thorough consistent education, Assisting in the vocational Training, Improvement of the curriculum, all these tends to improve on psychosocio level of street children even in a superlative approach References Bruns B,Minat A and Rakotomalala 2003. Achieving the Universal Primary Education by 2015. A chance for Every Child . Washington, World Bank Basic Education.‖ Biannual Conference Tanzania Civil Society for Anglophone West Africa for the Promotion and Protecting the Rights of Street Children, Report (2003), October 21 – 24, Accra Ghana. Development Bank, TA No. 3043 INO. Cited in Pinheiro, P. (2007), World Report on Violence against Children. Ekundayo J D 2001.‖Successful Experiences in Nonformal Education and Alternatives approaches to 171 Ebigbo, P. O. (2003) ―Street Children: The Core of Child Abuse and Neglect in Nigeria‖, Children, Youth and Environment 13(1), spring Retrieved from http://cye.colorudo.edu. Irwanto P. et al (1999). Situation of Street Children in 12 Cities in Indonesia, Monograph Report for the Asian Chapter 7, p 295. Available at http://www.violencestudy.org/a553. [Accessed 26 July 09] ^ http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/files/ZAM_01-009.pdf UNICEF assessment of street children ^ Human Rights Watch- Abuse of Street Children[dead link] ^ Page 8, Section 2.2. "State of the World's Street Children-Violence" (PDF). www.streetchildren.org.uk. Retrieved 2008-02-05.[dead link] ^ Page 2. "State of the World's Street Children-Violence" (PDF). www.streetchildren.org.uk Retrieved 2008-02-05.[dead link] Punch Newspaper (2010 pg 14) Sarah Thomas de Benítez State of the World‘s Street Children: Violence 172 THE REALITY OF POLITICAL CULTURE IN JORDAN AFTER TWENTY YEARS OF POLITICAL OPENNESS Amin A. al-Azzam PhD in Political Science Al al-Bayt University- Bayt Al-Hekmah (House of Wisdom) Mafraq, Jordan [email protected] Keyword: Political culture, Democratization, Cultural obstacles, Political openness, Democratic values. ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to explore the reality of the political culture in Jordan after twenty years of political openness by identifying the most important features of contemporary Jordanian political culture. In addition, the study aims to examine the main factors that shape this political culture. To build the argument on a solid ground, the study raises some significant questions about the reality of the Jordanian political culture such as: has political culture changed significantly since 1989 (after the political openness)?, what are the main factors that contributed in shaping the political culture in Jordan?, and what is the main type of political culture that clearly prevails in the society?. The study is carried out by using the descriptive analytical approach, as a method for examining the findings of the survey through distribution of 400 questionnaires to five groups of political elite in Jordan. The study concludes that there cannot be a real democratic system in Jordan without the establishment and consolidation of democratic values in the political culture of Jordanian citizens. Another conclusion of the study is that traditional political culture is still prevailing in Jordanian society which is social, tribal, and family ties prominence despite the passage of twenty years on the political liberalization. THE REALITY OF POLITICAL CULTURE IN JORDAN (EMPIRICAL STUDY) Democracy is a political system based on political culture of pluralism and respect for human rights in addition to the devolution of power. Without doubt these features are totally inconsistent with the rule of the individual which is reflected in the absence of a state of law and institutions, a lack of respect for the opinion, and lack of democratic human rights such as freedom of association, parties and freedom of movement. Therefore, democracy is not a set of regulations and laws, but it is rearing needs practice and behaviour that must be with the person since childhood in the home, school, street, party and other civil institutions. The political culture is considered to be an indicator of the progress of political and democratic life and a reflection of political maturity, and participation in the political process. The first step in building democratic governance in Jordan requires changes in the nature of the prevailing 173 political culture in society, in addition to removal of the values and behavioural patterns that interfering with building democracy. In order to be able to achieve these changes requires determining what the prevailing cultural stereotypes, and what is the reason for its existence. Therefore, the following sections shed light on the prevailing culture in Jordanian society and its values and behaviour patterns that affect political life. 1.1 CULTURE OF DOUBT TOWARDS THE JORDANIAN GOVERNMENTS There is a culture of doubt and lack of confidence prevailing in society that the government has no serious intention to combat corruption or to achieve democracy, since the government has not adopted any substantive laws nor created institutions to tackle these issues. The study results revealed that financial and administrative corruption ranked as the most important reason that the study sample considered an obstacle to political reform in Jordan. 35.4% of respondents stated that this reason constituted a major obstacle to political reform and participation. In this study respondents were asked to identify the most important of the various internal issues which constituted the biggest obstacle to creating a stable environment for democratization and political participation. Therefore, the question provided respondents with five main reasons, in addition to an open-ended choice to mention other reasons: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Administrative and financial corruption in Jordan. The economic status of Jordanian citizens. Lack of government seriousness to achieve democracy Tribalism. The current electoral system. Other reasons (please specify). Table 1.1 shows that the largest obstacle, according to 36% of respondents, was the spread of administrative and financial corruption. Table 1.1. Respondents‟ views about the most important obstacle to political reform Main obstacles F % administrative and financial corruption 64 36 Lack of government seriousness to achieve democracy 54 30.3 Economic status of Jordanian citizens 26 14.6 Tribalism 13 7.3 Current electoral system (SNTV) 11 6 Other reasons 11 6 Total 178 100 The second most important internal obstacle, according to the 30.3% of respondents, was a lack of government seriousness to achieve democracy and to open the way for professional associations, political parties, and the media to participate freely in the political sphere. Jordanian society is a society based on family and tribal ties which control the various spheres of life and are considered as a major force in both Jordanian politics and society. Sometimes tribalism and social ties are held to be a major obstacle to democratization and the rule of law. Nepotism, favouritism, and intermediation (wasta) are the most common forms of administrative 174 corruption in Jordan where the members of large families and tribes with influence can hold office and gain more benefits than others. There is a close relationship between administrative and financial corruption and favouritism, nepotism and (intermediation) wasta. This has created a climate of distrust because of the adoption of personal and family ties rather than standards of competence, experience, and the proper evaluation of ability and suitability in recruitment for public office. All of this has led citizens to doubt the effectiveness of the law, and eroded trust and confidence in the Jordanian governments which disregards such important issues, and consequently this has led Jordanians to have less trust in the ability of political parties and parliament to resolve national problems. Disappointment and frustration prevail among ordinary Jordanians and cast a shadow on the process of political participation, particularly participation in parliamentary elections. Elections have become a matter of voting based on criteria of familial and social ties rather than concerning the substantive issues relating to democracy and political reform. 1.2 CULTURE OF FEAR "POLITICALLY" The culture of fear is one of the biggest obstacles to political reform and change in the Arab world. Moreover, this culture is one of the dilemmas facing political opposition forces and makes them unable of paying people to support them to claim their rights and interests in the face of political power. Consequently, this culture leads to fear of power, lack of political participation, lack a strong liberal political culture and value for individuals, and lack of a strong opposition which contradicts all principles of democracy. Understanding the status of political participation in Jordan requires an understanding of the political culture that prevails in the society where political participation takes place. This involves, in particular, the elements of basic human rights and freedoms whether if these are guaranteed and protected by the constitution, and legislations concerning political parties, and media and expression. The questionnaire asked the respondents a series of questions about equality and the levels of political freedoms guaranteed by the constitution, the Political Parties‘ Law, and the Press and Publications Law. Furthermore, these freedoms are closely related to political participation, and the expansion of these freedoms is considered to be synonymous with democracy. Respondents were asked to indicate how strongly they agreed or disagreed that the following freedoms are guaranteed in Jordan: freedom of opinion; freedom to participate in political demonstrations; freedom to join political parties; equality of citizens‘ rights regardless of their religion, ethnic origin, and tribal affiliation; freedom to criticize and disagree with the government in public without being subject to security consequences; and freedom to participate in peaceful oppositional political activities without being subject to security consequences. The results revealed that the freedom to join political parties was considered the most guaranteed freedom by 57.4% of the respondents, compared to 30.8% who disagreed that this freedom was guaranteed, and 11.8% were neutral, as shown in table 1.2. It is worth mentioning that 51.6% of political party members agreed or strongly agreed that freedom of membership in political parties is guaranteed. The second guaranteed freedom is freedom of speech with 37.6%, compared to 54% of the respondents who believed that the freedom of speech was not guaranteed in Jordan. 175 Table 1.2. Indicators of political freedoms in Jordan Political Freedom SD D N A SA F % F % F % F % F % Freedom of 45 19 83 35 20 8.4 82 34.6 7 3 opinion Participate in 54 22.9 80 33. 24 10.2 75 31.8 3 1.3 political 9 demonstrations Joining political 30 12.7 43 18. 28 11.8 10 46.0 27 11. parties 1 9 4 Equality of citizens 65 27.5 65 27. 24 10.2 62 26.3 20 8.5 rights 5 Criticizing the 65 27.4 88 37. 24 10.1 53 22.4 7 3 government 1 Participation in 45 19.1 84 35. 25 10.6 71 30.1 11 4.7 peaceful political 6 activities SD= Strongly disagree D= Disagree N=Neutral SA= Strongly agree A= Agree Tota l 237 236 237 236 237 236 The percentage of journalists who believed that freedom of speech was not guaranteed is 46.3%, compared to 43.7% who agreed or strongly agreed that the freedom of speech was guaranteed in Jordan, whereas 10% were neutral. With regard to freedom to criticize and disagree with the government in public without being subject to security consequences, 64.5% of the respondents believed that this freedom was not guaranteed, where 25.4% thought it was. Approximately 55% of the respondents believed that the freedom to participate in political demonstrations and peaceful political activities was not guaranteed, whereas about 33% agreed that these freedoms were guaranteed. Regarding the equality of Jordanian citizens, a total of 55% of respondents reported that they disagreed or strongly disagreed that there was equality of rights for all Jordanian citizens regardless of religion, ethnic origin, and family or tribal affiliations. Accordingly, the ranking of political freedoms in Jordan being considered guaranteed according to the data as follows: 1. Freedom to join political parties (57.4% of respondents) 2. Freedom of opinion (37.6%) 3. Participation in peaceful political activities (34.8%) 4. Equality of citizens‘ rights regardless of religion, and ethnic origin (34.8%). 5. Freedom to participate in political demonstrations (33.1%) 6. The freedom to criticize or disagree with the government (25.4%). Based on the data presented in table 1.2, only approximately one-third of respondents believed that political freedoms are guaranteed in Jordan, with the exception of the freedom to join political parties. 1.2.1 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION Freedom of expression and ensuring the protection of the expression of opinions from abuse, are the root of all other freedoms at all times, to all peoples and in all societies. Most constitutions in the world regulate freedom to express opinions and provide some protection of this freedom. The Jordanian constitution states that, ―The State shall guarantee freedom of 176 opinion. Every Jordanian shall be free to express his opinion by speech, in writing, or by means of photographic representation and other forms of expression‖.87 Moreover, this freedom is guaranteed in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states that, ―Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers‖88, and this is also guaranteed in article 19 of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights.89 In Jordan there is a fierce debate concerning whether or not freedom of speech, especially without fear of punishment, really exists and, if it exists, what are the limits of this freedom. 37.6% of questionnaire respondents agreed that freedom of opinion is guaranteed. This result indicates that freedom of speech exists and is guaranteed to a certain extent. The government generally respects the rights of its citizens, at least in some aspects. However, in practice the government places some restrictions on freedom of speech. Generally individuals in Jordan are able to express their opinions and criticize the government privately without reprisals. However, citizens are tending to criticize the government in public less. The government imposes certain restrictions which impede political criticism, particularly on opposition political activists, and members of political parties, and other groups (such as journalists, and members of human rights organizations) who criticize the governments‘ policies and practices. Furthermore, the restrictions on the level of freedom to criticize and disagree with the government in public without being subject to security consequences are varying from group to another according to their practice of criticizing and opposing the governments‘ policies, in addition to the effect of this criticism on the public. Therefore, if those who criticize the government, such as the members of political parties and journalists have wide popular support, they tend to face more limits and restrictions than others, as figure 1.1 shows. Figure 1.1: Percentages of respondent groups who agreed that freedom of speech is guaranteed 60 50 50 43.8 42.8 PCMs 40 33.3 30 Academics 23.5 20 HRO Journalists Political parties 10 0 * Professional Council Members (PCMs) * Human Right Organization (HRO) The results also revealed that the members of political parties who believed that the government does not guarantee freedom of speech in Jordan had been subjected to security consequences more than other groups, where 42.2% of them declared that they had been subjected to security consequences as a result of criticizing the government in public. In addition 26% of journalists 87 The Jordanian Constitution, Article 15. http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/eng.htm. September 2010 89 http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_ccpr.htm. September 2010 88 177 were subjected to security consequences due to their criticism of the government‘s policies, as had some members of human right organizations. In addition, some respondents who had not been subject to security consequences explained that they had never exercised this freedom; in other words they believed that they could not criticize the government in public without anticipating punishment. The Jordanian governments have shown intolerance of public criticism, as evidenced by the series of amendments to Press and Publications Laws in 1993, 1997, 1998, and 1999. All of these amendments gave the authorities sweeping powers to reduce the degree of press freedom. The temporary 1997 law which were ratified by royal decree without parliamentary debate, give the government broad powers to fine, suspend, or permanently close newspapers found to be in violation of the new law‘s provision, and also impose on publications arbitrary and discriminatory financial obligations. According to the current law, it is prohibited to publish any information, news, cartoons, or commentaries about Jordan‘s armed forces and security services, offends the King and the royal family, harm national unity, general ethics, religion, security apparatus, and insults the head of Arab and friendly states. This is in addition to the last controversial amendment that allowed the jailing of journalists who break the press law. 1.3 THE RELUCTANCE OF JORDANIAN CITIZENS TO JOIN POLITICAL PARTIES The findings in table 1.3 show that the majority of the respondents (63.5%) are not members of political parties. It is worth noting that, with the exception of political party members, only 14.5% of the respondents were members of political parties, while 85.5% of the other respondents did not belong to political parties. Table 13 Respondents‟ answers to the question: “Do you belong to a political party?” Choices Political Academics PCM Journalists HRO Total party members F % F % F % F % F % F % YES 60 93.8 7 19.4 5 23.8 10 13.5 2 5.7 84 36.5 NO 4 6.3 29 80.6 16 76.2 64 86.5 33 94.3 146 63.5 Total 64 100 36 100 21 100 74 100 35 100 230 100 Furthermore, the results revealed that the members of the professional councils (23.8%) were more likely than other groups to belong to political parties. 19.4% of academics belonged to political parties, and 13.5% of journalists were party members, while members of human right associations had the lower membership in political parties (5.7%). Those who said that they were not party members were then asked that if they intend to join any political parties in the future, which of the current political parties would represent their political aspirations so that might join it. If they did not intend to join political party, they were asked to mention the main reason for this. Table1.4 below shows that 80.5% of respondents said that they do not intend to join political parties. Only 19.5% answered they would join political parties in the future. 178 Table 1.4 Respondents answer to the question, “Do you intend to join a political party in the future?” Choices Academics PCM Journalists HRO Total F % F % F % F % F % YES 5 17.5 9 52.9 9 13 5 17.1 29 19.5 NO 24 82.8 8 47.1 60 87 29 82.9 124 80.5 Total 29 100 17 100 69 100 35 100 153 100 On the other hand, the respondents who did not intend to join political parties were asked to mention the main reasons behind their decision. The majority of respondents (70%, n=42) declared that they had no confidence in the current political parties and their programmes as they did not offer clear proposals to address the country‘s main problems. In the prevailing political culture the executive authorities in Jordan have adopted clear and negative attitudes for several decades towards political parties, and have tended to consider them as responsible for threats to the security and stability of the country‘s political life. Even after the issuance of the political Parties‘ Law in 1992 which decreed the legitimacy and plurality of political parties, these negative attitudes continued. In addition, the government has shown caution, and sometimes hostility toward social movements and non-governmental organizations led by the opposition forces that play a political role, and which seek to mobilize their members and public opinion to take political positions that do not agree with the policies of government. Therefore, the persistent culture of fear is clear evidence that the Jordanian political parties are still experiencing crisis reflected in the reluctance of Jordanian citizens to engage in partisan activities. This is a fundamental reason for the lack of growth of political parties in terms of the number of members. 1.4 CULTURE OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Political participation means the contribution of citizens and their active role in the political system to influence the official decision-making process. At the forefront of political participation patterns are electoral activity, partisan action, and union work which are all linked to the principles of political pluralism, freedom of opinion, freedom of peaceful assembly, and the right to form associations and political parties. Democracy is the best mechanism for effecting change for the better, through the peaceful rotation of power. This devolution of power is usually conducted through the empowerment of the people to exercise their right to elect their representatives in full freedom and fairness on the basis of the candidates‘ programmes. The electoral process provides the opportunity for the owners of these programmes to exercise their role in the executive branch and therefore apply their programme, thus providing a chance for people to judge their success or failure. Accordingly, success in the application of these programmes demonstrates confidence, or, to the contrary, failure is reflected in the ballot box by withdrawing confidence. All of this guarantees the rights of individuals and groups to participate in public affairs, with devolution of power, and the possibility of change. The parliamentary elections in Jordan raised many problematic and challenging issues concerning the electoral system, elections management, the results of the elections, and the degree of citizen participation. Therefore, respondents were asked about their participation in the 2010 parliamentary elections, the main reason behind their vote, voting for women in Jordanian parliamentary elections, the voters‘ behaviour, and their evaluations of the electoral system. 179 Respondents in this study were asked if they had voted in the last elections (2010 elections) to explore their participation in parliamentary elections. Respondents were given two choices: 1. Yes or 2. No. As shown in table 1.5 a majority of the respondents (77.4%) had voted in the last parliamentary elections compared with a ratio of 22.6% who did not participate. It can be also noted from the table that the ratios of those who participated in the last elections among professional councils‘ members (85.7%) and political party members (84.4%) were higher than those in other groups of the sample. Table 1.5. Respondents‘ participation in the 2010 parliamentary elections Choices Political Academics PCM Journalists HRO parties F % YES 54 84.4 NO 10 Total 64 F % F % F 25 69.4 18 85.7 59 15.6 11 30.6 3 14.3 100 36 100 21 100 % Total F % F % 75.6 26 72.2 182 77.4 19 24.4 10 27.8 53 22.6 78 100 36 100 235 100 In general, the participation rate of respondents was around three-quarters, ranging from a low of 69.4% academics to a high of 85.7% of PCM. On the other hand, the ratios of those who did not participate in the last elections ranged from 14.3% of PCMs to 30% of academics. The questionnaire asked respondents who said they had voted to identify the main reason behind this decision. The respondents were given five choices: 1. National duty and constitutional right, 2. Tribalism and social ties, 3. To enhance democracy in Jordan, 4. Others (please specify) However, it is clear from table 1.6 below that tribalism and social ties represented the main priority for many of the sample. Over half of the respondents (52.2%) declared that this was the most important reason behind their decision to vote in the last elections. Table 1.6. Respondents‟ reasons for participating in the 2010 parliamentary elections Main reason Frequency Percentage Tribalism and social ties 95 52.2% National duty and constitutional right 33 18.1% To put the right person in the right position To enhance democracy in Jordan 27 14.8% 22 12.1% Other reasons 5 2.7% 182 100% Total 180 Only 12.1% of respondents supported the issue of enhancing democracy in Jordan, and putting the right person in the right position was third with 14.8% of responses. National duty and constitutional rights was cited by 18.1%, and 2.7% of the respondents declared that their participation was a partisan decision. The Jordanian citizen tends to refrain from political participation. Therefore, the electoral process for elections to the House of Representatives 11 th, 12th, 13th, 14th and 16th has witnessed reluctance among voters to participate. Table 1.7 shows statistical comparisons and the proportions of the participants in the electoral process for the years 1989, 1993, 1997, 2007 and 2010. Table1.7. Participation of Jordanian citizens in the electoral process from 1989-2010 1989 1993 1997 2007 2010 elections elections elections elections elections Population estimates by the General Statistics Number of registered voters The number of voters 3,370,86 7 4,152,000 4,580,234 5,723,677 1,104,45 1,402,78 1,838,199 2,105,882 541,426 822,294 824,664 1,052,941 6,300,000 2,500,0000 1,257,987 The ratio of the number of voters to the number of the 49.8% election cards 51.58% 68.47% 55.72% 50.00% http://www.electionsjo.com/ESubject/DefaultSub.asp?seid=82. December 2010 1.5 GENDER CULTURE (MASCULINE CULTURE) Although Jordan has witnessed democratic transformation over the last decade, this requires the effective participation of women who constitute almost half of Jordanian society. Despite the growing role of women in social and economic life, however, their role in the political sphere is still weak. Like other Arab societies, Jordanian society from its inception and social composition is still a patriarchal society, where women are treated in such a way that hinders their access to the decision-making centres in the community. Therefore, the head of the family, the tribal leader (Sheikh), and sometimes the SecretaryGeneral of the political party has the final say in deciding whether or not to participate, in guiding public opinion, and defining the direction of the electoral votes, in addition to the identification of the candidates and ensuring their access to the council of deputies. Women have a limited presence in political positions due to the tribal nature of Jordanian elections. Consider the paradox in the last municipal elections in Jordan. A woman candidate90 who ran for a seat in the municipal council in Mafraq was appointed a council member even though she did not obtain a single vote. She did not vote for herself and neither did her husband and five children. 90 Fardous Mohammad Al Khaldi, a candidate who ran for a seat in the Sabha and Dafianeh municipal council in Mafraq. 181 Although the number of people registered for voting in her district was 144 men and 207 women, and voter turnout was 95 per cent, she got no vote at all. She justified the result by saying ―I did not vote for myself because of my commitment to my tribe and the residents of my town to vote for another candidate, who unfortunately did not win… I would not break my commitment to the tribe. We are a tribal community and the priority is for electing a man‖.91 1.5.1 WOMEN'S POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Women have been deprived of political participation for many decades since the founding of the Emirate of Trans-Jordan in 1921. However, the right to political participation in the preindependence period, which was restricted to males, has not really changed since independence, even during the 1960s and 1970s. Although women had no political and legal right to vote and to be elected for parliamentary elections until 1974, their struggle to be granted the right to vote and run in municipal and parliamentary elections started in the early 1950s. This struggle was led by the Women‘s Awakening Association, founded in 1952, which has been resolved as a result of its activities.92 The Jordanian constitution never distinguished between women and men in term of rights and duties, and in addition the 1974 election law granted women the right to vote. However, the theoretical equality in the constitution and election law did not reflect the reality of women‘s situation in the political sphere. Women remained subject to the effects of social values, traditions, and the prevailing culture. Over the last decade Jordan has witnessed important economic, social, and political transformations. At the political level, a new climate of political openness and pluralism encouraged women- as they accounted 49% of the Jordanian community according to the department of statistics in 2004- to strengthen their political role and participate in political life. Women in Jordanian parliaments The number of women candidates for Jordanian parliamentary elections has increased steadily since women won the right to run for parliamentary elections in 1980s. But it will also be noticed that the increase in the number of women candidates has not been accompanied by an increase in the number of women MPs. To explore the problematic relationship between the number of women candidates and women MPs, the respondents were asked two questions to provide an overview about the reality of women participation in parliamentary elections. Based on data presented in figure 1.2 the results revealed that an overwhelming majority of the 234 respondents (84.2%) had not voted for women, compared with only 15.8% who had. 91 92 The Jordan Times, New Female Council Member Wins Seat with Zero Votes, February 2010. http://www.electionsjo.com/Esubject/DefaultSub.asp?seid=240. December 2010 182 Figure 1.2. Respondents‟ voting for women candidates in the 2010 parliamentary elections 234 250 197 200 Total F Total % 150 100 84.2 100 37 50 15.8 0 YES NO Total Total F 37 197 234 Total % 15.8 84.2 100 More importantly, the results revealed also that the ratio of women who voted for women candidates was very low (18.9%) compared with 43 women respondent (81.1%) who did not vote, as figure 1.4 shows. Figure 1.3. Respondents‟ answer to question "Have you voted for women candidates in the last parliamentary elections?" According to Gender 200 Male 150 Female 100 50 0 F % F % Yes No Male 27 14.9 154 85.1 Female 10 18.9 43 81.1 As a consequence of concern at the low rates of voting for women candidates in Jordanian parliamentary elections, as shown in the figure above, another question were asked aimed at discovering an explanation for women‘s low representation in parliament, asking respondents for their main reason for not voting for women candidates. Respondents were given five main choices: 1. Lack of women experience in political affairs. 2. Social obstacles (culture and traditions) 3. Religious dimension (for example urging women to be more conservative and calling for the separation of the sexes in the workplace). 4. Women do not have enough experience in public affairs 5. Tribal dimension (women could not get support from their tribes) 6. Other reasons (please specify) 183 A majority of respondents (43.8%) concluded that the absence of women candidates with political experience was the main reason for their decision. social obstacles was the second most common reason (17.3%), and 6.1% cited, 5.1%, the tribal dimension and 4.1% the religious dimension. Moreover, 46 respondents (23.5%) cited five other reasons for not voting for women candidates. 22 (11.2%) stated that there were no women candidates in their electoral districts, and 10 (5.1%) indicated that they were committed to their tribal candidates. Some respondents (3.5%, n=7), said that they opposed the quota system and therefore they did not vote for women candidates, and another four respondents (2%) declared that there were no partisan women‘s candidates in their districts. The current electoral law cited by (1.7%, n=3) of respondents as a reason not to vote for women candidates. It is also important to note that 42% of political party members who did not vote for women believed that women do not have enough political experience to be elected to parliament. In addition, 54% of academics, 50% of PCMs, and 44.6% of journalists gave the same reason for not voting for women. More importantly, table 1.8 shows that 50% of women respondents who did not vote for women candidates justified their decision in terms of lack of women‘s experience in political affairs. Table 6.8. Respondents‟ reasons for not voting for women candidates, by sex Statement Men Women lack of women experience in political F 64 21 affairs % 41.6% 50.0% Social obstacles (community's culture F 30 3 and traditions) % 19.5% 7.1% Tribal dimension (women could not F 9 3 get support from her tribe) % 5.8% 7.1% Religious dimension (religion urging F 6 2 women to be more conservative) % 3.9% 4.8% Others F 37 11 % 24.0% 26.2% Total F 154 42 100.0% 100.0% 2.0 CONCLUSIONS Despite the launching of political openness in Jordan which was crowned by the 1989 parliamentary elections, and despite the fact that the democratic process has received and still receive considerable interest from successive governments at the level of writing and slogans, the same level of success has not been achieved in terms of practical application. Addressing the issue of democracy in Jordan requires a search for the real reasons that hinder the fundamental building of a democratic society rather than simply focusing on external manifestations of this problem. There is a series of subjective and objective factors that have led to drawing the development of the political culture of Jordanian society. One of the most prominent of these factors is the political and intellectual despotism that led to the fall of the society since many centuries in the quagmire of civilization underdevelopment. Those factors led to a revival of negative values such as lack of interest, introversion, intolerance, refusal of dialogue, encouragement of the narrow 184 loyalties, hypocrisy, preference for self-interest rather than the public interest, and the promotion of male dominance. The most important conclusion to be drawn from the research findings in this study in relation to political culture in Jordan, it seems that there can be no real democratic system in Jordan without the establishment and consolidation of democratic values in the political culture of Jordanian citizens. As Ayubi stated, ―Democracy is simply not a form of government; it is also a cultural and intellectual tradition‖ Ayubi, 1995, p. 379). This culture is the key element in the formulation of political relationships between the government and the population, because democracy is not just laws, political institutions and electoral processes, but first of all it is a set of values and principles which provide the cultural framework for a democratic system. Despite the remarkable progress witnessed by Jordan at the end of the 1980s, the culture of fear in Jordanian society still poses a fundamental challenge to democratic reform. The fear of the security agencies and the consequences of criticizing governments in public and disagreeing with them based on perceptions and impressions generated among citizens. In addition to the culture of fear to make complaints about violations of their rights, or lack of the government‘s response to cope with complain. The present study also concludes that the subject political culture still prevails in Jordan. Democratic values do not represent a major component in the structure of the political culture of the majority of Jordanians, which has led to the prevalence of an apathetic political culture. On the other hand, negative values and abstention from participation are common among the majority, in addition to the sense of their inability to influence national events and developments. Moreover, as Sharbi argued, Arab societies are characterized by patriarchal values ( Sharabi, 1988, p.8). Patriarchal culture still dominates the culture of Jordanian society. The social relations of kinship and the tribe are still dominant and constitute the main motives for Jordanians to participate in parliamentary elections. Furthermore, there is a culture of doubt and lack of confidence prevailing in society that the government has no serious intention to combat corruption or to achieve democracy, since the government has not adopted any substantive laws nor created institutions to tackle these issues. Finally, regarding women‘s participation in Jordanian parliaments, although the quota system has brought women into Jordan‘s parliament, the presence of women there really only represents a facade of democracy and is purely cosmetic, as the majority of citizens do not believe in the importance of the political role of women. References: Ayubi, Nazih., Over-Stating the Arab State. (London; I.B. Taruis, 1995). p. 397. Sharabi, Hisham., Neopatriarchy, A Theory of Distorted - A Change in Arab Society, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988 ). p. 8. 185 BERTRAND RUSSELL ON CHINESE EDUCATION Zheng Weiping School of Humanities, Xiamen University, P.R.China [email protected] Abstract: The visit of Bertrand Russell to China during 1920 to 1921 was one of the most significant events in May Fourth Movement, and Russell pointed out that education was the most important thing for Chinese reconstruction. The author argues that we should interpret Russell‘s educational idea of china from a theoretic and practical point of view. The man in Chinese education is the key to the future of china. Key words: Bertrand Russell; Chinese education; May Fourth Movement Invited by a scholar association of Peking University, Russell delivered a series of lectures about the problems of china, besides his theory of logic and philosophy. Chinese intellectuals, young students, politicians made comments on his lectures with great enthusiasm. His influence on china was so great that former president Sun Yat Sen called him ―the only foreigner who knows Chinese civilization‖ and in 1998, CAC (Cultural Academy of China) chose his lectures in china as ―the most influential literatures on China in the 20th century‖. Russell took Chinese education as a key to the Chinese problems. He wrote: ―But as for the thought recently, I take Education as the first thing in various methods of Chinese reconstruction.‖[1] In this paper, besides a survey of Russell‘s thoughts of Chinese education, which intersperse among Russell‘s lectures and essays about Chinese problems, I will argue that Russell‘s solution of Chinese problem based on education is still useful for us. 1. ANALYSIS OF CHINESE EDUCATION Unlike present situation, Chinese education was not unified partly because its government was too weak and because there were many forces in education. So there were many forces in Chinese education. Russell concluded that there were mainly three forms of Chinese education. 1.1 Old−fashioned education Before disintegration of Qing Dynasty, there was only one kind of education in china, which Russell described as old-fashioned education. Old-fashioned education emphasized the learning of classical works, which mainly were the doctrine of Confucius and his followers. They had no interests in scientific knowledge, which was taken as being unnecessary to man‘s happiness. The aim of education is to acquire the ability of ―self-cultivation, regulating the family, governing the country and establishing peace throughout the world‖. A man‘s morality and political ability were the standard of his cultivated level, and a perfect example was the Saint such as the ancient emperors Yao and Shun. Therefore under the encouragement of government, all the best students tried their best to be a good politician. Under the influence of this doctrine, all of education was to learn and study classical works. Russell described in this way, ―There is first the old traditional curriculum, the learning by rote of the classics without explanation in early youth, followed by a more intelligent study in later years. This is exactly like the traditional study of the classics in this country, as it existed, for example, in the eighteenth century.‖[2] 186 This schema of education was destined to fail when facing the western science. But its tenacious life power was noticed by Russell, he wrote, ―Such schools still form the majority, and give most of the elementary education that is given.‖[2] 1.2 American education As for china, a series of war failure in early 20th century has resulted in a large number of war compensation and partly losing its self-government. Since what American lost in anti-china war was much less than what it demanded for compensation. Congress of USA decided to establish a series of American school in china by using a part of war compensation, and the best students could be sent to American for advanced study. Speaking frankly, American education has fastened the spread of natural science, introduced another kind of education, and trained a large number of students, who were an important force in Chinese education. But Russell was aware that the motivation of American education was not as noble as they described. Russell wrote, ―They remain always missionaries—not of Christianity, though they often think that is what they are preaching, but of Americanism. What is Americanism? ‗Clean living, clean thinking, and pep,‘ I think an American would reply. This means, in practice, the substitution of tidiness for art, cleanliness for beauty, moralizing for philosophy, prostitutes for concubines (as being easier to conceal), and a general air of being fearfully busy for the leisurely calm of the traditional Chinese.‖[2] Indeed, its aim was to replace Chinese traditional culture by American culture. Similarly, American education played a role of invader. Russell holds a critical position about American education. The best Chinese educationists are aware of this, and have established schools and universities which are modern but under Chinese direction. 1.3 Modern education Russell was not satisfied with the former two kinds of Chinese education, but he highly praised Modern education. Although it has many disadvantages, such as there was no adequate book or equipment, the teaching of English was not sufficiently thorough, and the courses were not very rational. As for Russell, these disadvantages would disappear if there would be a powerful government. Contrast with old-fashioned education, the system of courses of this kind of education was more westernized, and the students receiving modern education would learn more about natural science, industry, economy, which were ignored in old-fashioned education. Meanwhile, the advocators of modern education emphasized scholar freedom, and Russell wrote‖ They respect the knowledge of Europeans, but quietly put aside their arrogance‖. By this way, modern education was differed from American education, ―Modern Chinese schools and universities are singularly different: they are not hotbeds of rabid nationalism as they would be in any other country, but institutions where the student is taught to think freely, and his thoughts are judged by their intelligence, not by their utility to exploiters.‖[1] We can take the modern Chinese education as the Chinese version of American education. What Russell appreciating in modern Chinese education was its emphasis on pursuing a truth. Russell described the three forms of Chinese education as ―the old traditional education, stands for Conservatism; America and its commerce and its educational institutions stand for Liberalism; while the native modern education, practically though not theoretically, stands for Socialism. Incidentally, it alone stands for intellectual freedom.‖[2] 2. WHY EDUCATION FIRST? This is an ignored problem in Russell studies. Some people thought it was an utopia idea, some doubted it because Russell as an educator in Beacon Hill was failed according to the 187 statements of Katherine Russell, who is the daughter of Bertrand Russell. But the author argues that if we paid more attention to Russell‘s educational theory and Chinese situation in 1910s, we would understand Russell‘s opinion better. 2.1 From a theoretical point of view In Russell‘s educational theory, education plays a key role in civilization and social construction. According to Russell‘s statements, there is a question that ―whether education should train good individuals or good citizens‖. Russell denied the later. The fundamental characteristic of citizen is that he cooperates and is just a part of a society. Personal freedom disappears, and there is only the freedom of a whole. The society constituted by calm and tame citizens would not be democratic and possibly be regained by some ambiguous men. Russell dislikes this kind of society, ―The whole educational machine in America, from the public schools to the universities, is concerned to emphasize citizenship. In my mind, it could be one important reason of Russell‘s anti-America standpoint in 1910s which has sent him into jail.‖[2] Therefore Russell thinks education should be a tool to reconstruct the society. As individual education, Russell said individuals mirrored the world. Russell believes that the purpose of education should be to cultivate a free man, to establish a bright future of human. We should be noted that Russell‘s theory of education is correspond with his philosophy, Russell advocates a kind of atomism, rejected any kind of holism. 2.2 From a practical point of view In all men concern with Chinese education, Russell paid more attention to the young students, who he called ―Youth China‖. On one hand, these students were very clever and longed for the western knowledge very much, Russell has gave an example, ―The discussions which I used to have in my seminar (consisting of students belonging to the Peking Government University) could not have been surpassed anywhere for keenness, candor, and fearlessness.‖ [2] On the other hand, Youth China was a powerful force in china; a good example was the student‘s objection on the problem of Shandong in the Versailles Treaty. Russell also felt surprised about the influence of Chinese intellectuals, the majority of whom were the teachers. There were two cases that could be used as example. The first thing was the movement of co-education about male and female. At that time, there was no enough elementary education in china for the girls, so if the girls could not go to the schools for the boys, they would not be able to get suitable education. Therefore some provinces in china, such as Hunan, have adopted co-education. In Russell‘s opinion, it was a greater improvement than England, in which co-education had been only in talk. The second thing was the movement of teaching strike. Because they were not paid for several months, they went on a deputation to the Government, but were repulsed by soldiers and policemen, who clubbed them so severely that many had to be taken to hospital. The incident produced such universal fury in china that there was nearly a revolution. The high position of teachers in Chinese society was from their spirit of self-sacrifice in the view of Russell. Chinese teachers dedicated themselves to Chinese education and Chinese reprosperity. In one word, Russell took the man about education, such as teachers, students, etc, as the hope and propellants of Chinese reconstruction. 3. SOME REMARKS ON RUSSELL‟S VIEW In the problem of china, Russell said there were three things key to Chinese reconstruction, ―The three chief requisites, I should say, are: (1) the establishment of an orderly government; (2) industrial development under Chinese control; (3) the spread of education.‖[2] 188 In Fourth May Movement, there were two famous sir: sir democracy and sir science. I take this as a westernize road and just a slogan. Russell‘s solution is a realistic one and there is some analogy between Russell‘s solution and Chinese practice, a Marxism way. In my mind, Russell took education as the condition of realization of first two requisites of Chinese reconstruction. An orderly government should be run by educated people, and Chinese industry should be established by educated people too. We should distinguish between education and the spread of education, education is a more general concept than the spread of education. It means the man related to education, the role of education, and so on. Russell‘s visit to China is successful and his idea about Chinese education will benefit us continually. References: [1] Bertrand Russell, Richard A. Remple (editor), The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell Volume15, Routledge Publisher, 2000. [2] Bertrand Russell, The Problem of China, The Century Company, 1922. 189 THE EVACUATION OF UNACCOMPANIED CHILDREN DURING THE OCCUPATION OF SARAJEVO, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA (1992-1995): LESSONS TO BE LEARNED Tamara Miskovic, MSW, PhD student [email protected] Anne Tellett, MSSW, Ed.D. [email protected] ABSTRACT This explorative qualitative study offers in-depth descriptions how temporary evacuation of 46 children from a Children‘s Home ―Ljubica Ivezic‖ in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 1992 affected the children and their families. Crisis situation such is war occasionally requires evacuation of children resulting in separation from the family/institutional caregivers. If necessary steps are not taken to protect the rights of children and families who cannot move together, temporary evacuation can result in permanent separation and/or adoption. Newspaper reports provided information about the children and descriptive statistics were used to assess data collected from the newspaper analysis, which largely consisted of government documents pertaining to the study population. Information about the impact of evacuation on the families and children were collected through person-to-person interviews with three parents and children. We conclude that if evacuation is essential, whole families should move together and, if this is not possible, children should at least move with their primary caregivers and siblings. Evacuation should be properly documented, and arrangements should be made for the appropriate reception and care of the children, so that they maintain contact with family members during the evacuation and for early reunification. Key words: evacuation, unaccompanied children, adoption, war, UNHCR INTRODUCTION Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the six (Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia) former federal republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRJ) placed in SouthEast Europe. SFRJ fell apart during the war between different ethnic groups in this area from 1991 to 1995. War left the country in poverty, hopelessness, and lack of possibilities for better future of everyone, especially children. CHILDREN IN ARMED CONFLICT Everyone can be affected by war, especially children. Parents and children are usually considered major targets to be eliminated as a part of ethnic cleansing93 during armed conflict (UNICEF, 2008). Parents are at loss about how to adequately protect their children. ―An estimated 2 million children have died globally in the last decade, 250,000 forced to participate in fighting, and thousands more killed or maimed by land mines. Survival is just the beginning; children‘s wartime experiences require long-term physical and psychological recovery‖ (Sutton-Redner, 2010, para.1). During the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina, everyday activities ceased, and it became very difficult to acquire basic services and goods for survival. Not only that people were not prepared Ethnical cleaning is defined as policy created by one ethnic or religious group to remove from certain geographic area another ethnic or religious group, mostly using violent actions and terrorism (UN Security Council Resolution, 1992) 93 190 for this war but it was extremely difficult for families with small children who did not know how the best to protect them. Orphanages and homes for children, such as Children‘s Home ―Ljubica Ivezic‖, had an extremely difficult time caring for the large number of children who were placed there prior the war. However, during the occupation of Sarajevo the orphanages and homes for children had to choose whether to leave children in an active warzone facing danger and starvation or evacuate them to other countries with the help of international organizations and the Children‘s Embassy in Sarajevo. The choice the Children‘s Home ―Ljubica Ivezic‖ made was to evacuate the children to nearby Italy that was not affected by war to ensure the safety of the children during this time. This study explored the effects of the temporary evacuation of 46 children from Sarajevo during its occupation in the war (1992-1995) and the intervention that they received after being evacuated. This study demonstrates that the temporary evacuation left permanent changes in the lives of these children. These children consequently became permanently separated from their birth families, and have lost their original culture, language, and religion. Their parents never signed documents for their adoption, which occurred after the war, and they were not protected by any international document to preserve rights on keeping their identity, connection with their biological parents, and return to their homeland after the ethnic conflict in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. METHODS This study examined series of historical events through semi-structured interviews with some of the affected families and analyzed newspaper articles published during and after the war in Bosnia (1992-1995). Interviewing was completed through the University of Minnesota (UM) safe internet connect system to protect the privacy of participants. Ms. Jagoda Savic, a human rights activist from Bosnia and Herzegovina, identified families to be interviewed based on the list of evacuated children and set up the interviews. Secondary data was obtained by examination of national newspapers. Copies of newspapers were brought from Bosnia and newspapers articles were translated from Bosnian into English by primary investigator and checked for accuracy by another person. POPULATION AND SAMPLE The study population was a group of families impacted by the evacuation of 46 children from the ―Ljubica Ivezic‖ Children‘s Home during the occupation of Sarajevo (1992-1995). The sample consisted of three participants: two parents of evacuated children and one child who is an adult now (older than 18)94. The interview format consisted of 22 open ended questions. Potential participants were found using Italian immigration records for the children who had not returned to Bosnia. A snowball sampling method was used. Data were coded and analyzed through identifying common topics that merged through that. RESULTS ORGANIZED PLAN FOR EVACUATION Data from this study indicates that children were evacuated overnight without the Children‘s Home (their primary caregiver) being involved in the planning and organizing of the evacuation. As the data demonstrates, the evacuation was organized by the Children‘s Embassy and was permitted by state institutions, without consulting with social services and social workers. Although the initial list of children that would be evacuated was made two months prior to the 94 The generalizability of this study was affected by families and children who chose to participate in this study. Participation was voluntary and was organized using the help of Ms. Jagoda Savic from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Access to participants was limited due to the lack of data about families, which affected how representative this data was of the population being studied. To increase generalizability, a larger sample needs to be included. 191 evacuation, data from this study indicates that none of the parents or relatives of those children were ever contracted and informed about the evacuation. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1999) points out that if an evacuation is essential, then certain criteria need to be respected. Some of those criteria are that ―minors should be accompanied by an adult relative, and if this is not possible, by a qualified caregiver known to the children, such as their teachers‖ (p.102). Since families or relatives were not contacted prior the evacuation, they were not given the opportunity to accompany their children. The children stayed alone in Italy with only members of the country of refuge (Italy) to decide their fate. UNHCR (1999)95 states that ―the evacuation must be coordinated with the designated lead agency‖ (p. 120). In this case it is unclear who the lead agency was and who had the main responsibility. UNHCR (1999) also says that, ―If the minors are moved across an international border, written agreements with the government should be secured in advance in order to ensure family visits and reunions are possible‖ (p.102). It appears that Bosnia and Italy never made any agreement to regulate care arrangements, the length of time the children would stay or the reunion process after the war. WHO IS RESPONSIBLE The organizations that participated in the evacuation process have not taken responsibility for their role in what happened, which has resulted in permanent consequences for the families involved. Different Bosnian ministries have been blamed for the evacuation and its consequences including the Ministries for International Affairs, and the Ministries for Human Rights and Refugees. The Children‘s Embassy, apparently evacuated the children by invitation from the city of Milan, but according to documentation from Milan, the children were evacuated by the request of the Children‘s Embassy (Kukan, March 10, 2007). There is a need to acknowledge the failures, at all levels, of the evacuation process and the unfulfilled reunification process. The Italian authorities held a greater burden for making appropriate and ethical decisions about this case, since they were the country of the refugees. Responsibility should have been taken at all levels, starting from the Bosnian Children‘s Embassy, Italian religious institutions, and governmental authorities from both countries. At that time, Bosnia was in the middle of the war and was unable to handle the situation regarding the children due to the disruption and re-establishment of all governmental units. It makes little sense that during a war Bosnia would be able to make rational decisions about what to do with the children that needed to be protected. This is why international agreements have been created to assist with issues regarding refugees. The question raised in this research is how and why the Italian authorities took responsibility to make decisions about the welfare of the children without involving third parties such as the International Red Cross or UNHCR. UNHCR (1999) determined that local authorities where children are evacuated have responsibility for refuges, and their best interest (p. 16). Italian professionals and social workers should have made additional efforts to support Bosnia during the war. Italian social workers and human rights activists, as well as the justice system in Italy, should have invested more efforts to help the Bosnian children to return to their homeland. Italian authorities who were responsible for deciding whether to place the children up for adoption should have considered the many factors which created barriers for Bosnian parents searching for their children, such as the parents‘ inability to use resources to find children in another country, lack of knowledge of the Italian language and no financial resources to retain a lawyer. 95 Although UNHCR Handbook for Emergencies was created after the Bosnian War in 1999 and could not be applied to the Bosnian war, there were still international guidelines regulated by the Convention on the Rights of the Child, UNICEF (1989) that were in force at the time of the war. 192 LEGAL RIGHTS OF FAMILIES: PARENTS AND CHILDREN As UNHCR (1999) emphasizes ―family unity must be preserved as much as possible - [you should] take no action that may prevent family reunion‖ (p.102). The parents of children who were evacuated to Italy were not contacted or consulted about the evacuation or any other decisions that impacted the lives of their children and families. They had the legal right to be informed about the lives of their children and later on, to give or deny permission for their adoption in late 1990‘s. By Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNICEF, 1989) Article 5 states that State parties will respect the rights of parents, members of the extended family or community, legal guardians or other legally responsible individuals to provide appropriate protection of children‘s rights as recognized in this Convention (UNICEF, 1989). In Article 8, the Convention states that State parties need to respect the right of child to preserve his identity, nationality, name and family relations (UNICEF, 1989). In the case of Bosnia this was not respected. Even when errors occur in the original evacuation, UNHCR (1999) suggested that ―steps can be taken to minimize further separations, and to maximize the chances of timely and successful reunion‖ (p.102). After the war no one contacted the parents to inform them about what had happened or where their children were. This was difficult for parents because they did not receive any support from the state at that time. No one knew where the children were and there was no organized action by officials or social workers to find these children. They received no support from anyone. The barriers to prevent the return of the children were further compounded by placing them for adoption. This happened without consulting or obtaining permission from their existing biological parents and/or family. Based on the information gathered in this study the parents never signed permission for the adoption and the children were never given a choice regarding what was to happen to them. The children waited five years for Italian authorities to come up with a compromise with the Bosnian state about what the next step would be for these children. During this time the Italians did not consider the parents‘ rights or the children‘s rights, including their right to preserve the religion, ethnicity, culture and language of their homeland. RETURN OF CHILDREN Before the evacuation, ministry from Bosnia and Herzegovina, who authorized evacuation of these children, should have drafted and signed an agreement with Italy, approved by an international court of a third country. With this agreement the rights of the children would be protected and guaranteed, including the right to be reunited with their parents or to be cared for by other family members. Newspapers indicate that Italian authorities were preparing for the return of the children at the end of the school year in 1996 with the understanding that the Bosnian authorities would create a system to assume the children‘s safe return. According to the data, that program was made but never translated to the Italian language. The Italians saw this as a lack of security for returning the children to their homeland so they decided to organize protective measures which in their opinion would be adequate for those children. Adoption of the children happened very fast with the children changing names and religion, therefore it was hard to ever trace them again. None of the children were ever returned to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Without the perseverance of a couple of parents, it is questionable if anyone else would have started looking for their children. Would the parents and other members of the family forever wonder what became of them? Would this all have been covered up by the governments of Italy and Bosnia and Herzegovina? However, the question remains the same: ‖Why was there nothing in place to return the evacuated children and who is at fault?‖ Their parents never gave 193 permission for them to be adopted, and the children were never given a choice to return to their homeland and families. CONCLUSION Decisions made in the ―moment of panic‖ during a war or natural catastrophe have the potential to permanently change the course of people‘s lives. In that moment of crisis the only thing people can think about is how to survive and save the lives of their loved ones and decisions about safety are made very quickly. Very few people think rationally during a moment of panic, so as social workers we need to be aware of the long-term consequences of these situations and be responsible to prevent situations in which children can suffer harm or exploitation. Although, the short term decisions are understandable we need to also think about how to protect families, parents and children over the long term. Moments of panic can cause a parent to lose their child forever, without systems in place to protect refugee‘s rights and to correct the mistakes of the system. It is very important to ensure that legal documents are created that will protect children under those circumstances. These documents are especially critical in order to protect children who are moving across international borders. This study shows what permanent damage can be done to people‘s lives if steps aren't taken to protect the rights of children and families, when an evacuation is required. It is especially hard to determine who is responsible for these consequences since it is not known who organized the evacuation and who is responsible for agreeing for the children to stay in Italy. The fact is that Bosnia and Herzegovina lost 46 members of their culture, who were totally assimilated into Italian culture, accepting a different language, religion, and habits. To parents, the evacuation of their children may appear to be the best solution at the time, however this is frequently not the case. Evacuation poses a long-term risk to children, including the trauma of separation from the family and the increased danger of trafficking, sexual exploitation or illegal adoption. If evacuation is essential, whole families should move together, and if this is not possible, children should at least move with their primary caregivers and siblings. Great care should be taken to ensure that any evacuation is properly documented, and that arrangements are made for the appropriate reception and care of the children, for maintaining contact with family members during the evacuation and for early reunification. Guidelines on these criteria are supported by the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, UNHCR and UNICEF. REFERENCES Djeca otputovala u Milano. (1992, July 19). Oslobodjenje. Copy in possession of author. Kamenica, E. (2000, November 8). Malisana nema ni u evidenciji stranih drzavljana. Oslobodjenje, pp. A7. Kukan, M. (2007, March 10). Djeca iz Doma ―Ljubica Ivezic‖ u Italiji su trebala ostati samo dva mjeseca!? Dnevni Avaz, pp. A8. Legge adozioni internazionali of 1983, Act No.476 (1998). Retrieved on April 1, 2010 from web site http://www.commissioneadozioni.it/en/for-an-adoptive-family/the-path-ofadoption.aspx Sutton-Redner, J. (2010). Children in a war of violence. Retrieved on December 22, 2011, from web site http://childreninneed.com/magazine/violence.html 194 Tabeau, E. & Bijak, J. (2005). War related deaths in the 1992-1995 armed conflicts in Bosnia and Herzegovina: A Critique of previous estimates and recent results. European Journal of Population. 21, p. 187-215 United Nations Security Council Resolution. (May 27, 1994). Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992). UNICEF. (2008). Children in conflict and emergencies. New York, NY: Author. Retrieved November 21, 2008 from http://www.unicef.org/protection/index_armedconflict.html. UNHCR. (1999). The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Retrieved on May 10, 2010 from web site http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c2.html UNHCR. (1999). Handbook for emergencies (2nd ed.). Retrieved on May 2, 2010 from web site http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3bb2fa26b.pdf 195 STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING AND SUSTAINING MATHEMATICS AS AN INDISPENSABLE TOOL FOR TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA. DASO, PETER OJIMBA Department of Technical Education, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] 08033428599 Abstract The world of today is predominantly shaped and controlled by the overwhelming influence of science and technology with the study of mathematics as a pivot. This is perhaps in recognition of the indispensable role of mathematics in realizing the nation‘s dream of rapid scientific and technological development. This also portends the fact that the triangle of science, technology and mathematics should be vigorously pursued by the Nigerian government. However, Nigeria‘s effort to promote scientific and technological literacy are not yet yielding the required dividends because basic strategies for teaching mathematics have been down-played by various government agencies. Despite the bare fact that Nigerian children still shy away from the study of mathematics, issues in mathematics teaching strategies such the use of qualified teachers, teacher motivation by incentives and computer aided instructions should be adequately implemented. This paper addressed the issues of strategies for teaching and sustaining mathematics as an indispensable tool for technological development in Nigeria. Some innovative teaching strategies were suggested for demystifying mathematics in the Nigerian classroom. They include the strategy of constructivism, groupings into students‘ ability and the use of instructional aids and games. The paper concluded that if the various strategies of stimulating the interest of students in the teaching and learning of mathematics are put to use in any country, including Nigeria, a great deal of change may be seen. Key words:Strategies, teaching, mathematics, technological development. INTRODUCTION Since Nigeria got her independence in 1960, mathematics education has received and continued to receive special emphasis and attention. This is perhaps, in recognition of the indispensable role of mathematics in realizing the nation‘s dream of rapid scientific and technological development. Hence, Kline (1964) had posited that the importance of mathematics to modern culture of science and technology has been well recognized and accepted worldwide. This was reechoed by Ezeilo (1975) and Fakuade (1977). According to Ukeje (1977), the increasing importance and attention given to mathematics stem from the fact that without mathematics there is no science, without science there is no modern technology and without modern technology there is no modern society. In other words, mathematics is the precursor and the queen of science and technology and indispensable single element in modern societal development. This suggests that there could be no real development technologically without a corresponding development in mathematics both as conceived and practiced. As it is rightly observed in Bajah (2000), no nation can make any meaningful progress in this information technology age, particularly in economic development without whose foundation are science and mathematics. Like a barometer, the scientific and technological capability of a nation has easily become the social index and determining factor for assessing the economic progress, prosperity and power of nations. Nigeria, despite her status as the world‘s sixth largest producer of oil and possession of other vast reserve of natural resources, is still operating far below her economic capacity; very 196 recently, a world bank report captured the paradox of our national under-development poignantly in a statement that Nigeria is a rich country whose vast majority of her citizens live below poverty life line when measured against the indices prescribed by the united nations. For Nigeria to take her rightful position among the committee of nations, there is an urgent need to have indigenous critical mass of trained scientists and engineers. Invariably, such critical mass can only be acquired by a well organized science and mathematics programmes at all levels of schooling. Furthermore, the current effort of the Federal Government in this direction is noteworthy (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2000). However, despite government‘s effort at both state and federal levels to promote science and mathematics, much of what passes for the teaching and learning of these subjects in our secondary schools today is far from being satisfactory. This phenomenon casts doubt on the country‘s aspiration of becoming a technological giant, at least in Africa. It is against this background that this paper was conceived to appraise the state of mathematics education in Nigeria, its input on technological development and also proffer some intervention strategies of demystifying the subject in the Nigerian classroom. Major problems of mathematics education in Nigeria. The road to better mathematics education is tortuous and difficult (Salau, 2002). Despite the importance of mathematics, many problems seem to beset mathematics education in Nigeria. This has resulted to the consistent poor performance in senior school certificate examination (SSCE) in the subject (NERDC, 1992; Salau, 2002). Prominent among these problems, according to STAN (2002) are: (i) Acute shortage of qualified professional mathematics teachers (ii) Exhibition of poor knowledge of mathematics content by many mathematics teachers (iii) Overcrowded mathematics classrooms (iv) Adherence to odd teaching methods inspite of exposure to more viable alternatives (v) Students‘ negative attitude towards mathematics (vi) Undue emphasis on the coverage of mathematics syllabuses at the expense of meaningful learning of mathematics concepts (vii) Inadequate facilities and mathematics laboratories in our schools, to mention but a few. This catalogue of problems do not create conducive environment for mathematics education to thrive in this country. In order for science and technology to take its firm root in our society, the poor state of mathematics education must be redressed. This could be achieved by demystifying the subject in the Nigerian classroom and incorporating the enhanced strategies for this laudable goal. Strategies for teaching and sustaining mathematics learning The alarming poor state of mathematics education in our schools, as revealed by the students‘ dismal performance in public examinations such as SSCE and JAMB, calls for an urgent need to constantly seek ways of improving the teaching and learning of the subject. Such efforts could be geared towards evolving new strategies and total transformation of the mathematics education programmes. For the benefit of this paper four strategies out of many conceptualized by the author have been put forward for consideration. 197 1. Groupings into students‟ ability Grouping for instruction within the classroom, that is, dividing a class into smaller homogenous ability groups and instructing each group separately is an instructional device designed to facilitate learning, particularly in reading and mathematics. Such an instructional strategy is by no means popular in the Nigerian public schools. In these schools, mathematics is taught to a large heterogeneous students, that is, students with varying abilities. Research findings (Halliman and Sorensen, 1985; Salau, 1996) have shown that large classes have the tendency of limiting the performance of mediocre students in mathematics since high ability students will always dominate in such classes. One sure way of tackling the problem posed by large classes in mathematics in Nigerian schools is by organizing students into smaller homogenous ability groups. The benefit of such ability groupings is argued to come about in two ways. The first lies in the increase in the teacher‘s ability to obtain and retain students‘ attention and interest where there are fewer of them in the instructional group. The other advantage is an increase in the teacher‘s ability to adapt methods of instruction and instructional materials to the aptitudes and preparation of individual student. In other words, it allows the teacher to teach the knowledge, skills and understanding in ways that suit the students‘ ability, it can also be argued that if indeed groupings increases learning and if learning increases ability to learn, then grouping would also increase ability. Indeed, as has been shown in Salau (1996), the small ability group learning tends to facilitate high achievement across different ability groups. As noted in Salau (2000), paying special attention to students‘ interest, individual strengths and weaknesses as well as remedying their learning deficiencies may well be the right path of projecting mathematics learning as exiting to the vast majority of students. (2) The strategy of constructivism In the views of Epstein (2002), constructivism had been labeled as the philosophy of learning that proposes learners‘ need to build their own understanding of new ideas. Fosnot (1996) had earlier described constructivism as a theory about knowledge and learning describing what knowing is and how one comes to know. According to Green and Gredler (2002), the basic assumption in constructivism is that children learn when they are in control of their learning and know that they are in control. The first major contemporaries to develop a clear idea of constructivism as applied to classroom and childhood development where John Dewey and Jean Piaget. However the principles of constructivism encapsulates the following - learning is an active process, people learn to learn as they learn, physical actions and hands-on experience are necessary for learning, learning involves language, learning is a social activity, one needs knowledge to learn, learning is not instantaneous, the key component to learning is motivation. A careful perusal of the principles of constructivism showed that its adaptation to mathematics teaching and learning will go a long way to enhance mathematics education. A situation where students who are exposed to mathematics learning become well motivated and understands the language of mathematics, then the results of the teaching-learning process will be maximized. The principle of constructivism imbibes the idea that for students to learn and sustain their learning, they must be in control of their learning and know that they are in control. Mathematical concepts must be divided into hierarchical bits in order for the learner to be in control from one bit to another having a perfect knowledge of the preceding bit. This process 198 enables the learner to move to the next stage of the learning process at his/her own pace, thereby enabling proper understanding of mathematical concepts. 3. Use of instructional aids and games, The use of teaching aids and games in the teaching and learning of mathematics cannot be overemphasized. This is because mathematics by its very nature is abstract and extra effort is required to bring students to understanding concepts, principles and applications. More specifically, many principles and concepts in mathematics are not easily explained with common sense deduction, this obviously adds to the difficulty students encountered in the comprehension of mathematics generally. Notable examples of these concepts are symmetry, place value, addition, subtraction, number system, geometry, probability as well as longitude and latitude to mention but a few. The abstractness of these concepts requires so much recourse to using concrete instructional aids and games. Furthermore, a major problem militating against improvisation in Nigeria is lack of adequate professional training of teachers. As it was known, improvisation demands adventure, creativity, curiosity and perseverance on the part of the teacher. Such skills and competence are only acquired/gained through well planned training programme on improvisation. Another factor that could hinder improvisation is lack of funds. Whatever the hindrance, it is more beneficial to improvise where the real apparatus is not available than to present mathematics lessons without teaching aids. Opinions have been expressed that when the mathematics taught is dull, confusing, trivial and makes limited and sometimes meaningless7 and narrow demands on students‘ intelligence, capabilities and talents, learning is bound to be stunted if it occurs at all (Ali, 1987). As experience has shown, young people nowadays pay attention only to what seems interesting. Therefore teaching mathematics through the use of games and concrete instructional materials should be encouraged. Such mode of teaching mathematics tend to arouse curiosity and interest of the students and lays a foundation for creative, imaginative and investigative mind geared towards problem-solving in the students. 4) Computer-aided instruction Computer-managed and computer-assisted (CA1) in individualization and mastery learning have proved to be more successful instructional strategy than the traditional ‗chalk and talk approaches‘. One major characteristic feature of the CAT is that it is interactive. Proper individualization of instruction is enhanced when a student can control his/her learning in terms of choice of materials and in accordance with his/her intellectual ability. Mathematics stands to benefit immensely from this mode of instruction. Result of studies carried out in mathematics showed general improvement in attitudes and achievement (Krans 1981; Uduosoro and Abinbade, 1997). With CAT, students‘ grasp of the subject- matter is enhanced especially with low achievers (Mevarech, 1993). Regardless of the educational merits or otherwise of computer assisted instruction, such innovation cannot take place by itself. There must be a computer base from which to work, and a computer system of the size needed for the CAT. The computer is not only a tool that may be used to assist in instruction, - the computer itself is something students need to know about, and, in secondary schools particularly, many courses can be offered on aspects of the operation of the computer. With the publication of the national policy On information and communication 199 technology and the setting up of an 18-member implementation committee by the Federal Government in January, 2002, it is our hope that computer will soon become available in schools sooner than we expect; thus keeping CAT within the realm of curricular possibility in Nigeria secondary schools. Conclusion An attempt has been made in this paper to highlight the strategies for teaching and sustaining materials as an indispensable tool for technological development in Nigeria. If the various strategies of stimulating the interest of students in the teaching and learning of mathematics are put to use in any country, including Nigeria, a great deal of change may be seen. It is equally possible to have a negligible impact if they are not used within the framework of a strategic plan. One major step in this plan is the availability of academically competent professionally trained, highly motivated, versatile and enduringly committed teachers. The implication is that our teachers of mathematics need to have the right training and orientation for teaching mathematics using the naturalistic approach in order to remove the emphasis on abstraction attributed to mathematics. The task falls on our teacher training institutions to retrain science and mathematics teachers for the challenges posed in science and technology in Nigeria. It is desirable that such institutions establish mathematics resource centre for the purpose of exposing trainee teachers to the necessary knowledge and skills. It is also worthy of mentioning that the morale of our teachers is generally low. There is need for government to show greater political commitment to professionalize teaching with attractive remuneration and better conditions of service. While teachers‘ welfare is appropriately tackled, we all have to abhor a development in which only those incapable of teaching will have taken to mathematics teaching. By so doing, we shall be engaging in the erstwhile WAR against poor achievement in mathematics REFERENCES Au, A (91987), Cognitive competence and teaching ability of mathematics teachers in Nigerian secondary schools. Journal of Nigerian Educational Research Association, 7(1 & 2) 100 — 117. Bajah, S. T. (2000). Emerging global issues in Education. A lead paper presented at the National Conference on Curriculum innovation in the 21st century held in Abuja. Epstein, M. (2002). Using Information Effectively in Education. On line Research Portfolio, Fall. Ezeilo, J. 0. C. (1975). Presidential address to the 11th Annual Conference of Mathematical Association of Nigeria (MAN). Fakuade, R. A. (1977). Mathematics as a subject. Journal of the science teachers association of Nigeria (STAN), 16 (1) 82 — 95. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2000). The National Space Policy and Programmes. Federal Ministry of Science and Technology, Abuja. Fostnot, R (1996). Constructivist Theory. What is knowing? Maureen Epstein‘s on line portfolio. Fall. Green, W and Gredler, I (2002). Constructivism and how children learn, Maureen Epstein‘s on line portfolio. Fall. Halliman, M. T. and Sorensen (1985). aass size, ability and student achievement. American Journal of Education, 94, 71 — 89. 200 Kline, M (1964). Mathematics in Western Culture, New York; Oxford University Press. Krans, W. H. (1981). Using a computer game to reinforce skills in addition. Basic facts in second grade. Journal for research in mathematics education 12 (2), 152 — 161. Mevarech, Z. R. (1993). Who benefits from computer-assisted instruction. Journal of Educational Computing Research. 9 (4), 451 — 464. NERDC (1992). A survey of performance in pubic examination research report No. 3, Abuja. Sa Ia u, M. 0. (1996). The effect of class size on the achievement of different ability groups in mathematics. Journal of the science teachers Association of Nigeria, 31 (1 & 2), 57—63. Salau, M. 0. (2000). Options in sustaining mathematics as the language science and technology in the 2Vt century, proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference of the Mathematical Association or Nigeria, 41 — 60. Salau, M. 0. (2002). Strategies for sustaining mathematics as an indispensable tool for sustaining technological development in the 21st century. STAN (2002). Science, Technology and Mathematics Education for Sustainable Development in Africa. Note address by the Honourable Minister of Education. Uduosoro, U. J. and Abimbade, A (1997). The place of computer-assisted in Mathematics Education. Proceedings of 40th Annual Conference of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 238 — 243. Ukeje, B. 0. (1977). The challenges of mathematics in Nigeria‘s economic goals of vision 2010: Implications for Secondary School Mathematics, a Lead Paper Presented at the 34 th Annual National Conference of the Mathematical Association of Nigeria. 201 HUMAN DIGNITY: ITS IDEAS AND STATUS IN CHINA Jiaming Chen Professor at Xiamen University，CHINA [email protected] Abstract The traditional Confucian axiology is a deontological one, and its idea of ―dignity‖ is the dignity of a ―personality‖ instead of ―human dignity‖. In the ancient hierarchical society of China, which was mainly regulated by the deontological ethics of Confucian, the rights of ordinary people were ignored. During China‘s May Fourth New Culture Movement, the enlightenment of human rights was still being retarded, and the awareness of the self-dignity consciousness was retarded too. In the progress of contemporary Chinese society, dignity has been regarding gradually as a human right. Now what need more is to enhance the recognition of dignity to the level of human beings, and to take defense of ―human dignity‖ as a principle of legislation. Keywords Dignity, human rights, axiology, Confucian ethics, Chinese society There are four parts in the paper. The first deals with Confucian concept of dignity, the second talks about the impacts which this dignity idea has produced on Chinese society, the third is about the progresses and problems of the concepts of "dignity " and the ―rights‖ in the process of China's modernity, the fourth is about how to enhance the understanding of "dignity", taking it as the source of all kinds of rights, and about the necessity of taking it as one of fundamental principles for constitutional legislation idea. 1. Traditional Confucian view of dignity Confucian traditional axiology is based on people‘s duty or obligation, rather than on their rights; that is, the core of the Confucian values, such as "loyalty, filial piety, benevolence and righteousness‖ etc., are relate to the people‘s obligations, but not their rights. Accordingly, Confucian view of "dignity" is not a rights-based. Furthermore, although the Confucian put emphasis on the idea of dignity, however this is mainly confined to the dignity of personality, but not concerning with the issue of rights, and this is the defect in its theory of dignity. The following are three classic quotations from the founders of Confucianism: Confucius said, "An officer (Shi) can be killed, but not be insulted."lv Confucius said, ―The commander of three armies may be taken away, but the will of even a common man may not be taken away from him‖. lvi Mencius said, ―To be above the power of riches and honors to make dissipated, of poverty and mean condition to make swerve from principle, and of power and force to make bend; -these characteristics constitute the great man.‖ lvii From the above exposition we can see that Confucian concept of "dignity" is mainly concerned with personality, stressing the inviolability and non-insult of human personality. In this sense, its concept of dignity is to be called the ―dignity of personality‖, but not the ―dignity of human being‖. For traditional Confucianism, its goal is to reach the family harmony and the peace of the world through people's moral cultivations, thus, the thoughts of personality and its dignity constitute one of the essences of Confucian doctrine. This ethics of the personality‘s dignity, in Chinese history, has created a large number of outstanding people with lofty ideals, cultivating their noble personality, and left many glorious chapters in Chinese culture. But unfortunately, Confucian view of dignity didn‘t put forward the concept of ―the dignity of human being ", that is to say, did not expound it from the angle of the rights (including the right to life, liberty, and other basic rights). As a result, there was a 202 fundamental defect in Confucian view of dignity, namely that it was separated from people's rights, or it was not a rights-based. This character is fit with Confucian axiology which only talks about obligations, and the obligations which it advocated are not based on the principle of reciprocity between rights and obligations, but are in such a status where rights are absent. In Confucian axiology wherein loyalty，filial piety，benevolence and righteousness constitutes its core value, loyalty is the obligation of subjects to their monarch, "filial piety" is the obligation of sons and daughters to their parents. Benevolence also is a kind of obligation for a person to love others. "Righteousness" is a kind of obligation too; it means a person‘s behavior must conform to ethical norms. Deontology both brings up Confucian axiology as well as its concept of dignity. 2. The impacts of Confucian idea of dignity on Chinese society Contrast with Western philosophy which pursues truth and wisdom, traditional Chinese philosophy basically is a moral philosophy. For Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, the main problem he faced was how to make a turbulent society returned into a stable order. Thus, the hierarchy becomes his choice for solving the problem. Correspondingly, the values of "loyalty, filial piety" etc. had been adopted and became the regulations of law. In ancient Chinese law, most ―heinous crimes‖ connect directly with disloyalty and unfilial. For example, the crime of "rebellion" (trying to overturn the Court), the crime of ―traitor‖, killing grandparents, parents, or uncles, aunts, uncles, and other elders. Unfilial, cursing, and not supporting his own grandparents and parents, etc. The results, following from the Confucian deontology, are the absence of ethics of rights. Although ―benevolent" was advocated by Confucianism, but unfortunately the issue of how to protect people with human rights, to ensure them to be cared, had not been taken account. In traditional Confucianism, there was no concept of rights to "life‖, no concept of ―freedom‖, let alone how to protect them. In this sense, the ancient Chinese society's entire ethical foundation is misplaced, it adapts to the feudal patriarchal system. "Propriety (Li)" as the norm of ancient social life and moral behavior, its essence and political functions is to "identify someone‘s social status, to distinguish people‘s deferent position, and to make their order', i.e. to maintain the feudal hierarchy. The role which the ethics of deontology plays is to rationalize this hierarchy. In the feudal society, unfreedom, inequality is the most indignity state of general people. Huang Renyu, an American Chinese historian, mentioned in his book ― Great Chinese History‖ that, as early as in the years of 153 to 184, thousands ancient Chinese students had already hold rallies and demonstrations in the way like modern style, to petition the Luoyang Government. As a result, the Government made up blacklists, conducted massive arrest, and thousands of political prisoners died in prison. Ancient China's axiology of rights-missing combined the feudal autocratic regime, had direct impacts on modern China, made Chinese people more difficult, more twists and turns, and longer to fight for their freedom, human rights and dignity. Due to the lack of the consciousness of human rights and the guarantee from the political system in a long history, it results in disregard of human rights and dignity by both personal and society. In the early Qing dynasty, people even did not have the right for choosing whether they want to be haircut, and even reached the situation that "If want to keep head, then no hair, if want to keep hair, then no head". In other words, someone have to pay the price of life if he wants to keep his hair. In the horrifying atrocity of "three days slaughter in Jiading City", the whole citizens around 2 hundred thousand people have almost been massacred by the Qing army. It is a bloody portrayal left in the history. Until hundreds of years after, in the "cultural revolution" the hair was still a political topic, "perm（to wave hair）" was treated as a bourgeois way of life, and subjected to prohibited. Such taboo also extended to the clothing, the so-called "fancy clothes" was also linked with ideology, and "jeans" were considered the western bourgeois way of life too. In the period of May Fourth 1919，the representative's slogan put forward by the new culture movement, as a modern China‘s Enlightenment, is "science" and "democracy". This means that 203 until the early 20th century, freedom and human rights issues has not become the theme of the enlightenment which uncovers the prelude of China‘s modern history. Although that historical era has its urgent needs to resolve, however the enlightenment of human rights, after all, has been delayed, and the awakening of consciousness of human rights and dignity were delayed too. Then China entered in a long period of war, including the civil war and anti-Japanese war. After the founding of People's Republic of China in 1949, there had been a fierce criticism of Western thought, and strengthened the ideology of class struggle. As a result, these actions prepared the ideological conditions for the "great cultural revolution". China entered a decade-long period of civil strife, so it is impossible to have enlightenment for human rights and dignity, as well as to set up the guarantee of political system. 3. The dignity and human rights in the process of China's modernity From the measure that rural areas allows farmers to contract with their land (family contract responsibility system), to the measure that government decentralize of power and transfer of profits to the state-owned enterprises, to that allows individuals to contract enterprises business, until allows to set up private enterprises, as well to auction state-owned enterprises, to transform enterprises into joint-stock system, and gradually relax private investment areas, these measures, seeing from the perspective of political philosophy, can be regarded as the recognition of the individual rights, namely, authorized personal rights on investment undertaking, on making their own management decisions, and fundamentally, are affirmation of individual‘s rights of freedom and autonomy in economic activities areas. The consequence of rights recognized and guaranteed is mobilizing the initiative and creativity of people's economic activities, and put energy into economic development. Thus, the key here is the combination of the "realization of right" with human nature. Human nature would strive to pursue and maximize its own interests. Once rights are recognized, human nature will turn into powerful impetus for socio-economic development. The above explanation may be helpful for us to understand the significance of rights as basis in modern society, and also contribute to our understanding of the relationship between the rights and dignity. If dignity is not built on the basis of rights, it will not be a true sense of dignity. Under no guarantee of rights, there will be no real human dignity, at best only relying on their own struggle to maintain self-esteem personality. When individual's rights to life, liberty and property etc. suffer from illegal violation and deprivation, people can only protest with their personal actions, even with extreme ones, in order to preserve their rights and dignity, and it is difficult for them to get valid protection from legitimate system. These negative examples in recent Chinese are not uncommon. Over the past few years there have happened again and again in various places the events of resisting of residents‘ houses being brutally removed, some house owners even forced to take the extreme means of "self-burning". For example, in Beijing, Guangzhou, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Heilongjiang, etc, have taken place in such an event. Let‘s take an example. In September this year, a self-burning event against violent houseremoving occurred in Yihuang County, Jiangxi province. From April 18 on, Zhong‘s house, which has been planned to be removed by local government, has already be cut off its electricity supply. On September 10 at 9 a.m., about 40 policeman and members of city management bureau came to the owner's home. After a quarrel in both parties, the police broke in. Homeowners Luo Zhi-feng, Ye Zhong Cheng and Zhong Ruqin made self-burning and was severely burned. Although Ye was rushed to hospital, but he finally died. Afterwards on September 16th, two daughters of the injured were going to appeal, but they have been besieged and intercepted in Nanchang airport. Finally they had to seek refuge in the woman lavatory, 204 using mobile phone to call the media for help. Similar examples "barbaric house-removing", are the typical reflection of the situation of Chinese people‘s rights at the social bottom. On the positive side, accompanying with the process of rights realization in economic field, contemporary Chinese society is after all in progress, and the progress of dignity idea is one part of them. With regard to the progress of idea, Premier Wen Jiabao‘s speech at the beginning of this year is a remarkable indication. He submits that "we should let people have a happier, more dignified life". The progress among people can be showed in the universal consciousness awakening of citizens‘ right of dignity. Some people even apply of law as their weapons. There were a number of famous cases. For instance, Shandong citizen Qi Yu-ling‘s case that citing the constitution to ―fight for the education right‖, the first case of "China hepatitis B discrimination ", Beijing citizens Huang Zhenyun‘s case that resisting house- removal by invoking Constitution etc. Here let‘s take Qi Yuling‘s example. In 1999, Qi Yu-ling，an original candidate for an entrance examination from Tengzhou city， Shandong province，went to law against Chen Xiaoqi, who falsely claimed her admission notice, and using her name to register at Jining city business school, then got a job after graduation. The Supreme People's Court, required by the Shandong province‘s higher people‘s court, gave an approval of judicial interpretation, claiming that Chen Xiaoqi and others violated Qi Yuling‘s basic education right by means of infringement of the right to one‘s name, and caused damages to Qi, therefore should bear the corresponding civil liability. Shandong province‘s Higher Court accordingly made a judgment. Why the case has aroused widespread attentions is that it was regarded as the first case that Chinese citizen invokes the constitution for legal action and got support, and therefore has different general significance. It embodies the awareness and empowerment of citizens‘ rights. They take the Constitution as the basis, rose to defend their rights and dignity, thereby objectively promote changes in China's judicature, albeit the change is slow and difficult. 4. To upgrade the recognition of dignity If we say that the goal of "natural rights" theory in modern western Natural Law is to pursue the fundamental values of freedom and equality, in contemporary Western axiology then it can be regarded that the status of human dignity has been greatly enhanced, taken as the foundation of freedom, justice and peace. This recognition represented in the United Nations‘ authoritative human rights documents in succession. For instance, the Universal Declaration of human rights, published in 1948, declared clearly in its first sentence: ―Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.‖ Since then, in 1966, the International Covenant on economic social and cultural rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and political rights, both cited this paragraph as the ideological premise of these covenants. Consistent with the concept mentioned in the above United Nations‘ documents, a number of countries also take the maintenance of "human dignity" as their legal norms. In this context, the expressions in the German Constitution are the most representative. "Human dignity" is positioned as "the highest constitutional principle", as "the Supreme objective of constitutional norms", it constitutes a basic value principle for the constitutional legislation. Regarding China, the concept of dignity is expressed in the Constitution too. In the article 38, it provides that ―the personal dignity of citizens of People's Republic of China is inviolable. Insult, libel and false accusation or false incrimination directed against citizens by any means is prohibited. Here we can see that the concept used in China‘s Constitution is that of "personal 205 dignity", and it involves also the relevant content, that is, not allow to violate citizens‘ personality. This article is placed with articles like inviolability of residence, the rights of criticism and suggestion, the rights of labor etc., that is to say, the personal dignity is regarded as a specific right. Understanding of dignity in the sense of personality seems to relate to the traditional Chinese culture, that is, to the dignity concept of Confucianism as mentioned above. However, in my view, to limit the dignity concept to the aspect of personality, taking it as a specific right, is not enough, this only stay at the stage of the ancient Confucian recognition of dignity. In modern society, it is important to enhance the recognition of dignity to the level of human beings themselves, and based on the understanding that ―Man is the end‖, to take human beings as enjoying dignity in the sense of they having the intrinsic and absolute value in themselves. Here "dignity" can be regarded as the concept of objective, i.e. taking human beings as the end itself, human beings‘ dignity as the end itself. State and its laws as well as institutions should serve this end. Although the "end" is a philosophical hypothesis, this subjective concept can instead turn to be the ground of the social values and institutions. For here is a difference between the existence of social beings and natural things, the late are the existence in themselves, they have no value in the sense of axiology, and also have no purposiveness. On the contrary，the former is the existence for themselves, and they have intrinsic value in themselves. The highest performance of the human being‘s value is that it can become a kind of "purpose" of actions. This argument is easy to be proved by means of reduction to absurdity. Because once man has been taken as a means, they will surely become the slavery objects of the rulers (often appearing on the face of state, government, and so on). This analysis shows that the recognition of human being‘s value in our Constitution need to be improved. Its departure point is not yet a "people-oriented", i.e. taking people as the foremost. This means person's inherent rights have not yet been taken as premise. At present the "peopleoriented" has become a social consensus, so it is necessary to add this idea as the basic concepts and principles of our Constitution. The Constitution as country's fundamental law, should take "People-oriented" as a basic principle, and put the relationship between citizens and citizens, the relationship between citizens and the State into a right position. In addition, the Constitution belongs to all citizens, therefore it should not be making a difference of degree, should not claim that a class leading other class, this will cause an inequality in political rights. Such a statement is not only inconsistent with the reality, but also contradicted with the Constitution‘s declaration that all citizens are equal before law, and with the idea of the equality of human rights. There is some inappropriate wording in Constitution such as "class struggle", etc. They are the remnants of the ―cultural revolution‖, and are inconsistent with the idea of "harmonious society". Moreover, the statement itself is a contradiction, since it has been asserted that the exploiting class has been eliminated, how can there have "class struggle" ? Since this statement provides legitimacy for creating struggle among people, it should be removed. As mentioned above, the understanding of the "dignity" in China‘s Constitution is still in the level of ―personality‘s dignity‖, failed to rise to the level of "human being‘s dignity". The reason why it ought to rise to the level is that the Constitution needs a certain principles, and such principles should be based on the considerations for protection of human rights. Furthermore, the principles of the Constitution also needs a certain ground, which either directly rely on "human being" as the ground, or rely on the ground of taking human being as the ―end ‖, or on the ground of human being‘s dignity. So, No matter what the proposition is based, in short, the principles of the Constitution need to be set up on the foundation of human beings themselves. So what becomes a problem is to take the proposition ―human being is the end itself‖ as the ground of constitutional principle, or take the concept of "human being‘s dignity" as the ground. In my opinion, because of the "end" does not fit as a right, therefore it is not suitable as a concept of law. Whereas the concept of "dignity" is different, it can be used as a right, even fundamental right, as provided in some of the Constitutions and the civil laws. 206 Besides, how to ensure the implementation of the Constitution is also an important issue. If a constitution, notwithstanding having been drawn up, can‘t be complied with, or can‘t be strictly complied with, the Constitution will tantamount to a dead letter. One guarantee for the compliance of constitution is to establish the Constitutional Court. For our country, to establish Constitutional Court is a necessary work, it will contribute significantly to the improvement of the rule of law, so as to better protect citizens‘ rights. References 1 The Book of Rites, Chapter of Ruxing, Beijing University Publishing House, 1999, p.1582. 1 Confucius, Chapter of Zihan，Beijing University Publishing House,1999, p.121 1 Mencius, Chapter of Tengwengong, Beijing University Publishing House, p.162. 207 The Culture of Widowhood Practices in Africa: De-institutionalizing the Plights of Women through Theatre Samuel Okoronkwo Chukwu-Okoronkwo Theatre Arts Department, Faculty of Arts, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria. E-mail: [email protected] Abstract Culture is no doubt ascribed as the distinctive characteristics of a society. It is the society‘s guiding principles of human behaviour and existence as transmitted by same society. Culture for what it stands, therefore, is supposed to bear on the auspicious wellbeing and progressive development of the society and its people. However, a critical consideration of the agelonguniversalized dehumanizing and obnoxious widowhood rites culture in Africa has consistently predisposed it as impeding than facilitating meaningful rehabilitation of widows in our society. This worrisome development has continued to draw wide outcry from sundry concerned quarters, occasioned perhaps by the influence of western civilization and Christianity. However, while this dastardly practice seems to yield to these concerted condemnations by jettisoning most of its obnoxious features in some parts of the continent, it has defied every iota of refinement and remained static in most predominant others, despite the dynamics of modern society. This paper, therefore, explores the potentials of theatre in de-institutionalizing widowhood practices‘ inherent threats to the dignity and ‗womanity‘ of womanhood in our various cultures in Africa. Introduction In many cultures, prejudices against women are in fact deep-rooted. Widowhood practices are among the prejudices that have consistently impinged on the dignity and rights of women in our different cultures in Africa. The BBC English Dictionary has defined widowhood as the state of being a widow or widower. In most cultures in Africa however, widowhood practices have become the exclusive preserve for widows with accompanying elaborate guiding regulations, and not for widowers for whom the culture or tradition has prescribed little or no mourning rites. Unarguably, every enduring marriage ultimately ends with the death of either of the man or woman, or even both. However, the death of a spouse may be the most extreme of life‘s crisis as this severs most of the deepest emotional bonds established in a lifetime. Ironically though, the toll of the death of a husband tends to be more overwhelming on the woman than on the man when he loses his wife. This is because the woman is mostly traumatized and disorganized by such development on account of the harrowing experiences that await her as couched in widowhood rites. Widowhood rites, therefore, describe the rites performed for a woman after the death of her husband; and is therefore defined as ―sets of expectations as to actions and behaviour of the widow, action by others towards the widow, and rituals performed by, or on behalf of the widow from the time of the death of her husband‖ (Korieh, 1999). This paper explores the potentials of theatre in the de-institutionalization of these widowhood practices which have not only dehumanized and subjugated women (widows) to untold and unimaginable predicaments, but also tragi-institutionalized their plights in our various cultures. Widowhood Rites and the Mythic Tinge „Di bu ugwu nwanyi‘, which translates to ‗husband constitutes honour and dignity to womanhood‘, is a popular traditional expression among the Igbo society of the south east of Nigeria. Thus the very moment a woman loses her husband, the woman automatically loses her prized dignity, 208 ‗that intangible but definitely observable status which … society accords to wives‘ (Okagbue, 1997:80). Also in Igbo culture is the firm belief that, ‗the god that owns a woman is the husband that married her‘, which is expressed thus: ‗Agbara nwe nwanyi bu di luru ya‘. The import of the above expression is the obvious deification of the man, who is the husband. Thus this apparent divinity which the culture has ascribed to him consequently necessitates the performance of certain rites and rituals when he dies: as it also draws the implication of impurity and defilement of the woman as a widow, and therefore the necessity for ablution, cleansing or purification and other widowhood rites and practices as prescribed by culture. Writing from the background of her Yoruba descent, Labeodan (2002) observe that: Culture has silenced many Yoruba women. We have been made to believe that our bodies and minds are to be managed by the dictates of our culture. Mystery was built around certain practices: not fulfilling these requirement[sic] is a taboo which leads to death or ostracism. (p. 70) The crucial question the foregoing scenario therefore begs is: What then are those practices by which women, and indeed widows have been so much mystified, and by which they have equally been so enslaved? This is going to be the paper‘s next focus. Highlight on Widowhood Practices in Africa In offering a general overview of African culture as it affects the rights of women in Africa, Lasebikan (2001) did not mince words to observe that ―in Africa, the widow is oppressed, suppressed, afflicted, neglected, suspected, and insulted‖ (p. 18). She further notes that among the Yoruba, hardly can one find a man, whether a monogamist or polygamist, who dies a natural death as the unsuspecting wife immediately turns a ready suspect. As unfortunate as the foregoing scenario appears, it is not exclusive to the Yoruba alone. The belief according to TeiAhontu (2008), with particular reference to Ga traditional area of Accra-Ghana, is that no matter how natural the death of a person may seem there is definitely a cause to it. Therefore, one of the horrendous nightmares that may confront a woman at the death of her husband in various African cultures is the oftentimes scandalous accusation from the deceased husband‘s relations of having a hand in the man‘s death irrespective of how peaceful they might have lived, especially when the woman had not been in good relationship with them. When this happens, such a widow is often times made to swear on a juju, lie on the same bed with the corpse of her late husband the night before interment, or even be subjected to drink the water that is washed out of the husband‘s corpse as a proof of her innocence. With the present day realities of health hazards posed by infectious and contagious deadly diseases, it is only imaginable how physically and psychologically susceptible this dehumanizing act may condition the widow. The widow, who may have enjoyed every amount of freedom and goodwill while her husband lived, suddenly turns incommunicado as the death of her ―husband heralds a period of imprisonment and hostility‖ for her (Edet, 1992). Her movement becomes restricted throughout the mourning period, ―and culture forbids her to eat except with … tattered and old eating bowels made from gourds‖ (Okoye, 1995:72). She is not expected to be happy or laugh, chat or play with people at this period as she is supposed to be unclean and abominable and to be treated indifferently by others too; and she is mandated to continually cry and wail for her deceased husband. She is subjected to wearing mourning cloths throughout her mourning period thus making her readily identifiable as a widow and therefore stigmatized. She also faces the further humiliation of her hairs shaven off from different parts of her body. All these, (and more) opines Okoye, therefore mark her out as an outcast in the normal society of men as a 209 creature at war with the world beyond until she frees herself by fulfilling all widowhood rites. (p. 75) The ablution ritual by which the widow is believed to be cleansed and reintegrated into the society from which she had been virtually ostracized since her husband‘s death is a widowhood rite that depersonalizes, dehumanizes, and utterly violates the right to dignity of the woman. In some places in Anambra State, as in most practicing regions, the ablution ritual is associated with sexual intercourse as the widow is introduced to a ‗ritual cleanser‘ who will have sexual intercourse with her in order to lift, as is believed, the taboo placed over her (Okoye, 1998). This is always at the strict enforcement/supervision of the ‗Umuada‘, who are the daughters of the land. Little wonder why Samuel (2009) has described widowhood practice as one cultural practice that has portrayed the Igbo of the south Eastern Nigeria in a very bad light. Among the Edo people of Southwestern Nigeria also, widowhood practice has continued to prove a very dreadful experience, as widows are subjected to serious health hazards besides other dehumanizing conditions (Labeodan, 2002). Ironically, the Umuada, as mentioned above, who spearhead the administration of these widowhood practices are themselves women, perhaps potential widows. Amadi (2003) has expressed her deep consternation in the fact that it is not only that these dehumanizing widowhood rites are enshrined in the culture and tradition of the people, but also: That women who are daughters of the lineage (Umuada) have been socialized to accept and uphold these traditions by being administrators that administer these dehumanizing and subjugation rites to fellow women. (p. 69) Ezeh (1998) also shares in Amadi‘s deep consternation by the saddening observation with regards to his own community – Arochukwu, in the present Abia State, Nigeria that the daughters of the family who are equally wives and mothers in other families are the ones responsible for administering or supervising the administration of such ordeals to fellow women all in the name of tradition. This situation, Amadi further stresses, only creates room for the Umuada, who now assume the lofty status of quasi-demigoddesses, to exercise their own authority and power over fellow women and to humiliate fellow women who are widows. This development may not be unconnected with the fact that such women, as supposed custodians of culture, may have won the recognition of the males in their community, such that they want to continue to enjoy such position of power, as Atere (2001) perhaps inferred. Much more saddening also is the fact that in Arochukwu, as Ezeh emphasized, ―this tradition of subjecting a widow to various nerve chilling ordeals defies any change‖ (p. 47). This is quite disheartening. Ode (2002) has therefore described widowhood as a very unfortunate experience for women. However, with their indoctrination in the institutionalization of these practices in our different cultures, the African women as typified in the Umuada have become quite pitiably insensitive to their own future insecurity. This may have prompted Adekunbi‘s (2001) statement that African woman‘s line of thinking and her perception of life have been subtly directed against her by the society‖ (p. 103). Even more ironic is the erroneous belief that the introductions of these rituals are understood in the context of their protecting the widow, her family and the society as a whole. Culture and indeed society has so subtly warped their thinking and perception against themselves in the light of the above; thus the urgent need for reorientation. In most cultures, the inheritance system which also discriminates against women (daughters) by their exclusion as heirs to the property of their natal families extends to widows also as they are precluded from inheriting their deceased husband‘s property, especially landed property. Such 210 property only devolves to her late husband‘s male relatives. However, ―with the modern world teeming with civilized and mature minds‖, widowhood practices, like several other gender injustices directed against women, have ―quite become anachronistic‖ (Okoronkwo, 1999); and thus deserves increased concerted efforts for its complete extermination. Again, to consider Opata‘s (1988) humanistic definition of culture as emphasizing evaluativeness rather than anthropological descriptive concerns, with regards to those values and ideas that enhance human welfare, the various widowhood rites practices as highlighted in our different cultures in Africa, are quite incongruous with being conducive to human welfare and the progress of the society. It is the position of this paper, therefore, that the theatre is a potential instrument in not only debunking the prevalent belief in these obnoxious practices, but also in galvanizing the society, especially women into action at their complete extermination. Theatre: A Powerful Tool in De-institutionalizing Widowhood Practices in Africa. Evidence abounds regarding the works of theatre practitioners who have through their works demonstrated the potentials of theatre in the reorientation of the society regarding the obnoxious widowhood practice in our different cultures. One of such works is Uche AmaAbriel‘s A Past Came Calling, which was first performed as an advocacy for women and children fund raising initiative at the Muson Centre, Lagos, Nigeria in 2004. This development perhaps is also in response to the solemn clarion call for women to rise to the occasion and speak out against the several injustices and oppressions against women in the society (Ezeigbo, 1996; Labeodan, 2002). In his foreword to the play, Femi Osofisan has identified ―the continued, apparently custom-sanctioned brutalization of widows in Nigeria‖ (p. iv) as one of this theatrical piece‘s multi-thematic preoccupations. It is this custom-sanctioned brutalization of widows therefore, that is our major concern here. He noted the poignancy of the situation in ―the confrontation between mother and daughter, both severely damaged by unhealed wounds from their pastwounds that perhaps could never heal again‖ as primarily triggered by the unbearable plight of this custom-sanctioned experience in which TEMISAN found herself as portrayed in A Past Came Calling. Why does this experience become that significant in resulting to such confrontational milieu between mother and daughter, and in such scar-ridden circumstance, that turned it so poignant? TEMISAN was unarguably pushed to the walls by tradition, the culture of widowhood rites which she must perform to absolve herself of the accusation of causing the death of her husband; since his family members insist that: ―Only a man whose wife is a witch, or whose wife sleeps with another would pass away in his sleep‖ (Ama-Abriel, 2004: p. 7). Therefore, TEMISAN laments: From dusk to dawn, I was hounded to confess to killing my husband, so his wandering spirit would find its way back to the world of the gods. Every inhuman treatment imaginable was meted out to me. Every single property we acquired during our union was ―inherited‖ by his brothers a week after his death. (Ama-Abriel, p. 7) She further informs her daughter, ROSEMARY that ―they (her husband‘s family members) swore to make me confess publicly to killing their brother or I‘d know no peace‖ (p. 8). TEMISAN‘s nerve chilling ordeal of mockery, battery, torture, humiliation and dehumanization that climaxed with her gulping down the bath water of her husband‘s corpse is further re-enacted in this emotion filled flashback. It was such a dead night, with the buzzing of mosquitoes and chirping of crickets as her only companions, perhaps consoling her in her grief with their nocturnal melodies: 211 (With just a piece of black cloth on her chest and another on her head, Temisan sits crouched in a corner of a small thatched roof hut, beside a fire place. From a fairly wide opening on the wall, light filters in. She‘s covered in ashes. Her hands, blackened with layers of dirt. Totally alone in her solitude and misery, head on her palm, face tear stricken, she gazes listlessly into nothingness. A rotten orange flying through the opening on the wall and landing squarely on her head, snaps her out of her mind bending reverie. Another follows it. Trying to scramble out of harm‘s way, she‘s stopped momentarily in her tracks by a hose protruding from the opening. Begging for mercy, Temisan tries to dodge it, it follows her every step of the way. Running around the little hut in her bid to escape the water, she slips and falls on the now slippery muddy floor. Someone‘s mechanical laughter applauds her fall. She tries to get to her feet, failing woefully, she falls again. Staying right where she is, she cries her heart out. Very forcefully, the door swings open. Two men and two women rush in. The men are armed with whips. One of the women bears a large cup and the other holds a twine. Pouncing on her, they drag her around the room, creaming and begging). (pp. 8 – 10) FEMALE 1: (Slapping her) As we bury my brother, so your peace will be buried. OTHERS: Amen! FEMALE 2: prime. His restless spirit will haunt every male in your family and cut them short in their OTHERS: Amen! MALE 2: (Spits on her) Say amen! FEMALE: (Grabbing her ear and twisting it) Stubborn witch, confess or die! (The men attack her with blows, legs, and whips...) MALE 1: My brother did not die a natural death. FEMALE 1: Your harlotry sent him to an early grave. FEMALE 2: Husband killer! FEMALE 1 & 2: FEMALE 1: Witch! Witch! Witch! Mourn! Mourn the man whose life you cut short... ALL FOUR TORMENTORS: Louder witch! Louder! Mourn, mourn your husband! FEMALE 1: You loved him, didn‘t you? Prove it then, drink the bath water of your husband‘s decaying body. (pp. 11 – 13) (Ranting and raving all the while, one of the men grabs her legs and pins her to the floor. The others grab her hand and twist them to the back... the woman with the cup beckons to the other who immediately descends on Temisan and tries to pry her mouth open. Like one possessed of the devil, Temisan struggles to escape them and keep her mouth shut. She fails. Gulping and coughing, she downs the bath water of her husband‘s corpse. Their faces aglow with sheer satisfaction, they shower more blows, and insults on the helpless woman even as she wretches her guts out in her desperate bid to rid her stomach of it‘s[sic] disgusting content). (pp. 13 – 14) Her elasticity of endurance was soon over-stretched, as she thus fled in the dead of the night, with her 6 months old baby, just two days before another ordeal of the ―verdict of the dead‖ – a 212 process of some inexplicable demonic means whereby a corpse is made to rise up in search of the one thought responsible for its death. She was not ready to hang on and watch them do such thing to her late husband. However, the burden of the innocent child strapped to her back as she fled became even more horrible and hounding on her as it kept alive in her every memory of her husband‘s family members‘ monstrous images. She had to make a clean break by shedding everything that connected her to them. So was the innocent child abandoned, without the least thought of what would befall her in the numbed state she found herself. Such was the circumstance in which mother and daughter were caught up in a vicious circle triggered off by cultural obligation. When ROSEMARY, TEMISAN‘s abandoned daughter confronted her with the reality of the situation, she could only but confess: ―but for the wickedness and retrogressive barbaric mourning tradition of his (meaning her husband‘s) people, I‘d never have gotten to that brink of insanity that propelled me to that woeful night‖ (p. 44). With all that ROSEMARY passed through in the course of the play – a symbol of ruin of the result of that singular act of abandonment; raped, abused, decadent and infected by the AIDS scourge, it is only obvious that there are far more implications to the issue of widowhood practices that may just be imagined. Ama-Abriel thus utterly condemns this dastardly practice, and perhaps enjoins all women as the gender mainly affected by this cultural practice, not to relent in talking/writing about it if the society must take them serious. With the above highlights, the very salient message Ama-Abriel is passing across is that instead of subjecting widows to such harrowing experiences in such periods of great loss and mourning, all they need is nothing but ―love, support, (and) protection‖, instead of the ―potpourri of dehumanizing, degrading and mind bending treatment(s)‖ (p. 49) which they get, all in the name of tradition. Ama-Abriel‘s A Past Came Calling, therefore, punches holes in the continued relevance of this cultural practice in an age of vast socio-cultural advancement, especially since there abounds evidence of increasing resentment about it (Okoronkwo & Nwankwo, 2008). She has succeeded in producing, in the words of Osofisan, A one-acter that is not only gripping in its subject matter, but is also so finely crafted … This is particularly evident in her use of swift-flowing uncluttered dialogue, of contrasting emotional collisions, and particularly, of effective flashback when, at a crucial moment in the play, the torture that widows undergo traditionally at the hands of their in-laws is powerfully projected to us, through the recollections of TEMISAN, as she desperately seeks understanding for her past from her embittered daughter. (p.v) Conclusion The potentials of theatre as a powerful instrument in raising people‘s consciousness over the dangers associated with widowhood practices cannot be overemphasized, neither is its presence/immediacy nature of communicative effect. Ama-Abriel‘s A Past Came Calling is no doubt an eloquent commentary on the functionality of theatre as a viable medium in refocusing widowhood rites practice in African culture and raising the consciousness of the society towards its inherent ills, for re-evaluation towards necessary change. This again underscores the strength of the utilitarian relationship between ―art‖ and by extension, theatre and society which Plekhanov (1974) affirms must be able to promote the development of human consciousness and improve the social order. 213 References Ama-Abriel, Uche (2004). A Past Came Calling. Lagos: Denik and Associates. Amadi, A. C. (2002). ―Widowhood in Igboland: Women‘s Tragedy‖. (Unpublished B.A. Long Essay) Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. Atere, M. (2001). ―Women Against Women: An Obstacle to the Quest for Women‘s Rights in Yorubaland‖, in Docas O. Akintunde (ed.) African Culture and the Quest for Women‘s Rights. Ibadan: Sefer Books Ltd: 58 – 71. BBC (1993). BBC English Dictionary. London: Harper Collins. Edet, R. N. (1992). ―Christianity and African Women‘s Rituals‖, in M. A. Oduyoyu and, M. R. A. Kanyoro (eds.) The Will to Arise: Women, Tradition and the Church in Africa. New York: Orbis Books. Ezeibgo, T. A. (1996). Gender Issues in Nigeria: A Feminine Perspective. Lagos: Vista Books Ltd. Korieh, C. Jacob (1996). ―Widowhood among the Igbo of Eastern Nigeria‖, M.Phil. Thesis, University of Bergen, Norway. Labeodan, H. A. (2002). ―Beyond Critique: A Philosophical Appraisal of some Cultural Practices Infringing on the Rights of Women in Yorubaland‖, in Docas Akintunde & Helen Labeodan (eds.) Women and the Culture of Violence in Traditional Africa. Ibadan: Sefer Books Ltd: 68 - 78. Lasebikan, E. (2001). ―African Culture and the Quest for Women‘s rights: A General Overview‖, in Docas O. Akintunde (ed.) African Culture and the Quest for Women‘s Rights. Ibadan: Sefer Books Ltd: 11 – 22. Ode, R. O. (2002). ―Aspects of Traditional Practices and their Implications for the Development of Women: A Case Study Western Idoma Culture‖. Review of Gender Studies in Nigeria. Maiden Edition, March: 1 – 13. Okagbue, I. (1997). ―The Legal Rights of Widow in Nigeria‖, in Owasanoye, B., and Ahonsi, B. (eds.) Widowhood in Nigeria: Issues, Problems and Prospects. Lagos: Ovac Nig. Ltd. Okoronkwo, S (1999). ―Marriage: Who Bears the Brunt?‖ Amazon News: A Quarterly Publication of Gombe National Association of Women Journalists (NAWOJ). Vol. 1 No. 2. July – September: 30. Okoronkwo, S. & Nwankwo, I. E. (2008). ―Culture as a Playwright‘s Paradigm in the Portrayal of Gender Issues: A Perspective on the Playwright‘s Sympathetic Inclination to the Plights of Women in Ahmed Yerima‘s Aetu, and Uche Ama-Abriel‘s A Past Came Calling‖. Paper presented at the National Association of Women Academics [NAWACS]‘ 1st Inter-Disciplinary Colloquium on Gender, Culture and Human Development, at the University of Port Harcourt, 4th – 7th March. Okoye, J. N. (1998). ―Customary Practices against Widows in Nigeria: The Igbo experience‖, paper presented at a two-day Seminar Organized by the Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development, Awka, Anambra State. Okoye, P. U. (1995) Widowhood: A National or Cultural Tragedy. Enugu: Nok Publishers. Opata, D. U. (1988). ―Towards a Humanistic Definition of Culture‖, in I. T. K. Egonu, (ed.) Readings in African Humanities: African perspectives in World Cultures. Owerri: Vivians and Vivians Publishers: 545 – 561. Osofisan, F. (2004). ―Foreword‖. In Uche Ama-Abriel, A Past Came Calling. Lagos: Denik and Associates. Plekhanov, G. (1974). ―Art and Social Life‖. In Maynard Solomon (ed.) Marxism and Arts. New York: Vintage Books: 128-140 Samuel, G. C. E. (2009). ―Emergent Issues on Widowhood Practices in Igbo Culture: Between the Video Screen and Reality‖. UJAH, Unizik Journal of Arts and Humanities. Vol. 10 No. 2, October: 184 – 193. Tei-Ahontu, M. M. (2008). ―Widowhood Rites in the Ga Traditional Area of Accra-Ghana, a Review of Traditional Practices against Human Rights‖. (Unpublished Master‘s Thesis) Norwegian University of Life Science (UMB) 214 MOTIVE FOR USING SPECIFIC HEALTH CARE PRACTICES IN KATHMANDU METROPOLITAN CITY Dr. Srijana Pandey, PhD (Sociology), M.A (Sociology), M. Sc (Botany) Associate Professor Department of Community Medicine, KIST Medical College, Imadol-6, Lalitpur, Nepal Phone No: 977-01-5-201680 (Office), 98510-86235 (Mob.), Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT This cross sectional analytical study tries to identify the reasons which motivate people to use specific health care practices and assess the relationship of factors affecting the health service utilization pattern on use of health services in Kathmandu Metropolitan City. The data for this study is collected from the Kathmandu Metropolitan City. A representative and random sample of 500 household is taken, using multistage sampling, with the probability of selection of study area proportional to their size. Data are collected with the help of semi-structured questionnaire and analyzed with SPSS13.0. Results are obtained by the frequency distribution and cross tabulation of the variables. Chi-square tests and logistic regression are run. Result suggests that families seek different types of providers for contrasting reasons and at varying stages of illness. Quality of care, severity/ nature of illness, belief in specific health care practices, income and service price all are significant in the choice of health care provider. Distance factor seems to be a trivial factor in the choice of health care provider. Cost of care is important but is not an overwhelming factor in the choice of modern health care provider. Key word: Health seeking behavior, motive, reasons, health care practices BACKGROUND Review of the global literature suggests that the utilization of health services is likely to depend on variety of demand factors and are classified as socio-demographic status, physical and financial accessibility, cultural beliefs and perceptions, social norms and traditions, women‘s autonomy, economic conditions, disease pattern and health service issues like cost of and access to care, and the quality and appropriateness of the services provided (Katung, 2001; Uchudi, 2001; Navaneetham & Dharmalingam, 2002; Fatimi, & Avan, 2002; Stephenson & Hennink, 2004). Strategic policy formation in all health care systems should be based on information related to health seeking behaviour and the factors determining these behaviours. This cross sectional analytical study tries to identify the reasons which motivate people to use specific health care practices and assess the relationship of factors affecting the health service utilization pattern on use of health services in Kathmandu Metropolitan City. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study design Cross sectional descriptive and analytical study Study area The data for this study is collected from the Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMNP). Sampling size and sampling A representative and random sample of 500 household is taken, using multistage sampling, with the probability of selection of study area proportional to their size. Considering the multi-stage sampling, in this study KMNP is divided into a number of sectors as cluster in the first-stage 215 within each such sector a number of wards are selected in the second-stage, and from each selected wards a number of households are selected at the third-stage for enquiry. A sample of these is selected at a random with probability proportionate to size. Statistical tools and software used Both quantitative and qualitative data are collected from the fieldwork with the help of semistructured questionnaire and focus group discussion. All the collected quantitative data are entered into SPSS database and analyzed with SPSS13.0. Results are obtained by the frequency distribution and cross tabulation of the variables. Chi-square tests are performed to determine the significant associations between the use of different methods and these variables. Logistic regression is run to measure the extent of likelihood of occurrences of events. Separate models are run to test the significance of reason on use of health care practices. Reason given by the users of traditional and modern health care practices are compared to the reason given by the users of integrative (both) types of health care practices Results are discussed by looking at the odds ratio which is the exponent of the coefficient of the regression estimates and takes a value between zero and infinite. RESULTS It is found that, 22% people tend to prefer to go to traditional health care provider, 40.8% people sought care from the modern health care services. Meanwhile 37.2 % of them may at the same time sought care from the both traditional as well as modern health care provider. Both treatments are used generally in tandem to ensure prompt cures. It is found that, even the same respondents use different health services for different ailment. In this study, respondents, who use to visit traditional health care provider for their health problem, are asked to give the most important reasons for selecting them. Out of the 110 respondents who follow traditional health care practice, 80.9 % appraise quality of care as the most important reason for choosing a particular provider. Besides this, 69.1 % respondents said that they have faith in traditional health care, 62.7% said that it depends upon the severity or nature of illness. Factors apart from costs that militate against particular treatment are the previous experience (52.7%) and they are cost-effective (41.8%). Thirty three percent respondents are also alienated by the decision of household head. These factors create great obstacles against the more regular use of modern medical treatment. The respondents said that quality and severity of illness are significant in the choice of modern health care providers and that price and distance matter but are not the most important factors. People‘s income, service price, and distance all influence selections, but much less than had been believed. Factors causing people to use modern types of treatment are the desire to obtain quick recovery (17.2%) and the belief (55.9%). 216 Table 1: Reason behind the acceptance of specific method of health care Total Reasons p value No. (%)* Preferred treatment method Modern Both Traditional 204 186 110 (22.0%) (40.8%) (37.2%) No. (%)* No. (%)* No. (%)* Severity / nature of illness 327 (65.4) .657 69 (62.7) 132 (64.7) 126 (67.7) Quality of care 346 (69.2) .007 89 (80.9) 130 (63.7) 127 (68.3) Belief in particular health 318 (63.6) care .012 76 (69.1) 114 (55.9) 128 (68.8) Past experience 206 (41.2) .000 58 (52.7) 60 (29.4) 88 (47.3) 209 (41.8) .001 56 (50.9) 65 (31.9) 88 (47.3) Near home 128 (25.6) .184 22 (20) 51 (25) 55 (29.6) Decision of household head 165 (33) .000 47 (42.7) 20 (9.8) 98 (52.7) Complementary 114 (22.8) .614 26 (23.6) 50 (24.5) 38 (20.4) No side-effect 162 (32.4) .000 54 (49.1) 0 108 (58.1) Inexpensive 155 (31) .000 46 (41.8) 0 109 (58.6) Custom 144 (28.8) .000 51 (46.4) 0 93 (50) .000 70 (63.6) 0 66 (35.5) .000 43 (39.1) 0 42 (22.6) Advice relatives/friends from Only medicine does not 136 (27.2) work Provide treatment at home 85 (17) Modern 180 (36) .000 0 95 (46.6) 85 (45.7) Fast relief 90 (18) .000 0 35 (17.2) 55 (29.6) * Multiple responses From the study area hospitals are the most approachable but 22% respondents does not sought care at these facilities. People (40.8%) in general use modern treatment first even though they believe it causes side-effects. People try to use more than one type of treatment to ensure that they complement one another. Indeed, 24.5% respondents regard modern health care and 23.6% respondents consider traditional health care as complementary to each other. Belief in particular health care method and cost-effective is highly responded reason by the people of age group above 66, for using the traditional health-care services. More male and Brahmin as well as professional worker seek quality of care in choosing the health care method. The dichotomous use of modern health care practices and various reasons for practicing is further analyzed using logistic regression. The dependent variable is coded 1 if the respondents have use modern health care practices and 0 if they had used both integrative traditional and modern health care practices. In case of variables like ‗custom‘, ‗only medicine does not work‘, ‗Provide treatment at home‘, ‗Inexpensive‘, ‗no side effect‘, all of the respondents answered ―no‖ hence these variables are not included in the analysis. 217 Table 2 : Logistic regression estimates of the effect of reason for use of modern health care practices Reason for use of modern health care practices p Odds value ratio 95% C.I. for odds ratio Lower Upper Belief .013 1.918 1.149 3.202 Near home .457 1.225 .717 2.093 Past experience .000 2.682 1.612 4.464 Advice from relatives/ friends .111 1.499 .912 2.465 Decision of household head .000 9.916 5.534 17.767 Quality of care .130 1.520 .885 2.613 Severity / nature of illness .383 1.267 .744 2.156 Complementary .313 1.358 .750 2.459 Modern .747 1.083 .667 1.759 Fast relief .001 2.668 1.470 4.842 Constant .000 .017 Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients indicate that overall prediction is significant for this model (χ2 = 122.791, p<0.001). Model summary shows -2 Log likelihood is 417.033 and is extremely good model for prediction and Nagelkerke R Square shows that only 36.0% of variation in outcome variable is explained by this model. Hosmer and Lemeshow test shows that model fits the data well (χ2 = 5.268, p=0.729) since it produces insignificant chi square. The model is better in predicting modern health care practices (83.3%) as compared to both (63.4%). Results from logistic regression shows that the likelihood of using modern health care practices by the people who give belief / faith in particular health care practices as a main cause is found significantly 1.918 times higher as compared to the people who didn‘t give such type of reason (p=0.013). Similarly, using modern health care practices is significantly 9.916 times higher among the respondents who give the reason that the use of particular health care practices depends upon the decision of household head (p<.0001). Probability of using modern medicine is significantly 2.668 higher in the people who give fast relief as the most important reason (p= .001). It is found that practice of modern medicine is 1.520 times higher in the people who seek quality of care. However, it is insignificant (p= 0.130). Usage of modern medicine is found significantly 2.682 times higher in the people who give ‗past experience‘ as the reason for using it (p<.0001). The use of traditional health care practices and various reasons for practicing is further analyzed using logistic regression. The dependent variable is coded 1 if the respondents have use traditional health care practices and 0 if they had used both integrative traditional and modern health care practices. For those people who prefer traditional medicine, in case of ‗modern‘ and ‗fast relief‘ variables there are less than two levels of responses, hence excluded from the analysis. 218 Table 3: Logistic regression estimates of the effect of reason for use of traditional health care practices p value Odds ratio Belief .694 1.126 95% C.I. for odds ratio Lower Upper .623 2.037 Near home .078 .566 .300 1.067 Past experience .418 1.250 .728 2.148 Advice from relatives/ friends .440 1.234 .723 2.105 Provide treatment at home also .001 2.817 1.571 5.049 No side effect .026 .532 .306 .927 Inexpensive .005 .463 .271 .791 Decision of household head .120 .655 .384 1.116 Custom .585 .863 .508 1.466 Quality of care .032 1.999 1.059 3.772 Only medicine does not work .000 3.717 2.145 6.441 Severity / nature of illness .857 1.054 .593 1.876 Complementary .461 1.281 .663 2.476 Constant .024 .281 Reason for use of traditional health care practices Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients indicate that overall prediction is significant for this model (χ2 = 59.144, p<0.001). Model summary shows -2 Log likelihood is 331.465 and is extremely good model for prediction and Nagelkerke R Square shows that only 24.7% of variation in outcome variable is explained by this model. Hosmer and Lemeshow test shows that model fits the data well (χ2 = 7.642, p=0.469) since it produces insignificant chi square. The model is better in predicting both types of health care practices (83.3%) as compared to traditional (54.5%). Results from logistic regression shows that the likelihood of using traditional health care practices by the people who give use of traditional health care practices depends upon the decision of household head as a main reason is found less as compared to the people who didn‘t give such type of reason and it is insignificant (p=0.120). The probability of using traditional health care practices by the people who give belief / faith in particular health care practices as a main cause is found 1.126 times higher as compared to the people who didn‘t give such type of reason. However, it is insignificant (p=0.694). Likewise, using traditional health care practices is significantly 3.717 times higher among the respondents who give the reason that medicine alone does not work for them (p<.001). Odds of using traditional medicine is 1.054 times higher in the people who give severity / nature of illness as the most important reason (p= .857). It is found that practice of traditional medicine is significantly 1.999 times higher in the people who seek quality of care (p= .032). Usage of traditional medicine is found less likely in people who said that traditional medicine is cost effective and there are less chances of having side effect by the medication provided by its practitioners. However it is statistically significant (p=.005, p= .026). 219 The most significant findings, however, are related to the importance of the nature of disease and quality of care on peoples‘ choice of provider. It is found that when, high quality care is important to successful handling of a disease, people give belief as the primary reason for selecting a health care provider. The majority of people surveyed sought treatment beyond the closest and cheapest government health care services. This indicates that distance to quality health care providers is not as important in choice of health care providers. DISCUSSION The reasons for use of traditional and modern health care differed with age, sex, caste, religion, occupation, marital status, education and income. User‘s perceptions are shaped by their cultural values, previous experiences, time expend to seek treatment, household size and income, distance and cost of health care. The type of symptoms experienced for the illness and the number of days of illness are major determinants of choice of health care provider. Furthermore, the attitude of the health provider and patient satisfaction with the treatment play a role in choice of provider. Peoples are generally more likely to use low cost services. Some study stated that low costs and proximity of services are the two most important factors that attracted people towards particular services (Ndhlovu, 1995). Other studies have shown that, rather than prices, it is indeed the quality of services provided that has a large effect on the choice of health care providers (Litvack & Bodart, 1993; Chawla & Ellis, 2000; Mariko 2003; Sahn et al., 2003). Features of the service outlet and selfbelief in the service provider also play a major role in decision making about the choice of particular healthcare method (Newman et al., 1998; Ndyomugyenyi et al., 1998; Sadiq & Muynck, 2002). A number of studies in Nepal have shown that person seek different types of healers based on their perception and beliefs regarding the illness problems, which in turn are influenced and defined by their social surrounding and network of relationships (Subedi, 1988). These factors result in delay in treatment seeking and are more common amongst women, not only for their own health but especially for children‘s illnesses (De Zoysa et al., 1984; Kaona et al., 1990; McNee et al., 1995; Nakagawa et al., 2001; Thakur, 2002). Cultural beliefs and practices often lead to self-care, home remedies and consultation with traditional healers (Nyamongo, 2002). Some of the cultural issues are family dynamics which may mean people cannot easily attend or take up services without the support of family members. Advice of the elder women in the house is also very instrumental and cannot be ignored (Delgado et al., 1994). This study result also depicts that peoples (42.7%) are also alienated by the decision of household head. However, cultural practices and beliefs have been prevalent regardless of age, socio-economic status of the family and level of education (Stuyft et al., 1996; Perez-Cuevas et al., 1996; Geissler et al., 2000). They also affect awareness and recognition of severity of illness, gender, availability of service and acceptability of service (Aday & Anderson, 1974). Belief with aspects of care, particularly its dependence on medications, is an important part in people‘s motivation to follow traditional health care practices. Results also suggest that the modern health care systems lacks integration, differences in the quality of services and ignorance of social and spiritual dimensions, is also an important motivation for turning to traditional health care in this particular population which supports the results from the various studies (Marriot, 1955; Carstairs, 1965; Stone, 1976; Shrestha, 1979; Aryal, 1983; Young, 1989; Millar, 1997; Astin, 1998; Lyon, 1998). 220 Considerations of service quality and disease severity as well as nature of illness also dominate choice of traditional as well as modern method of health care. As quality of care increases people‘s choice probability also increases. Evidence from the literature suggests that quality of care (Larsen, 1976) and severity/ nature of illness (Young, 1989; Niraula, 1994) are the most important factor in the choice of health care providers. This study also found that the majority of users appraise quality of care (69.2%) and severity/nature of illness (65.4%) as the most important reasons for choosing a particular provider. But the result contradicts the study by Justice (1981) in that she found the choice of traditional healers is probably because of other factors rather than the nature of illness. Cost has undoubtedly been a major barrier in seeking appropriate health care. Inclined to differential degree of use of different health care practices and important factors accepting behind such practice are found faith and costs of treatment. Most respondents have said that price is important determinants of the choice of health provider. Previous studies have also shown that price, income, and distance are important determinants of the choice of health provider (Paneru et al., 1980; Aryal, 1983; Akin et al., 1986; Sauerborn et al., 1989; Niraula, 1994; Bhuiya et al., 1995; Tembon, 1996; Noorali et al., 1999; Islam, & Tahir, 2002). Similarly in this study also near about half respondents said that they use traditional methods because they think that it is cost-effective. Alike to various study (Aryal, 1983; Young, 1989; Sauerborn et al., 1989; Miller, 1997; UNICEF, 2001; Subba, 2004) results from this study also suggest that modern health care method is costly. To the respondents cost means not only the consultation fee or the expenses incurred on medicines but also the cost spent to reach the provider and that's why the total amount spent for treatment turns out to be huge. Availability of the transport, physical distance of the facility and time taken to reach the facility definitely influence the health seeking behaviour and health services utilization (Moazam & Lakahani, 1990). The effect of distance on service use becomes stronger when combined with the scarcity of transportation and with impoverished roads, which contributes towards increase costs of visits (Sauerborn et al., 1989; Kleinman, 1991; Bhuiya et al., 1995; Noorali et al., 1999; Islam & Tahir, 2002). The respondents said that quality and severity of illness are significant in the choice of health care providers and that price and distance matter but are not the most important factors. This study results support the conclusion of Akin et. al., (1986) in that it is said; while distance is an important determinant of health provider choice it is not as important as has been believed. The reasons patients give for choosing a particular health provider are the best predictor of their decisions. Thus distance factor doesn‘t play a major role in seeking the health care. These findings don‘t support the result of the UNICEF (2001) study of Patan Hospital where it is found that the longer the distance the lower the number of the patients at the hospital. It also contradicts with the findings by Niraula (1994) where he identify that people who are close to the roads, where the health post is located, are found to seek modern treatment more than people who are far away. More startling is the finding that 63.6% of individuals who utilize traditional health care believed that only medicine in the form of tablet would not work in their health problem. They have found little or no relief from modern medical interventions. These data are contrary to a previous observation that CAM users are not, in general, dissatisfied with conventional medicine (Astin, 1998). But for modern health care users, as Pigg (1995) also noted, use of modern health care is connoted with the modernity, social status and social class. CONCLUSION The health seeking behavior is complex and has multiple factors responsible for people's choice of health care practices. Result suggests that families seek different types of providers for 221 contrasting reasons and at varying stages of illness. Quality of care, severity/ nature of illness, belief in specific health care practices, income and service price all are significant in the choice of health care provider. The most significant findings, however, are related to the importance of the nature of disease and quality of care on peoples‘ choice of provider. Yet the finding is not new this finding holds in both traditional and modern health care. Distance factor seems to be a trivial factor in the choice of health care provider. People who are seriously ill seek hospitals despite great distances and cost. 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E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Background: With greater longevity, there is a progressive increase in the elderly psychiatric patients. Depression is possibly the most prevalent psychiatric disorder among older adults and also recognized as a serious public health concern in both developed and developing countries. Aim: Present study is aimed to establish the comparative profile of prevalence of depression between the elderly of rural and urban West Bengal. It is also aimed to investigate the sociodemographic correlates of geriatric depression in these groups. Subject and methods: The study is conducted on middle class Bengalis inhabiting the Salt Lake City, Kolkata, and few villages in a remote rural setting under the Horkhali Gram Panchayat of Sutahata block of Purba Medinipur district, West Bengal. In both the settings, middle class Bengalis is the predominant social group. The study sample consists of 205 rural and 176 urban elderly, aged between 65 years and 79 years. Information about depression is obtained following the standard questionnaire namely, ―Geriatric Depression Scale‖ (short form) or ―GDS 15‖. Information on socio-demographic characteristics from the study population has been collected through a pretested questionnaire. Results: Results of the study indicate that both rural males and females experience significantly higher prevalence of depression in comparison to their urban counterparts. The result of logistic regression analysis indicates that the place of residence is the primary predictor for depression. Other predictors of depression are age groups, sex, marital status, level of education, occupation, family size and number of children. Conclusion: It can be inferred from the present study that rural population is in more vulnerable condition than urban elderly in depression prevalence. Place of residence and sociodemographic factors are the important predictors for depression in these study groups. Key words: Elderly, Depression, Socio-demographic correlates, Bengalis, Place of residence. INTRODUCTION Depression is the most prevalent psychiatric disorder among the older adults and also recognized as a serious public health concern in the developed and developing countries. The Global burden of disease study showed in the year 2020, depression could become the second leading cause after ischemic heart disease of global disability adjusted life years (DALYs) (WHO, 2001 and Wig, 2001). Depression is often accepted as a normal symptom of aging. It is to be noted that depression is neither normal nor inconsequential. Depression has consistently been found to be a significant risk factor contributing to death among older adults (Pulska et al., 1998; Rovner, 1993; Schuckit et al., 1980; Sharma et al., 1998). It has already been revealed by different community based mental health studies that prevalence of depressive disorder varies between 13 to 25 percent in older population (Nandi et al., 1976; Ramachandran et al., 1982). The process of population aging is growing at a faster pace in developing countries but the process is quite slow in developed countries (United Nations, 2002). The world wide proportion of persons over 65 years of age is expected to be more than the double from the current 6.9 225 percent to 16.4 percent between the years 2000 to 2020 (Kinsella and Phillips, 2005). About 60 percent of the 580 million older people in the world live in developing countries, and by 2020, this value will increase to 70 percent of the total older population (WHO, 1999). India is amidst a demographic .transition with a trend towards an ageing population (Shah and Prabhakar, 1996). In India, the ageing population above 60 years has been estimated to almost double-up from 7.7% in 2001 to 12.30% in 2025 and the number of elderly people will be nearly 150 million (Bose and Shankardass, 2000). Though depression is the commonest mental health problem in old age, very few communitybased studies have been conducted in India as well as in west Bengal to understand the problem. A cross-sectional study in South India has revealed 21.7 percent of total elderly aged 60 years and above with depressive symptoms (36.0 percent were males and 64.0 percent were females) and prevalence of cognitive impairment was higher among the depressed individuals (Barua and Kar, 2010). Barua et al. (2007) demonstrated in South India who was in higher standards of living, matriarchal family and a high female literacy rate shows lower prevalence of depression. Another largest population-based study from South India reported about 15.1 percent prevalence of depression with higher prevalence among older population, females, lower socio-economic status (Poongothai et al., 2007). Jhingan et al. (2001) carried out a prospective study among elderly who attended the psychiatry services of a tertiary care by a hospital in India. They found poor depression score among elderly than who are living with their joint family. A north India based study was undertaken to validate the geriatric depression scale Hindi version and to find out the distribution of depression symptomatology and its association with age, gender, literacy, cognitive impairment and functional impairment (Ganguli et al., 1999). Depression, a late life mental disorder was attributed to abuse, neglect, or lack of love on the part of children towards a parent (Patel and Prince, 2001). They found that system of family care and support for older persons was less reliable than has been claimed and also care was often conditional upon the child‘s expectation of inheriting that parent‘s property. Poverty and physical ill health are risk factors for depression among elderly from South India even when good social support is protective (Rajkumar et al., 2009). Being single, widowed, divorced or separated were important factors for depression among elderly of Surat (Vishal et al., 2010). No similar study has been conducted in the past among the geriatric population elderly of Saltkake, Bidhannagar municipality and Horkhali, Sutahata block from west Bengal, India. The present study attempts to make a (a) comparative evaluation of depression level among two residential groups (Urban and rural) of West Bengal; (b) to examine the effects of sociodemographic correlates of depression in these groups. MATERIAL AND METHODS Study Settings The present study was conducted on middle class Bengalis inhabiting the Salt Lake City, Bidhannagar municipality, North 24 Parganas, selected as urban group and few villages in a remote rural setting under the Horkhali gram panchayat of Haldia subdivision of Purba Medinipur district, West Bengal constituting rural groups. In both the settings, middle class Bengalis is the predominant group. The study was conducted on about nine blocks from three sectors of the Salt Lake City and on the other hand randomly chosen five villages from Horkhali grampanchayat, under Sutahata block. Study Population: Mean age of the two study populations combined is 70.9 ± 4.9 years, while for Rural it is 70.8 ± 4.7 years and for Urban it is 71.0 ± 5.1 years. A chi-square test was carried out to determine the difference in the proportion of male and female participants for both, rural and urban groups. Result of the test shows that difference was not statistically significant, i.e. the study sample is 226 almost equally distributed for sex across the groups. Data were collected between 2009 and 2010, simultaneously from both the communities. The study population consists of 176 urban (male:93 and female:83) and 205 rural (male:103 and female:102) participants. The study was approved by the ethics committee of the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata. Written informed consent to express willingness to participate in the study was obtained from all elderly individuals after the objectives and methods of the study were explained to them. Socio-demographic Measures Information on socio-demographic characteristics was collected using a pretested questionnaire. This questionnaire includes information on age, sex, marital status, education, employment status, self income, family income, total number of family members, number of children etc. Data are presented separately for each sex, i.e. male and female. Three educational categories, i.e. non-literate, below graduation and graduate & above on the basis of their educational attainment have been considered. Occupational status of the participants was grouped into four categories, i.e. retired service holder, peasant or labor, house wife and Idler. Self income was categorized as <RS 5000 and ≥ RS 5000 per month and family earning categorized as < RS 10,000, Rs 10,000 – 30,000 and > RS 30,000 per month. Total family size was categorized as ≤ 2 members, 3-5 members and > 5 members. Total number of children was subdivided into three groups, i.e. ≤ 2 children, 3-4 children and ≥ 5 children. Living with children and living without children were the two categories of living arrangement. Depression Scale Information about depression was obtained following the standard questionnaire named ―Geriatric Depression Scale‖ (Short Form) or GDS 15 [Yesavage et al., 1983]. The Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) is one of the most widely used instruments for the screening of depression in later life (Stiles and McGarrahan, 1998). The use of short forms of the GDS in clinical practice is even more attractive, as they can substantially reduce administration time. Each Question requires a yes/no response. Following are the questions included in the GDS 15: are you basically satisfied with your life, have you dropped many of your activities and interests, do you feel that your life is empty, do you often get bored, are you in good spirits most of the time, are you afraid that something bad is going to happen to you, do you feel happy most of the time, do you often feel helpless, do you prefer to stay at home, rather than going out and doing new things, do you feel you have more problems with your memory than most, do you think it is wonderful to be alive, do you feel pretty worthless the way you are now, do you feel full of energy, do you feel that your situation is hopeless, do you think that most people are better off than you are? All items are rated on a bimodal scale. The score of depression categorized into two categories as normal (< 5 point) and depression (≥ 5 point). Reliability Test It is imperative to calculate and report Cronbach‘s alpha co-efficient for internal consistency and reliability for any scales or subscales. A scale or test cannot be valid if it is not reliable. A good scale will also be internally consistent in that all items make a significant contribution to the final score or rating. The level of reliability of an instrument is traditionally measured by a Cronbach‘s alpha co-efficient. Alpha value of > 0.40 of a psychological scale considered as a good consistency (Tung-Xing, 1985) and value greater > 0.70 considered a threshold reliability value for general survey studies (Sekaran, 2000). For the present study sample alpha is 0.86. Statistical Analyses Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics was done to understand the trend in the socio-demographic profiles and depressive symptoms by place of residence (urban and rural). Contingency chi square test was 227 done to compare the population distribution by socio-demographic variables and depression variables between residential settings. It was also done to compare the severity of depression by age groups between sex and residential settings and also by socio-demographic variables. t-test was performed to compare the means of the depression scores and depression variables between urban and rural settings. Regression Bivariate logistic regression model was utilized to find out the effect of socio-demographic factors on depression occurrence. Logistic regression allowed us to examine which sociodemographic factors affected the odds of having a high score on depression. The covariates in the equation are place of residence, marital status, level of education, occupational status, total number of children, self earning, family earning, family size and living. The analyses of the data were done using the statistical package for Social science version 18.0 and MINITAB. RESULTS Socio-demographic Characteristics The distribution of study participants by socio-demographic variables is presented in Table I. Majority of the urban and rural study participants are ever married, as expected. Again much higher percentage of females irrespective of area of residence has lost their spouse compared to the males. While the educational achievements of urban study participants are higher than the rural participants, males have been shown to have higher educational achievement compared to their female counterparts irrespective of residential status. As expected, an overwhelming majority of the male study participants are retired persons in the urban area while a majority of the female participants are home makers irrespective of area of residence. Irrespective of sex, higher amount of self earning has been recorded in case of urban participants compared to the rural participants. Same trend exists in case of family earning. Family size is remarkably lower in case of urban study participants as expected, compared to their rural counterparts. While overwhelming majority of urban participants has two or less surviving children, rural participants do have five or more surviving children. Finally, the living arrangement of the study elderly showed that while in case of urban study participants about fifty percent or more are living without children, around ninety percent of the rural study participants are living with one or more of their children. 228 Table I Demographic and socio-economic variables: rural and urban participants χ2 Variables Rural (n = 205) Urban (n = Total 176) Age group 65-69 87 (42.4) 74 (42.0) 161 (42.3) .01 70-74 66 (32.2) 57 (32.4) 123 (32.3) 75-79 52 (25.4) 45 (25.6) 97 (25.5) Sex Male 103 (50.2) 93 (52.8) 196 (51.4) 0.3 Female 102 (49.8) 83 (47.2) 185 (48.6) Marital status Married 128 (62.4) 138 (78.4) 266 (69.8) 17.6** Unmarried 2 (1.0) 6 (3.4) 8 (2.1) Widow/widower 75 (36.6) 32 (18.2) 107 (28.1) Level of education Non-literate 124 (60.5) 1 (0.6) 125 (32.8) 154.2** Below graduation 81 (39.5) 18 (10.2) 99 (26.0) Graduation and 0 (0.0) 157 (89.2) 157 (41.2) above Occupation With income 55 (26.8) 124 (70.5) 179 (47.0) 50.1** Peasant or labor 28 (13.7) 0 (0.0) 28 (7.3) Homemaker 79 (38.5) 50 (28.4) 129 (33.9) No income 43 (21.0) 2 (1.1) 45 (11.8) Self earning < RS 5000 194 (94.6) 64 (36.4) 258 (67.7) 147.1** ≥ RS 5000 11 (5.4) 112 (63.3) 123 (32.3) Family earning < RS 10,000 178 (86.8) 14 (8.0) 192 (50.4) 242.1** RS 10,000-30,000 22 (10.7) 71 (40.3) 93 (24.4) >RS 30,000 5 (2.4) 91 (51.7) 96 (25.2) Family size ≤ 2 members 18 (8.8) 89 (50.6) 107 (28.1) 107.2** 3-5 members 68 (33.2) 62 (35.2) 130 (34.1) >5 members 119 (58.0) 25 (14.2) 144 (37.8) Number of children ≤ 2 children 16 (7.8) 163 (92.6) 179 (47.0) 273.4** 3 - 4 children 55 (26.8) 13 (7.4) 68 (17.8) ≥ 5 children 134 (65.4) 0 (0.0) 134 (35.2) Living arrangement Staying with 181 (88.3) 86 (48.9) 267 (70.1) 70.2** children Staying without 24 (11.7) 90 (51.1) 114 (29.9) children Values in parentheses are percentages *p ≤0.05, **p≤0.01 Depression Scores Table II shows mean, standard deviation of depression score and results of t-test and ANOVA. In all the age groups, rural study participants have been showing significantly higher mean values compared to their urban counterparts irrespective of sex. Figure 1 shows the correlation of depression with age. Only rural female are showing a true positive correlation of depression with age. 229 Table II Descriptive statistics for depression, results of t-test and ANOVA Rural (n = 205) Urban (n= 176) Total (n=381) Age Male Female Male Female group (n= 103) (n=102) (n=93) (83) 65-69 10.2 ± 4.1 9.5 ± 4.2 6.2 ± 5.7 ± 3.3 Rural Urban 9.7 ± 3.4 9.7 ± 3.5 4.6 9.8 ± 4.2 9.8 ± 3.5 12.4 ± 5.7 1.7 Total F-value 9.9 ± 3.6 0.2 10.0 ± 7.7 ± 7.0 5.4 3.8 3.5 1.7 4.0* ± 6.5** 9.7 ± 3.4 5.7 ± 5.2** ± 7.5** ± 10.7** 5.1 ± 5.0 ± 2.6 3.7 ± 5.8 3.5 3.1 75-79 Ruralurban 3.9 70-74 t-value 10.6 ± 5.5 3.2 ± 6.1 ± 4.5 1.9 10.0 3.5 ± 5.7 3.7 4.1 1.1 0.1 Figure 1 Scatter diagram of age and depression with lines of best fit – a) Rural male, b) Rural female, c) Urban male, and d) Urban female a) c) b) d) Majority of the rural study participants showed depression irrespective of sex (male:88.3%, female:86.3%) than the urban participants (male:50.5%, female:62.7%) (Table III). Sex and age group wise difference in prevalence of depression are not well marked except in case of rural females who are showing a decreasing trend in prevalence of depression with progression of age. However, this trend is reversed if we consider each age group separately and make an estimate 230 on the basis of each age group. In both the sexes, a significant rural-urban difference in prevalence of depression has been found. Table III: Prevalence of depression by age groups, sex and place of residence Socio-demographic Correlates of Depression The relationship between depression and socio-demographic variables has been presented in Table IV. Table IV demonstrates that the chances of being depressed is higher among the elderly whose ages were between 75-79 years (80.4, χ2- 5.8*), female sex (50.4 χ2- 1.3), marital status of unmarried/widow/widower (83.5, χ2- 9.2**), non-literate (88.8, χ2- 43.5**), unemployed or no income recently (91.1, χ2-18.6**), self earning of <RS 5000 (81.0, χ2- 26.2**), monthly family income of <RS 10,000 (85.4, χ2- 31.3**), family size of > 5 members (90.3, χ2- 43.9**), total number of children of ≥ 5 children (84.0, χ2-21.2**) and staying without children (78.3, χ212.8**). Table IV: Depression and socio-demographic variables Variables Normal Depression Age group 65-69 53 (32.9) 108 (67.1) 70-74 31 (25.2) 92 (74.8) 75-79 19 (19.6) 78 (80.4) Sex Male 58 (56.3) 138 (49.6) Female 45 (43.7) 140 (50.4) Marital status Married 84 (31.6) 182 (68.4) Unmarried/widow/widower 19 (16.5) 96 (83.5) Level of education Non-literate 14 (11.2) 111 (88.8) Below graduation 19 (19.2) 80 (80.8) Graduation and above 70 (44.6) 87 (55.4) Occupation Retired service holder 65 (36.3) 114 (63.7) Peasant or labor 4 (14.3) 24 (85.7) Depression Male Female χ2 Normal Depressio Normal Depressio n n χ2 5.8* 1.3 9.2** 43.5** 18.6** χ2 Malefemale χ2 Rural 65-69 70-74 75-79 Total 7 (6.8) 4 (3.9) 1 (1.0) 12 (11.7) 27 (26.2) 30 (29.1) 34 (33.0) 91 (88.3) 5.3 13 (12.7) 1 (1.0) 0 (0.0) 14 (13.7) 40 (39.2) 31 (30.4) 17 (16.7) 88 (86.3) 11.0* * 0.2 Urban 65-69 70-74 75-79 Total 11 (11.8) 20 (21.5) 15 (16.1) 46 (49.5) 12 (12.9) 16 (17.2) 19 (20.4) 47 (50.5) 0.9 22 (26.5) 6 (7.2) 3 (3.6) 31 (37.3) 29 (34.9) 15 (18.1) 8 (9.6) 52 (62.7) 1.9 2.6 Urbanrural χ2 33.5** 13.9** 46.3** 231 Homemaker Idler Self earning < RS 5000 ≥ RS 5000 Family earning < RS 10,000 RS 10,000-30,000 >RS 30,000 Family size ≤ 2 members 3-5 members >5 members Number of children ≤ 2 children 3 - 4 children ≥ 5 children Living arrangement Staying with children Staying without children 30 (23.3) 4 (8.9) 99 (76.7) 41 (91.1) 49 (19.0) 54 (43.9) 209 (81.0) 69 (56.1) 26.2** 28 (14.6) 34 (36.6) 41 (42.7) 164 (85.4) 59 (63.4) 55 (57.3) 31.3** 76 (42.7) 14 (20.6) 13 (9.7) 102 (57.3) 54 (79.4) 121 (90.3) 43.9** 45 (42.1) 35 (26.9) 23 (16.0) 62 (57.9) 95 (73.1) 121 (84.0) 21.2** 45 (39.5) 58 (21.7) 69 (60.5) 209 (78.3) 12.8** Result of bivariate logistic regression models tested for prevalence of depression with sociodemographic covariates presented in Table V. Odd ratio in favour of reporting depression among male study participants are age groups, marital status, education, occupation, family size and number of children; and for female participants are age groups, marital status, level of education, family earning, number of children and living arrangement. Idler (OR = 0.90) from rural population and homemaker (OR = 0.83) from urban population are more likely to report depression. Staying without their children is more likely to appear depressed for both urban and rural participants. Table V: Univariate logistic regression model showing association of socio-demographic variables with depression (odd ratio and 95% CI) Variables Male Female Rural Urban Total OR (95%CI) OR OR OR OR (95%CI) (95%CI) (95%CI) (95%CI) Age group 65-69 1 1 1 1 1 70-74 0.43 (0.16-1.13) 0.19 0.05 0.60 0.35 (0.05(0.01(0.25(0.170.81) 0.47) 1.48) 0.73) 75-79 0.58 (0.24-1.39) 0.56 0.17 0.77 0.65 (0.11(0.02(0.33(0.312.78) 1.66) 1.83) 1.33) Sex Male 1 1 1 Female 0.88 0.56 0.57 (0.11(0.22(0.256.87) 1.43) 1.32) Zone Rural 1 1 1 232 Urban 1.40 (0.06-31.91) 3.03 (0.4321.27) Marital status Married Unmarried/widow/widower 1 0.43 (0.14-1.36) Level of education Non-literate Below graduation 1 0.89 (0.362.17) 1 0.62 (0.03-12.54) Graduation and above Occupation Retired service holder Peasant or labor Homemaker 2.05 (0.469.25) 1 0.39 (0.111.44) 1 0.62 (0.261.45) 1 0.61 (0.321.17) 1 1.41 (0.228.82) 0.73 (0.05-10.49) 0.78 (0.20-3.0) 1 1.69 (0.624.56) - 1 0.00 (0.003.51) 1.08 (0.313.72) 1 0.86 (0.203.79) 0.76 (0.242.40) 1 0.48 (0.11-2.15) 1 1.06 (0.392.93) 24.01 (0.006.01) - 1 0.55 (0.103.12) 0.76 (0.134.58) 0.90 (0.0711.23) 1 0.83 (0.0418.13) 0.79 (0.0417.88) 1 0.44 (0.121.58) 0.65 (0.143.07) 0.41 (0.101.70) - Idler 0.46 (0.09-2.37) Self earning < RS 5000 ≥ RS 5000 1 1.15 (0.34-3.86) Family earning < RS 10,000 RS 10,000-30,000 1 1.58 (0.495.07) 1 0.79 (0.087.43) 1 1.15 (0.413.22) 1 1.35 (0.612.99) 1 1.30 (0.24-6.93) >RS 30,000 1.30 (0.53-3.21) Family size ≤ 2 members 3-5 members 1 0.92 (0.253.35) 0.73 (0.262.01) 1 3.53 (0.3535.26) 2.19 (0.1630.93) 1 0.87 (0.243.11) 0.93 (0.461.85) 1 1.12 (0.422.98) 1.03 (0.541.97) 1 0.17 (0.03-0.92) >5 members 0.86 (0.31-2.39) Number of children ≤ 2 children 3 - 4 children 1 1.96 (0.3810.09) 1.01 (0.382.64) 1 0.06 (0.001.04) 0.40 (0.141.18) 1 1.03 (0.283.85) 1.89 (0.695.15) 1 0.44 (0.151.28) 0.85 (0.441.68) 1 0.18 (0.03-0.94) 1 0.86 1 0.63 1 0.42 1 0.43 233 ≥ 5 children 0.61 (0.14-2.67) Living arrangement Staying with children Staying without children 1 2.81 (0.69-11.5) (0.164.69) 0.42 (0.121.43) (0.094.58) 0.39 (0.141.06) (0.101.79) - (0.141.34) 0.51 (0.211.25) 1 0.65 (0.142.96) 1 6.91 (0.4997.64) 1 1.44 (0.504.16) 1 1.63 (0.644.12) DISCUSSION The bulk of the world‘s aging population resides in the developing countries, yet little is known about the distribution of, and risk factors for depression in these populations. In the present study, a higher proportion of rural elderly is found to be depressed in comparison to their urban counterparts. It has been noted that the similarities and differences in risk factors between different populations may help to narrow the search for etiologic clues. It is well established by our study that rural and urban elderly differ significantly in depression prevalence. Our study also conforms to the existing literature that place of residence is an important indicator of depression (Crowell et al., 1986; Chiu et al., 2005, Bruce et al., 2007). The findings of the present study do not corroborate with certain other studies conducted across different parts of southern and northern India in both urban and rural communities (e.g. Ramachandran et al., 1982; Vishal et al., 2010; Tiwari and Srivastava, 1998; Tiwari, 2000; Barua and Kar, 2010). These studies show relatively lower prevalence of depression among the study communities, compared with the ones considered in the present study. Interestingly, in the rural communities of West Bengal, an increasing trend of prevalence of depression is noticed, through decades. While Nandi et al. (1976) found a prevalence of depression to be 22% among the rural community in West Bengal, it increased to 52% during 1990s (Nandi et al., 1997). And again, the prevalence of depression is observed to be much higher, i.e. 87% in one of the rural West Bengal communities by the present study. According to Taqui et al. (2007) female sex, a low level of education, loss of spouse, unemployment were the factors related to depression which is in concordance with the present study. The findings of the present study demonstrated a strong association between depression and being female gender, lack of literacy, loss or absence of spouse. These categories showed higher percentage (>80%) of depressed individuals. The relation of depression and female gender is corroborative with other studies (Woo et al., 1994). Earlier studies (Barua et al. 2007, Ramachaandran et al.1982, Kennedy et al.1989, Pennix et al., 1999) demonstrated higher level of depression with low economic status, and illiteracy which is also consistent with present study. The present study did not find any positive correlation between depression and age except in case of rural females. This finding is corroborative with study conducted by Blazer et al. (1991). Some other studies from Indian community showed higher prevalence of depression with increasing age (Barua et al., 2007; Rajkumar et al., 2009). 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Geneva: The Institute. 236 EDUCATION PRACTICE: ISSUES AND EXPERIENCES IN BANGLADESH Shahreen Raihana Research Fellow International Centre for Diarrhoeal Diseases, Bangladesh (icddr,b) Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected] Abstract In Bangladesh, a sense of commitment in every sphere of education needs to be enhanced to maximize the use of resource and minimize misuse. Lessons learned from other countries can help in guiding towards economic emancipation, with education of human resource being the core area of concentration. Education system being dynamic is evaluated and revised at intervals in Bangladesh leading to participation of private sector along with public one in delivering higher education. The poor rural children are forced to engage in income generating activities which leads to early drop out. Some ethnic groups do not have written script of their own language. Plurality in curriculum exists in many forms in Bangladesh. INTRODUCTION For any country, education is the best investment for development. It contributes to better health, higher incomes, and increased participation in community life. The contributions are more prominent when girls are educated. Since 1990, the world is committed to achieving universal primary education. Universal primary education and reducing the gender gap at all levels of education are two of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that underscore the importance of educating girls. Despite increase in primary enrollment rates, about 67 million children worldwide do not attend school. Adult literacy has also improved. However, some 770 million people, two-thirds of them women, still cannot read or write. Many children leave school without basic skills due to resource constrained education systems and poor quality of instruction. Barriers to access to education among children are higher for girls, ethnic minorities, children living in geographic isolation, working children, children affected by conflicts and disasters, children living with disabilities, and the very poor (Canadian International Development Agency, 2011). The core of Bangladesh's development efforts is human resource development through access to quality education, poverty reduction and economic development. Education is given the highest priority in the public sector investments in Bangladesh which is a reflection of its Constitution. Education sector allocations are currently about 2.3 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), and 14 percent of Government‘s total expenditure. Continuous commitment to the education sector is imperative to achieve Education for All (EFA) and the MDGs (Ministry of Education, 2010). METHODS Conceptual and relational analyses have been done to analyze the meanings and relationships of educational system in Bangladesh. This content analyses consulted both hard and electronic recorded communications. Also, personal observation and experience have been drawn upon. Inference has been drawn on the meanings and relationships through etic and emic interpretation taking into consideration cultural insights over time through analysis of texts. 237 FINDINGS Issues Education policy The aims and objectives of the Education Policy in Bangladesh are (Ministry of Education, 2010): To reflect the Constitutional guarantee at all levels of education and make learners aware of the freedom, sovereignty and integrity of Bangladesh To stimulate the intellectual and practical qualities of the learners so that moral, human, cultural, scientific and social values are established at personal and national levels To inspire the students with the spirit of our war of liberation and develop patriotism, nationalism and qualities of good citizens (i.e., sense of justice, non-communalism, dutifulness, awareness of human rights, cultivation of free thinking and discipline, love for honest living, the tolerance of corporate life, friendliness and perseverance) To foster creative and thinking faculties among the learners through a system of education that contains indigenous spirit and elements and which will lead to a life-oriented development of learners To advance an education process that is oriented to creativity, practicability and productivity in order to create a scientific mindset and leadership qualities in students To remove socio-economic and gender discrimination irrespective of race, religion and creed To create unhindered and equal opportunities of education for all as per learners‘ talents and aptitudes, irrespective of geographical, social and economical situations to establish a society that is free from discrimination To ensure the marginal competencies of learners at each level so that they use their own thoughtfulness, imagination and urge for curiosity To ensure skills of high standard at different areas and levels of education so that learners can successfully compete at the global context To attach substantial importance to information and communication technology (ICT) along with mathematics, science and English in order to build up a digital Bangladesh based on knowledge-orientation and cultivation of ICT To develop some uniform and basic ideas amongst all learners; to establish a sense of equal status amongst all citizens of the country to implement a uniform curriculum of certain basic subjects at the primary level schools of diverse delivery systems To prescribe and ascertain the learning of some uniform textbooks to attain that; to initiate some method of teaching in some basic subjects at the secondary level to achieve similar objectives To help students grow up with sound moral character through lessons from their respective religious teachings and moral sciences To ensure proper quality of education at each level and to correlate the competencies learnt at the earlier level with the next one to consolidate the formations of knowledge and skills To build students as skilled human resources to fight the challenges of the world threatened by climate change and other natural disasters, and to create in them a social awareness about environment To ensure quality of the higher education in all disciplines and motivate students in research by creating environment of research within the country To take special measures for the development of education of the backward classes of the country including the street-children To promote and develop the languages and cultures of the indigenous and small ethnic groups To ensure the education of the physically and mentally challenged learners To create a society free from the curse of illiteracy 238 To ensure efficient and correct teaching of Bangla language To take necessary steps to create facilities of playground, sports, games and physical exercises in all educational institutions for the healthy growth of the physical and mental qualities of the learners To take various steps to foster hygienic awareness of the students To caution the students and make them aware of the dangers of taking drugs or similar items Education system Education system in Bangladesh is being managed and administered by two ministries, Ministry of Education (MoE), and Ministry of Primary and Mass Education in association with the attached Departments and Directorates as well as a number of autonomous bodies. Education in Bangladesh has three major stages primary, secondary and higher educations. Primary education is a 5-year cycle while secondary education is a 7- year one with three sub-stages: 3 years of junior secondary, 2 years of secondary and 2 years of higher secondary. The entry age for primary is 6 years. The junior, secondary and higher stages are designed for age groups 11-13, 1415 and 16-17 years. Higher secondary is followed by graduate level education in general, technical, engineering, agriculture, business studies, and medical streams requiring 5-6 years to obtain a Masters degree (Ministry of Education, 2010). The education system is oriented towards general, madrasa (religion based) or technical/vocational. Secondary education is a critical phase as the students must confirm an educational choice (humanities, science or commerce…) that may dictate their future (Education Database, 2011). Table 1. Glimpse on stages of formal education in Bangladesh Stage of education Grade range Age range of students (yrs) Primary 1-5 6-10 Secondary Junior Secondary 6-8 11-13 Secondary 9-10 14-15 Higher 11-12 16-17 Secondary Graduate 13+ 18+ Duration (yrs) 5 3 2 2 5-6 Quality higher education The education sector in Bangladesh has expanded significantly during the last two decades or more. At present, there are 80 universities (53 private and 27 public) in Bangladesh compared to only seven in mid 1980s. The student enrolment in the public universities is about 92000, excluding those in the affiliated National University and Open University. The total number of students in the public and private universities is about two million. It is generally agreed by academicians, education researchers and other stakeholders that the quality of higher education in Bangladesh has declined steadily over the last two decades. Such fall in quality has become a concern of the government and other major stakeholders. It is argued that if quality does not match quantity, and the higher education sector fails to bring out enlightened, highly skilled, trained, motivated and ethically committed individuals, the country cannot meet any of its development objectives. Furthermore, Bangladesh being a human resource exporting country would miss the opportunity to get an access to the competitive regional and global employment market. 239 During late 2003, realizing the rather unsatisfactory situation prevailing in the higher education sector, the Government of Bangladesh acknowledged the need for developing an overall strategy for higher education. Subsequently the Ministry of Education decided to develop a Twenty-Year Strategic Plan for the higher education sector. Under the guidance of the University Grants Commission (UGC), expert groups prepared the Strategic Plan in 2006 (Aminuzzaman, n.d.). Challenges in education system Bangladesh has made tremendous progress towards increasing both primary and secondary school enrollment. This progress has been achieved in spite of high poverty and the country‘s vulnerability to natural calamities. In spite of the improving trend, challenges remain which if overcome may improve the education scenario even further. Table 2. Challenges at different stages of education in Bangladesh Stage of education Challenge Primary A high dropout rate of 48 percent Low achievement rates An average teacher student ratio of 1:54 28 percent of all teachers are untrained Secondary Expanding access Increasing learning Tying public financing of non-government schools to performance Training of existing as well as new teachers Improving information system to support policy formulation and planning Graduate Better governance De-politicization Improved, relevant curricula Better information system to support policy formulation and planning Source: World Bank, 2011 Experiences As member of civil society Teachers often use teaching as a stop-gap job while looking for higher paid job. Occasionally classroom teaching is kept to minimal to promote culture of private coaching, thus there is deterioration in quality teaching. High dropout rate is reported from rural areas. Students complain of lack of empathetic attitude of teachers, management…. The various systems of education (general public education, madrasa education, English medium in local and international systems of education…) lack parallelism. As a student Very few teachers can be considered as role model by the students. The curriculum sometimes is less interesting and stimulating. Some schools lack open space for outdoor activity thus limiting the potential for psychosocial development of students and teachers. As a teaching assistant (TA) Teaching assistantship helps to build up the mindset and attitude to take up teaching as a profession. A short period of TA-ship followed by formal training on education can help to build good quality teachers, and the nation can expect good citizens of tomorrow. 240 As a teacher Expectation of parents that their child will be best achieving 100 percent marks creates excessive psychological pressure on the student. This often leads to below optimum performance by student. Technology dependency of students makes them less attentive in classroom with decreasing teacher-student customary interaction. DISCUSSION The policy document on education in Bangladesh has included many points and issues that are conducive to healthy development of education. When the needs and challenges are viewed, it is observed that implementation cannot keep pace with expectation. The main impediments include financial, social, psychological, and political issues. In spite of education sector receiving the greatest public financial allocation, there still remains a lot to be desired in terms of achievement. A milieu of social factors contributes to the high dropout rate of students, and poor performance of teachers. Internalization of the importance of education is missed in the daily struggle of survival amongst odds. Political commitment and continuity is often missing leading to disjointed and interrupted education system. Overall, a sense of commitment in every sphere of education needs to be enhanced to maximize the use of resource and minimize misuse. The main aim of education is skill development and change in behavior. Appropriate demandside skill development is the key to human resource development for any country. Some commonalities exist within the South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries with respect to approaches to skill development because of the shared history, and social and cultural background. In the past, this area has been largely public sector dominated. More recently, in Bangladesh, BRAC, Grameen Bank, ASA… have made their mark in the area of adult education and skill development, specially in rural areas. In spite of the efforts, dearth of skill development in rural areas is leading to rapid urbanization. This stresses the importance of enhancing technical based education and skill development in rural areas so that livelihood source is available or generated in rural/home settings. It is observed that South Asian states spend a lot on defence, while East Asian countries focus more on education, science and technology, thus have developed a fast progressing economy (SAARC, n.d.). Lessons learned from other countries can help in guiding South Asian countries, particularly Bangladesh, towards economic emancipation, with education of human resource being the core area of concentration for economic development. American educational system has long being considered as a model where education is free and open to children of all social and economic levels, and religious and cultural backgrounds. It is now recognized by educators and general people that some inadequacies exist for poor black, Indian, Puerto Rican, Mexican American…which has devaluated and attempted to destroy the cultural uniqueness of American education system. Cultural adaptation of the education system is being seriously considered through revision of ideologies along with technology and organization (Hogg, 1969). This shows that education system is a dynamic one that needs time to time evaluation and revision. The same is true for Bangladesh. As a part of the rethinking and redesigning higher education in Bangladesh, which was mainly public sector dominated till 1992, the Government has encouraged private sector to join hands with public sector to take forward education in the 21st century. There are three important principles of education: family is the primary educator of children, curriculum must reflect meaningful pluralism, and respect the religious and conscience viewpoint (Benson, 1997). A look at the first principle if analyzed in Bangladesh context, it may be said that this appears not to be true always in the rural families where family support for formal education 241 is yet to be fully supportive for the children. The rural poor are forced to engage their wards in income generating activities which lead to early drop out from formal education. Some ethnic/minority groups do not have written script of their own language, for them formal education is in a second language from the beginning. So the family cannot support them in their educational pursuit. Regarding the second principle, plurality in curriculum exists in many forms in Bangladesh, for example, in general education, vocational education, education for children and adult, special education for physically and mentally compromised…. The curriculum in primary and secondary education in Bangladesh respects the religious plurality and provides option for the various religious groups by incorporating a subject on basic moral values which is uniform across most major religions in the country. CONCLUSION The Government of Bangladesh is giving efforts for the betterment of education system, still there remain many challenges. Government alone cannot face the challenges, it needs concerted efforts of all stakeholders so that objective oriented education can meet the local and global demands of competent human resource. REFERENCES Aminuzzaman, S. M. (n.d.). Quality Issues of Higher Education in Bangladesh. University of Dhaka. Retrieved on 29 November 2011 from, http://www.educationdev.net/Docs/ban_2.PDF Benson, I. (1997). Principles of Public Education in a Pluralistic Society. Centre Points 3(2):1. Canadian International Development Agency. (2011). Education. Retrieved on 30 November 2011 from, http www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/education-e:// Education Database. (2011). Education System in Bangladesh. Retrieved on 29 November 2011 from, http://www.foreigncredits.com/Education-Database/Countries/Bangladesh/EducationSystem Hogg, T. C. & McComb, M. R. (1969). Cultural Pluralism: Its Implications for Education. Educational Leadership. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Ministry of Education. Government of the People‘s Republic of Bangladesh. (2010). National Education Policy 2010. Retrieved on 29 November 2011 from, http://www.moedu.gov.bd/index.php? option=com_content&task=view&id=338&Itemid=416. Government of the People‘s Republic of Bangladesh. SAARC Human Resource Development Centre. Workshop on ―Improving the Quality of Education: Role of Teachers in Achieving Quality in Education in South Asia‖ Retrieved on 28 November 2011 from, http://www.shrdc.org/doc/training/2011/IQERole%20of%20Teachers%20%28Dec%2026-28,%202011%29/IQERole%20of%20Teachers.pdf World Bank, Bangladesh. (2011). Education in Bangladesh: Key Challenges. Retrieved on 29 November 2011 from, http://www.worldbank.org.bd/WBSITE/EXTERNAL /COUNTRIES/ SOUTHASIAEXT/BANGLADESHEXTN/0,,contentMDK: 21614617~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295760,00.html 242 DIALECTS: BASIC CONNECTIVITY OF MASSES (WITH THE REFERENCE OF AHIRANI DIALECT) Author: Dr. M. S. Pagare. Professor, Department of Comparative Languages & Literature, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon [M. S.] India 425001E-mail: [email protected], Mobile No. 09423159623, Fax: 02572258403 Co- Author: 1) Dr. Govind Gayki, Asst. Professor, Raje Chatrapati Shivaji College, Buldhana [M. S.] India. 2) Dhanraj Dhangar, Research Scholar, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon. [M. S.] India 425001. E-mail: [email protected], Abstract Dialects have their own vocabulary system. It is born made knowledge for the people. It has been spoken mostly verbally; in the situation of progressive language dialects get scripts or alphabets from standard languages. Many researchers are doing research on various dialects latterly, hence they use standard scripts or alphabets for dialects, but dialects are basic source for standard languages. In this context we must say, dialects are the beginner or the basic source of standard languages. Many dialects has been Spoken all over the world. We see many dialects are being vanished; due to this also, it does not get script or alphabets. Hence there is responsibility of assiduous that; they should be done the security compound to the dialects because it shows the origin culture of their tradition of masses. Ahirani is one of the dialects in Maharashtra state, in India, where the Ahirani dialect is known as Khandesh. When we study about dialect; we must want to go through Ahirani dialect. Keywords dialect, language, script, masses Introduction: There are many dialects in all over the globe. Dialect is the path which leads to standard language. We found the relation between standard languages and dialects. Actually the standard language is the progressive phenomenon of dialect. Dialects are regional as well as social variety. Though it is beginner in connection with voice, it has been mentioned the sub language of standard language. Much confusion we find in the assiduous thinking that the dialects are the sub language of the standard language. Many people not give the valuable prestige to dialects. Actually when we write or when we deliver the speech on the dais that time we use standard language but apart from that situation when we speak with each other that conversation does not mention as standard language, that should be mentioned dialect or sub language of standard language. There are differences between sub languages and dialects. Sub languages might be created from standard language, but dialects are not creation of standard language. This should be pointed. For long years ago the ancient people had not standard languages. Even they had not used the meaningful sentence as dialects, sub language or standard language. The various kinds of voices emerged from ancient human beings vocal and that became some words in various communities, various territories and all over the globe. The scattered vocal words became meaningful bit by bit, then the sequence of word became meaningful sentence and that leads to creation of dialect. 243 We see many areas captured various dialects by the group of people. Rough words and vocal voices repetitions mentioned some meanings. Latter on some constructions made by people and subsequently language walked on progressive path. We find some following features to get meanings as language. 1. 2. 3. 4. Picture Language Expression Language Sign of Language Riddle Language 1. Picture Language There are limitations to picture language. When someone draws a picture of trees or animals or birds then it will get some meanings, but nobody can understand the full meaning of picture language. Hence the limitations are searched. Along with this situation there is no possibility that everybody could be drawn a good picture. On this point, an incident happened that one Indian went to china and he wanted to eat chicken in hotel but he had not known the language of Chinese, then he tried to show the picture of hen but that was made as frog. 2. Expression Language There are some gestures to express some meanings as mime conversation as languages but we find there are also limitations. The gestures shows by lips, eyes, eye brow, fingers etc. but we don‘t get the full meaning from these gestures. 3. Symbolize Language Some signature directed the meanings of languages but that meanings also not fulfilled to understand each and everything. We find there also many limitations about feelings, thoughts etc. as a sign we find there are three colors, yellow, green & red. Red color indicates to stop, yellow indicates to run slowly and green color indicates to full permission for passing the way. But we can‘t find everywhere the fulfill meaning of sign. 4. Riddle Language Some people use riddle language that puzzles to other peoples but one who get the meaning, whom pass the message by riddle language. But we find there actually vary limitations. Sometimes the riddle language puzzles everybody. Nobody can get the meaning by riddle language. These are the origin features that we find there lacunas. Hence there is creation of vocal voices for full meaning. In this context if we compare the vocal voices with picture, expression, symbolize and riddle then we investigate that the dialects are more meaningful origin. There is no possibility that dialects are the sub languages of standard languages. Dialects are the beginner of standard languages. Standard Language Standard Language is the progressive version of dialect. This standard language appearance is more effective than dialects. It narrates all the situations of pictures, gestures, symbolize and riddle of languages. There are many words enhanced automatically in the standard languages by 244 dialect in various regimes, area. There is one standard language signified in one area and around that walks sub languages and dialects. Dialects are not developed as standard languages. On the basis of languages (Standard, sub and Dialect) we find there is the stratum of society. Hence we found the social aspects by languages that create socio linguistics. Folk language Folk language is normally related to dialect. There are very few differences between dialects & folk language. Folk language is the traditional language of folk. It has not script .It travels verbally one to another, father to son, mother to daughter; It is very easy to speak by the traditional way. Dialects Prima facie dialect is known as folk language but we can search there are differences that more area consists for dialect than folk languages. We see multitude people in dialects and folk languages also. Folk languages consist folk but dialects consist with zone and territory. Geographical, economic and social aspects are related with dialect. In this context Adrian Akmajian said that,1 ― the distinct form of a language spoken in a certain geographical area….. We can also speak of social dialect. A distinct from a language spoken by members of specific socio economic class.‖ (Adrian akmajian, 1996) We find many reflection of the territory into the dialects. There are symptoms, geographical, social, cultural as well as the political and natural symbol also we find in dialects. It is the potential for standard language. Regarding to this Dr. S.K.Varma said that, 2 ―When we talk about dialects, we refer to the dialect is verify to language. How & When a dialectic given the label of a language depends not on linguistic but on SocioPolitical factor. This means that every dialect is a potential language.‖ (S.K., 1994) Dialect is the progressive way of a folk language & it has a potential for the standard language. Hence there should be study on dialect to progress the standard language. Features of dialects The assiduous should be found peculiarity of dialects and they should be concentrating on the characteristic of dialects as bellow.3 (M.S., 2003.) 1. Dialect is not a sub language. We should not mention it the sub language of the standard language. Dialect has its own creation. 2. Dialect to come before standard language and it has flown with folk and rural literature. 3. There is no evidence that we can prove the dialect is the sub language of standard language. 4. Dialect has live sensation and it feels naturally. 5. Dialect creates the relation of affection in each other because it flows very easily. 6. Conversation hold very easily by dialect and everybody get that reflection and benefit by the speaking of dialect. 7. It has simple structure that related to human life. 8. If dialect get political and social platform then it can walk on the way of standard language. In India we find many dialects there are many states as per stage there are standard languages and as per region or area there are many dialects we could found it. Khandesh Khandesh is a region in the state of Maharashtra in India. There are two parts in Khandesh, i.e. East Khandesh & West Khandesh. There are three districts: Jalgaon, Dhulia and Nandurbar. 245 This region recognized by various names. Those were Abhir, Skand, Gope, Seun, Khandav, Khand, Kanh etc. originally the Khandesh state was found and ruled by Faruki Dynasty. Khandesh lies on the north western corner of the Deccan plateau in the Valley of Tapti River and it was bound by Satpura Range. Ahirani is spoken in all over Khandesh which covered by Girna & Tapti river. Some assiduous pointed that4 ―Ahirani is the mix language of Marathi, Hindi and Gujarathi‖ (limited, ( 2007-0519), 2010). But it could be proved on the basis of some words found in various standard languages. That opinion cannot be concluded that Ahirani is the mix language of standard languages. Marathi is the standard language of Maharashtra State. Many researchers have mentioned that Ahirani is the sub language of Marathi. But we can see that the emerged situation of both languages then researchers has found Marathi standard language, had began from 905 AD. But Ahirani had been found 5000year BC. And it had not been secured the platform by political. Hence it has been stood behind than standard language. By observing the situation between standard Marathi language and Ahirani dialect assiduous compare the development by consonants ―There are lacunas found about consonants that some consonants do not found which are in Marathi.‖5. (G.A., 1968) it proves that the separation of this dialect from standard language as well as the ancient existence of Ahirani dialect. The following diagram shows the existence of dialects and standard languages. Dialect Tradition of masses Folk Elements Folk Literature Rural human life Rural literature Urban human life Education Standard Language The diagram shows the steps between dialect and standard language. Along with dialects the standard languages separately emerge from other standard languages i.e. Sanskrit, Pali, and Hindi etc. Which was political influence or huge social platforms obtained. As per this observation we find separation between dialect and standard language. 246 Conclusion Dialect should not be mentioned the sub language of standard language. It is not sub language. It has been separated from standard language or it is being beginner of standard language. Dialect has a natural basic connectivity with masses. The masses relation emerges with affection due to communication of dialect. We see the view of many people that dialect always use in the masses of down trodden this thinking should be vanished. The soft conversation is significant identity of dialect. Hence dialect should not be mentioning of lower community which are speaks dialect. References Adrian akmajian. (1996). Linguistic and introducing to language and communication,. Prentice Hall of India private limited, 96. G.A., G. (1968). Linguistic Survey of Delhi, India, Vols.VII, IX , Part III. New Delhi: India. limited, 1. S. (( 2007-05-19), 2010). ―Khandesh Cultural Heritage- Jalgaon, Dhule, Nadurbar Lifestyle‖ Ejalgaon.com. jalgaon: Ejalgaon.com. M.S., P. (. (2003.). Ahirani Lokgeetatil loktatwa, Ihwaad Ani Lokbhasha. Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India: Prashant Publication. S.K., V. (1994). Modern Linguistic. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press,. 247 THE FOREIGN POLICY OF THE USA TOWARDS YUGOSLAVIA Dejan Marolov University Goce Delcev, Stip Macedonia Abstract The relations between United States and Yugoslavia have relatively deep roots. Although at first it may seem quite uncommon, yet almost half a century the USA maintained excellent relations with the communist Yugoslavia. Gradually, the policy of the USA began to change slowly after the fall of the Berlin Wall. In order to explain the logic behind this chance i.e. the policy of the USA shifting from a strong supporter of the Yugoslavia unity to the policy that recognizes the independence of the republics emerging from Yugoslavia, it will be helpful to make a short historical review of the relations between the USA and Yugoslavia. Introduction For nearly 50 years of existence of the AVNOJ Yugoslavia, the USA was friendly credit donor and strong supporter of the Yugoslav economy. At the same time the USA has been strong supporter of the Yugoslav unity and wholeness. But, the relations began to decline after the end of the cold war and the end of the communism. This article is treating the USA - Yugoslav relations in four time periods: (1) During the second world war, (2) during the Cold war period, (3) during the early period after the end of the Cold War and (4) during the Bosnian war. The policy of the USA towards Yugoslavia during the Second World War On 17 April 1941 the royal Yugoslavia ceases to exist and its royalist government went it to an exile in Britain. After this, the days of the occupation have followed and the Yugoslavian territory has been divided into the occupation zones between Germany and its allies. However the occupied territory of Yugoslavia was not a peaceful area during the years of World War II. Namely, such a thing was hardly expected on a territory where simultaneously several organized military formations existed. So apart from the official occupation forces, there was an underground existence of the Yugoslav Partisans and the Drazha Mihajlovic Chetniks and other paramilitary groups. Both movements emerged as resistance and opposition to the occupation of Yugoslavia. Although, seemingly they both had a common goal - liberation of Yugoslavia, which was supposed to be unification element between these two movements, this was not the case. Their common goal actually had very little in common. Thus, they had obvious differences for the future projection of Yugoslavia. While the Yugoslav partisans led by Tito saw the future of Yugoslavia as a communist state, the Chetniks of Drazha Mihajlovic wanted the return of royalist system. Another important difference between the two movements was contained in 248 their support by the masses. So, while the partisan movement launched an all-Yugoslav spirit, the Chetniks movement, in many ways, was purely pro-Serb movement. This difference contributed for the Tito‘s movement to be more supported among the masses. Over the time, the Chetniks movement fought less and less against the Germans and more and more against the partisans. Eventually, it transformed into an ally of the Germans in the fight against Tito's partisans. These were the circumstances in which USA laid the foundations of their policy toward Yugoslavia. Based purely on pragmatic reasons, the USA supported to the only movement that at the moment openly and directly fought with the Germans on the territory of Yugoslavia. This consisted by the partisans and their leader Tito. The fact that Tito had communistic views for the future of Yugoslavia was placed under the carpet in time when Nazi Germany was at the peak of its power. Thus, the USA foreign policy oriented for support of the future leader of Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito. This certainly was an excellent foundation for further construction and improvement of the USA – Yugoslavia relations. The US policy towards Yugoslavia during the Cold War period The end of the Second World War was the beginning of the new world order. The relations in the world and especially in Europe had to be re-composed in the circumstances where the prewar powerful German state was now practically nonexistent, and the other powerful states like France and Britain were exhausted by the Second World War. USSR and the USA have taken the primacy of the most powerful states after World War II. Their competition inevitably led the world to the new world order of the Cold War and the creation of what Winston Churchill described as ‖iron curtain" and the division of Europe into zones of influence. Thus, Eastern European countries fell in to the Soviet zone of influence. They had to establish communism and entrance the Warsaw Pact as their military alliance. Western European countries, to a lesser extent, fell below the USA zone of influence and kept capitalism. The NATO Alliance emerged as against gravity of the military power from the Soviet Union. In such a strict division of the spheres of influence, Yugoslavia was a unique example in Europe. Thus, although initially was expected that Yugoslavia will be part of Eastern Europe and thus under the Soviet sphere of influence, this actually never happened. Yugoslavia led by Tito managed to keep its independent policy and not to join either one of two military blocs. Exactly this Yugoslav policy was used for building the USA foreign policy toward Yugoslavia. The foreign policy of Yugoslavia was seen as an excellent opportunity for promotion of the American interests, and thus the American foreign policy began to treat Yugoslavia as a country of strategic importance. According to the policy of the USA, Yugoslavia was a country which could be used as a buffer zone between NATO and 249 the Warsaw Pact alliance, as well as an obstacle for the access of the Soviet Union to the Mediterranean via the Adriatic. In this way, NATO's southern wing comprising Italy and Greece has been strengthened through the reduction of direct military threat from the USSR. At the same time, the independent policy of Yugoslavia could have been used as a kind of model and example for all other Eastern European communist states. The message that USA wanted to send was that countries that would dare to oppose Stalin will be able to rely on USA support. This is the reason why the USA supported Yugoslavia mostly financially. Because of this, Yugoslavia was able to have a significantly better economic position and an open kind of country than unlike any other country in the Eastern Europe. According to the previously stated views for the importance of Yugoslavia for the USA interests, American foreign policy was fully supporting Yugoslavia and its President Tito, despite the Yugoslavia‘s internal communist system. Accordingly, all the issues concerning the violation of human rights, more democracy inside the country and so on were simply ignoring as issues that could compromise if not threaten the rule of the President Tito. Thus, according to Lukic&Lznch(1996, p.2303) ―During the period 1949-90, the USA government rarely mentioned concerns over human rights violations in Yugoslavia and carefully avoided any comments that might destabilize President Josip Tito‗s the rule.‖ However, it should be emphasized that this foreign policy of the USA was not built exclusively for Yugoslavia. Such a policy was essential part of a wider strategy of the USA during the Cold War, which was guided primarily by whether a country can be a USA ally, while it was not necessarily needed to be a democratic country... The policy of the USA towards Yugoslavia in the early period after the end of the Cold War. “Maintaining Yugoslavia but not by all means” policy. It is a very astonishing the continuity of the policy of the USA toward Yugoslavia, during the entire period of the Cold War. However, this should not be a surprise if one‘s bares in mind the strategic importance of Yugoslavia during the bloc division in Europe. However, Yugoslavia, out of the Cold War system, had no longer such importance for the interests of, now, the only world superpower - the United States of America. Therefore, the end of the Cold War brought a possibility for a change in the policy of the USA toward Yugoslavia. So, some criticism that during the Cold War was kept away has now been publicly expressed. Such example is the1991 USA Report96 in which (Lukic&Lznch 1996) the human rights situation in Yugoslavia, especially expressed in the Serbian province of Kosovo is concerned. 96 by Richard Schifter, Assistant Secretary of State for human rights and humanitarian affairs 250 The major change in the policy of the USA was expected to go along the line to provide a clear and open support for the non-communist movements and governments elected in free elections instead of the old Communist leadership. However in reality, the USA was much more concerned about the way they would have to deal with the new security vacuum in Eastern Europe. So instead of exclusive support for the democratic movements, in some cases, the USA decided to cooperate with the old communist official leaderships. This was also the case with Yugoslavia where the USA initially has opted for cooperation and gave its support to the Prime Minister Ante Markovic, instead of the elected on free elections governments in Slovenia and Croatia. The reasons for this early of the policy USA can be searched in several factors that have influenced the shaping of USA foreign policy toward Yugoslavia after the fall of the Berlin wall. The USA constant policy toward Yugoslavia, which consisted of support for the Yugoslav unity and economy (during the Cold War), was the first factor that influenced the formation of the policy of the USA in the Post-Cold War period. Simply, the USA by inertia (in the absence of newly built policy) continued to advocate these positions after the fall of the Berlin wall. Another factor is undoubtedly the CIA report from November 1990. The report gives a very precise and horrific warning - CIA issued a "National Intelligence Estimate" predicting that "the Yugoslav experiment has failed, that the country will break up" and that "this is likely to be accomplished by ethnic violence and unrest which could lead to civil war‖(Binder 1990). According to the predictions of the CIA, the end of the ―Yugoslav experiment‖ will come very quickly and probably through the civil War. But, this same ―Yugoslav experiment‖ has been used and been receiving strong USA support during the entire period of the Cold War. This CIA prediction hides a danger for breakup of Yugoslavia in a way that has significant potential to disrupt the status quo situation in the southeast Europe and the USA simply did not want it or were not willing to deal with the possible consequences at that particular moment. There is also a third factor, along with the previous two, that had influenced the shaping of policy of the USA toward Yugoslavia. Namely, USA is a traditionally incurable believer in the federalism as the best form for organization of the state. So according to the scientific theory of the federalism, there is a constant competition conflict between the different levels of government. According to this, maybe a little naive certain circles in the USA saw what was happening in Yugoslavia through the prism of pure competition between both, the central government level with the republic‘s levels of government. So according to this view, what was happening was just a normal occurrence in a federal country that is usually resolved between the institutions themselves. Despite all of this, what was happening in Yugoslavia was much more 251 than just an institution competition. Yet, even if the explanation of the theory of federalism is totally accepted, eventually will have to be admitted that, the competition between the various levels of government in Yugoslavia, was of such a scale that directly threatened to the survival of the federation. In addition there was a military factor, so this cannot just be classified as a normal phenomenon that occurs constantly in federal states. So, there was no clearly built USA foreign policy, not just toward Yugoslavia, but toward Eastern Europe in general, in the early period after the fall of the Berlin wall. In this situation, the previous three elements had their influences in shaping the USA foreign policy toward Yugoslavia, thus the combination of firstly, the support for the unity (by inertia), secondly, the CIA's warning Report (the possible collapse of Yugoslavia trough the civil war) and thirdly, the USA traditional positive view of the federalism. As a confirmation to the aforementioned (that this was the case) can be seen from the event that has occurred on 21 February 1990. Namely, Mr. Dobbins, USA assistant Secretary of State for European and Canadian affairs, on this date, officially announces the tenets of the American policy toward Yugoslavia for the first time. Dobbins states that the USA foreign policy will rely on the support over ―democracy, dialogue, human rights, market reforms and unity.‖ (Lukic& Lynch 1996, p.310). So the policy of the USA keyword since the Cold War remains the same and that is - Unity. The importance that the USA gave to the principle of Unity can be seen from the USA Secretary of State Baker visit to Belgrade held on 21 June 1991. According to the USA ambassador Zimmermann (1996), Baker especially emphasizes the unity, claiming that the USA will oppose any action such as the Slovenia's preparation for declaration of independence, because that would disable the negotiation and dialogue. That is why the USA choose cooperation and favoring with the Yugoslav Prime Minister Ante Markovic, instead of elected governments in Slovenia and Croatia. Accordingly, the USA gave its support to the pro-federal elements instead of the pro- secessionist elements in Yugoslavia. The Prime Minister Markovic and his views fit perfectly within the USA foreign policy. He also supported the further existence of the federation, through the market reforms. Indeed, Markovic, was not inventing something new, but merely copied certain elements on which the EC was based and that is its common economic interest. Markovic was also willing for certain talks with the Slovenian and Croatian leaderships and transformation of Yugoslavia into a softer and looser form of federation with a large autonomy to the republics but not their independence. As already mentioned these views on the future of Yugoslavia perfectly fitted into USA‘s foreign policy toward Yugoslavia. Thus by maintaining the federation together, the principle of unity will be met and by giving greater autonomy to the republic, there will be no need of a civil war and 252 finally the federalism once again would have triumphed. That is why the USA supported the Prime Minister Markovic. So according to this kind of logic, it is suggested that the USA foreign policy towards Yugoslavia at the beginning of the 1990s, was oriented towards the preservation of Yugoslavia as a state and support for the principle of unity. However, there is reason to be a little skeptical of this claim and to ask whether USA foreign policy aimed at survival of Yugoslavia indeed? Ironically, the skepticism arises from the event that is often taken as one of the biggest arguments for the USA commitment to the principle of unity. Namely, it refers to the abovementioned Baker‘s visit to Belgrade on 21 June 1991. Namely as the above quote, at this particular meeting he emphasized the importance of the principle of unity and clearly states that the USA opposes preparations for the unilateral declaration of independence. But, in the same time, must be noted that, this visit comes too late, in a period where the level of intolerance and nationalism had already reached such a degree that in a great extend already have opened its road to the breakup of the country. The former USA ambassador to Yugoslavia - Warren Zimmermann shared the opinion. According to Zimmermann (1996) the Baker‘s visit may have been able to make a difference if it was headed six months earlier i.e. the visit comes too late in the game. So, exactly this, stirs doubt on the sincerity of the USA for truly support of the principle of unity and survival for the Yugoslav federation. Here, the logical dilemma will be - whether USA did this on purpose, or was there an existence of objective circumstances and reasons for this? As a relatively objective reason we can consider the USA involvement with the war at bay. Seemingly the Ambassador Zimmermann agreed (1996, p.8) saying: "a great power should be able to handle more than one crisis at a time; in reality this is harder than it appears."This statement opens a new dilemma, i.e. whether the USA as a world‘s super power was really not able to cope simultaneously with two parallel crises? Although these views may have seem little naive, the scientific papers give support to the position of Ambassador about his doubts for the real capacity for the unique superpower. Thus, especially interesting are the views of John J. Mearsheimer in his work ―The hegemony limits‖. As for the above dilemmas, according to our opinion USA really preferred to see Yugoslavia as a whole federal state but not by all means. That is, the existence of Yugoslavia was a desirable outcome for the USA only if it not meant two things. Only if it doesn‘t breach the principle of democracy and if it doesn‘t include American military engagement. Thus, USA supported the principle of unity but they grade it not higher than the principle of democracy. The logic behind was that both principles ―unity‖ and ―democracy‖ are inseparable. So, ―(…) the unity and democracy 253 were inseparable. If unity was sacrificed on the altar of Slovenian or Croatian democratic self-determination, war would result, and democracy, as well as unity, would suffer"(Zimmermann 1996, p.5). Let us consider the second part of the claim regarding the price that USA was not ready to pay for keeping the Yugoslavian unity. As mentioned before the Yugoslavian survival has been preferred but not by all means, especially not at the cost of military involvement of the USA. According to Zimmermann(1996, p.5), the USA were hoping that ―(…) that no constituent unit of Yugoslavia will seriously consider separation, just as we hope that no consideration will be given to using force to preserve unity." The previous reveals that the USA opted for the survival of Yugoslavia. But at the same time USA stresses its position that the use of force for maintaining the Unity will be not acceptable. So the USA was aware that if the moment comes when the unity can be obtained only by the use of force than this could lead to the initiation of a larger military conflict that would eventually require some sort of USA military involvement. This option was the price that was too high for the USA. This was quite logical and guided by the principle of costs and expected benefit. What it actually means is that ‖(…) before great powers take offensive actions, they think carefully about the balance of power and about how other states will react to their moves. They weight the costs and the risk of offence against the likely benefits. If the benefits do not outweigh the risks, they sit tight and wait for a more propitious moment."(Mearsheimer 2006, p.55). It is exactly what USA did. They did not include in military engagement until calculated that the expected benefits are bigger than the risks. This happened with the NATO intervention in B&H which demonstrated that they are the only ones who can bring peace. So although USA preferred further existence of Yugoslavia, yet it did not stood behind it by all means, especially not in the Post-Cold War system where Yugoslavia lost much of the importance that have had it during the Cold War period. This policy of the USA can be called ―Maintaining Yugoslavia but not by all means‖ policy. This policy period runs from the fall of the Berlin Wall until the USA official policy change in October 1991. The change of the foreign policy of the USA ―Maintaining Yugoslavia but not by all means‖ policy was primarily aimed to keep Yugoslavia as one state. This initial policy of the USA toward Yugoslavia has shown as unsuccessful with the Slovenian and Croatian declaration of independence and the start of the military conflict in these republics. The beginning of armed conflicts has minimized and even made the chances for any real dialogue impossible. With this, the principle of unity was practically dead. In this context is also Tupurkovski (according to Bennett 1995, p.156) ―Until the war broke out we could think about various options, even about whether some Yugoslav idea would succeed. But when war came it was clear to me that it was the end of it all.‖ These realities on the ground, forced USA to build new positions in its foreign policy toward, now, the country where civil war rages. Some authors suggest that this 254 new policy of the USA can be called ―wait and see‖ policy. Thus according to Lukic& Lynch (1996) moving away from its emphasis on unity, the USA adopted a wait-and-see policyapproach for the period before adopting new principles of US policy. This view suggests that there was a new policy of the USA in the relations with Yugoslavia. So this new policy of the USA has been applied in the interim as from the moment when it becomes obvious that the previous policy of the USA did not produce the desired results97 until the moment of the creation of a completely new policy of the USA98. This interim policy is called ―wait and see‖ policy. As of our point of view the existence of the above proposed policy in the USA –Yugoslavian relations are not entirely correct. In our opinion the ―wait and see‖ policy is nothing but just a continuation of the previous policy of the USA (instead of a new policy). It is considered that the ―wait and see‖ policy was not really much different from the previous policy of the USA (which we called ―Maintaining Yugoslavia but not by all means‖ policy). The claim is based on the fact that in the ―wait and see‖ policy, there was no special effort or activity of the USA (the same applies for the previous policy of the USA)the Americans, as well as in its previous policy, still refused to take some more concrete actions that would have made a difference in Yugoslavia. ―Both‖ policies were obviously absent for some visible and significant activities from the American diplomacy. So it is not possible to differentiate these two quite passive policies. Also, both policies, relatively speaking, own an element of neutrality regarding the future of Yugoslavia, as a basic element. Some might contras the given position arguing that even the new policy of the USA has been quite passive in many ways, so therefore it could not be claimed that ―wait and see‖ policy was actually non- existent policy just because it had the element of passivity and neutrality as its basis. Namely, it is agreed that for a solid period of time the USA foreign policy in relation to the Yugoslav question was quite passive. That is the period in which USA has left the management of the problem to the Europeans. On this line of thinking are also Lukic& Lynch (1996, p.313) ―Uncertain over the future direction of events (…) the USA demonstrated that it was still content to follow rather than lead on the issue of regional instability in south-eastern Europe. ― But this is not a subject of argument. In order to have a new policy it is necessary to have at least new principles in the conduction and creation of foreign policy. In the suggested ―wait and see‖ politics, these new principles cannot be seen. Although we agree with the fact that there was some period between 97 the moments of declaring independence and beginning of a war in Slovenia and Croatia On October 1991 the State Department‟s representative Ralph Jоhnson, officially announced the principles on which the new USA policy toward Yugoslavia will be based. 98 255 the previous policy of the USA and the completely new policy, we cannot agree that this interim is distinguished and has its own policy called ―wait and see‖ politics. It is believed that USA officially introduced a new policy in October 1991 when a State Department official - Ralph Johnson stated that ―(…) the principles of self-determination, respect for borders, support of democracy, respect for human rights and respect for international law would now form the basis of the new USA approach towards Yugoslavia.‖(According to Lukic& Lynch 1996, p.313). If analyzing the previous statement it can be clearly seen that the USA withdraws from the principle of unity and replaced it by the principle of self-determination. This is definitely a new policy of the USA toward Yugoslavia. By accepting the principle of self-determination as one of the basis for the new policy of the USA it seems like the USA completely accepted the idea dissolution of the Yugoslav federation. However, there are certain indications that the USA were hoping for survival of Yugoslavia in some form of loose federation or at least a part of it. According to the former USA Ambassador to Yugoslavia Zimmermann (Lukic& Lynch 1996, p.314) ―America‘s wishes are: complete cessation of hostilities, change of the political system and creation of a completely new Yugoslavia which would be without Slovenia. The new Yugoslavia would be a loose confederation of five republics. There would be no change in republican borders and (the Albanians in Kosovo as well as Serbs in Croatia) must get full autonomy.‖ If analyzing the previous statement, several things would be discovered. First, the positions of the USA of the future of Yugoslavia are reduced to existence of only a ―wishes‖. This suggests the absence of strong positions on the future of the Yugoslav federation and a kind of passive approach to this issue. Second, the USA wants a ceasefire and then a change of political system. Thirdly, the final vision of the USA would be creating a new Yugoslavia that would work as ―loose" federation. One of the main differences of this new Yugoslavia would be the USA will agree for Slovenia not to be its integral part. Thus, Slovenia had a tremendous desire to leave the federation, and this was not resisted not even by Milosevic. Fourthly, according to this USA vision the republic's borders would have remain intact as the guarantee for peace and fifth, the large national minorities in the republics would get great autonomy and remain in the existing republican borders. This refers to the Kosovo Albanians and Serbs in Croatia. So, according to USA this was the way for a peaceful resolution in Yugoslavia. Yet this vision for the future of Yugoslavia was just an USA desire rather than some strong position. This position was reflecting the definition of the problem as a European, which practically meant that the USA does not have some big obligation to do something about it. Thus, exactly this kind of definition enabled USA to distinguish itself from liability when the war in Yugoslavia was gathering. Simply put, according to the USA view, they had no interest in entering to solve the problem that primarily 256 has a European character. According to Zimmermann (1996) whenever they (the USA presidential administration) did not know what to do, they have addressed the Bosnian war as a European problem. So, the USA foreign policy toward Yugoslavia generally ranged from a policy that preferred the wholeness of Yugoslavia to a position which accepts the reality on the ground and finally recognizes the independence of Slovenia, Croatia, B&H and Macedonia. The recognition of B&H can be interpreted as a move by which USA wanted to prevent further expansion of the violence. Thus, USA perhaps a little naively, believed that recognition of the independence of B&H will deter the aggressive Serbian policy about their claims in B&H. Apparently this was not the case. The war in B&H, not only that has not been prevented but it took a bigger swing. The recognition for B&H was one of two moves that USA undertake in this early phase of the Bosnian conflict. Unlike the recognition of Bosnia, which can be seen as a reasonable move that had some justification and logic in achieving peace and deterrence of a possible aggression, the other major USA move was much more controversial. It was the USA encouragement that was given to the Bosnian President Alija Izetbegovic for the rejection of the plan presented by the EC for peaceful remodeling of B&H suggested during the Lisbon meeting. ―In this respect the United States committed what may have been the most portentous error in Western diplomacy surrounding the fate of Bosnia and Herzegovina in encouraging the Bosnian leadership to reject a European- supported proposal for a con-federal Bosnian state in favor of unitary status.‖ (Lukic&Lznch 1996, p.315).The acceptance of this agreement would have meant avoidance of the war in Bosnia in which none of its ethnicity would have the right of separation and annexation to neighboring republics. Furthermore, what was offered at the Lisbon summit is not so greatly different from what was offered in the USA sponsored Dayton agreement. Therefore this USA move is indeed questionable because in a way they have turned away Bosnian President from signing the EC proposed agreement. Exactly this move that USA made is used as one of the main arguments in the conspiracy theories about the role of the USA in Yugoslavia. At the same time, at first glance, this move in a way justifies the Serb‘s qualifications for the policy of the USA as pro-Muslim. But this is only at first glance, because after the USA successful lobbing for the Muslims not to sign the contract, for a long time did nothing else in their favor and stayed quite passive while the militarily superior Serbs have been winning one by one the battles in B&H. Thus, although USA vociferously spoke that the Serbs are the biggest culprits for the beginning of the war it is actually all they did. Whenever they were asked for more cornet involvement In B&H they simply gave answers as one of the USA 257 Secretary of State Warren Christopher (research archive 2010) according to whom99‖the USA had no moral obligation to protect Bosnian‘s Muslims because all three sides shared responsibility for the situation.‖ The statements by the USA officials were given like they have never encouraged the Muslims for not signing the peace agreement. Thus, the State department Ralph Johnson (According to Lukic&Lznch 1996, p.313), said that ―The USA could not stop Yugoslav from killing one another so long as they are determined to do so." In this respect there were some kinds of contradictions regarding the position of the USA towards the Yugoslav conflict (the war in B&H). According to Lukic&Lznch (1996), the position of the USA was that the ongoing situation in Bosnia is a pure case of (Serbian) aggression on one hand but on the other hand the Bosnian war was quite often defined as an internal civil war. Defining the war in B&H as a civil war was enabling them to continue with its passive foreign policy in relation to the Bosnian war. That is, if the war is defined as a civil one, than it should not be considered as such a danger to the existing international order in size as it would be if it is an interstate war and thus is not an American problem and it is primarily an internal issue of a particular state. The logical question here is why the USA was so hesitant to act. The answer can be searched in USA interests i.e. USA simply did not have sufficient interest to include more directly in to the resolution of the Bosnian (and the Yugoslav secession war in general) at the time, and especially not to act unilaterally because this would meant to cause the anger of its NATO partners. Guided by the cost and benefits principle, the USA have decided not to act unilaterally if this means open confrontation with its NATO partners. Thus, the USA was quite hesitant and eventually gave up the idea of unilaterally lifting the arms embargo on B&H, (which would have directly helped the Bosnian Muslims which were not as armed as the Bosnian Serbs) and the unilateral use of force has not even been concerned in this situation.‖The Congress itself was divided. The reigning issue was whether to unilaterally lift the arms embargo--a move strongly backed by Senator Dole.‖(Zimmermann 1996, p.15). In a situation where the USA unilateral actions were not an option, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO was the only one which could act. But why NATO needed so long to act? An answer to this is offered by Pond (2006) according to which the West collectively had a great respect for the YNA as a successor of the partisans which fought with the German ―Wehrmacht‖. On the other hand, the West in general stood and was not willing to deploy its own army in to Yugoslavia. So, there are two answers offered. According to the first one, the 99 on his testimony in front of the House of Representatives 258 reason is the historical respect that the most member states of NATO had towards YNA. We cannot entirely agree that this was the main reason simply because the respect and the morality are not the driving force in international relations. However we agree with the second part of its claim regarding the general lack of will within the west (NATO) for an intervention. The situation was additionally complicated by the fact of the existence of a new world order in which NATO, as a kind of Cold War relic, was still searching for its place in it. Plus, the NATO as defense alliance has never intervened before outside the territory of its member states and such a move seemed particularly complicated and unpredictable. However, at some point the USA has decided to act militarily through NATO. So, what was the reason for this change of the American policy? Did they see their own interests in such an action? The administration of President Bush simply continued the policy of the USA for the support of the Unity principle by inertia from the Cold War period. But Bush administration withdrew the latter from the support of the Yugoslav unity. What is astonishing is that the Bush administration found no interest to intervene in Slovenia, Croatia and even B&H but he did not exclude this possibility for Kosovo. ―Having retreated from the brink in Bosnia, President Bush near the end of his administration made a surprising move on Kosovo. He dispatched a message to Milosevic threatening forceful retaliation if the Serbian leader tried a power play in Kosovo."(Zimmermann 1996, p.13) But, unlike the Bush administration which failed to find some more vital interests for a more active role of the USA in the Yugoslav war, the newly elected President Clinton has put the issue during his presidential campaign. Thus, the USA more active involvement has been determined as an American interest and given as a campaign promise. According to Lukic&Lyznch (1996) during the first months of his term, the new President Clinton announced a new policy of the USA toward the now former Yugoslavia. Still in reality there has been some time before this actually happened. So, there is a back aging on the questions about the interest of more active USA involvement in resolving this bitter issue. Most of the literature refers to the fact that the USA realized that Bosnian issue (and Yugoslav in general) has such a capacity that could jeopardize the international order through the possible border changes in the region of Southeast Europe. According to Lukic& Lynch (1996, p.321) ―(…)USA national interesting preventing regional instability from becoming a larger Europe-wide problem (i.e., involving prominent NATO partners Greece and Turkey in fighting against one another, and possibly involving Albania as well." This kind of fears for greater regional and even European instability was quite justified. Thus, the Bosnian war was a sort of religions war, in which for example, Turkey had sympathies for the Bosnians –the Muslim, while Orthodox Greece was much more sympathetic to the Bosnian Orthodox Serbs. Not putting an 259 end to the war in Bosnia could mean its overflow in the rest of the former Yugoslavia. This was already the case in previous wars. The possibility for spillover of the war in Kosovo was real. This could easily mean opening for new and more serious problem that will include Albania and Macedonia too. The outbreak of a war in this part of the Balkans could mean the inclusion of Greece and Bulgaria who have already fought on Macedonian territory in the Balkan wars. The opening of a conflict of such magnitude would have been too hard to handle. This kind of situation would have not been in the USA interest. But, the USA interests can also be search into something else. Thus, with the possible proactive and leading USA involvement in the Bosnian problem, America would have demonstrated a kind of superiority and tutorship over Europe that could not have been able to solve the issue. Also, dealing with the Bosnian problem that was both, religious and ethnic conflict, was supposed to be a model and example that USA is capable to deal with all similar and anticipated conflicts in the new world order after the Cold War. In this way the USA would have send the message that any change of the borders, without its blessing, will be impossible. In the administration's first comprehensive statement on Bosnia on 10 February 1993, Secretary of State Warren Christopher painted USA interests in wide brushstrokes. ― He said that the United States had "strategic concerns," that the principle of internationally recognized borders was at issue, that the United States wanted to avoid the spread of hostilities and a river of refugees, and that Bosnia was a test of how the world "will address the concerns of ethnic and religious minorities in the Post-Cold War world.‖(Zimmermann 1996, p.13) Finally the more active USA involving in to the Bosnian issue has become USA interest simply because this was promised during the campaign of the USA newly elected President Clinton. The Clinton administration had no doubts about the culprits. For them it was the Serbs, and accordingly the pressure needed to be directed to them. Thus the USA under Clinton has been openly talking about three things, first lifting the embargo on arms to B&H, the adoption of tighter sanctions on Serbia by the UN and the use of limited air strikes. However, despite the initial euphoria, the Clinton administration failed to realize all of this in the first years of its mandate. There were several reasons for this. Primarily the reasons were located in the lack of support from its European partners, mostly France and UK. After these initial failures at the end of 1993, Clinton simply returns to the Bush policy toward the Bosnian issue i.e. the problem was once again defined as European and therefore assumed that the Europeans should keep trying to resolve it. So, under the Clinton‘s leadership the Yugoslav crisis was re- characterized as a moral tragedy in which no vital USA interests is endangered and the USA itself cannot unilaterally act to stop it. In general Clinton had strong rhetoric but little action. According to Ambassador Zimmermann, the reasons were mostly inside the USA. Thus, ―what made Clinton retreat from the 260 muscular approach he had followed in the campaign and in the first few months of his presidency? (…). Clinton was simply not in a strong enough position to override the Pentagon's opposition to the commitment of USA military forces to Bosnia. (…) Clinton's advisers, a combination of hawks and doves, never reached consensus on a consistent policy line. ―(Zimmermann 1996, p.14) The attack on the Sarajevo market in February 1994 was a turning point. This incident has caused many innocent victims and produced very strong public condemnation by the western media for the passivity of Europe, the USA and NATO. Because of this even, NATO seriously threatened the Bosnian Serbs and demanded the withdrawal of their troops around Sarajevo. After this threat, for the first time since the start of the Bosnian war, life in its capital returns to a normal condition. NATO wanted to present this event as a great success of the Alliance. But we believe that the withdrawal of Serb forces around Sarajevo was equally success of Russian diplomacy too. ―Russia contributed significantly to the credibility of the threat by warning its Serbian friends that this time NATO was serious."(Zimmermann 1996, p.15).However, apparently this event by itself did not mean the end of the Bosnian war and Clinton‘s administration remained indecisive. The situation changed in mid-1995. According to Zimmermann (1996) the various elements of the administration finally united around a common policy in 1996. The reasons behind this change were due to at least two factors. Firstly, new presidential elections were approaching and the Clinton‘s promise was not yet realized i.e. he did not manage to bring peace in B&H. Secondly, at this point it became obvious that the EC leadership was unable to bring back the peace in Bosnia and therefore Bosnia will continue to bleed. This practically meant that the USA as the only superpower was the only one that can do something about Bosnia. Thus, the European character of the Bosnian war, could have been used no more as a justification in a situation in which the USA will be blamed by the media and the public that do not undertake action. Two events in the summer of 1995 have opened the way for a concrete application of American power. The first was the action ordered by the Croatian President Tudjman, launched against the rebelled Krajina. The action practically resulted the living of the majority of Serbs from Croatia and a new balance of power in western Bosnia. The second event was the repeated shelling of the Sarajevo market, which resulted with 38 dead people. This time Clinton was ready. With the military equilibrium goal100approach, he got the support from his NATO allies for launching air strikes against the Bosnian Serbs, their communications, commands and control. The campaign took place from 30 August to 14 September. According to Zimmermann (1996) this resulted in Serbia's consent for negotiation and an end to the war. The USA diplomat Richard Holbrooke 100 Creating a balance of power (not an action for defeating but making the militarily superior Serbs negotiate) 261 was in charge to mediate the signing of the Dayton agreement which to this day maintains the peace in B&H. Conclusion There was some confusion in the perception and definition of its own interests in the initial period in the Post-Cold War. This of course reflected in the way of dealing the Yugoslav crisis. This applies for USA. Namely, the Yugoslav crisis occurred quite soon after the Cold War end, with some kind of an interim and a vacuum period, during the transition from the old to the new international system. Thus, for a long time the USA could not find its own interest in more active involvement with the dealing of the Yugoslav wars. All of this reflected in the official policy of the USA that there was not long-term and not permanent foreign policy towards the Yugoslav issue. Thus the original policy of USA was built on the view that Yugoslavia should remain a one state that should be reformed. This policy attitude in the United States had its own evolution. Thus American foreign policy has evolved from supporting the principle of unity in his direct replacement with the principle of selfdetermination. Bibliography Lukic, R. & Lznch, A. (1996) Europe from the balkans to the Urals,The disentegration of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union.New York,Oxford University Press Gallagher, T. (2005) The Balkans in the New Millenium, in the Shadow of War and Peace. London, Routledge Gallagher, T. (2003) The Balkans after the Cold War: From Tyranny to Tragedy. London, Routledge Gaw, J. (2004) Triumph of the Leck of Will, International Diplomacy and the Yugoslavia War. London, Hurst&Co Lampe,J. (2003)Yugoslavia as history: twice there was a country. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Hoare, M.A. (2010) The War of Yugoslav Succession. In Ramet, S.P.(ed.) Central and Southeast European Politics since 1989. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press pp.111-135 Binder, D. (1990) Yugoslavia Seen Breaking Up Soon, The New York Times, November 28, 1990, p. A7. Zimmermann, W. (1996) Yugoslavia 1989-1996. Available fromhttp://www.rand.org/pubs/conf_proceedings/CF129/CF-129.chapter11.html(Accessed on 19.10.2009) Mearsheimer, J. (2006) Anarchy and struggle for power. In:Кrieger, J. (ed.) Globalization and state power. New York, Pearson Longman pp 49-60 262 DOES RELIGIOUS FANATICISM LEAD TO TERRORISM ? * Nehal Karim, Ph.D. Professor of Sociology University of Dhaka Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: Globally, religion has got a tremendous influence on the common people. Bangladesh is the world‘s third-most populous Muslim nation and in recent years, it has experienced a significant rise in militant Islam. However, these days terrorism is usually related to religion and religious fanaticism is a subjective evaluation defined by the cultural context that is performing evaluation. Bangladesh was liberated from Pakistan in 1971 and introduced ―secularism‖ as one of the basic principles but due to coup d‘état in August 1975, the country turned almost one hundred eighty degrees from secular democracy to an Islam centric state. Return of Islam in politics within four years of its liberation from Pakistan accelerated the growth of Islamic institutions and organizations both at the government and non-government levels. An abnormal increase of Islamic institutions like mosques, madrasas (teaches Islamic studies), tombs of famous Sufis, units of Tabligh Jamaat, Islamic foundations, Masjid Missions, Islamic Centres, Quranic Societies, Islam Prachar Samitis (Preaches Centres), Ittehadul Ummah (Muslim community), Council for Islamic Socio-Cultural Organization and World Islamic Mission created an Islamic upsurge in the country. This situation gradually transformed Bangladesh into a fertile ground for the growth of Islamic militancy.However, keeping in mind all these issues are dealt and analyzed in this paper with the contemporary situation to explore the significance of religious fanaticism which is said to be the root cause of terrorism in Bangladesh. In this context, the paper has primarily focused on bomb related terrorist activities highlighting the major incidents occurred and recent trend of growing terrorism in Bangladesh, specially bomb related incidents have covered to reveal few measures for combating such incidents effectively. Keywords: Religion, Terrorism, Madrasa, Fundamentalism, Sharia. Introduction: Religious fanaticism is related to a person's, or a group's, devotion to a religion. However, religious fanaticism is a subjective evaluation defined by the cultural context that is performing the evaluation. What constitutes fanaticism in another's behavior or belief is determined by the core assumptions of the one doing the evaluation. As such, there is currently no constant academic standard for what defines a fanatical religious position. The term terrorism means premeditated politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents usually intended to influence an audience (Datta:2007). From time immemorial including the mythological periods most of the wars were fought on some religious ground or the other. If also there were no direct religious reasons, the background often stemmed from social disparity or differences in religious beliefs. On the other hand, Andrew Lacy stated in his article ―The Root Causes of Terrorism‖ said that most terrorist activities today come from three main roots: imperialism, capitalism, and religious fanaticism (Lintner:2002). Meanwhile, religious fanaticism is a crucial factor in many terrorist organizations today. Religion is not so important in the formation of terrorists groups, but in the justification of their violent acts and there is no geographical boundaries for terrorism. These groups distort Islam to justify their actions. Their objective is to change the existing world order and establishment of Islamic state in the world by terrorizing the world. Almost in all the region of the world with different magnitude terrorist activities are taking place. Mark Juergensmeyer states that in the post-cold war world, religion seems to be connected with violence (Roul:2009). For example, the World Trade Center bombings (2001), the Bali (Indonesia) bombings (2002), several bombings in India (mainly in 2003, 2006, 2008, the most recent was in 2011), Sri Lanka ( 263 1991, 1993, 2009), grenade attacks in Dhaka (2004, 2005), Hobiganj (2005) in Bangladesh, just to name a few, were all related to religion. Background: Bangladesh, the world‘s third-most populous Muslim nation, has experienced a significant rise in militant Islam in recent years. The traditionally secular government and widespread practice of moderate Islam makes Bangladesh a ―front-line state in the battle for the hearts and minds of the Islamic world‖(Riaz:2007). Various causes of terrorism in Bangladesh are identified, here every society is developed with different socio-'economic background. The demands and needs of these societies are not fulfilled accordingly, economic disparity creates inaccessibility to suitable economic avenues which have given the birth of terrorism and fundamentalism has also given the rise of terrorism (Sharif: 2004). Terrorist activities are also prevailing in the industrial sector. Armed groups join hands with workers leader or trade union leaders and exert undue pressure on the management to fulfill their illogical demands and illicit drugs and narcotics trafficking have also influenced terrorism (Mohsin:2004). Bangladesh was liberated from Pakistan in 1971 and introduced ―secularism‖ as one of the basic principles but due to coup d‘état in August 1975, the country turned almost one hundred eighty degrees from secular democracy to an Islam-centric state. Return of Islam in politics within four years of its liberation from Pakistan accelerated the growth of Islamic institutions and organizations both at the government and non-government levels. An abnormal increase of Islamic institutions like mosques, madrasas (teaches Islamic studies), tombs of famous Sufis, units of Tabligh Jamaat, Islamic foundations, Masjid Missions, Islamic Centres, Quranic Societies, Islam Prachar Samitis (Preaches Centres), Ittehadul Ummah (Muslim community), Council for Islamic Socio-Cultural Organization and World Islamic Mission created an Islamic upsurge in the country (Mazumder:2009). This situation gradually transformed Bangladesh into a fertile ground for the growth of Islamic militancy. Emergence of Terrorist Activities: The security environment of Bangladesh is and was always peaceful in comparison to many other countries of this region. In respect to terrorist activities the country was in very low profile threat. If we consider the population density and diversity of the population the incidents are very normal and negligible. Several factors account for the rise of Islamic extremism in Bangladesh. Islamic radicals have exploited the weakness of state institutions, the loose governmental hold on outlying rural regions, and perceived official waste, corruption and inefficiency. Saudi, Gulf and especially Libyan funding for tens of thousands of Bangladeshi mosques and madrasas have helped to create a nationwide network of indoctrination and recruitment for Islamic extremism (Ollapally;2008). During the last decade terrorist activities in this country got new dimension. Unlike other countries of the world the terrorist activities like bomb incidents will have devastating effect in the country. The country is overcrowded and densely populated, if some incidents of this type take place, number of casualty will be more and destruction of properties will be also more as everything is constructed in a smaller area. Then there comes the secondary hazard. All these will actually act as problem multiplier because the country doesn‘t have sufficient equipment and trained manpower to combat this type of situation. Since independence the first bomb explosion took place in a public meeting in 1981. In that incident one person was killed. That was the beginning of terrorist attack using the bomb culture in Bangladesh. Though there was no significant upraise of the trend immediately after the incident. However, suddenly in 1999-2000 a total of six bomb explosions took place in various parts of the country. During the year 2001 the situation aggravated to a great extent. In Bangladesh in most of the cases the terrorist exploited Islam to justify their misdeeds, but actually Islam means peace. However, if we try to find out the root cause for rise of terrorism in Bangladesh, as well as in other underdeveloped countries, then the causes and findings will be 264 summarized as : a. Poor financial backup, b. Ever-continuing economic crises, c. Extreme poverty, d. Illiteracy, e. Unemployment, f. Uncertainty regarding future, g. Exploitation of simple religious believe, h. Miss-guidance of madrasa educated students. Chronology of Terrorist Attacks: From 1981 to 2005 there were approximately 492 bombs, grenades and cocktails were thrown to the different places of the country where 216 people died and 1117 were injured. It is very much clear that the mentioned incidents reflect a sharp and alarming rise of bomb related terrorist activities in Bangladesh which can no more be ignored. The following Table shows some bomb, grenade and cocktail (hand made bomb) related recorded incidents which took in different places in different times in the country. Bomb Related Incidents Date Location 1981 -June 16, 1994 Dhaka March 6,1999 Jessore March 7, 1999 -October 8, Khulna 1999 2001 -January 20, Dhaka 2001 February 6, Brahmonbaria 2001 April 14, 2001 Dhaka June 6, 2001 Gopalganj June 16, 2001 Narayanganj December, Mymenshing 2002 January--,2004 Tangail January--, 2004 Khulna May 21, 2004 Sylhet August 21, Dhaka 2004 January 12, Sherpur 2005 January 12, Jamalpur 2005 January 15, Bogra 2005 January 15, Natore 2005 August 17, 63 districts (out of 64 2005 districts) September--, Bagerhat 2005 No. of Persons Injured No. of Persons Killed -01 ---10 150 08 40 08 -- 32 50 06 100 07 -03 10 07 100 22 300 27 ---- 07 01 10 200 23 25 -- 10 -- 39 01 31 01 -- 02 -- 08 265 September--, Sunamganj 2005 September--, Satkhira 2005 November 14, Jhalokathi 2005 November 29, Chittagong 2005 November.., Gazipur 2005 December 1, Gazipur 2005 December 8, Netrokona 2005 Injured and Total No. of persons killed -- 04 -- 03 -- 02 07 07 02 -- 10 01 50 08 1117 216 Sources: Daily Star, Daily Prothom Alo, Daily Ittefaq, Daily Jugantor, Daily Sangbad. The above mentioned Table indicates that, total number of persons injured 1117 and killed 216 and it should be noted that after December 08, 2005 no other bomb related or terrorist attacks were occurred in the country. In this regard, it can be said that, it has happened due to the public support and willingness of the government and the law enforcing agencies. The following paragraph will focus on bomb related terrorist activities highlighting the major incidents occurred during the period from 1980 to 2005 in Bangladesh perspective. As it was mentioned earlier that, after independence the first bomb explosion took place in a public meeting in 1981, in that incident one person was killed. That was the beginning of terrorist attack using the bomb culture in Bangladesh. On June 16,1994, four hand made bombs were thrown at the residence of Dr. Ahmed Sharif, professor of Dhaka University, a pioneer of free thought movements and a controversial figure of the country (Daily Star:1994). As Dr. Ahmed Sharif was a declared atheist, therefore, due to his view, the fundamentalist threw bombs at his residence. Fortunately no one was hurt, probably it was a threat to his ideology and his followers. Later on 07 Mar 1999‘s explosion 8 people were killed and 150 injured, in same month in another powerful explosion two persons were killed on the spot and more three persons were injured. On 08 October 1999, another powerful bomb explosion took place at Kadiani (a section of Muslim) Mosque in Khulna, where 6 persons were killed on the spot and 40 were critically injured (Daily Prothom Alo: 1999). On 20th January 2001 in two separate bomb incidents, total six persons killed on the spot and several others were injured. It may be stated here that, since 1968 to till today, every year nation celebrates the Pohela Boishak (first day of Bangla calendar), as usual, the celebration was going on at dawn of 14 April 2001 at the ―Ramna Botomul‖(banyan tree at Ramna Park), suddenly some very strong bombs were thrown at the audience by the Islamic fundamentalists which took nine lives and injured many (Daily Sangbad.2001). On 3 June 2001, a powerful bomb explored in Catholic Church at Baniarchar in Gopalgonj district where seven individual died on spot and almost 30 others were injured,. On June 16, 2004 at Narayanganj 22 persons were killed and nearly 100 injured in a massive bomb explosion at the political party office of Awami League (AL) (Daily Jugantor: 2004). On May 21, 2004, a bomb at the Hazrat Shahjalal Shrine where moderate Muslims go to pray killed several people and injured Anwar Chowdhury, the British High Commissioner to Bangladesh. Three months later, on 21 August 2004, Islamic militants tried to assassinate AL opposition leader Sheikh Hasina at a political rally, chief of the women wing of AL was killed in a grenade attack along with twenty 266 others, and hundreds of people were injured (Daily Star:2004). In January 2005, another grenade attack killed Shah A.M.S. Kibria, a former finance minister of the country and four others at an Awami League rally. On August 17, 2006, a series of 459 bombs exploded throughout Bangladesh within forty minutes, killing two people and injuring more than 120 (Daily Ittefaq:2006). The blasts hit sixty-three of the nation‘s sixty-four districts, targeting government buildings and train stations and sending waves of alarm across south Asia. Causes of Emergence of Fanatics: Many factors are responsible for the rise of Islamic extremism in Bangladesh. Islamic radicals have exploited the weakness of state institutions, the loose governmental hold on outlying rural regions, and perceived official waste, corruption and inefficiency. Saudi, Gulf and especially Libyan funding for tens of thousands of Bangladeshi mosques and madrasas have helped to create a nationwide network of indoctrination and recruitment for Islamic extremism. Here question may arise, why the members of the extremist groups are basically from the madrasa background? The answer is that the madrasa background people are basically illiterate, ignorant and highly motivated by their instructors and so-called religious leaders. It is said that, if any one fights or die for the cause of Islam, the person will be given a sure seat at heaven. However, in an effort to defeat the Awami League (AL), the major political party BNP (Bangladesh Nationalist Party) ruled the nation from 1996-2001, the ruling party entered into an alliance with two Islamic parties that seeked the theocratization of Bangladesh, the Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh (JEI) and Islami Oikya Jote (Islamic Unity Alliance-IOJ), as well as with a dissident faction of the secular Jatiya Party. This BNP-Islamic coalition strengthened countrywide forces supporting the Islamization of Bangladesh and the imposition of the rule of sharia (Islamic law). Many of the leading Islamic radicals activists in Bangladesh came through the ranks of JEI‘s youth wing, Islami Chhatra Shibir (ICS) and reportedly continue to maintain contacts with the organization (Hashmi:2005). At that time, the extent of government support for Islamic extremist activities was unclear, during that time, the coalition sent a clear message to Muslim radicals that the government would tolerate extremist rhetoric and actions. At the worst, members of the government were actively engaged in Islamic extremist activities. Several cabinet ministers had been identified with direct involvement in militant activities, and support for Islamic extremist activities was known to the Bangladeshi policemen and army officers. Ultimate Consequence: The roots of Bangladeshi nationalism can be traced to a largely secular discourse reaching back to the first partition of Bengal in 1905, after which it developed in opposition to the Hindus of West Bengal. Following the partition of India in 1947 and the emergence of Pakistan, Bengalee Muslim sentiment turned against the central authority (west wing) of Pakistan, and it was grievances regarding ethno-linguistic identity economic development, and security which fueled the movement for liberation war in 1971 and later on independence in the same year (Karim:1994). Consequently, at independence, Bangladesh was declared a secular state in order to accommodate multiple religious and cultural groups. Reflecting the Bangla term for secularism (dharma nirapekkhota), which literally translates to ―religious neutrality‖. Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, that time Bangladesh‘s unparallel leader, explained, secularism does not mean the absence of religion. Hindus will observe their religion; Muslims will observe their own; Christians and Buddhists will observe their religions…religion cannot be used for political ends (Karim: 2004). Taj Hashmi noted, ―‗secularism‘ was never the raison d‘être of the Liberation War‖(Hossain:2007). A few years later, in 1977, to assuage the concerns of western governments about the emergence of a leftist state in Bangladesh and to appease other Islamic states unhappy at the breakup of Pakistan, president Ziaur Rahman introduced more center-right social and economic polices and for a greater role religion. He inserted the preamble ―Bismillah-ir- Rahman267 ir-Rahim,‖ (―in the name of Allah, the most beneficent, the merciful‖) into the constitution and redefined ―secular‖ to be ―with absolute trust and faith in the Almighty Allah,‖ by proclamation (Karim:2011). This top-down process was continued by the government of General Hussain Muhammad Ershad, who declared Islam to be the state religion in 1988 and sought to establish a ―mosque centered‖ society. This process of Islamization has also been taking place at the grassroots level, influenced by returnees from Afghanistan and the unsupervised flow of resources towards religious and charitable institutions. In addition, local imams have begun to use traditional village councils, or salish, to reassert their authority through fatwas (voluntary legal opinions). Several such cases have reportedly ended in violent punishment for the accused, who are often women (Fink:2010). Very confidently it can be said that, none of the leaders of Bangladesh---neither the father of the nation Bangobandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman nor Begum Khaleda Zia, nor Sheikh Hasina, the present Prime Minister, nor any of the military dictators like Gen. Zia and Gen. Ershad can escape responsibility for the growth of religious fundamentalism and the jihadi virus in the country. Prevention and Reduction: In general, no government can stop or eliminate terrorism or any sort of anti-social activities, government systems can only check, control and reduce the activities. To prevent or reduce all sorts of anti-social activities, public and private partnership are very vital for checking and reduction of the problem. On May 18, the Council of Advisors of the then Caretaker Government approved a new law, the Anti-Terrorism Ordinance 2008. The new law's definition of terrorism includes acts that pose a threat to the sovereignty, unity, integrity or security of Bangladesh or create panic among the general masses or obstructs official activities; the use of bombs, dynamite or other explosives, inflammable substances, firearms, or any other chemicals in a way that may injure or kill people to create panic among the public and damage public or private property; and other related acts. The law provides for speedy trial of terrorists by special courts, with punishments including the death penalty, life imprisonment, or imprisonment for three to twenty years, along with precautionary measures. Organizations or individuals involved in aiding terrorist activity and sheltering terrorists should be punished under the new legislation. Under the new law appropriate government authorities would be able to ban organizations which spread extremist ideology. The Bangladesh Bank has been empowered with special powers to detect and counter terrorist financing. Offences relating to terrorist activities were part of Bangladesh Penal Code and there was no separate law for dealing with terrorists or extremists before the new law was approved. Anti-Terrorism Ordinance of 2008 (Ahmed: 2008). Conclusion and Recommendations: Terrorism is a serious threat in the process of stability and development in Bangladesh. Political, religious and racial discriminations have given the birth of terrorism, it is also hampering the activities of socio-economic development, where threat and intimidation are shown to realize the percentage of profit. Bangladesh has come into existence through bloodshed which had also given birth of state terrorism. Every society in Bangladesh developed with different socio-'economic background, the demands and needs of these societies are not fulfilled accordingly. Economic disparity creates inaccessibility to suitable economic avenues which has given the birth of terrorism and fundamentalism has also given the rise of terrorism. Terrorist activities are also prevailing in the industrial sectors, besides this, illicit drugs and narcotics trafficking have also influence terrorism. Terrorism is a serious problem and there are no easy solutions, to this problem. It should be a combined measures of political economic and administrative actions. In this regard, some recommendations are made below: 268 (a) Unethical politics, undue desire for material gains, personal vendetta and rivalry within and outside the party should be stopped. (b) Armed group must not have blessing from political parties. Political leaders must have a political identify with ethics and it should coincide with national ideology. (c) Steps must be taken on issues of grievances of deprivation. All efforts should be directed to ensure basic human rights. (d) Low income, huge unemployment massive poverty must be reduced to check terrorism. Strong administrative measures are most essential to counter terrorism. In this regard, personal or political favor must not be shown to anybody. (e) Government machineries must be sincere in functioning. All efforts should be made to for the welfare of the country and also to eradicate anti social activities. (f) Law enforcing agencies should be equipped with sophisticated weapons and members should also have anti- terrorist training from home and abroad. (g) Electronic media and the press should play constructive, effective and meaningful role in combating terrorism. (h) As the madrasa (religion based) education doesn‘t carry any productive means, rather it is creating unemployment and anti-social activities. Interestingly, it has been observed that 95% activists of the religious parties are with madrasa background, therefore, the madrasa education should be abolished immediately. All the above stated recommendations are not enough to check or prevent terrorism, some of these may vary country to country. In fact, as per socio-economic structure of each country, precautionary measures may take different shape. However, the primary responsibility for strengthening the state and combating terrorism, militancy, and radicalization rests with the government and the conscious citizens of the country. References: Ahmed, Imtiaz (2008) ―Terrorism Beyond Reason: Posibility and Limits” Centre for Strategic and Peace Studies, Dhaka. Ahmed, Istiaq (2011) The Politics of Religion in Southeast Asia (Rout ledge Contemporary South Asia Series), Amazon Company, UK . Bertil, Lintner (2002) ― In Religious Extremism on the Rise in Bangladesh‖, Janes Intelligence Review, USA. Chopra, V. D. (ed.) (2002) Global Challenge of Terrorism, Gyan Publishers, India. DAILY STAR, June 5, 2008, available at http://www.thedailystar.net/pf_story.php?nid=37211.) Ollapally, Deepa M (2008) The Politics of Extremism in South Asia, Academic Publishing House, India. 269 Datta, Sreeradha (2007) ―Islamic Militancy in Bangladesh: The Threat From Whither‖, The Journal of South Asian Studies, 30, No.1, USA. Fink, Naureen Chowdhury (2010) Bombs and Ballots ,Terrorism, Political Violence and Governance in Bangladesh, Internal Peace Institute, Dhaka. Hashmi, Taj (2005) ―The Sharia Mulla and Muslims in Bangladesh‖ , available at muktomona.com/articles/taj hasmi/sharia mullah Hossain. Maneeza (2007) Broken Pendulum: Bangladesh Swing to Redicalism, Hudson, Washington D.C. Karim, Nehal (1984) Exploitation, Domination and Alienation: The Genesis of Bangladesh, The Osmania Library, Dhaka. Karim, Nehal (2004) The Emergence of Nationalism in Bangladesh, Odhuna, Dhaka. Karim, Nehal (2011) Sociological Perspectives on Bangladesh, Genius Publications, Dhaka. Narang, A.S. and Pramila (ed.) (2001) Terrorism:The Global Perspective, Srivastava Kanishka, India Mohsin, Amena (2004) Religion, Politics and Security: The Case of Bangladesh, in Religions Redicalism and Security in South Asia (edited by Satu Limaye, Robert Wirsing and Mohan Malik), APCSS, Honolulu. HI. Majumder, M (2009) Jihadist Terrorism in Bangladesh, Liberty Books, Dhaka. Raman, B (2004) Bangladesh and Jihadi Terrorism, South Asia Analysis Group, Chennai, India. (Riaz, Ali (2007) Islamist Militancy in Bangladesh: A Complex Web, (Routledge Contemporary South Asia Seris) Amazon Company, UK. Riaz, Ali and C. Christian Fair (2008) Political Islam and Governance in Bangladesh, (Rout ledge Contemporary South Asia Series) Amazon Company, UK. Roul, Animesh (2009) Islam-O-Muslim and Resilience of Terrorism in Bangladesh, Terrorism Monitor, 2 No. 22, UK. Sharif, Ahmed (2004) Fundamentalism and Communalism (in Bangla), Sandesh Publications, Dhaka Smith. Paul J. (ed.) (2005) Terrorism and Violence in Southeast Asia: Transitional Challenges to States and Regional Stability, Pentagon Press, USA. . 270 AGGRESSION IN IRAN 5 TO 11 GRADE CHILDREN IN RELATION TO PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AND ATTACHMENT- SECURITY Dr.Nayereh Shahmohammadi, Departement of Research and Educational Planning , Ministry of Education Tehran, Iran ,[email protected] Abstract Aggression is a response that delivers noxious stimuli to another organism, in the form of a subtle stimulus such as an insult or verbal harangue. Aggression is often accompanied by strong negative emotional states. The emotion that we can call anger is usually aroused by some provocation. Aggression is the result of two variables. One is state of the person in which the person is capable of aggression, is ready to aggress and has aggressive responses available .The other is a situation that elicit the actual aggressive behavior. In the present investigation an effort has been made to probe into some of the factors related to aggression in 5 to 11 grade school children of Palestine. The variables chosen were personal parental involvement (social, academic, and total) and attachment security (dependency, availability, and total). Accordingly, following were the primary aims of the study. (1) To investigate the relationship of aggression with (a) personal parental involvement (social, academic, and total) and (b) attachment security (dependency, availability, and total). (2) To study the gender differences in aggression. (3) To find out the significant predictors of aggression in terms of parental involvement and attachment security. The secondary aims of the study were: (1) to investigate sex differences in (a) parental involvement, and (b) attachment security. The some of the findings of this study are as followed 1- Parent- and family-based interventions should be designed to improve family relations. There is growing evidence that these interventions, especially those that start early and recognize all the factors that influence a family, can have substantial, long-term effects in reducing violent behavior. 2Parents need to recognize the continued importance of their relationship with their children. Although the parent-child relationship undergoes transformation during adolescence, the adjustment of adolescents depends in good measure on the quality of their relationship with their parents. 3- Securely attached children experience their parents as available and responsive to their needs. This security fosters adaptive exploration and buffers children from stress. In contrast, children who experience their parents as unavailable, unresponsive or rejecting become insecurely attached, and avoid relying on their parents for support. These avoidant attached children derive little protection or guidance within their relationships with their parents. Children who experience their parents as inconsistent in their availability and responsiveness also become insecurely attached, specifically anxious or preoccupied. These anxiously attached or preoccupied children are never certain of attracting the support of their parents and tend to be dependent and clingy. 4- Parents report similar practices in parenting sons and daughters. Nonetheless, girls perceive their parents as less rejecting and warmer than boys. Boys and girls are equally at ease confiding in their mothers, but girls confide less in their fathers than boys Key words: Aggression, Behaviour, Parental Involvement ,Attachment Security, Interaction, Parent-child relationship, Gender 271 1. Introduction Few people would deny that "aggression" is very common in contemporary society. For some, such as those living in South Africa, Northern Ireland, Central America, and Middle East, aggression and violence are experienced daily and in intensely personal ways. For others the phenomenon is known, for the most part, in only indirect ways, such as through the mass media. However, even those fortunate enough to have been spared the direct experience of lethal violence may occasionally encounter something perceived to be aggression in a less intense form, such as verbal insult, rough physical contact ,or hostile rejection. Aggression whether harmful to life or limb or merely painful to ego, seem to be a real and important part of human condition. Seeking a definition of aggression raise some problems. One might think that people would be in substantial agreement of defining something so important and pervasive, but such is not the case. The term "Aggression" is applied to wide array of behaviors that often appears from each other. Perhaps most people ,including psychologist ,would agree in general with definition of aggression given by Buss 1961 ,i.e., aggression is " a response that delivers noxious stimuli to another organism". Certainly what we ordinary call aggression does involve noxious stimulation of one person to another, in the form of a bullet in the body , a shattering bomb blast , a physical blow or a more subtle stimulus such as insult or verbal harangue. One construct that most people would probably consider necessary in aggression is intent to harm another person .The notion of intentionally is explicit in the definition of aggression given by one influential group of psychologists: "Aggression is an act whose goal response is injury to an organism"[9] Aggression is often accompanied by strong negative emotional states. The emotion that we call "anger" is usually aroused by some provocation. Anger is most often thought of as an intervening condition, which instigates, and then guides, aggressive behavior. This type of aggression is therefore called affective or angry aggression and its main is injury or harm to provocateur [13]. It is accompanied by distinctive patterns of activity in the central and autonomic nervous systems, including activation of the hypothalamus ,increased blood flow to the musculature ,heightened blood pressure and pulse, rate , papillary dilation and decreased flow of blood to the viscera. Behavior need not have a strong emotional basis to be aggressive, however, nor does it have to be associated with aggressive cognition or affective states. People often attack others with intent to harm without necessarily feeling any malice toward the victim. The primary goal of such aggression is not injury or harm to the victim; the aggression is simply a means to some other desired end. One such end is self- defense .Most courts of law recognize self-protection as a valid defense for act of violence. Aggression that occurs in military contexts is also often instrumental to some larger end such winning a war of defending territory. Another use of aggression that is instrumental is the attempts of establish social and coercive power over others[37]through aggressive means. Finally, Milgran (1963) showed that people were capable of committing gross acts of violence against another human being simple in obedience to commands from person with authority. Aggression is the result of two variables. One is state of the person in which the person is capable of aggression, is ready to aggress, and has aggressive responses available. The proposed state of the person can be thought of as a background condition that makes aggression possible, given the right situation. This state may be the result, for example, of past learning, or of a biologically inherited aggressive temperament, or of temporary reactions to certain stimuli that elicit readiness to aggress. Anything that creates in the person potential for aggression is to be counted among these so-called "background' or 'setting' variables. The situations that elicit aggression from a person who is in a state of readiness include a wide rage of aversive condition 272 or provocations that cause the person to feel stressed and aroused. When one of these situations occurs for a person who is potentially aggressive, aggression is elicited. Psychologists who take a social-psychological approach to behavior usually tend to treat aggression as a set of acquired behaviors and to attach less emphasis to innate and biological determinants. Advocates of this approach apply to aggression the principles of social learning theory[2], in which aggressive behavior is usually dealt with in terms of (1) features of the environment which foster the initial learning or acquisition of the behavior:(2) environmental that facilitate the performance of aggressive acts, once learned ; and (3) conditions that maintain aggressive behavior. Reinforced aggression tends to generalize in accordance with the principles of response generalization. Increasing, the likelihood of one aggressive response through reinforcement increases also the probability of occurrence of other aggression. Loew (1967) has shown that subjects who are given the experimenter's approval for making hostile verbal statement are more likely than non-reinforced subjects to attack another person where subsequently more likely to emit hostile verbalizations than were non-reinforced subjects. Given rewards to a person for aggression may therefore have the ultimate effect of making that person more violent in general. 1. Attachment Security During the past two decades, researchers have clarified the role of attachment security in promoting psychological well-being during infancy and adulthood. Most recently, attention has turned toward understanding the role of attachment with parents in healthy adjustment during adolescence. Adolescence introduces a period of significant transition in family and social role expectations, coupled with increases in the range and intimacy of social relationships. During early adolescence (ages 13-14), the emergence of autonomy is an important developmental task [1]. Adolescence involves a transition from a dependency relationship with parents to mutually reciprocal relationships with others (e.g. parents, peers and intimate partners). Recent models, based on attachment theory, emphasize the importance of attachment or connection to, rather than detachment from, parental figures for the development of autonomy and adjustment during the adolescent years, despite decreases in shared activities and interactions[25],[26]. The consolidation of identity and clarification of values at this age assist adolescents in regulating their behavior independently of others around them. However, this process can pose risks for adolescents and their relationships with those to whom they are close. In their attempts to differentiate their own beliefs and values from others, many adolescents experiment with risky behaviors in the areas of delinquency, substance use and abuse, and sex. For some, such risky involvement is limited; for others, however, it becomes problematic. Moreover, the stressful process of differentiation and identity consolidation can result in significant psychological distress. Compared to adults, adolescents show higher stress levels and fewer coping resources [1],[16]. In addition, depressive symptoms increase substantially from middle to late adolescence, particularly for girls[30][7]. It is important to understand that the quality of parent-child relationships within adolescence is linked to the quality of these relationships prior to adolescence, and adjustment during adolescence is related to childhood adjustment. Similarly, although adolescence marks a period during which the crystallization of identity is the central developmental challenge, identity development extends from birth across the life span[17]. Nonetheless, the period of adolescence presents unique develop- mental challenges for adjustment and new opportunities for identity development and growth in parent-child relationships. 273 2. Attachment Theory Attachment theory was proposed by John Bowlby(1980) to account for infant social and emotional development and adjustment. He conceptualized attachment as a life-span construct, with children maintaining attachment bonds to their parents across childhood and into adulthood. A basic premise of the theory is that the quality of attachment relationships stems from interactions between infants and their caregivers, reflecting the degree to which infants can rely on their caregivers to provide proximity and companionship, a safe haven in the face of threat or anxiety, and a secure base from which to explore. The unique pattern of caregiver sensitivity and responsiveness to the infant's needs results in a particular attachment organization in the child[3],[1]. Attachment patterns have been delineated in childhood, adolescent and adult attachment: secure, avoidant (dismissing), ambivalent (preoccupied) and, most recently, disorganized (unresolved). Secure attachment is characterized by a developmentally appropriate balance between exploration from and proximity seeking with the caregiver in times of perceived danger or threat. In contrast, insecure attachment is manifested in several different ways. The preoccupied child curtails exploration of the environment and new social relationships and shows heightened vigilance and fear of abandonment by his or her caregiver. Avoidant attachment in adolescence and adulthood may be either dismissing or fearful. Dismissing attachment is characterized by the tendency to be disengaged from attachment figures and to devalue the importance of attachment and associated feelings. In contrast, fearful attachment is characterized by the tendency to avoid attachment figures due to fear of rejection and, at the same time, the desire to pursue relationships and express attachment behaviour[7],[10]. As reviewed below, the security of attachment has been found to have profound implications for adjustment in both childhood and adolescence. 3. Attachment and Adjustment in Childhood Extensive research suggests that attachment has important implications for adjustment in childhood. For example, in normative samples, children who are securely attached to their mothers engage in more prosocial behavior and are perceived as more socially competent than insecure children[[11]. They demonstrate higher positive affect and lower negative affect in social interactions than insecure children. Securely attached children are also rated by their teachers as more empathic and more compliant[16]. On the other hand, several sources of research show a link between insecure attachment patterns (avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized) in infancy and non- compliance and aggression in early childhood. Consistent with the theory that insecure attachment is related to poor emotional regulation; longitudinal studies have demonstrated that avoidant attachment in infancy predicts negativity, non-compliance and hyperactivity at 3.5 years of age, and higher ratings of problem behavior in Grades 1 to 3. Compared to secure children, avoidant children are more aggressive and confrontational with their mothers[34], and more aggressive, hostile and distant with their peers[11][20]. Similarly, disorganized attachment in infancy has been shown to predict later aggressive behavior. Several researchers have shown, for example, that children with disorganized attachment patterns in infancy develop controlling and coercive behavior as they move into the preschool and early childhood period[15],[25]. Ambivalently attached children, on the other hand, are more adult-oriented and emotionally dependent than securely attached children. With peers, ambivalently attached children have been found to be lower in peer status, more withdrawn and more apt to be victimized. Insecure attachment patterns are not, however, consistently related to later behavior problems. A number of researchers[10],[19] do not report that avoidant or disorganized attachment predicts later aggressive behavior. A review of this literature shows that the association between insecurity of attachment and amount of later problem behavior is found more consistently among children in high-risk contexts (e.g. family poverty, low social support, parental psychopathology) than 274 among children in low-risk contexts. For example, Lyons-Ruth et al. (1991) found that infant security was most predictive of later aggressive problems in families where mothers suffered from psychopathology, particularly chronic depression, and where mothers engaged in hostile, intrusive parenting practices toward the infant. These authors reported that 56% of low-income children who were classified as disorganized in infancy and whose mothers suffered from psychopathology at that time displayed aggressive behavior in kindergarten. In contrast, only 25% of low-income children with one risk factor and 5% of low-income children with no risk factor (i.e. neither maternal psychopathology nor maternal use of hostile, intrusive parenting) showed aggressive behavior in kindergarten. In summary, there is consensus that insecure attachment is a risk factor for later problems in life, but is neither necessary nor sufficient in it. Maladaptive parenting factors appear to increase the risk that insecure attachment will be associated with poor adjustment. However, it must be kept in mind that these generalizations are based on small samples. 4. Development of Attachment in Adolescence There are two issues to consider with respect to attachment in adolescence: 1) the nature of changes in the child-parent relationship and 2) the adolescent's development of new close relationships (e.g. with peers). Complex changes in the child-parent relationship occur during adolescence. Although some studies have shown that self-reported attachment security to both parents decreases with pubertal maturity [31], recent investigations indicate that only certain components of the attachment relationship change while others remain stable. For example, the degree to which children seek proximity and rely on the principal attachment figure in times of stress decreases, but that attachment figure's perceived availability does not[10],[27]. These findings indicate that the maintenance of physical proximity to parents and need for protection in times of threat or stress may be less essential for older children due to increased mental and physical capacities (e.g. more sophisticated coping mechanisms). However, the availability of the attachment figure (i.e. the belief that the attachment figure is open to communication and responsive if help is needed) remains important to young people[21],[22]. 5. Attachment and Adjustment in Adolescence In the past decade, studies have begun to examine the contribution of adolescent-parent attachment to psychological adjustment. The majority of these studies have examined this relationship within late adolescent (junior college, first-year University) samples. Few studies have examined adolescent-parent attachment and adjustment in early (age 12-13) and middle adolescents (at around age 15 years). With reference to the relation between attachment patterns in adolescence and adjustment, reports to date mostly confirm findings based on studies of young children. That is, secure attachment is typically related to healthier adjustment, whereas insecure attachment is linked to various forms of maladjustment. In normal population studies, late adolescents who are classified as securely attached are rated by their peers as less anxious, less hostile and more able to successfully regulate their feelings (i.e. more ego-resilient) compared to insecurely attached adolescents [3][4][9]. Adolescents who report a positive relationship with their parents, and who feel comfortable turning to them for support, have been found to have a greater sense of mastery of their worlds[32],[18],[19]and to experience less loneliness[20],[21][22],[23][36]. More positive attachment to parents among 15 year-olds is also associated with fewer mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, inattention and conduct problems [30][34]. A positive relationship with parents may also protect adolescents from risk. Adolescents who report close, accepting relationships with their mothers report less involvement in delinquent activities. These positive relationship qualities are those typical of secure attachment. Indeed, 275 adolescents' secure attachment to their mother has been linked to less experimentation with drugs [40] and less frequent substance use[7]. In terms of specific insecure attachment styles, a dismissing style (i.e. poor communication and trust, combined with feelings of alienation and disengagement from the attachment relationship) has been associated with externalizing problem behaviors (e.g. aggression and delinquency[30], more experimentation with drugs[40] and riskier attitudes about safe sex[40]. Dismissing young adults report less family support and more loneliness than their peers. Like dismissing adolescents, fearful adolescents are avoidant, but they are distressed by their lack of closeness to others, and suffer from feelings of inadequacy and anxiety[4]. Fearful attachment with mothers has been linked to delinquency and greater experimentation with drugs[40]. Adolescents who have a preoccupied attachment style (i.e. have positive views of others, and negative views of themselves) see themselves as socially incompetent and are rated by their peers as more anxious than all other attachment groups. Compared to other adolescents, these teens report more physical symptoms[14]. In a three-category system of attachment classification (secure, dismissing, preoccupied), preoccupied adolescents have been found to be the most vulnerable to maladjustment[7]. Research on high-risk populations confirms findings based on normative samples: high-risk adolescents with insecure attachment patterns are more likely than securely attached adolescents to experience a range of mental health problems[1]. These include suicidality, drug use[27], aggressive and antisocial behaviour[16],[23],[40]. For example, in a sample of male adolescent inpatients, Rosenstein and Horowitz (1996) found that symptoms of conduct disorder were associated with a dismissing attachment pattern. Preoccupied adolescents, on the other hand, have been found more likely to report anxiety, dysthymia and an interest in others combined with a fear of criticism and/or rebuff[34],[1]. Preoccupation has also been found to be associated with adolescent externalizing behaviours, though only in the presence of the additional demographic risk factors of male gender and low income[1]. Although similar patterns of results are present in normative and clinical samples[1], research with younger children [30] also shows that the relation between attachment and adjustment is stronger among children in high-risk (e.g. poverty, low social support, parental psychopathology) than low-risk contexts. In other words, the relationship between attachment and adjustment appears to be moderated by exposure to adversity. This suggests that insecure attachment alone does not differentiate well-adjusted from poorly adjusted adolescents. Extrapolating from existing research with young children suggests that adolescents who grow up in conditions of adversity and inadequate access to resources may not suffer from psychopathology if they share secure attachment relationships with their parents. Conversely, adolescents who develop in a supportive and resource-rich environment, albeit with less secure attachment, may have poor outcomes, at least in some domains. Research examining the moderating effects of adversity on the relationship between attachment and adjustment in adolescents is urgently required. 6. Parenting, Attachment Security and Adjustment in Adolescence In infancy, caregivers who are sensitive and consistently responsive to their child's needs have been found to foster secure attachments. These children develop perceptions (i.e. internal working models) of themselves as lovable and of others as helpful and available. Conversely, caregivers who are insensitive and rejecting have been found to have avoidant children who view themselves as unworthy, and others as uncaring and undependable. Research has linked avoidant attachment to mothers' suppressed anger, lack of tenderness in touching and holding, and rejection of child-initiated attachment behavior. Such children tend to suppress their feelings and avoid contact in times of stress to avoid further alienating their caregivers. Caregivers who are inconsistent (i.e. sometimes responsive and sometimes rejecting) tend to have children who are preoccupied with discovering ways of eliciting care and are hyper vigilant to sources of distress. Such children experience conflict between the desire to approach the caregiver for support and 276 feelings of anger and anxiety at the caregiver's unreliability[3]. They come to view themselves as incapable and unworthy of obtaining support. In adolescence, parental involvement, encouragement of psychological autonomy, and demands for age-appropriate behavior combined with limit setting and monitoring (i.e. authoritative parenting) contribute to good psychosocial, academic and behavioral adjustment among adolescents[4],[36]. Similar to the way in which parental sensitivity and responsiveness contribute to secure attachment in infancy, recent findings indicate that parental warmth/involvement, psychological autonomy granting and behavioral control/monitoring are associated with security of attachment in late childhood and early adolescence[17]. Low warmth and low control were particularly associated with dismissing/avoidant attachment, and low psychological autonomy granting with preoccupied attachment. Thus, in adolescence, it appears that parental behavior that fosters autonomy in the context of parental availability, in addition to parental warmth/responsiveness, becomes important for secure attachment. With respect to adolescent adjustment, parental warmth/involvement and behavioral control are associated with greater social competence, autonomy, positive attitudes toward school and work, academic achievement and self-esteem, as well as with less depression, school misconduct, delinquency and drug use[36],[1],[27]. With respect to protection against depressed mood, adolescents' security with their mother seems to be particularly important. In terms of resistance to substance abuse, the effect of parenting appears to operate through adolescents' development of better self-regulation skills (i.e. self-control, behavioral competence, adaptive coping), and less affiliation with deviant peers[30]. The negative associations between observations of maternal warmth, and teacher and official reports of delinquency, are robust, persisting even after controlling for child IQ, age, attachment to delinquent peers, ethnicity, poverty, family size, parental deviance, supervision and discipline [35]. On the other hand, hostile punishment and coercive interactions between parents and children combined with poor parental monitoring contribute to conduct problems in preadolescence and antisocial behaviour in adolescence [32],[33]. Although it is likely that the link between adolescent attachment quality and parent behaviour is bi-directional, there is some evidence to suggest that parental rejection is a stronger predictor of delinquency than the reverse[35], supporting the crucial importance of parenting behaviour for adolescent outcome. Of particular importance is the recent finding that in high-risk contexts (e.g. neighbourhood poverty, crime, unemployment), parental monitoring may be effective in reducing adolescent deviance only for securely attached adolescents[1]. 7. Attachment, Parental Socialization and Gender To understand the relationship between adolescent-parent attachment and adjustment, it is important to examine two potentially significant moderating effects: gender of child and gender of parent. First, there is some evidence that sex differences emerge in attachment patterns by adolescence and early adulthood. The factors that contribute to these differences are important to investigate. Second, there is evidence that attachment relationships with mothers and fathers may differ in their importance for predicting adjustment. Sex differences in attachment quality in infancy and early childhood are neither implied theoretically nor typically found. However, by late adolescence and adulthood, sex differences in patterns of insecure attachment are sometimes found, with more men being dismissing and more women being preoccupied[26][24]. Gender-specific parental socialization practices may contribute to these gender differences in attachment style. For example, parents monitor the behavior of their daughters more than their sons[9]. With respect to differences in attachment relationships with mothers and fathers, it is important to understand that most studies of child attachment and adjustment have focused on motherchild rather than father-child relationships. This focus has occurred because the primary caregiver in infancy is typically the mother, because infant attachment is predictable primarily 277 from mothers' as opposed to fathers' attachment style, and because childhood attachment security is predicted more from infant attachment to mother than from infant attachment to father[23],[25]. In late adolescence, mothers remain the principal attachment figure. Although both boys and girls see their mother's availability as remaining constant across age, adolescent girls perceive their fathers as less available than younger girls[26]. Consistent with these findings, several studies have demonstrated that there are significant changes in the quality of girls' relationship with their fathers during adolescence[33]. For example, with the transition to adolescence, girls report feeling more distant, uncomfortable and withdrawn from their fathers, and feel that their fathers do not meet their emotional needs[25],[26]. Despite the greater importance of mothers as attachment figures, and of attachment to mothers for adjustment, some research indicates that attachment to fathers may be significantly associated with certain aspects of adjustment. For example, independent of and in addition to security of attachment to mothers, security of attachment to fathers has been found to be associated with peer competence[21],[22],[23],[35]. Moreover, fathers' warmth and involvement have been found to play a unique role in intellectual development and academic achievement, and to be associated with higher self-esteem in middle childhood[16]. Moreover, it is possible that stronger relations between child-father attachment and adjustment might emerge in adolescence. In support of this hypothesis, a longitudinal study of north German children found that coping styles at age 16 were related to several measures of quality of early childhood attachment to fathers but not to mothers[8]. Moreover, adolescents' ratings of their father's negative affect but not their mother's was associated with the adolescents' ratings of the quality of their relationship with their parent. It is important for research to clarify the changing nature of girls' compared to boys' relationship to their fathers during adolescence, the relation of these differences to differential parental socialization, and the implications for adjustment. 8. Need of the Study Bearing in mind all theoretical background, it is obvious that Families not only directly shape the development of aggression through their control tactics but also indirectly contribute in their children's aggressive behavior. Parental monitoring or their children's where about activities and social contacts is an important determinant of children's aggression. Some parents have high involvement in their children and are aware of their activities, problems and success where as other parents may not bother as much about their children's experience. Lack of parental monitoring has been found to be associated with delinquency attack against properly and proper relations with peers and teachers [32],[33][36]. The outcome of poor parental disciplinary practices and lack of monitoring result not only in child who is aggressive and antisocial but also a child who is socially unskilled. However the number of studies reporting the effects of parental involvement on aggression are rather scanty. Another variable of interest in the present study is attachment security. The quality of attachment in early childhood has implications for child's later personality. Early social interactions with attachment figures do shape the child later attitudes and behavior, including their sense of self as well as cognitive and social development. It would affect his peer relationships in many respects. As few researchers have reported that security attached children are less aggressive and more popular.[15] This area has however not been much researched, besides most of the children with mothers. Same is about parental involvement. The role of the father has rather than been ignored. Many of later researchers, however, have indicated the importance of fathers' role in child rearing. The role of the men in the family and society has undergone drastic change in the pas two decade. As a result of social change, men are assuming as more active role in the family rather being solely the bread winner. It would be equally important to study fathers' involvement as that of mother of the child involvement; very few attempts have been made to study the role of parental involvement and attachment security in relation to regression. This area has largely been 278 unexplored though there are many studies conducted to investigate the relation of aggressive with other parental variable like child rearing attitudes, disciplinary practices, etc. Therefore, it would be worthwhile endeavor to conduct a study to investigate the relationship of children's aggression with parental involvement and attachment security. 9. a. b. c. Aims of Present Study to investigate the relationship of aggression with : personal parental involvement (social, academic and total) attachment security (dependency ,availability ,and total) to study gender differences in aggression to find out the significant predictors of aggression in terms of differences in: parental involvement attachment security 10. Hypotheses a. Maternal personal involvement (social, academic & total) will be negatively correlated with aggression in children. b. Parental personal involvement (social, academic & total) will be negatively correlated with aggression in children. c. Attachment security of children (dependency, availability and total) for mother will be negatively correlated with aggression in children. d. Attachment security of children (dependency, availability and total) for father will be negatively correlated with aggression in children. e. Aggression would be higher in boys as compared to girls. f. Girls will perceive higher parental involvement than boys. 11. Sample The sample of the present study consisted of 600 school children (5 to 11 grade) out of these 300 were boys and the rest were girls. The sample was randomly selected from various schools. Study subjects were from two-parent families and living with parents. 12. Tools For this research three types of questionnaires were used which as follows: 1- Eron et al's (1961) Aggression Index[12] : this is a guess who techniques in which every child in a class rates everybody else on a selected series of 10 aggression items. The subjects are asked to write the names of their classmates who act in the way described by particular question. The subject can give as many as name as he thinks acts in that manner. Parental Involvement Scale (personal)[39] : this scale was used to measure the amount of personal involvement of parents in their children life. It consists of 30 items pertaining to the mother, 30 to the father. 2- Kern Attachment Security Scale (KSS)[20] : children attachment security has been assessed separated for each parent using the Kerns Security Scale (KSS). A 15 items, forced choice, self report measure with higher scores indicating more secure attachment. This scale has two subscales. The first 9 items include dependency and the other items include availability of parents. 13. Analysis Methods In order to assess relationship between aggression in children, parental personal involvement and attachment security, also relationship between aggression and subscales of parental involvement attachment security, Correlation analysis was used. 279 Also for assessing the differences between genders in aggression, attachment security T – test was manipulated. Moreover regression analysis was conducted to assess prediction of aggression by subscales of parental involvement and attachment security. 14. Findings: 1. Older children perceived their parents as significantly less warm (e.g. listening less to their opinions and ideas, speaking less of good things the child does) and more rejecting (e.g. nagging more about little things, enforcing rules depending more on their mood) than younger children. Although confiding in mother did not change with age, older children were less likely to discuss problems with their fathers than younger children. 2. Older children perceive their parents as less warm and more rejecting, and report less ease in confiding in them, at least in fathers. Children perceive parents' availability for help as remaining constant across age but that actual parental involvement decreases with age. This latter decrease may be due to greater child autonomy and less need by the child for parents' involvement with age. Confiding in mother and father were particularly limited, however. Specifically, children were free to select either or both their mother or father 3. Girls and boys were equally positive in describing the quality of their relationships with parents and in confiding in their mothers, although girls reported less confiding in their fathers than boys 4. No gender difference was found in regard to parental support to their children aggression (e.g. helping with school problems if needed, talking to teachers if needed). Girls reported less conduct problems/aggressive behavior and fewer property offences than boys. Girls tended to have lower self-esteem and more internalizing problems than boys. In addition, girls behaved more pro-socially and were less victimized than boys. Nonetheless, the impact of parenting practices on girls and boys is similar. Parenting is also associated with adjustment in younger and older children in similar ways. That is, for both girls and boys of all ages, angry, arbitrary parenting (i.e. low use of reasoning) is associated with a poorer parent-child relationship (i.e. child perceptions of parents as less warm and more rejecting). 5. Younger children perceived their relationship with their parents as more positive, and they reported more ease in confiding in both mothers and fathers. As previously noted, positive parent-child relationship quality in turn was associated with a wide range of positive outcomes in child adjustment and feeling of security. 6. Parents report similar practices in parenting sons and daughters. Nonetheless, girls perceive their parents as less rejecting and warmer than boys. Boys and girls are equally at ease confiding in their mothers, but girls confide less in their fathers than boys 7. Secure attachment during adolescence is related to less aggressive behavior. Securely attached adolescents are less likely to engage in substance abuse, antisocial and aggressive behavior [7],[40]. Securely attached adolescents enjoy more positive relationships with family and peers [31],[19]. They demonstrate less concern about loneliness and social rejection than do insecurely attached adolescents and they display more adaptive coping strategies[17][14][28]. 8. Parent-child relationships undergo important transitions during adolescence, including a decrease in time spent with parents and a shift from dependency to mutual reciprocity[24],[25]. Parents play a significant role in supporting secure attachment during these transitions[26]. Adolescents benefit from parental support that encourages autonomy development yet ensures continued monitoring and emotional connectedness. Specific parenting skills that promote attachment security and autonomy development include psychological availability, warmth, active listening, behavior monitoring, limit setting, acceptance of individuality, and negotiation of rules 280 and responsibilities[1],[17],[18]. Parental support during stressful periods of transition (e.g., entry to high school) predicts positive adolescent adjustment[31]. 15. Implications and Suggestions 1. In order to make children less aggressive parents should show higher involvement in children, more they will interact with them, more children will learn personal behaviour. When parents shows interest in the child activities, the chances that she will share his problem with parents is higher. This would lead to lesser frustration and conflict, in children leading to lower aggression. 2. It is important that parents show such behaviour towards children that they (children) are able to develop a secure attachment with them. The children need to be assured that the parents get pleasure in meeting with children.(dependency) needs. 3. Parents should make themselves available to children so that the latter can have the confidence that the former will be available to them when even need to be. This feeling of security is very essential; otherwise child may be at loss to understand various problematic situations and may react aggressively. 4. Parents need to recognize the continued importance of their relationship with their children. Although the parent-child relationship undergoes transformation during adolescence, the adjustment of adolescents depends in good measure on the quality of their relationship with their parents. 5. Children are more vulnerable to adjustment problems in adolescence than in childhood. Parents need to anticipate that their children require increased support during periods of transition, such as entry into high school. 6. Children need to feel that their parents are engaged and supportive of them.. Nonetheless, they require ongoing parental support in terms of parents remaining open to communication and responsive if help is needed Specific parenting skills include warmth, acceptance of individuality, active listening, behaviour monitoring, limit setting and negotiation. 7. Parents need to recognize the special role of fathers in supporting the well-being of their children. Fathers' increased psychological support of daughters may be particularly beneficial to them. Parents need to recognize the continued importance of their relationship with their children. 8. Children are more vulnerable to adjustment problems in adolescence than in childhood. Parents need to anticipate that their children requires increased support specially at upper classes and upper ages 9. Obviously, children adjustment is also determined by factors outside the family and the parent-child relationship. Even though parents may only indirectly affect how peers and other social influences determine the adjustment of their children, parents' support through the stressful challenges remains important 10. Parents need to support their children in their exploration of social norms by listening to concerns about social approval and peer pressure, discussing values and reasons for limit setting, and negotiating rules when appropriate. Parents need to monitor involvement in potentially dangerous situations and work with their children to ensure safety. Parents need to be careful not to dismiss problems in the children-parent relationship as simply due to age, temperament or other child characteristics. Both they and their children contribute to the quality of the relationship. 11. 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(ED.), Theoretical and empirical reviews.Academic Press, New York. 38Vaughn,B.E ,Taraldson,B.J,Crichton,L,& Eyelan,B(1981)The assessment of infant Temperament Questionnaire ,Infant Behavior and Development ,4,1,17 39Verama.P and Tramas.S (1998) development of Scale to measure Parental Personal Social and Academic Involvement, Indian Journal of Psychology Issues 6 (1-2) 42-51. 40Voss, K. (1999) Understanding adolescent antisocial behaviour from attachment theory and coercion theory perspectives. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Concordia University. 283 MOTIVE FOR USING SPECIFIC HEALTH CARE PRACTICES IN KATHMANDU METROPOLITAN CITY Dr. Srijana Pandey, PhD (Sociology), M.A (Sociology), M. Sc (Botany) Associate Professor Department of Community Medicine, KIST Medical College, Imadol-6, Lalitpur, Nepal Phone No: 977-01-5-201680 (Office), 98510-86235 (Mob.), Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT This cross sectional analytical study tries to identify the reasons which motivate people to use specific health care practices and assess the relationship of factors affecting the health service utilization pattern on use of health services in Kathmandu Metropolitan City. The data for this study is collected from the Kathmandu Metropolitan City. A representative and random sample of 500 household is taken, using multistage sampling, with the probability of selection of study area proportional to their size. Data are collected with the help of semi-structured questionnaire and analyzed with SPSS13.0. Results are obtained by the frequency distribution and cross tabulation of the variables. Chi-square tests and logistic regression are run. Result suggests that families seek different types of providers for contrasting reasons and at varying stages of illness. Quality of care, severity/ nature of illness, belief in specific health care practices, income and service price all are significant in the choice of health care provider. Distance factor seems to be a trivial factor in the choice of health care provider. Cost of care is important but is not an overwhelming factor in the choice of modern health care provider. Key word: Health seeking behavior, motive, reasons, health care practices BACKGROUND Review of the global literature suggests that the utilization of health services is likely to depend on variety of demand factors and are classified as socio-demographic status, physical and financial accessibility, cultural beliefs and perceptions, social norms and traditions, women‘s autonomy, economic conditions, disease pattern and health service issues like cost of and access to care, and the quality and appropriateness of the services provided (Katung, 2001; Uchudi, 2001; Navaneetham & Dharmalingam, 2002; Fatimi, & Avan, 2002; Stephenson & Hennink, 2004). Strategic policy formation in all health care systems should be based on information related to health seeking behaviour and the factors determining these behaviours. This cross sectional analytical study tries to identify the reasons which motivate people to use specific health care practices and assess the relationship of factors affecting the health service utilization pattern on use of health services in Kathmandu Metropolitan City. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study design Cross sectional descriptive and analytical study Study area The data for this study is collected from the Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMNP). Sampling size and sampling A representative and random sample of 500 household is taken, using multistage sampling, with the probability of selection of study area proportional to their size. Considering the multi-stage sampling, in this study KMNP is divided into a number of sectors as cluster in the first-stage 284 within each such sector a number of wards are selected in the second-stage, and from each selected wards a number of households are selected at the third-stage for enquiry. A sample of these is selected at a random with probability proportionate to size. Statistical tools and software used Both quantitative and qualitative data are collected from the fieldwork with the help of semistructured questionnaire and focus group discussion. All the collected quantitative data are entered into SPSS database and analyzed with SPSS13.0. Results are obtained by the frequency distribution and cross tabulation of the variables. Chi-square tests are performed to determine the significant associations between the use of different methods and these variables. Logistic regression is run to measure the extent of likelihood of occurrences of events. Separate models are run to test the significance of reason on use of health care practices. Reason given by the users of traditional and modern health care practices are compared to the reason given by the users of integrative (both) types of health care practices Results are discussed by looking at the odds ratio which is the exponent of the coefficient of the regression estimates and takes a value between zero and infinite. RESULTS It is found that, 22% people tend to prefer to go to traditional health care provider, 40.8% people sought care from the modern health care services. Meanwhile 37.2 % of them may at the same time sought care from the both traditional as well as modern health care provider. Both treatments are used generally in tandem to ensure prompt cures. It is found that, even the same respondents use different health services for different ailment. In this study, respondents, who use to visit traditional health care provider for their health problem, are asked to give the most important reasons for selecting them. Out of the 110 respondents who follow traditional health care practice, 80.9 % appraise quality of care as the most important reason for choosing a particular provider. Besides this, 69.1 % respondents said that they have faith in traditional health care, 62.7% said that it depends upon the severity or nature of illness. Factors apart from costs that militate against particular treatment are the previous experience (52.7%) and they are cost-effective (41.8%). Thirty three percent respondents are also alienated by the decision of household head. These factors create great obstacles against the more regular use of modern medical treatment. The respondents said that quality and severity of illness are significant in the choice of modern health care providers and that price and distance matter but are not the most important factors. People‘s income, service price, and distance all influence selections, but much less than had been believed. Factors causing people to use modern types of treatment are the desire to obtain quick recovery (17.2%) and the belief (55.9%). 285 Table 1: Reason behind the acceptance of specific method of health care Total Reasons p value No. (%)* Preferred treatment method Modern Both Traditional 204 186 110 (22.0%) (40.8%) (37.2%) No. (%)* No. (%)* No. (%)* Severity / nature of illness 327 (65.4) .657 69 (62.7) 132 (64.7) 126 (67.7) Quality of care 346 (69.2) .007 89 (80.9) 130 (63.7) 127 (68.3) Belief in particular health 318 (63.6) care .012 76 (69.1) 114 (55.9) 128 (68.8) Past experience 206 (41.2) .000 58 (52.7) 60 (29.4) 88 (47.3) 209 (41.8) .001 56 (50.9) 65 (31.9) 88 (47.3) Near home 128 (25.6) .184 22 (20) 51 (25) 55 (29.6) Decision of household head 165 (33) .000 47 (42.7) 20 (9.8) 98 (52.7) Complementary 114 (22.8) .614 26 (23.6) 50 (24.5) 38 (20.4) No side-effect 162 (32.4) .000 54 (49.1) 0 108 (58.1) Inexpensive 155 (31) .000 46 (41.8) 0 109 (58.6) Custom 144 (28.8) .000 51 (46.4) 0 93 (50) .000 70 (63.6) 0 66 (35.5) .000 43 (39.1) 0 42 (22.6) Advice relatives/friends from Only medicine does not 136 (27.2) work Provide treatment at home 85 (17) Modern 180 (36) .000 0 95 (46.6) 85 (45.7) Fast relief 90 (18) .000 0 35 (17.2) 55 (29.6) * Multiple responses From the study area hospitals are the most approachable but 22% respondents does not sought care at these facilities. People (40.8%) in general use modern treatment first even though they believe it causes side-effects. People try to use more than one type of treatment to ensure that they complement one another. Indeed, 24.5% respondents regard modern health care and 23.6% respondents consider traditional health care as complementary to each other. Belief in particular health care method and cost-effective is highly responded reason by the people of age group above 66, for using the traditional health-care services. More male and Brahmin as well as professional worker seek quality of care in choosing the health care method. The dichotomous use of modern health care practices and various reasons for practicing is further analyzed using logistic regression. The dependent variable is coded 1 if the respondents have use modern health care practices and 0 if they had used both integrative traditional and modern health care practices. In case of variables like ‗custom‘, ‗only medicine does not work‘, ‗Provide treatment at home‘, ‗Inexpensive‘, ‗no side effect‘, all of the respondents answered ―no‖ hence these variables are not included in the analysis. 286 Table 2 : Logistic regression estimates of the effect of reason for use of modern health care practices Reason for use of modern health care practices p Odds value ratio 95% C.I. for odds ratio Belief .013 1.918 Lower 1.149 Upper 3.202 Near home .457 1.225 .717 2.093 Past experience .000 2.682 1.612 4.464 Advice from relatives/ friends .111 1.499 .912 2.465 Decision of household head .000 9.916 5.534 17.767 Quality of care .130 1.520 .885 2.613 Severity / nature of illness .383 1.267 .744 2.156 Complementary .313 1.358 .750 2.459 Modern .747 1.083 .667 1.759 Fast relief .001 2.668 1.470 4.842 Constant .000 .017 Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients indicate that overall prediction is significant for this model (χ2 = 122.791, p<0.001). Model summary shows -2 Log likelihood is 417.033 and is extremely good model for prediction and Nagelkerke R Square shows that only 36.0% of variation in outcome variable is explained by this model. Hosmer and Lemeshow test shows that model fits the data well (χ2 = 5.268, p=0.729) since it produces insignificant chi square. The model is better in predicting modern health care practices (83.3%) as compared to both (63.4%). Results from logistic regression shows that the likelihood of using modern health care practices by the people who give belief / faith in particular health care practices as a main cause is found significantly 1.918 times higher as compared to the people who didn‘t give such type of reason (p=0.013). Similarly, using modern health care practices is significantly 9.916 times higher among the respondents who give the reason that the use of particular health care practices depends upon the decision of household head (p<.0001). Probability of using modern medicine is significantly 2.668 higher in the people who give fast relief as the most important reason (p= .001). It is found that practice of modern medicine is 1.520 times higher in the people who seek quality of care. However, it is insignificant (p= 0.130). Usage of modern medicine is found significantly 2.682 times higher in the people who give ‗past experience‘ as the reason for using it (p<.0001). The use of traditional health care practices and various reasons for practicing is further analyzed using logistic regression. The dependent variable is coded 1 if the respondents have use traditional health care practices and 0 if they had used both integrative traditional and modern health care practices. For those people who prefer traditional medicine, in case of ‗modern‘ and ‗fast relief‘ variables there are less than two levels of responses, hence excluded from the analysis. 287 Table 3: Logistic regression estimates of the effect of reason for use of traditional health care practices p value Odds ratio Belief .694 1.126 95% C.I. for odds ratio Lower Upper .623 2.037 Near home .078 .566 .300 1.067 Past experience .418 1.250 .728 2.148 Advice from relatives/ friends .440 1.234 .723 2.105 Provide treatment at home also .001 2.817 1.571 5.049 No side effect .026 .532 .306 .927 Inexpensive .005 .463 .271 .791 Decision of household head .120 .655 .384 1.116 Custom .585 .863 .508 1.466 Quality of care .032 1.999 1.059 3.772 Only medicine does not work .000 3.717 2.145 6.441 Severity / nature of illness .857 1.054 .593 1.876 Complementary .461 1.281 .663 2.476 Constant .024 .281 Reason for use of traditional health care practices Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients indicate that overall prediction is significant for this model (χ2 = 59.144, p<0.001). Model summary shows -2 Log likelihood is 331.465 and is extremely good model for prediction and Nagelkerke R Square shows that only 24.7% of variation in outcome variable is explained by this model. Hosmer and Lemeshow test shows that model fits the data well (χ2 = 7.642, p=0.469) since it produces insignificant chi square. The model is better in predicting both types of health care practices (83.3%) as compared to traditional (54.5%). Results from logistic regression shows that the likelihood of using traditional health care practices by the people who give use of traditional health care practices depends upon the decision of household head as a main reason is found less as compared to the people who didn‘t give such type of reason and it is insignificant (p=0.120). The probability of using traditional health care practices by the people who give belief / faith in particular health care practices as a main cause is found 1.126 times higher as compared to the people who didn‘t give such type of reason. However, it is insignificant (p=0.694). Likewise, using traditional health care practices is significantly 3.717 times higher among the respondents who give the reason that medicine alone does not work for them (p<.001). Odds of using traditional medicine is 1.054 times higher in the people who give severity / nature of illness as the most important reason (p= .857). It is found that practice of traditional medicine is significantly 1.999 times higher in the people who seek quality of care (p= .032). Usage of traditional medicine is found less likely in people who said 288 that traditional medicine is cost effective and there are less chances of having side effect by the medication provided by its practitioners. However it is statistically significant (p=.005, p= .026). The most significant findings, however, are related to the importance of the nature of disease and quality of care on peoples‘ choice of provider. It is found that when, high quality care is important to successful handling of a disease, people give belief as the primary reason for selecting a health care provider. The majority of people surveyed sought treatment beyond the closest and cheapest government health care services. This indicates that distance to quality health care providers is not as important in choice of health care providers. DISCUSSION The reasons for use of traditional and modern health care differed with age, sex, caste, religion, occupation, marital status, education and income. User‘s perceptions are shaped by their cultural values, previous experiences, time expend to seek treatment, household size and income, distance and cost of health care. The type of symptoms experienced for the illness and the number of days of illness are major determinants of choice of health care provider. Furthermore, the attitude of the health provider and patient satisfaction with the treatment play a role in choice of provider. Peoples are generally more likely to use low cost services. Some study stated that low costs and proximity of services are the two most important factors that attracted people towards particular services (Ndhlovu, 1995). Other studies have shown that, rather than prices, it is indeed the quality of services provided that has a large effect on the choice of health care providers (Litvack & Bodart, 1993; Chawla & Ellis, 2000; Mariko 2003; Sahn et al., 2003). Features of the service outlet and selfbelief in the service provider also play a major role in decision making about the choice of particular healthcare method (Newman et al., 1998; Ndyomugyenyi et al., 1998; Sadiq & Muynck, 2002). A number of studies in Nepal have shown that person seek different types of healers based on their perception and beliefs regarding the illness problems, which in turn are influenced and defined by their social surrounding and network of relationships (Subedi, 1988). These factors result in delay in treatment seeking and are more common amongst women, not only for their own health but especially for children‘s illnesses (De Zoysa et al., 1984; Kaona et al., 1990; McNee et al., 1995; Nakagawa et al., 2001; Thakur, 2002). Cultural beliefs and practices often lead to self-care, home remedies and consultation with traditional healers (Nyamongo, 2002). Some of the cultural issues are family dynamics which may mean people cannot easily attend or take up services without the support of family members. Advice of the elder women in the house is also very instrumental and cannot be ignored (Delgado et al., 1994). This study result also depicts that peoples (42.7%) are also alienated by the decision of household head. However, cultural practices and beliefs have been prevalent regardless of age, socio-economic status of the family and level of education (Stuyft et al., 1996; Perez-Cuevas et al., 1996; Geissler et al., 2000). They also affect awareness and recognition of severity of illness, gender, availability of service and acceptability of service (Aday & Anderson, 1974). Belief with aspects of care, particularly its dependence on medications, is an important part in people‘s motivation to follow traditional health care practices. Results also suggest that the modern health care systems lacks integration, differences in the quality of services and ignorance of social and spiritual dimensions, is also an important motivation for turning to traditional health care in this particular population which supports the results from the various studies 289 (Marriot, 1955; Carstairs, 1965; Stone, 1976; Shrestha, 1979; Aryal, 1983; Young, 1989; Millar, 1997; Astin, 1998; Lyon, 1998). Considerations of service quality and disease severity as well as nature of illness also dominate choice of traditional as well as modern method of health care. As quality of care increases people‘s choice probability also increases. Evidence from the literature suggests that quality of care (Larsen, 1976) and severity/ nature of illness (Young, 1989; Niraula, 1994) are the most important factor in the choice of health care providers. This study also found that the majority of users appraise quality of care (69.2%) and severity/nature of illness (65.4%) as the most important reasons for choosing a particular provider. But the result contradicts the study by Justice (1981) in that she found the choice of traditional healers is probably because of other factors rather than the nature of illness. Cost has undoubtedly been a major barrier in seeking appropriate health care. Inclined to differential degree of use of different health care practices and important factors accepting behind such practice are found faith and costs of treatment. Most respondents have said that price is important determinants of the choice of health provider. Previous studies have also shown that price, income, and distance are important determinants of the choice of health provider (Paneru et al., 1980; Aryal, 1983; Akin et al., 1986; Sauerborn et al., 1989; Niraula, 1994; Bhuiya et al., 1995; Tembon, 1996; Noorali et al., 1999; Islam, & Tahir, 2002). Similarly in this study also near about half respondents said that they use traditional methods because they think that it is cost-effective. Alike to various study (Aryal, 1983; Young, 1989; Sauerborn et al., 1989; Miller, 1997; UNICEF, 2001; Subba, 2004) results from this study also suggest that modern health care method is costly. To the respondents cost means not only the consultation fee or the expenses incurred on medicines but also the cost spent to reach the provider and that's why the total amount spent for treatment turns out to be huge. Availability of the transport, physical distance of the facility and time taken to reach the facility definitely influence the health seeking behaviour and health services utilization (Moazam & Lakahani, 1990). The effect of distance on service use becomes stronger when combined with the scarcity of transportation and with impoverished roads, which contributes towards increase costs of visits (Sauerborn et al., 1989; Kleinman, 1991; Bhuiya et al., 1995; Noorali et al., 1999; Islam & Tahir, 2002). The respondents said that quality and severity of illness are significant in the choice of health care providers and that price and distance matter but are not the most important factors. This study results support the conclusion of Akin et. al., (1986) in that it is said; while distance is an important determinant of health provider choice it is not as important as has been believed. The reasons patients give for choosing a particular health provider are the best predictor of their decisions. Thus distance factor doesn‘t play a major role in seeking the health care. These findings don‘t support the result of the UNICEF (2001) study of Patan Hospital where it is found that the longer the distance the lower the number of the patients at the hospital. It also contradicts with the findings by Niraula (1994) where he identify that people who are close to the roads, where the health post is located, are found to seek modern treatment more than people who are far away. More startling is the finding that 63.6% of individuals who utilize traditional health care believed that only medicine in the form of tablet would not work in their health problem. They have found little or no relief from modern medical interventions. These data are contrary to a previous observation that CAM users are not, in general, dissatisfied with conventional medicine (Astin, 1998). 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Perez-Cuevas, R., Guiscafre, H., Romero, G., Rodriguez, L., & Guiterrez, G. (1996). ―Mother‘s health seeking behavior in acute diarrhea in Tlaxcala, Mexico‖. Journal of Diarrhoeal Disease Research, 14 (4), 260–268. Pigg, S.L. (1995). ―The social symbolism of healing‖. Nepal Ethnology, 34 (1), 17-36. Sadiq, H., & Muynck, A.D. (2002). ―Health care seeking behavior of pulmonary tuberculosis patients visiting Rawalpindi‖. J Pak Med Assoc, 51, 10–16. Sahn, D. E., Younger, S. D., & Genicot G. (2003). ―The Demand for Health Care Services in Rural Tanzania‖, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 65, 2, 0305-9049. Sauerborn, R., Nougtara, A., & Diesfeld, H. J. (1989). ―Low utilization of community health workers: Results from a household interview survey in Burkina Faso‖. Social Science and Medicine, 29 (10), 1163-74. Shrestha, R.M. (1979). Cultural diversity in health and illness. New York: AppletonCentury_Crafts. Stephenson, R. & Hennink, M. (2004). ―Barriers to family planning service use among the urban poor in Pakistan‖. Asia Pac Popul J, 19, 5–26. Stone, L. (1976). ―Concept of illness and curing in a Central Nepal village‖. Contribution to Nepalese Studies, 3, 55-80. Stuyft, P.V., Sorenson, S.C., Delgado, E., & Bocaletti, E. (1996). ―Health seeking behavior for child illness in rural Guatemala‖. Trop Med Int Health, 1, 161–170. Subba, N.R. (2004). ―Health seeking behavior of Rajbanshi community in Katahari and Baijanathpur of Morang district, Nepal‖. Journal of Nepal Health Research Council, 2 (2), 14-18. Subedi, J. (1988). ―Factors affecting the use of medicine in a pluralistic health care system: The case of Nepal‖. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, University of Akron, United States. Tembon, A.C. (1996). ―Health care provider choice: The North West province of Cameroon‖. Int J Health Plann Manage, 11 (1), 53-67. Thakur, L.S. (2002). Factors causing delay in hospitalization of children in Nepal; A sociological analysis. Kathmandu : Megha Offset Press. Uchudi, J.M. (2001). ―Covariates of child mortality in Mali: Does the health seeking behavior of the mother matter?.‖ J Biosoc Sci, 33, 33–54. UNICEF. (2001). A situational analysis of disability in Nepal. UNICEF, Nepal. Young, M. (1989). Cry of the Eagle: Encounters with a Cree Healer. New York: University of Toronto Press, Buffalo. 293 LITIGATION IN PAKISTANI LOWER COURTS WITH RESPECT TO CONTRACT LAW A Research Article AUTHOR: Akeel Ahmed E-mail Address: [email protected] Mailing Address: Akeel Ahmed, Law Officer, Higher Education Commission, H-9, Islamabad, Pakistan. Office Phone No: Cell No: +925190401610 +923007760832 ABSTRACT This article will trace that how the contract law is being applied in Pakistani courts; what are the ramifications which it entails; and what are the remedial measures which can be taken to overcome the problems which are being encountered by the litigants. In this article the focus will be primarily on the civil suits regarding contracts. The application of Law of Contract in Pakistan has significantly plummeted in the current scenario. It does not mean that the cases related to Contract Law have dwindled but the people are loath to approach courts on matters related to measly amount. To approach the court is fraught with multi thronged problems: the civil litigation related to Contract matters takes interminable delay on the part of the courts; the populace has to splurge money in the form of the professional fee of lawyers; the people have to attend the courts frequently; the plaintiffs have to produce corroborating evidence etc. Therefore, the masses prefer to settle the matters of law of Contract in amenable manner and sometimes in inimical manner rather than knocking at the door of the courts. Law of Contract in Pakistan is governed by Contract Act 1872 and Specific Relief Act 1877. Law of Contract seems to be being replaced by other laws like Writ Petitions etc. Keywords: Contract Law, Specific Relief, corroborating evidence, plaintiff, Empiricism, Constitution. INTRODUCTION We stand at the verge of a new era of empiricism. In this world of empiricism, the application and applicability of law of contract sounds like an anachronism. In most of the countries like India, China, the United Kingdom etc. the application of law of contract has dwindled, specifically in Pakistan. John O. McGinnis has pontificated that the contract law has much to do with morality; morality and law of contract are intertwined. If we separate these things then we have to go to the courts of law to get the matters settled. But in Pakistan the people have had morality, now no more, but since the number of cases relating to contracts have dwindled. Here we will discuss this issue in detail. An agreement between two or more persons which is enforceable by law is a contract. It is based upon one Latin phrase pacta sunt servanda which can be roughly translated as ―agreements must be kept‘. Origin of contract can also be traced from one of the verse from the Holy Quran: ya hayu allazina aimo aafu bil aqoode (Surah Al-Maida), the English rendition of this verse is ―O‘ Believers keep your promises‖. Contract entails further process to get completed. First of all, there is offer from one side and acceptance from the other side; there is consideration; and contract has to be for legal consideration. But here we are only concerned with the application of contract law in Pakistan. The common laws which were prevalent in the 294 sub-continent before bifurcation of India and Pakistan were adopted by both the states after independence – some laws were not adopted. The constitution of Pakistan was formed in 1956 by the Constituent Assembly but other laws and acts which were applied by the courts were of British Era. APPLICATION OF LAW OF CONTRACT: All Pakistani Courts – Civil Courts, District Courts, High Courts and the Supreme Court – started to apply Contract Act 1872 to handle the matters related to agreements. It was averred by the Pakistani junta that the British laws will be soon replaced by Pakistani and Islamic laws but more than sixty three years are down the line but nothing has been done except replacement of few laws. From the very inception of Pakistan, when Pakistan was at its fledgling state the populace used to approach the courts regarding their contract matters to get the matters get settled and to get the decree from the court and later on filed execution of the decree. Let us dilate upon the fact that why the people preferred filing of civil suits in the courts for disputes relating to contracts in the early years. There were conglomerate of reasons. The first reason was that the lawyers or counsels of the petitioners did not charge hefty amount for filing of the suit from the plaintiffs. The second reason was that the court fee was nominal and was within the reach of common masses. The judges have empathy and commiseration for the penury stricken people. The courts were in the position to issue decree with in the short span of time. The courts were not prone to procrastination. The courts were not awash with corruption and graft. The courts used to issue decree approximately within 5 years after filling of the suit. But the trend for approaching the courts for contract matters took a sudden turn. And number of pending civil suits for contracts started dwindling gradually. What were the circumstances which led to sudden shift in the thinking of the people regarding filing of civil suits for contractual matters? The populace of Pakistan being aware of the fact that to approach the courts for measly matters is being fraught with multi thronged problems started to minimize their proclivity to approach the courts. The Plaintiffs have to splurge a huge amount of money to get the decree. Albeit, The Code of Civil Procedure 1908 envisages that the costs of the cases will be recovered from the judgment debtor, but that has not been usually done. The decree holder has to bear the brunt altogether. The process for civil suits is significantly lethargic and time consuming for the plaintiff. Sometimes it happens that the plaintiff kicks the bucket but the case has not been disposed off by the court. Most of the lawyers usually charge huge amount from the plaintiff along with court fees. The stenographers, readers and other staff of the court also endeavor to extract money form the plaintiffs and defendants in the form of corruption. There is no regular hearing on day to day basis or week to week basis, the case are usually adjourned for more than one month. First of all the court will frame the issues which will take one month to be framed afterwards the court will ask for documentary and other evidence which will be recorded by following the Quanoon-eShahadat Order 1984, that will also take two years to be completed. The court process is so enigmatic for the plaintiffs and the defendants that it seems to them that they have been embattled in a mesh where there is no way out. Being distraught from this labyrinth of the court process the people have relinquished to approach the courts on contract matters. Only the companies and the departments approach the courts for contractual matters. The people intend to settle the matters amicably on measly amounts. Truculent and pugnacious persons try to settle the contractual matters in an inimical 295 fashion by entering in affray or tiffs. These affrays have also resulted in murders as well, sometimes not always. For these reasons Contract Act 1872 and Specific Relief Act 1877 seem to be replaced by other specific and particular laws as that has been put by Nathan B. Oman in the Georgetown Journal: ―Since the end of the nineteenth century contract law has been shrinking as specialized bodies of law such as labor law or employment law are created to govern particular kinds of transactions. The trend is not an accident. Many contract theorists see the generality of contract law as a historical accident born of a formalism whose basis was ultimately more aesthetic than functional.‖ The Holy Quran and the Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) Sayings are bristled with stress on the fulfillment of the contracts in amenable manner by producing witnesses which will swear upon oath for their respective rights. The Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) emphasized on the fulfillment of the contracts by saying: La Din a Leman La Ahda Lahu,that can be translated as ―The one who does not keep promises is like the one who has no religion or faith. To get the matters resolved regarding the contracts or agreements we need to assimilate the contracts with our morality or moral values, as it is being done in developed states like the United States, Germany, France and Japan etc. if the matters will be resolved in amicable matters regarding the contracts it will accelerate the economy of Pakistan which is already wobbling. CONCLUSION: The people being reluctant to approach the court, the application of law of contract in Pakistan is at verge of extinction, it needs to be revived by developing the trust of the people on the courts and the process of the courts. Instead of replacing the Contract laws the existing laws need to be implemented with letter and spirit. A trend has to be developed among the people that they start approaching the courts. The cases have to be decided sans any delay. Hefty court fees need to be waived off. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. A Pragmatic Defense of Contract Law by Nathan B. Oman (Georgetown Law Journal, Vol. 98, No. 1, 2009) 2. James Gordley, Morality and Contracts: The Question of Paternalism, 48 Wm. & Mary L. REV. (2007) 3. John O, McGinnis, The age of the Empirical, POL‘Y REV., June & July 2006. 4. Posner, Economic Analysis of Contract Law after Three Decades: Success or Failure? 296 Department of Humanaties, Shoushtar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shoushtar, Iran [email protected] Family is the first society which every person live in and is educated. It has a very important role in forming his/her character. Family environment could make each person fundamentally. It plays as foundation of man configuration such a structure or building. In fact person should be learnt behave better on the basis of Islamic and religious commands. He/she should learn behave well, he/she must understand nice and default tasks, that is, it should be known is distinction between nice and default. In basic law following Koran and benefit evaluation in country, the correct ways for education children good and bad things are learnt. Unfortunately, people under different conditions in life and society may do default and sine. So some awards and ant-awards are appointed instead them. In this paper following an extended research and scientific observation, we consider the role of family on behavioral configuration of people. Each person knows good and bad tasks to some extent rather than conditions of his/her life and environment. Even non adult and little people may know and be familiar with some things. Adult person knows sins and default tasks how to do under his/her circumstances (13). Imam Khomeini (peace be upon him) know pay borrow fees on time and he want for muslims to pay back blood money (22). Sins and default tasks of babies and unadult children is as a result of bad and loss education of families. If a child does these tasks harmful for other persons or society, the law appoints conditions and a time for his learning and educating in some special centers and locations for it (2). In Islam and on profits and imams commands, educating children, particulary about behavioral manner, and other correct religions, educating and learning behaviors to children and person from infant to adult has been ordered and it has been advised as an important factor to improve life and correct forming the spiritual configuration (2). Therefore family is a very important center and as the first location to good form the spiritual character of each person, it will be useful and applied to prepare him/ her to make person better and better for future ages in society. The behavioral improvement centers are centers for educating persons and learning positive and good tasks with an effective behavior to him/her for better life, better work and good manner due to a correct character in society. These center have three separate parts (90): - Contemporary care part - educating and learning part - prison On the basis on existance laws about sins and defaults, people should be separated from each other with regards to their sexual, boys and girls. Also persons older 15 years old should be in another person sin each group, that is, boys and girls (adult and unadult) (91). Based on provision of article 307 and 211 of Islamic punishment law, because the child have not discrimination and prediction ability of criminal action results and considering discrimination as knowledge about illegal action and / or actions which are against social regulations (1). 297 All of persons and children in such centers are educated and learnt socially and behaviorally. Children in these centers should learn lessons and book, that is, they should be changed to educated. Educated persons usually do lesssins and less false tasks. Children in these centers, after educating different lessons and books are learnt technical profisions such as: Auto mechanics, talor, electricity and milling (92). Adult person and also children with a bad behavioral pattern, harmful for others should be sent to prisons. The family is the first and essential area in which women‘s rights have to be secured. Marriage and parenthood are among the basic objectives of the Islamic legal system (maqasid al-shari‘a). Jurists consider marriage and formation of a family closer to the essence of religion which is ―worshipping God‖ (Ibada), than to a human worldly dealing (muamala). Nowadays, some individualists and permissive people view the family institution as a restriction on individual freedom. The family institution binds both partners with certain mutual obligations restricting the absolute freedom. The family saves individuals from the loss which they suffer as a consequence of sexual or other forms of absolute freedom. One does not only need a temporary and physical partner in bed, but also a full and permanent partner in the whole life. An attempt to avoid children, or to deal with them as a burden, represents a severe restriction on natural instincts and motivation. The enjoyment of a full partnership cannot be built only on physical pleasure or on temporary and changing inclinations. The Quran considers marriage ―a most solemn and serious pledge‖, and teaches that it should be based on justice and maintained through ―love and tenderness.‖. This shows the importance of religious teaching and education in this matter. These teachings go beyond what any state law can do toward securing women‘s rights. Children could be educated under optimum and correct circumstances away from defaults and sins really. Of course favors and kindly behavior from fathers and mothers and different parents rather to children complete some losses in life and for children. Also friendship relation of children with his/her friends or classmates should be under parents consideration, that is, parents should guide their children to set their friendship relations with safe and good persons in their age groups. In the most projects, safe families and good friends result in safe children away from each sins and default tasks. If culture would be improved with positive behaving pattern and safe spiritual effects full of mankind sense, children will be growth under nice circumstances and ready for doing jobs in future. In educating circumstances, teachers and masters should present one work education programs at least once three months (4). Situations of work, education and development for persons and children in educating and learning centers are controlled by social helpers (5). If family spaces would be safe and social healthy, children could learn educations under welfare circumstances. As a result of it, sins, defaults and bad things happen less in a society. Islam secures the right of women from the moment the baby girl is born. She should be received with happiness and pleasure, in contrast with the Arab tribal and combatant society that used to determine individuals‘ place in the society on the basic of their ability to fight. ―And whenever any of them is given the glad tiding of (the birth of) a girl, his face darkens, and he is filled with suppressed anger. He is avoiding all people because of (the alleged) evil of the glad tiding that he has received, (and debating with himself): Shall he keep this (child) despite the contempt (which he feels for her), or shall be bury her in the dust? Oh, evil indeed is whatever they decide." God accepted Mary, mother of Jesus, for a sacred mission; differently form her people‘s thinking that only a man should be chosen for it: 298 ―And God was All Hearing, All Knowing when a women of (the House of) Imran prayed: O my Lord! Behold, unto you do I vow (the child) that is in my womb, to be devoted to your service. Accept it, then for me: Verily, you alone are all-hearing, all-knowing. But when she had given birth to the child, she said: O my Lord! Behold, I have given birth to a female- the while God had been fully aware of what she would give birth to…And thereupon her Lord accepted the girl-child with goodly acceptance, and caused her to grow up in goodly growth, and placed her in the care of Zachariah. Whenever Zachariah visited her in the sanctuary, he found her provided with food….‖ The female child‘s family and the society as well are responsible for securing the physical and educational growth of the girl according to her abilities and talents. She has the right to work and enjoy full economic rights and independent legal personality. However, the husband is legally responsible for what the whole family (his wife and their children) needs, even through the wife can always share freely in family expenses if she so chooses. Motherhood Children should realize how dedicated their mothers were in bearing and raising them in their childhood: “And God says: We have enjoined upon a human being goodness toward his/her parents; one‟s mother bore him/her by bearing strain upon strain, and the child‟s utter dependence on her lasted two years: (hence, O people), be grateful toward Me and toward your parents, (and remember that) with me all journey ends.” The slightest offense to the parent by any word or gesture is against the teaching of the Quran. The Prophet put the mother before the father in relation to kindness that children should show toward each of them. Even when the parents are not believers, and try to persuade believing children to follow them, the children must stick to their faith without hurting their parents‘ feelings or degrading them: ―Yet should they (the parents) endeavor to make you ascribe divinity side by side with Me to any that your mind cannot accept (as divine, obey them not: but even then) bear them company this world‘s life with kindness.‖ Some results concluding of this paper could be written as following: 1-If a child would educated under a correct behavior pattern, subjects to his/her sins, the psychology program governing child will be suitable in family in forming a good character. 2- Judges in courts apply laws on the basis of allowed basic laws as a physician to sweep away society from harmful tasks and jobs. 3- If a child do sins and default-bad things for second time, he/she should be taken to centers for learning them professional works. 4- Most of sins and defaults starts or are originated from child hood. 5- Family is a very important and effective center of behavior educating to persons. If family was a safe location for growing up children, many sins will be cancelled. References 1-Answers to Questions of Right and Liability commission, (1986), Vol. 182. 2-AyatollohMoosaviBojnoordi, (1987), Two points of Right, Right monthly pub, Vol. 12, No .11. 3- Gorgi, A,(1990), Right papers, Tehran Univ. press, Vol.20. 4- Narimisa, M,(2004), Criminal liability of children in Iran Law, M Sc thesis, IAU, Ahvaz. 5- Rahimi, M., (1996) , Babies, Defaults, Right journal, Vo 107. 299 Virtual Education and Its Location for Faculty Members Mousa Mojtabaei Department of Governmental Management, Islamic Azad University, Shoushtar, Iran [email protected] Abstract The managerial push to deliver more higher education virtually and online began in the 1990s, when colleges and universities dramatically expanded the use of distance education. But now, faculty unions face intensified challenges in negotiating virtual space. Today‘s pressures call for a more aggressive, positive posture. Faculty and staff face economic, political, and professional pressures. The condition of state budgets and the attendant reductions in appropriations leads policymakers and academic managers to call for academic program and staff cuts. Online higher education appears an inevitable strategy for increasing productivity—more education with less academic staff. The call by the Obama Administration for a 60 percent college education rate has led advocates to push for ―delivering‖ higher education with 21st century information technologies. A technological path, these advocates insist, will increase student engagement, educational quality, and attainment. These advocates challenge the control of the classroom and curriculum by faculty members. After discussing policy pressures on faculty and staff, we examine contractual provisions addressing control of work, control of curriculum, instructional quality, and intellectual property. Last, we explore what is absent from contracts and provide language that bargaining units could put on the table when negotiating the virtual space of online education. Keywords: Education, Virtual, University. Introduction Understanding Virtual Education Before the advent of the cyberworld, ―virtual‖ meant ―in essence if not in reality,‖ or ―almost but not quite,‖ as in, ―He was a virtual Houdini in his ability to escape tight situations.‖ In the microprocessor-saturated world of personal computers, ―virtual‖ as often means ―simulated, imitated, as real things are represented on a computer screen.‖ So ―virtual schooling‖ can be taken to mean ―acts, affordances, and relationships that simulate real schooling,‖ where ―real schooling‖ is taken to be teachers and students interacting in the same place and at the same time for the purpose of learning things. In fact, real schooling has never been as simple as this definition implies. Correspondence courses using postal mail have around a century-long history, and teaching via radio or television has been an established feature of the education landscape for decades. Nonetheless, the remarkable affordances of personal computers networked throughout the entire world have created opportunities undreamed of 50 years ago. Two-way communication and the instant transmission of text, sound, and static and moving images have created amazing possibilities for rich and authentic relationships between instructors and students. Thus the notion of a ―virtual school‖—a school almost as effective as real teachers and students in the same place at the same time—arises at the beginning of the 21st century as an urgent issue worth interrogating. Virtual education encompasses a variety of online courses and programs. Researchers at the North Central Regional Education Laboratory categorized K- 12 public virtual education into five basic types: statewide supplemental programs, district-level supplemental programs, single-district cyberschools, multidistrict cyberschools, and cyber charter schools.1 By far the most prevalent form of virtual education involves what has come to be known as ―credit recovery‖—the earning of credit at the secondary school level by students who have failed a conventional course or for whom scheduling conflicts made enrollment in the conventional course impossible or inconvenient. In recent years, entire online programs leading to a diploma existed only in some remote rural areas or enrolled disabled students who could not attend conventional schools. However, the contemporary trend attracting attention and concern is the cyberschool being marketed to home 300 schoolers and charter schools. Each type of virtual education raises its own policy issues, but by far the most difficult questions surround the rapid expansion of virtual education provided by private companies.2 Virtual schools (encompassing multi-district cyberschools and charter cyberschools) require special attention because they represent new administrative organizations and generally evidence new relationships between commercial entities and government and public agencies. Distance Education Initiatives and Faculty Work We live in strange times. Faculty members constantly work to improve teaching, learning, and the overall educational experience, sometimes with administrators, sometimes on their own. But today, self-proclaimed experts advance proposals to increase productivity, improve graduation and/or completion rates, and transform the overall academic workplace. These advocates portray themselves as concerned with students and with results, especially the impact on the economy. Any questioner, much less critic, they insist, must be self-interested, resistant to change, and committed to the status quo. Federal and state governments have their initiatives, although seldom with money to pay for them. Individual higher education systems are developing their own proposals. Last, foundations, with large amounts of dollars to invest, are becoming attractive to cash-starved governments. These initiatives assume increased use of distance education technologies and online materials. They raise numerous questions about academic quality, and seriously challenge the nature of faculty work. Hopes for progress in higher education were high when Barack Obama took office in January 2009. The previous Congress passed several college affordability measures. Gone was the adversarial posture exemplified by the Spellings Commission.2 The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, also known as the stimulus bill, passed in early 2009, increased student aid, and protected higher education jobs by providing direct aid to states. That summer, the President announced the American Graduation Initiative (AGI), which called for five million new community college graduates within the decade. ―By 2020,‖ he promised ―this nation will once again have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world.‖3 The AGIcalled for creating a challenge fund to promote innovative community college completion strategies, modernizing community college facilities, and opening a new online skills laboratory. But most of the AGIand its legislative vehicle fell victim to the controversy over health care. The final bill contained only two relatively small programs to promote completion at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and community colleges. The administration continues its rhetorical commitment to higher education, holding HBCUand community college policy summits. But the administration has not matched this welcome attention with the investments necessary to carry out the AGI‘s ambitious graduation and completion goals. Its efforts will fall short without a dramatic increase in the number of faculty. But this increase requires resources most state governments do not have, and expenditures most lawmakers are unwilling to make. Many institutions are curtailing enrollments or course offerings. Budget cutbacks forced students to make difficult choices at institutions that traditionally attract first generation college attendees. California State University capped enrollments for the first time in its history. Students change majors based on availability of courses.4 And 30,000 students could not enroll in all the classes they needed at Miami Dade College, ―the nation‘s largest community college,‖ because the institution lacked funds to hire enough faculty members and advisers. California‘s community colleges plan to reduce enrollment by 250,000 students because of cuts in state aid.‖5 By one estimate, ―it will take about 36,000 to 42,000 additional community college faculty members—a 29 to 35 percent annual increase—to sustain the current faculty-student ratio, and to add 3.5 million new completers in a decade.‖6 But, the researchers note, their estimates could change under certain scenarios. ―Distance learning may increase productivity and faculty-student ratios as technology plays a bigger role in education‖ or ―proprietary schools could increase 301 enrollments, thereby producing a larger share of the degree and certificates counted toward meeting national goals.‖7 The propriety schools claimed ―their sector must play a key role if President Obama is to meet his goal of having the world‘s highest number of college graduates by 2020.‖8 Secretary of Education Arne Duncan later said that for profit institutions ―are critical to helping the nation achieve President Obama‘s goal of making the United States the nation with the highest portion of college graduates by 2020.‖9 State funding cuts also prompt traditional institutions to meet their goals through online education. In fall 2010, Tom Joyner announced he was forming a company to assist HBCUs in developing online programs. The company would directly compete with for-profit institutions.10 Congress and the administration support the potential of online and distance learning. Absent substantial investment, attaining the administration‘s expansive goals depends on the supposed savings offered by distance education. ―On average,‖ concluded a meta-analysis sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education, ―students in online learning conditions performed better than those receiving face-to-face instruction.‖11 This analysis aimed to provide policymakers with research-based guidance on implementing online learning for K–12 education and teacher preparation.12 The Department and the AGIencourage use of open courseware in the online setting to supplement traditional education. A new study challenges that meta-analysis. Superior student learning, the researchers state, ―does not hold, however, for the studies included in the meta-analysis that pertain to fully online, semester-length college courses; among these studies, there is no trend in favor of the online course mode.‖ The study, they add, focuses on ―relatively well-prepared university students, so their results may not generalize to traditionally underserved populations.‖ ―Some evidence beyond the meta-analysis suggests,‖ they conclude, ―that, without additional supports, online learning may even undercut progression among low-income and academically underprepared students.‖13 Despite questionable research, government and foundation advocates for online materials and distance education continue to tout the ability of technology to improve educational outcomes. Foundations promote access, completion, and closing achievement gaps by advancing arbitrary goals, purportedly driven by data; they brook little criticism. Gates and Lumina are partnering with state governments to increase college productivity.14 Decreased public funding of higher education, notes one observer, ―means the Gates Foundation could become the most powerful force in American education in the years to come.‖15 The Gates Foundation program aims to ―double the number of young people who earn a postsecondary degree or certificate with value in the marketplace by the time they reach age 26.‖16 Its ambition goes further: ―We need,‖ says a strategy memorandum, ―to ‗re-engineer‘ the delivery model for postsecondary education.‖17 ―From the moment students enroll in college,‖ the foundation states, ―they should be guided along a clear pathway to graduation and a career.‖ The foundation is investing in ―innovations in performance management and institutional practices‖ with early emphasis on ―supporting data-driven efforts to accelerate the rate of academic catch-up… and first year experience.‖ Its strategy also calls for investment in ―new technology products and platforms that produce dramatic improvement in learning and completion rates and can be developed and adopted at scale.‖18 Achievement Outcomes of Virtual Education Volumes of research on ―distance education‖ attest to the outcomes of computer mediated teaching and learning.15 The three most prominent recent publications include meta-analyses of studies that investigated the achievement outcomes of K-12 online teaching and learning. The primary question addressed in most studies is whether computer-mediated, asynchronous teaching and learning over a network produces the same achievement on paper-and-pencil tests as the same material taught in a traditional synchronous, face-to-face setting involving a teacher and students. Cavanaugh, Gillan, Kromrey, Hess, and Blomeyer16 published the first 302 meta-analysis of online education outcomes focused entirely on K-12 teaching and learning. The authors identified 14 studies published in the 15-year period prior to 2004 that met strict inclusion criteria for internal experimental validity in comparing online courses with conventionally taught courses. Outcomes were measured by paper-and-pencil tests of achievement of course objectives. The authors concluded that there were no statistically significant differences in achievement between online courses and courses taught in conventional face-toface arrangements. Smith, Clark, and Blomeyer17 undertook a meta-analysis to update the work of Cavanaugh and her colleagues with eight experimental and quasiexperimental studies that similarly met high standards for experimental validity. All eight experiments focused on student achievement in K-12 instruction. The findings of this analysis were seen as supporting the conclusions of the 2004 Cavanaugh et al. meta-analysis in which virtual instruction produced measured achievement equivalent to that of conventional face-to-face instruction. Tallent-Runnels and her colleagues18 reviewed achievement in online course across a wide span of ages and subjects and concluded that ―… learning outcomes appeared to be the same as in traditional courses‖ (p. 93). Essentially this same conclusion had been reached in the earlier meta-analyses published in 2004 and 2005 by Blomeyer and his colleagues at Learning Point Associates. One measure of the effectiveness of virtual schooling is whether it has won acceptance broadly among, say, parents of K-12 students whose children might be exposed to online teaching. In the annual Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup survey19 of opinions regarding education, parents of public school children were asked the same two questions, once in 2001 and again in 2007: Do you approve of high school students earning credits online? And would you be willing to have your child earn most high school credits online? The results showed an increasing acceptance of online teaching-learning in small amounts but an increased skepticism of virtual schooling constituting the bulk of a student‘s high school education (see Tables 1 and 2). VIRTUALSPACE: CONTRACTPROVISIONS Faculty unions must focus on the implications of the move to virtual space for workload, control of the work and of the curriculum, and intellectual property. Properly addressing these issues in contracts and policies is critical for protecting faculty work and educational quality. Workload. Distance education involves preparing for classes, posting materials online, working with technical support, conducting online discussions, and managing e-mail communication with students. Control of the Work. Who does the work, faculty or technical staff; bargaining unit member or non-bargaining unit member? Who chooses the technology? What are the criteria for those choices—academic or commercial? Control of the Curriculum. Faculty members are responsible for academic policies under a proper system of shared governance. Standardized online course materials threaten that principle, violate shared governance, and challenge academic freedom principles. Intellectual Property. Who owns the material generated for distance education courses? The creators, faculty unions argue, own the intellectual property. But, questions arise, given the large institutional contributions to their creation. Imposing standardized courses worsens the situation. Can a faculty member alter the intellectual property in a base course so as to protect the respective rights of the original creator and the course instructor? What is the definition of ―significant use of institutional resources?‖ The push to offer non-traditional courses is not new. In the 1980s and earlier, institutions pushed course delivery through television or videotaped lectures, often with only one-way 303 interaction. Some institutions moved to video or audio transmission with two-way interaction, including transmitting courses to extension campuses. These courses were primarily aimed at non-traditional, older and working students, or at students located in away from any large postsecondary institution. Distance education was largely an extension of correspondence courses. Today, each academic year brings new technologies usable for distance education. Courses may include content developed or presented by many individuals with diverse relationships to the institution. On-campus (―onground‖) and online courses may involve many technologies— blogs, podcasts, vodcasts (video on-demand), wikis, gaming or simulations, and chat rooms. ―Blended‖ or ―hybrid‖ courses are increasingly common, with some material presented in person, and part through alternative methods. Collective bargaining agreements reflect the concerns that distance education now raises for college faculty and professionals. Contracts in NEA‘s Higher Education Contract Analysis System (HECAS) 2010, show the diverse solutions developed by staff and management to address these concerns. Table 1 categorizes the analyzed contracts by the significant areas of distance education they address. Quality of Virtual Schooling Concerns with the quality of virtual K-12 schooling are many: accreditation status, teacher certification, course quality, and assessment of student work are among the concerns. Several existing private groups have conferred their accreditation on cyberschools: the Commission on International and Trans-Regional Accreditation, the Northwest Association of Accredited Schools, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Council on Accreditation and School Improvement, and the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, to name only a few. Theseagencies, by merit of their rapid proliferation, have yet to acquire the legitimacy of the more established accrediting agencies such as the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools, the New England Association of Schools and Colleges, North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, the Southern Association of Colleges, and the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, which are approved by the U.S. Department of Education. These traditional accrediting agencies have sought to bring virtual schools under their purview, but with few exceptions most such schools have not requested their services. Higher education has long struggled with the problem of dubious accrediting agencies. The Council for Higher Education Accreditation, a private organization of 3,000 colleges and universities, lists more than two dozen accrediting agencies that it identifies as fake or dubious. Some of these accredit several online colleges and schools.25 A National Commission of Accredited Schools has proved to be nothing but a diploma mill selling high school diplomas for two weeks‘ ―work.‖26 Given the money flowing to virtual schooling, the need for reliable accrediting bodies to ensure school quality seems obvious, and the potential for abuse is enormous. Consider two examples―one from Arizona and one from Colorado. The Arizona Virtual Academy, a large charter school, enrolled more than 3,000 full-time online students in 2008. The state paid the school approximately $7,000 per student, the typical rate for a charter school student, even though the Academy maintained an office in downtown Phoenix and no other physical site. Consequently, the Academy collected approximately $21 million in state funding, approximately 90% of the total state funding for virtual schools. The Director of the Arizona Virtual Academy was formerly an employee of the Goldwater Institute in Phoenix—a conservative think-tank championing vouchers, charter schools, and other privatization proposals—and once served as Chairperson of the Arizona Charter School Board. This person, with no experience as a school administrator and no such credentials, was paid a salary of approximately $100,000 in 2008, about average for principals of large high schools in the metropolitan region. Moreover, most of the state money going to the Arizona Virtual Academy was then passed through to K12 Inc. In 2008, the Academy was discovered to be outsourcing the grading of some papers to readers in 304 India.27 One of the more unusual cases of a virtual school concerns a tiny school district on the semi-arid plains of southern Colorado, a third of a mile north of the New Mexico border. Branson, Colorado, had no grocery store, no gas station, and a population of fewer than 100 persons in the 2000 Census. Hardly visible in Google Earth, Branson is a most unlikely place to have received over $15,000,000 in state support for its 1,000 ―virtual students‖ from around the state in the first four years (2001-2005) of its online school. ―‗Cyberschools are the 800-pound gorilla of the choice movement, although vouchers and charter schools get a lot more attention,‘ said William Moloney, education commissioner in Colorado, where state financing for online schools has increased almost 20-fold in five years – to $20.2 million for 3,585 students today from $1.1 million for 166 full-time students in 2000.‖28 In the fall of 2006, the State of Colorado was paying for the schooling of 8,236 online students.29 Control of the Work Colleges can compensate for the development, initial and subsequent offering, and updating of materials for distance learning or other technology-intensive courses directly with additional pay, or through contributions to ordinary or overload teaching credits. Regular or adjunct faculty, or contractors or corporations may do this work. Can administrators assign faculty to offer distance education courses, even if they would prefer to teach traditional courses? Older contracts often preserved the right of faculty to reject distance education, but current contracts more often allow administrators to assign distance education courses, at least to newer faculty whose initial contracts specify that requirement. The contract for Oakland University (Michigan) preserves the right of faculty to select their course delivery methods, and requires the university to provide training and support for instructors who choose to offer distance education courses. Faculty involvement in distance education should be voluntary. Faculty should receive training and support services in the development and delivery of distance education. The contract for the Pennsylvania State Colleges and Universities allows management to assign faculty members to distance education only if their appointment letter specified this right. faculty teach increasing numbers of courses.30 Contracts therefore often include language on controls over distance learning course offerings. Who decides whether the college should offer a course through distance learning? Can a college purchase courses from other institutions or private vendors? Will distance-learning courses reduce the availability of traditional campus-based courses? Contracts usually provide for faculty participation in these decisions by supporting academic governance—faculty senates, curriculum committees, and departmental approval processes. California‘s College of the Desert, for example, establishes controls on courses developed by adjunct faculty covered by the collective bargaining agreement. The sponsor—a full-time faculty member or dean—initiates a review process for course approval by the curriculum committee. The contract for El Camino Community College, also in the California system, similarly asserts, ―The El Camino College Academic Senate has the primary responsibility for the recommendations to the Board of Trustees regarding curriculum and matriculation issues. As such, only those courses and programs approved through the agreed upon curriculum and matriculation decision process will be delivered by Distance Education.‖ Shawnee State University, in Ohio subjects distance education and traditional courses to the same university governance structures. The Cleveland State University contract includes strong language on faculty control of the curriculum, including course development, selection of faculty to teach courses, and class size. Distance education courses (or modifications thereto) shall comply with all of the standard practices, procedures, and criteria which have been established for traditional courses including, but not limited to, faculty involvement at the level of course development and approval, selection of qualified faculty to teach the course, pedagogical determinations about 305 appropriate class size, and oversight of all final course offerings by the appropriate faculty committee to ensure conformity with previously established traditions of course quality and relevance to programs. Occasional adjustments (e.g. to office hour procedures) may be necessary in order to fulfill the intent of standard practices and procedures. In such cases, any adjustments shall require approval by the Chair or the Dean‘s designee. Faculty contracts also support curricular quality by specifying training requirements, technical supports, and class size limits. The contract for Lane Community College (Oregon) requires the college to ―ensure that resources for distance learning, such as technical and infrastructure support (including additional phone lines, hardware and software) and academic support (including Library, Counseling and Advising) are identified to faculty and provided at a reasonably adequate level.‖ The contract for San Diego Community College (California) Adult Educators establishes norms for distance learning class size, and requires the college to provide the faculty with adequate supports. Class section capacity for distance education courses shall be established prior to the beginning of the enrollment period for each course. The average class size of a distance education class will be that expected of any other class in continuing education The District shall provide training, logistical, instructional, and technical support to faculty with distance education assignments. CONCLUSION Promoting high-tech modalities has strong bipartisan backing as the answer to challenges confronting the academy. Critics portray academic unions as unresponsive to the potential of technology. Pushing back is to be cast as anti-reform, old-fashioned traditionalists and as protecting existing jobs and routines. Resisting ―the inevitable‖ invites unflattering analogies to workforces and industries that failed to adapt to the present with technological innovation. Unions may protest they support appropriately utilized technology. Yet the posture in collective bargaining agreements and in the policy arena is largely defensive and relatively ineffective. It is time to take the offensive. Unions must expand and strengthen provisions protecting faculty workloads, curricular control, and intellectual property. More important, faculty members must offer an alternative, compelling framing of work, education, and quality. We must hold institutions accountable for their patterns of resource investment. We must also offer a counternarrative to those advocating a new academic normal of 24/7/365 educational service delivery to more students by fewer independent, full-time faculty and professionals. REFERENCES Blumenstyk, G. ―Tom Joyner Venture Will Help Black Colleges Start Online Programs,‖ The Chronicle of Higher Education, September 2, 2010. Available at http://chronicle.com/article/TomJoyner-Venture-Will-Help/124294. Center for the Study of Education Policy, Illinois State University. Grapevine: An Annual Compilation of Data on State Fiscal Support for Higher Education, Table 5. Available at: http://www.grapevine.ilstu.edu/tables/FY10/Revised_Feb10/GPV10_Table5_revised.pdf. Christopher, B. and S. Clery. ―Faculty Salaries: 2008–2009,‖ in The NEA 2010 Almanac of Higher Education, Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 2010, 7-28. Available at http://www.nea.org/assets/img/PubAlmanac/CleryChristopher_2010.pdf. Fuller, A. ―Duncan Says For-Profit Colleges Are Important to Obama‘s 2020 Goal,‖ The Chronicle of Higher Education, May 11, 2010. Available at http://chronicle.com/article/Duncan-Says-ForProfit-Coll/65477. Gates Foundation, The. Postsecondary Success: Focusing on Completion: Executive Summary 2009. Available at http://www.gatesfoundation.org/learning/Documents/postsecondary-educationsuccess-plan-executive-summary.pdf. 306 Gonzalez, J. ―For-Profit Colleges, Growing Fast, Say They Are Key to Obama‘s Degree Goals,‖ The Chronicle of Higher Education. November, 2009. Available at http://chronicle.com/article/ForProfit-Colleges-Say-The/49068. Gose, B. ―Gates Fund Creates Plan for College Completion,‖ The Chronicle of Higher Education, November 21, 2008. Available at http://chronicle.com/article/Gates-Fund-Creates-Planfor/25063. Hebel, S. ―Lumina Describes How Far States Have to Go to Meet College-Completion Goals,‖ The Chronicle of Higher Education, September 21, 2010. Available at http://chronicle.com/article/Lumina-Describes-How-Far-St/124553. Jaggars, S.S. and T. Bailey. Effectiveness of Fully Online Courses for College Students: Response to a Department of Education Meta-Analysis, Community College Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia University, July 13, 2010. Available at http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu. Lumina Foundation for Education, The. A Stronger Nation through Higher Education. September 2010. Available at http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/A_stronger_nation.pdf. 307 REVISITING HEALTH IN COLONIAL BENGAL: A LITERARY OVERVIEW (1880 -1930) Tinni Goswami Bhattacharya Post –Doctoral Fellow, The Asiatic Society, Kolkata, West Bengal, India. [email protected] Abstract The essential theme of this paper is to highlight the condition of health and hygiene in the British Bengal from the perspective of official documents and vernacular writings, with special emphasis on the journals and periodicals. The fatal effects of the epidemics like malaria and cholera, the insanitary condition of the rural Bengal and the cultivated indifference of the British Raj made the lives of the poor natives miserable and ailing.The authorities had a tendency to blame the colonized for their illiteracy and callousness which became instrumental for the outbreak of the epidemics. On the other, in the late 19th and the beginning of the 20th, the vernacular literature played the role of a catalyst in awakening health awareness, highlighting the issues related with ill-health, insanitation and malnourishment. More importantly, it became an active link between the society and culture on the one hand, and health and people on the other. The present researcher wants to highlight these opposite trajectories of mentalities with a different connotation. The ideologies of the Raj and the native political aspirations often reflected in the colonial writings, where the year 1880 was considered as a landmark in the field of public health policies. On the other, the dichotomy between the masters and the colonized took a prominent shape during 1930s.Within these fifty years; the health of the natives witnessed many upheavals grounded on the social, economic and cultural tensions. Keywords – Bengal, Native, Health, Raj, vernacular literature. Introduction The essential theme of this research paper is to trace a particular aspect of the socio-cultural history of twentieth century Bengal, a province under the British India,with special emphasis on the condition of health and sanitation in the late 19th & early 20th century. A major part of this discourse falls within the colonial period. Hence it is necessary to comprehend the nature of Indian society and culture, and the condition of public health in that particular colonial context. In the late 19th century and in the beginning of the 20th, the vernacular literature along with the press played a leading part in awakening health awareness, highlighting the issues related with illhealth, insanitation and malnourishment. Methods & Procedures During the colonial period, the condition of public health and sanitation was not very impressive. The officials of the East India Company had a tendency to blame the indigenous people for epidemics like Cholera, malaria, plague, Kala-zar etc. As for example, in 1881 on 24th February, the Civil Medical Officer of Dinajpur, Baboo U.C. Mookherjee, wrote a letter to the Magistrate of Dinajpur, stating that, ‗… anything that contributes to the unhealthiness of a place is to be found in abundance all about Roygunge and its adjoining villages. Roygunge is almost in the centre and it is most crowded without proper roads or drains. There is a river called Kullick which except in the rains, contains throughout the year, particularly in the portion that passes through the most crowded part of Roygunge, dirty water holding all the organic impurities in most concentrated solution and, is in my opinion, unfit for use; but strange to say almost all the people use it both for drinking and cooking purposes.‘1 308 On the other hand, in the vernacular journals and periodicals, many articles were written with the aim to criticizing the British Raj for the alleged neglect of sanitary and unhygienic conditions in this regard. A critical study of the following subject cannot fail to reveal the deplorable condition of public health in Bengal, the helplessness of whose populace can be better be imagined than described. Demands to ameliorate public health conditions was voiced continually in the press, in the hosts of petitions and memorials from private persons in resolutions after resolutions at different annual medical conferences and in the provincial legislative council but little was done to improve public health.2 Though great hopes and many expectations with regard to public health were raised after the introduction of Montagu – Chelmsford Reforms (1919), there was hardly any improvement with regard to this. There was neither a clear understanding of the methods by which improvement could not be affected nor a definite program of what required to be done. Health measures had little influence on mortality and morbidity. The reports of the Director of Public Health make a melancholy reading. Even a cursory glance through the statistics in reference to deaths and diseases in these reports, give one the impression of the tremendous loss of lives due to preventable diseases. Malaria did not abate; cholera, Kala-zar and other diseases could not be stamped out. Although compulsory vaccination was introduced first in Calcutta in 1880 and gradually extended to all municipal and district board areas, Bengal continued to be a reservoir of smallpox. The rate of infant and maternal mortality was staggering.3 The health of the school children remained far from satisfactory. There was an acute crisis of drinking water in rural Bengal. In the urban areas also the provision of safe drinking water was inadequate. Another fruitful source of disease and infection was to be found in the adulteration also reduced the vitality and power of resistance of an appreciable section of the population. The low standards of nutrition and of bad housing were also factors contributing to the ill-health of the people. The pest of water-hyacinth could not be eradicated; smoke nuisance prevailed in its worst form. A Government resolution admitted that the public health services in Bengal and India were far from developed and the problems of public health were many and varied.4 This particular problem had a social approach and the structure of the society of that time was very much caste-based. Sometimes the lower-caste people had to face opposition from the upper section of the society, if they wanted to reform or uplift the existing health condition. From Sarat Chandra‘s ‗Pandit Mosai‘ (The Teacher), and ‗Palli Samaj‘ (The Village Society) we get a picture of this. Pradip Kumar Bose in his ‗Health and Society in Bengal‘, states that, ‗…the examination of 19th century Bengali periodicals dealing with matters of health and medicine and the review of the subjects and specificities of contemporary knowledge – practices discussed therein, reveal that a variety of these practices and regimes of knowledge had originally emerged in the West. These were re-situated in the course of colonial rule. The re-situation of these practices led to their reformulations as well. A different society, culture, tradition and existing indigenous knowledge – systems provided the context in which the gradual spread of this knowledge occurred, followed by its adaption and articulation through various reformulations.‘5 This particular mind-set formed a specific socio-cultural trend which later became the pulse of the Bengali society on the verge of the 19th and 20th century Bengali Renaissance. From 1900 onwards the relation between health and society became more prominent where the native mind played the role of a catalyst. As for example, in the Swasthya Samachar Patrika (B.S. 1332, Chaitra), a lecture by Rabindranath Tagore, the famous Noble Lauriat, was published under the title of ‗Rabindranath and Rural Reconstruction‘. Rabindranath‘s call for self – awakening 309 was definitely a reflection of the enlightened Bengali psyche which spoke for self – esteem and self – enrichment, in other words, a state of self – awareness. It was commonly felt that to improve the state of health and hygiene in the country in general, and Bengal in particular; self awareness was the most primary tool. And it could result only by the spread of education. Therefore emphasis should be put on compulsory education at primary and secondary level.6 The political aspect of these writings also had an important mark. From the twentieth century onwards, the plea for reforms in the administrative machinery became a common issue. It was written in the journal Probasi (Aghrawn, B.S. 1319) that, the cultivated indifference of the British Raj and its administrative malfunction became responsible for the immense miseries of the natives.7 With this socio-cultural back drop, it has become quite simpler to analyze the response of the Raj forwards the health problems of the natives. It is evident from the Reports of the Sanitary Commissioner‘s of Bengal, the funding was inadequate all the time, and several Union and District Boards had to depend on the natives regarding any kind of development in this sector. As a result of this, the tax burden increased almost every year which created resentment to a great extent amongst the Bengalis and became an important issue of their writings. This financial stringency was a common problem throughout the British period, and was a great obstacle for reforms. Secondly, the British Government was often hesitant to intervene in the matters of the colonized, such as health and sanitation, or other personal, private, social problem, due to the fear of opposition, from the society. This became more acute after the Revolt of 1857. The Sanitary Commissioners were aware about the fact and after expressed their grievances in this regard. Apart from this, as the vernacular journals, and the other literature of that time give the impression that, at times the authorities became very strict, unreasonable and harsh to implement their health policies, particularly with regard of the prevention of the epidemics like plague, cholera etc. For example, as a result of the quarantine policy or the compulsory inspection of the native houses, the colonized, both men and women, had to suffer to a great deal. The Health Inspectors generally carried the legal permission to enter into the women‘s quarters of the native houses. This was considered as an unwarranted encroachment into the private domain of the Indian household and therefore to the Indian culture and customs. Not only that, the notion of racial superiority was always there which has been termed by the historians like David Arnold as an attempt to ‗colonize the body‘8. It was stated by the Epidemic Diseases Act (III of 1897) that – ‗… (3) Any person disobeying any regulation or order made under this Act shall be deemed to have committed an offence punishable under section 188 of the Indian Penal Code. (4) No suit or other legal proceeding shall lie against any person for anything done or in good faith intended to be done under this Act.‘9 (The plague In India, 1896, 1897, vol – II, Simla, 1898, compiled by R. Nathan, Appendix IV.) It is clear from this above mentioned paragraph that, on the one hand the British Government had an intention to reform but on the other they tried to ‗superimpose‘ their ideas on the natives which was none other than a specific form of ‗dictatorship‘. This dichotomy played an important role throughout the British period behind their decision making. The power of the British having been established fully in the 19th century, their administration was simultaneously 310 taking a definite and coherent shape. Since early 19th century such ideologies like utilitarianism and Evangelicalism were deeply influencing the policies of the British Government. With the beginning of the 20th, a newer ideology, namely the ‗Whiteman‘s Burden‘ materialized. This concept developed and grew on the earlier evangelical and utilitarian ideas. It was a statement of the cultural superiority of the West, of the racial superiority of the white man and therefore his Christian / racially superior duties to bring about the deliverance of the colonized / racially superior duties to bring about the deliverance of the colonized / nonwhite people in cultural, material contexts.10 The British considered India as a ‗land of dirt, disease and sudden death‘. To them, India with its unfamiliar topography, unbearable climate, ‗unknown plant and animal life‘ was ‗an exotic and dangerous space‘. From this developed the British concepts of ‗tropical climate‘ and ‗tropical diseases, and the ‗vision of India as a land of peril‘, where they had to live ‗at their peril‘. While they devised strategies and methods to ensure a greater degree of survival in its climate, they also developed a way to put the blame about the prevalent diseases and deplorable health conditions of the country not just on its climate ‗but on Indian fatalism, inertia and superstition‘. Taking cholera as a case, it was considered a typically Indian disease and closely related to Hindu superstition. The British disgust at the native devise of imputing deliverance from the disease upon a particular goddess is an example of Hindu fatalism. It is to be noted that both cholera and malaria so arguably linked with the ‗tropical‘ concept actually happened in a regular manner in temperate regions of Europe and England too with the exception of Ireland.11 During this period, at the onset of the specific colonial mentality, the native women of Bengal also became aware about their health which was reflected in many of their writings. As for example, in Bamabodhini Patrika, one Shree Laxmimani wrote a poem on the Burdwan fever. Here she described the fatal effects of a special kind of ailment which once took the form of an epidemic in the district of Burdwan of the Bengal province. She highlighted the sufferings of the poor natives and the unavailability of the western medicine, furthermore accelerated the pace of the crisis.12 During the colonial rule, there was always a tendency on the part of the rulers to blame the Indians for their ignorance, but very few people had the courage to point out the faults of the Government regarding this. In 1923, in an article, published in ‗The Calcutta Review‘, the famous geological, Pramathanath Bose wrote – ‗It is not ignorance of hygiene, but hygienic reform on western lines, not death of academically trained midwives and medical men, but dearth of nutritious, suitable food, or wholesome drinking water, of pure air, of free drainage, of tranquility of mind, and indulgence in tea, alcohol, manufactured medicines, cigarette, etc., that is sapping the vitality of our people and reducing their capacity for resisting or overcoming the attacks of malaria and other diseases.‘13 Apart from criticizing the authorities and the western civilization, the writer also had taken an attempt to find out the faults within the native society and perhaps wrote with a heavy heart, wrapped with the notion of confession, - ‗Nobody is to be blamed, Shyama (The Goddess Kali), we drown in the deep waters of the cesspool dug by ourselves.‘14This quotation aptly describes the self – appraisal of the educated Bengalis, who were of the whole situation. Conclusion From the above-mentioned discussion, it is evident that, the writings of colonial Bengal, both official and vernacular, were an example of the colonial mentality as well as the desire to attain freedom. Here the concern for health and hygiene played the role of a metaphor. The fifty years 311 from 1880-1930 was a transitional period witnessing numerous upheavals grounded on the social, economic, political and cultural tensions. The year 1880 became a land mark, as it saw the first sign of decentralization in the field of public health policies with the creation of the post of Deputy Sanitary Commissioner. On the other, the year 1930 was on the eve of the Indian independence (1947), representing the Indian vigor and colonial apathy. It was a period, when the natives started to intervene in the administration with their innovative ideas. These people along with the authors of the vernacular journals and periodicals gave birth to a specific trend, which later became a culture based on the indigenous society. The native plea for self-rule often colored with the desire of having a better place for living. The Bengali intelligentsia through their writings had taken an attempt to challenge the established colonial perception of the British masculinity and Indian femininity, particularly the impotency of the Indian male. Here the printing media became instrumental to create an open public forum against the Raj with special emphasis on the vernacular. Both the official and the other writings of the colonial era on health and hygiene perhaps focused on two things. Firstly, the cultivated indifference of the Government often accelerated the velocity of the crisis. Secondly, the indigenous society, bounded with religious superstitions and irrational customs often posed an obstacle for reforms. This stance was very much prominent in the writing of Pramathanath. The notion of self –criticism along with the nationalistic aspirations became an important component of the native mentality during the colonial period. Lastly, the European concepts of health and hygiene often amalgamated with the traditional ideas particularly, those on the Ayurveda (Ancient Hindu Medical Text). This fusion was very much apparent in the vernacular health journals of that time. It created a new kind of consciousness amongst the colonized regarding health and hygiene. Even the women of Bengal, both Hindu and Muslim, raised their voice in favor of indigenous system. Begum Rokeya, the pioneer in the field of Muslim women‘s emancipation, wrote to support the traditional medicine along with the western line of treatment. This particular trend even reflected in the official writings. Situating all these, it can be said that, it is not an easy task to re-experience the colonial health. But there is no harm to do so with the help of the contemporary literature. From which we can get the glimpses of the past. Notes and References Arnold, David – ‗Colonizing The Body‘, Oxford, 1993,passim. Bamabodhini Patrika, Poush, B.S. 1278, A.D. 1871 Bose, Pradip Kumar (ed.) – Health and Society in Bengal, A selection from late 19m. Century Bengali Periodicals, Sage, New Delhi, 2006, Introduction, pp. 10-46. Bose, Pramathanath – Fifty-Eight years Fight with Malaria published in The Calcutta Review, Vol III, July – Sept, 1923, p. 98. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Metcalf, T.R – Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge University Press, 1995, Preface – IX. Nathan, R. – The plague In India, 1896, 1897, vol-II, Simla 1898, Appendix IV. No. 74 dated Dinagpore, the 24th February 1881, From Baboo U.C. Mookherjee M.B.C.M. Civil Medical Officer of Dinagpore. Probasi, Aghrawn, B.S. 1319, A.D.1912. 312 Ray, Kabita – History of Public Health, Colonial Bengal 1921-47, K.P. Bagchi and Co., Calcutta, 1998, Chapter XII. Pp. 343-348. Ray, Kabita – Press and Public Health Bengal 1921-47, Corpus Research Institute Kolkata, 2009, Introduction. Swasthya Samachar Patrika, B.S.1322, A.D. 1915. 313 THE FOREIGN POLICY –THEORETICAL OVERVIEW Dejan Marolov, PhD University Goce Delcev, Stip, Macedonia Abstract The foreign policy is one of the most important policies in each serious state. In order to have good practical foreign policy there must be some theoretical research first. This is especially true nowadays when we live in the world of globalization. This paper deals with the theoretical concepts of the foreign policy thought usage of qualitative methods and shows that further theoretical researches on the foreign policy concept are still needed. Introduction The theoretical research and overview of the foreign policy is one of the conditions in order one state to have sustainable and beneficial foreign policy. In this context, the theoretical knowledge about the relations between the foreign policy and other relevant factors can be sometimes crucial for the success of the foreign policy of one particular country. This paper presents the relations of the foreign policy towards the diplomacy, but also towards the domestic policy and the degree of dependence in shaping a foreign policy with character of political system. However this paper deals with the changes in the international relations and their impact on the foreign policy too. The term “foreign policy” As in the international relations and on international scene, many various events and changes used to occur almost always. These developments have been studied within disciplines such as sociology, history, economics, and so on. However, the events that occurred in the international arena during the twentieth century created such tectonic quakes that for their better understanding and explanation there was a pressing need to create a new scientific discipline that explains and examines them scientifically. A respond to this need was the appearance of the science of international relations. In this context, the foreign policy is an essential part of international relations. Although it must be noted that sometimes the foreign policy can be studied through other scientific disciplines and other aspects. Also, within the science of international relations, there are multiple perspectives of the foreign policy, its objectives and deciding factors for the behavior of states. For example, looking through the realist‘s perspective the foreign policy is a process of constancy in attempt to influence others, or knowing how to force the others to conduct in a way that would be beneficial for your own interests. At the same time the perspective of the liberals concerning foreign policy is that it is shaped according the international system, political system and domestic politics. Further on, it could be noticed that the main goal of foreign policy, according to the perspective of realists, are the direct military security objectives of the states. On the other hand the liberals see the long-term economic and social welfare of society as main goals of the foreign policy. When it comes to the answer of the question ―which factors have decisive impact on the behavior of states‖, again there is a variety of answers. Thus, from the perspective of the realists the decisive factor are the interests in terms of power, and about the leaders it is said that all of them (leaders) are alike in their behavior when it comes to decide about foreign policy. The liberal‘s perspective refers to the fact that democrats and their governments are not only limited by state facilities but also by social requirements and needs... 314 The name ―foreign‖ policy comes from the Latin word ―foris‖ - which means ―out‖. However the term ―foreign policy‖ is not always used by all authors. Some authors use the term ―international policy‖ as a synonym. Their argument is that the international policy is basically the same with the foreign policy. This claim is supported by the argument of the same factors that argue that completely the same internal and external factors determine the formation and direction of both policies. Yet even these authors acknowledge the apparent difference in the size range. Namely, the international policy is very broad category defined as sum or group of foreign policies of different states. Hence logical questions arise: What is foreign policy? How could the foreign policy be understood? How could the foreign policy be defined? The understanding of the foreign policy is generally along the line such as: everything that the state does towards the other states or with other states is named as foreign policy. Yet this conception of foreign policy is not entirely correct. The previous notion has obvious misleading statement and it reduces the foreign policy to an only policy among states. But, it neglected the fact that the foreign policy also includes the policy of the state towards the international organizations and NGOs with international prefix. Previous understanding of foreign policy can be very likely considered as a problem especially in today's world of globalization. This is because there are still unexplained processes of interdependence in full therefore the globalization cast a shadow on the previous understanding of the foreign policy. This is because the above understanding of foreign policy assumes that the state (government) alone can decide on its foreign policy towards other countries, or establish its own authentic and independent position. This, in today's world of globalization and mutual interdependence of states, can be called at least naive. Globalization as process or international system, in good part, is still an enigma. Various authors have tried to find a definition to explain this new international system called globalization. According to Friedman (2006) after the end of the Cold War, it becomes obvious that the world is no longer in bi-polar international system of Cold War, but at the same time during the first few years it was difficult to determine what was the new frame and a new system like, in which the world entered after the fall of the Berlin Wall.‖We knew some new system was aborning that constituted a different framework for international relations, but we couldn‘t define what it was, so we defined by what it wasn‘t. It wasn‘t the Cold War. So, we called it the post-Cold-War world" (Friedman 2006, p. 11). This illustrates the international relations‘ problems facing the defining the new system. Still Friedman (2006, p.11) continues ‖The more I traveled, though the more it became apparent to me that we were not just in some messy, incoherent, indefinable post-cold world. Rather, we were in a new international system. This system had its own unique logical rules, pressures and incentives and it deserved its own name ‗globalization‘. Globalization is not just some economics fad, and it is not just passing trend. It is an international system - the dominant international system that replaced the Cold War system after the fall of the Berlin Wall."He argues that within the globalization, unlike the previous system of a cold war, there are three systems of balance which overlap and affect one another. The first system is the traditional balance between states. In the new system the balance is set between the USA on one side and all other countries on the other side. The second is the balance between states and global markets. The third is the balance between states and individuals. Globalization has pushed many of the obstacles for movement of wealthy people, divided the world in networks and for the first time in history enabled tremendous power of individuals so that they could influence states and markets. For the first time there are as Friedman calls ―super-powerful individuals‖. One such example is Osama bin Laden, a powerful individual with its own network, an individual who declared war to the most powerful country in 315 the world - the United States. For the first time in history we have a declaration of war by a super powerful individual to a super powerful state. For the first time in history the power of the state as a single powerful entity in international relations and systems is shattered. Therefore the claim that foreign policy is what the state makes toward other states, in today's modern world and today's international system of globalization, can be called naive for simple reason that the decisions of the state are not and cannot be as independent as they were in past. How can the foreign policy be defined then? There are several authors who have brought and gave their definitions of what they consider foreign policy actually is. One of them is Janev (2002, p.67) that defines foreign policy ―as a state policy towards the subjects of international relations. It is a complexion of elements and processes in conducting social changes, where these changes and processes are conducted in relation with international subject". Without making profound analysis of the definition of Janev can be easily seen in the first portion that the main element and the main role is given to the state on one hand and international entities on the other hand. Tonovski (2005), in turn, defines foreign policy as ―a specific, conscious and organized activities, which with the help of certain methods and tools (specialized bodies, groups and individuals) is implement by a state on pre-defined goals and interests whose importance transcends national borders‖ In the definition of Tonovski the element ―state‖ is essential again. Namely, in his definition it is the state that is implementing a specific, conscious and organized activity with the help of certain methods and tools beyond its borders, and because of pre-defined purposes. A similar definition is given by Smith, Hadfield & Dunne (2008) who claim that foreign policy is a given strategy of approach chosen by the national government to achieve its objectives in relations with external entities. According to them, this includes the decision not to do anything. Although this definition reduced down the foreign policy to a strategy of approach chosen by the national government, yet again the element of ―state‖ is present (national government). Namely the national government determines the strategy of approach in relations with external entities, and because of obtaining certain goals. Hill gives a rather different view and definition of foreign policy. He (2003, p.3) says, foreign policy is the "sum of official external relations conducted by an independent actor (usually a state) in the international relations.‖ In the last definition the phrase ―independent actor‖ is encountered; although in brackets it is put that this actor is usually (but not always) the state. The term ―independent actor‖ enables in general to understand that it includes not only the states but also other entities such as the EU. So in this last definition, the word ―state‖ is totally properly avoided, which in today's world of globalization is especially true. It is believed that further listing of other definitions of foreign policy would be unproductive. Despite abundant definitions, existing and trying to define the foreign policy, they do not contradict (or not significantly, at least in the basic elements) to one another. Mostly all of them accept that the foreign policy is a specific, conscious and organized action or a strategy of approach, or what state (the term ―independent actor‖ would be better to use) does or does not go beyond the state borders with the international entities trying to achieve some pre-defined goals. The relationship between foreign policy and diplomacy Many people do not make a difference between the term ―foreign policy‖ and the term ―diplomacy‖. Despite their similarities, however it could not be agreed that these two terms have the same meaning, although there is a high degree of interdependence between them. Thus, a 316 country striving to have successful foreign policy makes a perfect logic to invest in creating its own numbered and experienced diplomacy. However, the reverse is also quite legitimate, thus if a country has a strong diplomacy, and many experienced diplomats, then it tends to have active foreign policy. As from a historical perspective, we can see that internationally-wise that there was almost no phase of international relations without any sort of diplomatic activity. Although the beginning of the ―modern‖ diplomacy is associated with northern Italy in the 13th century, there was some kind of diplomacy since the ancient times. In ancient Greece, for example, the city states had their own ―diplomats‖ who were sent to other city-states to discuss and dissolve certain specific issues, without having permanently diplomatic missions set in those city states. Something similar to today's modern diplomats in ancient Greece were the citizens entitled as ―proxenos‖. This title had been awarded to a man who lived in one city state but had maintained close ties with the city-state that has awarded him the title. Perhaps the first permanent diplomats of a foreign country to another country were the so-called ―apocrisiarii‖. They were a kind of permanent representatives of the Roman Pope in Constantinople. Over the time, need for having its own ―eyes and ears‖ in another states that will inform from first-hand, become inevitable for each serious state. The development of new and modern communication devices set a new dilemma. The question was: Do the states still need diplomatic mission in time where the information became much more accessible and traveling became incomparably faster than before? The answer to the previous question is – yes they will. The diplomats have more features and tasks and getting information is just one of them. Today they are part of the unbreakable network setup as part of the foreign policy of any serious state. The importance of diplomacy in today's world can be seen through the huge budgets allocated for diplomatic service and for achievement of its goals in general. But, how can we define ‗diplomacy‘? Similar as the foreign policy definitions, ‗diplomacy‘ has several definitions also. For many people the diplomacy refers to a skill of representatives of states or groups to negotiate.‖The diplomacy can be defined as a appropriately organized social activity, whose main intent is to represent the state in the international relations and to work on achieving foreign policy objectives by use of peaceful tools"(Vukadinovic 1998, p.186)(Translation by D.M.). Tonovski (2005, p.1) believes that ―diplomacy is always an expression of the total activities of all the participants in international political life which, according to their abilities, need time for action, tend to realize optimal international goals" (Translation by D.M.). If the definitions of foreign policy with the definitions of diplomacy are compared, it can be seen that both are appointed to realize some goals on the international level. So, what is the difference between the foreign policies and the diplomacy and is there a difference between them at all? Although the diplomacy has been and for some people still is synonymous for foreign policy, the foreign policy is a term that is much broader than the notion of diplomacy. The diplomacy is inevitable and perhaps most important foreign policy tool. The diplomacy does not exist just for itself but it is placed in the service of achievements of the foreign policy goals. Simply, foreign policy is what you want to achieve and according to this it determines the desired goals, while the diplomacy is the chosen method through which you will seek to achieve the same goals. It will be useful to observe the relations between the diplomacy towards the creation of general foreign policy of one concerned state, i.e. the degree of influence of the diplomacy in shaping the foreign policy. Most scholars agree that diplomacy has no monopoly over the formation of 317 foreign policy but it participates indirectly through the way of diplomatic negotiations and representation of the basic foreign policy line of a state in front of the other members of the international community. While, institutions such as the Head of State, the President of the Government, the Minister for Foreign Affairs and so on directly create the foreign policy. The diplomat mission, either as permanent representative in another country, or as a negotiator, in behalf of his own country in diplomatic discussions, is to transfer and sometimes interpret the decisions and moves of his state officials in order to be properly understood in a state where he performs the mission. So the diplomat does not create foreign policy of its own country but only explains, interprets and justifies it. However, the diplomats, even indirectly can have their influence in shaping of the foreign policy. This can be done by sharing their own views supported by their authority and their experience inside their home country or through the manner of certain negotiations outside their country and so on. The relation between the foreign policy with the domestic policy and the degree of dependence in shaping a foreign policy with the character of the political system The relation between the foreign policy with the domestic policy It would be useful to take into consideration the relationship of foreign policy with domestic policy. State boundaries are the center of this division. State boundaries are at the same time the limits of the domestic politics and the field outside this limits area is reserved for the foreign policy. So the goals that should be achieved on international level are carried through the instruments of foreign policy. Some theoretical views move on the line of what the state makes on the international level is directly related to internal needs, or related to domestic politics, even when it is not so obvious. Some posts go a step further arguing that the foreign policy is nothing but a simple continuation of the internal politics of a country outside its borders. It is quite complicated to agree with this claim. This kind of statement would be way too much of a simplification. There is an existence of a link or connection between the foreign and domestic policy, of course. Going even a step further and saying that the overall policy of the state is nothing else but the sum of the external and the internal policy, is agreeable as well. However as Tonovski (2005, p.2) stated ―both aspects of the public policy have their own autonomy" (Translation by D.M.). It is a statement to agree with entirely. Claiming that the foreign policy is purely a continuation of the domestic policy despite being a way too much of a simplification, might also be considered as neglecting the principle of autonomy of both policies. Thus, it is fair to consider that domestic politics has its own (large) impact on the creation of foreign policy, but one cannot see why the reverse could not be the case. Thus is quite legitimate to say that the foreign policy of a State can have its impact on the domestic policy. There are numerous examples. Let‘s take the case of Republic of Macedonia. One of the Macedonian foreign policy top priorities is obtaining a membership in NATO and the European Union. Both organizations have their own principles and conditions that must be fulfilled in order the country to become their new member. The criteria for entry into the EU are called Copenhagen criteria101. NATO alliance despite all, is an organization of military nature - military alliance. However, despite the existence of good military capabilities the existence of democracy in countries that tend to join 101 consisting of principals as the rule of law, respect and protect the rights of minorities, the human rights, the economic criteria and so on. 318 NATO is still required. All this criteria have an influence into the domestic politics of Republic of Macedonia in the direction of making reforms to meet the conditions for achieving foreign policy objectives. The degree of dependence in shaping a foreign policy with the character of the political system Once if it‘s accepted that there is a link of interdependence between the foreign and the domestic policy of a country, then it would be desirable to consider the degree of dependence in the shaping the foreign policy with the character of the domestic political system. In order to see the degree of dependence there should be a historical overview done. In monarchies, at the time when the countries were not so solid works and they were considered as personal property to their rulers, the impact of man-monarch was crucial for the formation of foreign policy. This was the case simply because formally, there was only one existing person who could decide (although there were some trustworthy advisers of the monarch and participated in this process). Or let‘s consider an autocratic state. Let‘s take the example of Nazi Germany and its foreign policy. Nazi Germany based the overall foreign policy on the postulates and the understanding to an only one man - Adolph Hitler. Referring to the literature for the period of Nazi Germany, the aforementioned is highly supported. The literature review indisputably shows that all the major decisions in the foreign policy of Nazi Germany were mostly made by the ―Führer" or with his blessing. Such is the tendency in all contemporary autocracies, but yet let‘s not forget the fact that ―the supreme leader‖ regardless of his official title, must rely on some socio-political forces. Italy appears as an interesting example during the rule of Benito Mussolini. The existing literature of this period shows that Italy's foreign policy was built based on the strong influence and the will of one man - Mussolini. However this is not enough to classify Italy in times Mussolini of in the group of modern autocracies. This is because the great influence of the party oligarchy that existed at that time cannot be ignored. This can be illustrated trough the example of adopting a decision on the capitulation of Italy. In fact, this decision was not taken by Mussolini but by the party oligarchy. The border between the oligarchy and autocracy is difficult to stress in cases where one person is extremely powerful. This example shows that the oligarchic systems arrangements do not have only one formal holder of foreign political decision. Although, as already mentioned, the example of Italy in times of Mussolini is qualified somewhere between autocracy and oligarchy. The abovementioned examples have shown that the general trend is in favor of having strong link between the foreign policy (especially the manner of its creation) and the character of the political system within a state. So in autocratic state order the foreign policy is generally created by the will of one man, and in the states where oligarchy is primal rule, the foreign policy is being created in the small oligarchic circle. If we continue to analyze the relationship between the foreign policy and the political system in the terms of who brings the decision making in the foreign policy, then we can make a general division. The division is made between countries with democratic systems and non-democratic systems. In spite how general this division may seem, yet some general tendencies can been seen. Thus, in the countries with undemocratic political systems, the foreign policy is consider as a ―state business‖ and very high level politics and therefore it should not be decided, and 319 sometimes not even discussed from the common people. This policy is considered as reserved for only a small closed group. In democratic political systems on the other hand, the opposite is true in general. Foreign policy has an increasing number of participants and stakeholders. Certainly the creation of foreign policy is dependent on the type of the democratic system, whether it's parliamentary system or whether a presidential system... However, whatever the democratic system is, the holders of public functions are subject to the democratic control of its own citizens through the regular or emergency elections, referendum, and control of parliament... Although what has been said is to some extent generalizations, the previous examples illustrate that the foreign policy in a particular country is largely dependent on the political system within the state. In addition to this statement the ―Democratic Peace Theory‖ can be mentioned. Primary argument of this theory is that the states with democratic systems do not fight or very rarely fight with each other. This theory directly confirms the previous statement stating that the foreign Policy of states is dependent on the nature of the internal political system. Thus, the theory of democratic peace suggests a direct link between the domestic political system and foreign policy. The theory of democratic peace is based on its primary claim – the democracies do not fight among each other (or very rarely fight), and further on the theory builds the logical conclusion that the more democracies worldwide, the more secure world will be. This theory has produced the term ―peace zone‖ or ―zone of peace‖. The term is used to refer to democratic countries in the world, thus the countries where peace reigns (because under this theory the democracies do not fight among each other). The theory of democratic peace offers three arguments that justify the claim that democracies do not fight with each other. The first argument consists in the claim that democratic governments are elected and subject to reelection, so therefore they must be accountable to the people, and people generally do not want war. So the government will not go against the will of their voters102. The second argument consists of the fact that democratic states have their own constitutions, which determines exactly when the state can go to a war and what conditions must be met for this, then, which are the institution responsibilities and so on. So the very existence of the Constitution greatly restricts the arbitrariness that might arise from the heads of state. Finally, the democratic countries respect the international law and they will always strive to solve the problems under the international law regulations thus avoiding war as a means of achieving their goals. At the same time, there are some studies that have shown that as much as the democracies do not go into a war between them at the same time, they are prone to go in war against non-democratic and totalitarian states. Some statistics (Reiter &Stam 2002) argue that even ¾ of the wars ended with victory of the democratic countries. Furthermore, the victims caused by democratic states at war are significantly smaller than the number of casualties caused by undemocratic states and so on. Certainly there are some critics to this theory, i.e. some parts of this theory. The further explanation is rated as unproductive of this theory and its critics, because the theory was mentioned only in the context of confirmation of the importance given to the relationship between the domestic political systems that influences the process of creating a foreign policy. 102 which is the idealist‟s view in the international relations 320 Theoretical approaches Let‘s see what the theory claims about the approaches and the concepts of studying the foreign policy. We will present three approaches. Each of these approaches adequately contributed to a better understanding, shaping and implementing the foreign policies of states. One of those approaches is the geopolitical method. It is consisted of studying the correlation of geographical position and political orientation or strategy of a particular state. The beginnings of this method are commonly associated with Aristotle and its analysis of its geographic factors that had affected the political form in the city-states in ancient Greece. Today this method is inevitable. According to Mirchev (2006, p.11) ―Numerous social thinkers, since ancient times till nowadays, considering and contemplating politics, have had and still have on their tables- geographical maps besides their pads and pencils." When discussing about geopolitics it should be noted that within the theory there are terms such as ―classical geopolitics‖ and ―modern geopolitics". In the first term much more emphasis is placed on the impact of geographical and spatial factors. "Modern geopolitics‖, however is much more interested in the human factor rather than geographical. Thus, it is more concerned with demographics, population, ethnology, shaping political institutions and so on. For the geopolitics as written by Parker (1997), he claims that its values and character are becoming more and more regional, local, humane and peace loving. These contrasts with the general view of the geopolitics as a phenomenon in larger countries – the major powers, have in many aspects developed the ideology or doctrines thus justifying the strategic interests, goals and ambitions of these powers. Often the geopolitics was used as preparing of the public for aggression and so on. The geopolitical terms are not something unknown in the Macedonian foreign policy, although it must be admitted that many of these terms were "imported" from different external sources. Thus the term "Western Balkans‖ is used in relations with the EU and describes the Balkan countries that are non-EU countries, including R. Macedonia. This term observed through a purely geographical prism is not correct. Macedonia and Serbia for example, geographically speaking, could be considered as central Balkans, but not as the Western Balkans. However the term ―Western Balkans" is accurate and geopolitical indicates the Balkan states that are west of the two Balkan EU member states103. Another term of such type is the ―Adriatic group‖ imported from the vocabulary of the NATO alliance. The term indicating three states104, including the Republic of Macedonia, that has no outlet on the Adriatic Sea. Again, if the term is observed from a purely geographical point of view is not correct. Nevertheless if this term is observed from a geopolitical point of view, it actually has a great sense. This term was in service of certain geopolitical goals. It was actually meant to describe the Balkan states that should join NATO in ―package‖. A second approach that helped into the development of the studies of foreign policy and which certainly deserves attention is the comparative politics approach. This approach has been especially developed after the end of the World War II. It is considered as a sub-discipline of political science. It mainly deals with comparison of ways of building political systems and ways of building within the political systems including electoral models and systems, political party systems, parliamentary models, political culture, democratic values, political opinion and so on. The questions like who rules, how the interests are represented, who gets and who loses, and so 103 104 Bulgaria and Romania Croatia, Albania and Macedonia 321 on are also treated. After the appearance of authors such Lipset, Eckstein and Satori, this model experienced some changes. These authors mainly dealt with comparing the performance of democratic systems with non-democratic systems. Some of them went even further and tried to offer mechanisms for pressure on undemocratic ―imperfect societies‖ in order to democratize them. This certainly had a great influence on the shaping of foreign policy. A third approach is the so-called approach of ―World Politics‖. This approach has a global scope of coverage of issues and is in many aspects interdisciplinary. It has understanding of the world as a system of interactive impacts of economic, organizational, political and cultural forces. It often deals with development issues, and questions about the problems of balancing the inequalities of different levels of development from the perspective of the mission of the universal political organizations such as UN, respect for universal human rights, avoiding conflicts and wars and so on. Especially interesting is the work of Rouke&Boyer (2002). They are concentrated primarily on the evolution of patterns of world politics. This is performed by examining factors such as nationalism and the role of national states, international organizations, international security and safety, economy, global competition and cooperation, preservation and awareness of human rights and human dignity and so on The changes in the international relations and their impact on the foreign Policy There were tectonic disruptions on the international relations in the last two decades. The cold war that threatened to turn into a real third world war, luckily ended without occurring of the dark predictions. The Communism had fallen apart with dramatic speed like a tower of cards. Various thinkers have tried to give an answer to what was happening and what will the world be after the Cold War. There were questions about the future of democracy such as: will it spread it throughout the entire world - or not. Famous Fukuyama (1992) perceived these changes as ―the end of history‖ because according to him the liberal democracy is the final form of organization and governance. Thus democratization of the whole world is an expected thing. On the other hand, Huntington (1992) saw the democratization process coming in ―waves‖ but was not so optimistic that democracy will ever prevail in the world. The spread of democracy was not the only issue that was raised after the end of the Cold War. Certain other dilemmas appeared that may have existed previously but now they have gotten a new meaning. The questions about the relationship between the democracy and the foreign policy, specifically on the question on the effectiveness of foreign Policy in democracies now have gotten a new dimension. Suddenly there were new topics and terms. As a new theme, the question about the possible loss of sovereignty of states in the new globalized world was raised. There were also questions about the relationship between the foreign policy and human rights. The arousing of the term ―humanitarian intervention‖ was used as justification for invading Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1999 by the NATO Alliance. Many have seen this as a direct interference of a military alliance in the internal affairs of a sovereign, independent and a member of the UN. Furthermore, this was done without approval of the Security Council of UN. Hence, logical questions followed about how truly sovereign are the states in today's world of international relations. Where was the foreign policy place in all this? Each of these tectonic disturbances in the international relations has left a mark on the foreign policy. The fall of communism, the end of the Cold War the globalization and so on left a qualitative change in international relations that had to be taken into account by the foreign policy. The changes that took place opened a series of questions about the future role of the foreign policy as such. Certainly, the foreign policy was 322 not the same during the Cold War and afterwards. Some authors predicted extremely pessimistic scenarios for the necessity of the further existence of the foreign policy in the new globalized world. Namely some even expected its disappearance, or at least minimization of the need for conducting foreign policy. However this has not proved as true. According to Hill (2003) in order to make the foreign Policy disappear, the independent units (the states) will have to disappear first, but this has not happened. It is obvious that the globalization, the loss of sovereignty, the spread of democracy and so on, had an impact on the foreign policy as such, but none of these factors seriously got into a question about the need for further existence of the foreign policy, and it will hardly happen in the future. Foreign policy remains as a part of the top priorities of any serious state. Conclusion The foreign policy continues to be one of the most important elements of the politics of each serious state. Living in the world of globalization has not yet made the foreign policy disappear, but it only has transformed it in another form. Analyzing specific relations of the foreign policy with other relevant concept is crucial for its proper understanding and implementation. That is why continuous and further theoretical analysis of the foreign policy are needed. Bibliography Friedman, T. & Krieger J. (2006) Globalization and state power: Competing paradigms, The new System. NY, San Francisco etc. Wellesley College Janev, I. (2002) Medjunarodniodnosi i spoljnapolitika.Beograd, Institut za politicke studije Rouke.J. &Boyer, T. (2002) World Politics, International politics on the world stage.Brief. Guilford, CT, MacGraw-Hill/Duhkin Berridge, G. R. (2009) Diplomacy: Theory and Practice, third Edition. London, Antony Rowe Ltd Gaw, J. (2004) Triumph of the Leck of Will, International Diplomacy and the Yugoslavia War. London, Hurst&Co Hill,C. (2003) The changing politics of foreign policy. New York, Palgrave MacMillan Maleski, D. (2003) The politician, the diplomat and the people: Macedonian foreign policy experiences. In European Commission for Democracy through Law (ed)Democracy, rule of law and foreign policy. Skopje, Council of Europe Тоновски, Ѓ. (2005) Меѓународни односи, Авторизирани предавања.Скопје, ФОН Универзите Мирчев, Д.(2006) Македонската надворешна политика. Скопје, Аз-буки 323 LEGAL FRAMEWORK CONCERNING GENDER EQUALITY IN REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA Jovan Shopovski Department of Business Law Faculty of Law ―Iustinianus Primus‖, Skopje Republic of Macedonia contact: [email protected] Abstract As Republic Of Macedonia is already walking the road of European Union integration, it is necessary to consider all tendencies emerging as a phenomena and reality in the area of collective bargaining and collective agreements in the European Union. Thus, by continuously following the current situation in the gender equality area we could ensure full compliance of our pertinent legislation and, in general, the entire national legislation with the legislation of the European Union.The patriarchal matrix that was established centuries ago was a fertile ground for the formation of the disparity between the two sexes in terms of their involvement in the spheres of the social life, so the stronger sex was determined to operate in most areas, at the expense of the marginalization of women within society. Introduction The constant evolution of the social relations has resulted slowly but surely in getting rid of the stereotypes that fed the patriarchal doctrine and in increasing the participation of women in the social spheres, which seemed so unreachable in past. I will say that it is a gradual process in almost all societies, where at the very beginning comes to a progress in the awareness of the community, aimed at creating the social areas where both sexes will participate equally, and later these circumstances will be legally regulated with norms that forbid any unequal treatment based on sex. Fact is that with the century-long profiling of men as the only capable to carry the most social functions, there is a disproportion with regard to the participation of men and women in social life. That‘s why no matter that the legal order was establishing norms for recognizing the freedom and the rights of both sexes equally, in the most countries there isn‘t until today equal participation of both sexes in the society. From right here derive the most modern tendencies that impose the need for legal regulation of the equal participation of men and women, primarily in the realization of the already guaranteed freedom and rights. We say already guaranteed because the most countries prohibit in their constitutions making any differences based on gender in establishing and exercising of the freedom and the rights. The regulation process of this area for gender equality is an inevitable stage of democratization of the social relations, on a level which will equally enable every individual, through their individual potential to contribute to the social development and have equal benefits from that development regardless of the gender. It is a fairly new legislation, which even the developed countries have recently begun to edit more thorough. However, the Republic of Macedonia as a democratic society acts actively in this area of establishing equality between men and women in all fields of social life. 324 The Workplace Relations Law (―Official Gazette of RM‖, no. 60/2005) is in accordance with the Directive 76/207/EEC regarding the application of the principle of The Equal Treatment of men and women in employment, vocational training and promotion, as well as the working conditions, the Directive 2002/3 EC, which represents an amendment to the Directive 76/207/EEC, and which includes a new definition of the indirect discrimination, the harassment as a form of discrimination, the Directive 97/80/EC regarding the burden of proof in the cases of gender based discrimination, the Directive 75/117/EEC regarding the principle of equal pay for women and men, the Directive 92/85/EEC for Protection of pregnant workers and workers who have recently given birth or are breastfeeding, the Directive 96/34/EC, for parental leave. According to the Law on Higher Education, (―Official Gazette of RM‖, no.64/2000 and 49/2003), all the citizens of the Republic of Macedonia are entitled to equal conditions and rights to obtain education at the institutions of higher education of RM. The Law on Political Parties (―Official Gazette of RM‖, no.76/2004) obliges the political parties in the course of their activities to ensure the realization of the principle of equality of the genders in terms of the availability of the functions in the political parties. The Law on Election of Members of Parliament (―Official Gazette of RM‖, no.42/2002 and 46/2004) determines that in the candidates list both genders are to be represented with at least 30 per cent. With the Law on Local Elections, (―Official Gazette of RM‖, no.46/96, 12/2003, 35/2004, 52/2004 and 60/2004) it has been regulated that in the proposed candidate list for the Assembly members and the City of Skopje, each gender is to be represented with at least 30 % in both the first and the second part of the list. With the Election Book of regulations, that came into effect in 2006, (―Official Gazette of RM‖, no.40/06) in Article 64, act 5 it is regulated that in the submitted list of candidates for members of parliament from act (2) of this Article for the members of assembly of the City of Skopje and act (3) of this Article, to each third place on the list at least one place is to be occupied by the less represented gender. With the amendments of the Family Law effectuated in June 2004, it was established that the state provides protection of the marriage and the family from damaged relationships and violence in the marriage and the family. Any kind of violence in the marriage or the family is prohibited. According to Inheritance Law, men and women have equal rights in the inheritance. 325 The amendments of the Law on Health Protection (―Official Gazette of RM‖, no.5 from 16.01.2007) treat issues regarding the measures and activities for early discovery of certain diseases with women, and a program for early discovery, diagnosing and treatment of these diseases. The Law on Equal Opportunities of women and men brought in year 2006 (“Official Gazette of RM”, no.66/06) The Law on Equal Opportunities of women and men is probably the most significant act by which this matter is regulated. With it, in a very concise manner the legal frame concerning this particular matter is being set, as to which are the subjects that this law refers to, as well as their competence, the types of measures needed for achieving the goal of the law, the procedure for discovering unequal treatment of women and men, etc. Here we are going to particularly consider the types of measures that the organs in charge are due to undertake, the end purpose of which would be to achieve equal participation of women in men in all the levels of the society, as well as the procedure for discovering unequal treatment of women and men and the representative – as a person responsible for its implementation. The legislator in several articles of the Law regulates the types of measures for establishment of equal opportunities and they can be considered as basic and special measures. The basic measures are normative measures of various areas which forbid gender based discrimination, and which assign sanctions for disrespect and breach of the proscriptions. These measures are also correlated with the creation and realization of the politics and functions of the organs of legislative, executive and judiciary authority, the organs of the units of the local self-management, the legal subjects which are legally appointed to perform activities of public interest, the Citizens Associations and Foundations, the educational institutions, the welfare institutions, the political parties and the media. Hence, a quite large circle of subjects is encompassed, obliged to endorse as well as implement these basic measures. Unlike them, the special measures, as their very name suggests, are measures aiming at achievement of equal opportunities of women and men, but in particular areas of the social life. Measures that are of special interest to us are the so called positive actions which give priority, in case of unequal participation of women and men in all the levels of Government bodies, including the judiciary, legislative and executive, the local Government, as well as all other public institutions and services, political functions, commissions and boards, including the participation of bodies that represent the state internationally until the equal participation is established. 326 The unequal participation is present in all the areas of the society, if the participation of one of the genders is less that 40%. The essence of these positive actions is clear, and that is by giving priority to the less represented gender to establish equal participation. The question arises as to the way this priority will be enabled; all the kinds of mechanisms, quotas, and policies that need to be undertaken for it to be achieved, as well as determination of the dynamics of the actions implementation that will enable favoring of the less represented gender, for its equal integration in the legally determined social areas. Therefore, it is a fact that the determination and implementation of these actions is to be carefully planned, and foremost, a plan needs to be made regarding the dynamics by which the planned aims will be accomplished. In order to point to the negative consequences that can be produced from an unplanned application of positive actions (priority measures), we should point to the labor sphere, concretely: the employment procedure. At the moment, the unemployment rate in the Republic of Macedonia is high. The unemployed work force consists of men and women which actively seek employment, some more zealously than others. It is an unquestionable fact that there is unequal gender distribution in all spheres in the Republic of Macedonia where the adoption and application of basic and special measures is forecasted; in all of these spheres, women represent less than the legally set forty percent, which means that the legal preconditions for the adoption of basic and special measures to achieve gender equality are fulfilled. We already mentioned that the inequality is a consequence of patriarchic social directives, centuries back. Starting from these facts, if there is an irrational adoption and application of positive actions in order to achieve the desired equality in all areas where there is an unequal representation, there will be a temporary limitation of the possibilities for the other gender. This hypothetical situation is, of course, undesirable, because even in the course of achieving legitimate goals, one of the genders should not be absolutely marginalized in favor of the other in the course of employment and all the other social spheres. Let us mention once again, that the process of adoption and application of positive actions that will bring special mechanisms, quotas, and policies for the sex that is employed less in certain spheres, should be approached very carefully, and should forecast adoption of special rule books from authorities, about the process and the dynamic for the adoption of these sensitive measures. In it‘s National Strategy for employment for the period of 2006-2010, the Government of the Republic of Macedonia predicted an increase of the female employment rate from 30.1 percent 327 to 38 percent. On a first glance, these eight percent may seem impossible; their ―painless‖ finalization requires a better definition of the concrete positive actions which are to be implemented, along with the dynamic implementation. Amendment of the Law on equal opportunities for men and women (“Official Gazette of RM”, no.117/2008) The main aim of these changes was to adapt the definitions for discrimination in the Law with the Directive 2002/73/ES of the European Parliament and the Council of Europe. These corrections were completely amended because the initial definition of some of the basic terms was totally confusing. The changes were in the direction of simplification about the things that should be considered to be direct or indirect discrimination, stating that: - Direct discrimination means that a person is treated or was treated worse than another person in a specific situation because of gender. - Indirect discrimination happens when a seemingly neutral act, criteria or a common law places people from a given gender in an especially unfavorable position, in contrast to people from the opposite sex, except when the act, criteria or custom law is objectively justified with a legitimate aim, and the means to achieve this aim are appropriate and necessary. Procedure for determination of unequal treatment of men and women The procedure to determine unequal treatment is started and lead within the Ministry of labor and social policy. It starts with a paper-written initiative by individuals, civic organizations, unions or other legal entities. A Representative for Equal Opportunities was appointed in 2010 within the Ministry of labor and social policy. One Representative is appointed among the employees within the ministry. The Representative is authorized to start a procedure on his or her own initiative, based on information obtained that there is a concrete case of an action against the Law on equal opportunities. The leading of a procedure is not charged money and it guarantees the secrecy of personal data. It should be mentioned that not a single initiative had been filed until the current day to lead a procedure for the determination of an unequal treatment based on gender, which tells us that this is still an area that, even though legally designed, does not function in practice. 328 If it is obvious from the submitted initiative that there is no basis for a case of unequal treatment in the spirit of the Law, the Representative will not start a procedure, and will submit a written justification to the petitioner. The initiative to start a procedure should be submitted in the shortest time possible, but not longer than one year after the infringement of Law was committed. The procedure is written on paper. In order to determine the facts, the Representative can summon involved subjects on an interview. Within the course of the procedure, the Representative can demand from specific subjects to supply documents and to give the needed explanations. In order to achieve efficacy during the procedure, the legislator had determined a deadline for it‘s finish. The Representative has to finish the procedure to determine the existence of inequality in the course of sixty days from the day when the written initiative was submitted. The deadline can be extended for a period of thirty days, but only if the complexity of the case requires it. The procedure ends with a written opinion of the Representative. This written opinion has to have the findings of the factual situation, and the Representative‘s opinion about the circumstances within the case, for the purpose of making a statement whether unequal treatment based on gender exists in accord with the Law. The opinion can incorporate irregularities committed in the concrete case, along with suggestions to correct them. If the Representative determines the existence of irregularities in a concrete case, besides stating the opinion of the case, he or she has the legal authority to demand correction of irregularities from the accused subject and to give recommendations about the way to correct them within a given deadline. The Representative submits an annual report about his or her work to the Ministry of labor and social policy. With the completion of the Representative‘s opinion, the first-stage procedure that is not legally binding by itself, is finished. The Representative sends his or her formed written opinion to the inspecting organ, who is authorized by law to monitor the application of laws and by-laws, collective agreements and the general acts in the cases when actins have been taken that represent a discrimination in accordance with the Law on equality of men and women. Besides to the inspecting organ, the Representative can submit his or her opinion to the public prosecutor, too. The Representative submits his written opinion to the mentioned organs only in the case when the subject accused for unequal treatment did not act in accord with the given recommendations 329 to correct the irregularities, or the subject did not inform the Representative that corrections were made within the given deadline. After taking the Representative‘s written opinion, the authorized inspecting organ will determine if the acts of the Law on equal opportunities or another Law are applied in the particular case, and based upon his or her findings, the Representative makes a decision for the particular case. If the Representative determines that acts were not made in accord with the Law, the inspecting organ will demand from the subject who should act in accord with the Representative‘s suggestions, to do so within a thirty day deadline from the day the decision was made. A complaint can be made against the decision of the inspecting organ to the authorized Government commission within eight days of receiving it. If the authorized inspecting organ determines that by breaching the Law on equal opportunities or another Law, an act of misdemeanor or crime was committed, the organ is obligated to submit a request for starting a misdemeanor or a penalty procedure. Any subject with an opinion that his or her right based on his or her gender was violated can ask for the protection of the right by a court or administrative procedure in accord with the Law on equal opportunities, based on the Representative‘s opinion, and to start a procedure for compensation of damage, in accord with the law on obligations. References: Law on equal opportunities for men and women ―Official Gazette of Republic of Macedonia‖, no.66/06, Skopje, 2006. Amendment of the Law on equal opportunities for men and women (―Official Gazette of RM‖, no.117/2008), Skopje, 2008. 330 Sociological study of contemporary family Baqir Sarukhani 105 Faranak Seyyedi 106 Abstract Family is dependent to social system, in many respects , but showing dependency, and degree of effectiveness of family from society and social system is neccessery. This paper has investigated family as social group that our laws have not defined it clearly and its legal personality are not allowed. But in contemporary society, state's influence was causing changes in privacy .In this paper, relying on literature of sociology in relation family and government and put base on the Habermas theory , and relying on experience to analyze effect rules on current situation in contemporary family. Using existing documents and comments sociologists in this field was study guide. With studies done in different fields function, family were identified: independent nature family in the past. But now family as a private sphere with fading of roles and functions, with government entering into family privacy, it being dependent on other Institutions, especially political institution and changed its nature, thus family defined by rules and it is state family. Necessary maintenance and entity families privacy and its independence, creating a public sphere in society, as the interface areas between the family and political institution. By creating this area, and family with political institution and laws to coordinate action, families entity was preserved. Keywords: Family, function, privacy, public sphere, state family. Introduction Fusion, and interaction between state and family in contemporary society, will be more necessity of paying attention to institutional analysis and opinion about it. The government's policy has penetrated in private life of individuals and huge range of facilities its encompasses all aspects of family. Gradually, the government has involved all aspects of daily life . Family will be surrounded from every direction in plans, which are represented of same permanent contradiction of government actions. Family is dependent to social system, in many respects ,but showing dependency, and degree of effectiveness of family from society and political 105 - Full Professor in Department of Social Science and Research Branch ,Islamic University ,Tehran , Iran . 106 - PH.D student in Department of Social Science and Research Branch , Islamic University ,Tehran , Iran . Azad Azad 331 system, is not as the family encounter with state, which leads to creation of critical hit, but this effects, with alignment leads to, better function of family. Rosen Baum , believes that: If the family is according to individual preferences, that can be experienced at least freedom, comprehensive and being content. Fulfillment of individual aspirations is depending on the social conditions which is considered that conditions determines the form of specific of family . (Rosen Baum, 1367, 146) The author believes that: Family is center of emotion, sense, thus identifying head of families, according to the law, it is contrary to the purpose and function of family and family leads into formal organization with hierarchy of authority and power. Also if it is to be considered for family, head .why should be head of man? Why should not be selected on the basis of intellectual ability, physical, experience, skills, merit, individual competencies? The initial question: Consider the most private decisions of us. For example: marriage. We are claiming the right of free choice, but with regard to enormous social impact on us choices, really, our choice, how can freely? Indeed, how far we are free in their decision for marriage? Whether is family decision-making center, in society, and is provided by state institution? If so, what changes would cause in family, and whether these changes can lead to family breakdown? In the past, the family was a natural group that law did not define it, but today is defined by law, so is state family .Family occurs in a private space, but not very private, which will be discussed, most of its functions. Most of problems and injuries that are discussed in media and state laws and regulations and policies, to monitoring It . Family issues, has been focus and it is thumbnail. public and private spheres Balanced relationship between the public and private spheres, one of the important things that should be considered. In other words, the extent of public sphere and private small and vice versa, will create consequences for the individual and society. Therefore, should be a balance of between these both field. In this article the author defines the public sphere according to 332 Habermas definition and the government knows the meaning of governance institution that placed at the head of the society and includes the institutions that create a regulator of affairs. And the family knows the private sphere that field state has made changes in it. On the other hand, there is a new definition from family based on the perspective of the sociology of family and is creating a new kind of family, that it should be studied and defined new norms for it. In this article , we trying to determine whether intervention in this field will lead to weakening and disintegration of family or only cause changes at it and we see a new kind of family? The difference between natural law and state law Natural law is with freedom, and without dominate of number over others, but state law is without freedom, and with dominate of number over other people. Definition of state Family Sarukhani defines state family: "State is entering into home; state of third hazaras is a omnipresent state. Its presence in family is more and wider from everywhere. "(Labibi, 1388, 9) Birth of state In the past, the discovery of agriculture became mediator for state birth, although only legitimate function of state which became entrusted by people, was to protect of life and property. Toffler knows beginning need to state, become subsistence economy, into agricultural economy. He believes: complete state has every three tool of social control: wisdom, wealth, violence potential. Stages before of these three , state is embryonic and incomplete. Opinion author: These three tools can be considered as follows: Potential violence = laws Wealth = opportunities Wisdom = Preferences and valuation Evidence from the ravages of family, from the viewpoint of Koenig Koenig ravages of family knows though family functions has been transferred to other institutions. Today, job requirements, so that ever family are not able to provide job training to children. Therefore, the job training have been granted to specific government institutions, with trained personnel. On the other hand, smaller and economically without power of family is an 333 obstacle, in providing functions and provide protection of elderly and sick members, that it is now granted to professional organizations. Today, leisure of youth and family members has taken specific form. He believes: that family is dependent in the daily feed intake, as well to public organizations, such as those that are preparing foods for cooking. Even within the home repairs, is granted to various organizations. Thus, the activities within the family, has been reduced, which it mostly was focused on production for domestic consumption. "(Azazy, 1386, 73-74) Althusser's argument is that, all institutions of civil society is reproduce, in a sense, the state. Althusser, so, can develop, scope, that reaches, to family. In fact, to cell of society, and shows the family how to reproduce the state. "(ghani nejad and colleagues, 1377, 144) Conclusion Attention to realism, and emphasis on cultural and structural changes in family, is an issue that has remained hidden from eyes experts of family areas and atmosphere of political stroke. Unfortunately, it has led to intervention of state, in most institutions, and especially family institution, which result is a crisis in family institution. Also, on the one hand, modernists family, and On the other hand, intervention of institutions such as state in the area of family, it has caused, many of experts declared, the decline and collapse of the family. SarukhanI argued that, those believe which family has been weakened or destroyed, this group generally, do not look to family, in the framework of modern society, but they make, own scale, based on patterns of traditional society and measure, with these criteria, functions of, modern family institution. Today, in modern societies, and Like of modern , state is dominate on the family by law or create new patterns. The media, working every day, in heart of home and create new values . New families is eaten and other organizations even lunch and breakfast outside of family, state are responsible for many functions. The author believes that : the government's actions must be undertaken in coordination with needs of families, and should be, relations between state and family in proper channels. Considering that family has an important role in the development and strengthening of balanced personality, but today this focus has been, administrator programs and, laws of political - social and cultural. 334 So that, for example, changing the laws, such as, provide divorce, in the hands of men, increased rates of divorce, And with change it and make Certification of lack of compromise, reducing rates of divorce, but can be longer increasing trend .Or with the divorce of agreement, increases its rate. Also because , it is social factors being multiple, does not mean, human wholeness, in the family, and human becomes multi-dimensional. Prohibition are essential in any society, but more is needed, cautiously application. For example: in cases where there are serious threats, both the government and families, have agreement on it .Such as narcotics or rape or .... Even, These is a global agreement. However, entering of state, in some cases, and generalization of this prohibition to other causes, it will be more sensitive and more prominent, and in family occurs, a kind of resistance, instead of cooperation. Prohibition are causing, creating a tension and the attraction, because actors are always suspected, that something is prohibited, properties, and attributes is that, there is no, in what is not forbidden. Therefore, the transfer of control to private sphere of family, is one of the, main solutions. Every social system, should enhance their growth tools, with, to maximize of capacity tolerability, and realization their freedom. For reaching to this, the family should be, recognized as the private sphere and knew it. Being responsible, to mean that these families, and all those who, believe, their identity, be able should have, too great freedom, and they are respected, with their intelligence and rationality, which be able with his creation and growth, and prevent from destruction of their identity. instead of prohibition, they have right to choose, creating trust, and respect to the family, and the preservation of their privacy, and having freedom. References Amani, Mehdi (1380) general Demography of Iran, Tehran, published by samt. Azazy, Shahla (1386) sociology of families, with emphasis on the role, structure and function of family in contemporary, Tehran, publication of intellectuals, and women's studies. Chyl, David (1388) families in today's world, translated by Mohammad Mehdi Labibi with introduction of Baqir Sarukhany, Tehran, publication of thoughts. Ghani nejad, Musa (1377), civil society and its relationship with religion, books of civil society, and today Iran, Press, role & Negar, 141 -190. Habermas, Jürgen (1380) The crisis of legitimacy: the theory of modern capitalist state, translated by, Jahangir Moini, Tehran, New step publication. 335 Castells, Manuel (1385) Information Age: Economy, society and Culture (the emergence of network society) translation of Ahad, AligoLian, A. Khakbaz, H. Chavoshyan, Volume I, Fifth Edition, Tehran, press new plan. Sarukhany , Baqir (1379). Introduction to Sociology of Family, Third Printing, Tehran, Soroush Publications. 336 Effect of media family on the precocious puberty of teenage girl: the emphasis on Iranian society Nosrati, Vida107 Faranak Seyyedi 108 Abstract The main purpose of this paper is study of role and impact of media family on precocious puberty: physically, intellectually, emotionally and socially. This article also seeked , how media can have a negative aspects in critical age for teenagers. Paper, relying on the literature of sociology in relation to family and socialization and put the base on theory of George Herbert Mead. The theoretical frame of this study is borrowed from School of symbolic interaction and regarding to self . Delphi is methodology used in this article, among behaviors and opinions of girls in this age group. These negative aspects disturb the natural balance of growth and changes the behavior patterns. It also cause anxiety , violence, deviation of individual and low normative legitimacy of paint materials and tendency for relaxation .It can be noted that ,all affected product are results of using various media especially the false advertising. Key words:Socialization , Precocious Puberty , Media Family , False Advertising. Introduction: The spread of the electronic communication has distinguished the modern society from traditional society, todays the mass media, especially television, play different cultural, social and educational roles and functions, the utilization of this phenomenon in the personality and behavior of the people in the society in a way that the mass media are considered as one of the effective social institutions on the socialization process. The TV as a kind of mass media is in continuous cooperation with the culture of community and society, the variety in the mass communication and their content can make some changes in the cultural structure of the society and mutually the culture of a society plays such a role in the determination of the number, kind and the content of mass media. The creation of the mass society which is the term Marcuse used to refer to "the culture of modern society) is done through media. If media can move to the eminent and human goals, the unity and collaboration of human beings will `Based on theories of sociologists of symbolic interaction school, family has a fundamental role in awareness of children. So awareness will be acquired from family environment can have an important role in formation of attitude of children. `Based on theories of sociologists of symbolic interaction school, family has a fundamental role in awareness of children. So awareness will be acquired from family environment can have an important role in formation of attitude of children. Brown believes family has an important role on the socialization of individuals. Children see their parents constantly while performing their gender roles.(Brown ,1992: 86) The family as a social institution is one of those groups that the individual spend most of his time in it, the child learns individual and social reactions in this group, but the emergence of mass media, especially TV has made some changes in the sociocultural interactions in the family -107 - Faculty Member of Islamic Azad university Arak Branch E.mail : V-Nosrati@ iau-Arak.Ac.Ir 107 108 - Faculty Member of Islamic Azad university Arak Branch E.mail: F- Saidye @iau-Arak. Ac.Ir 337 since the broadcasted programs are somehow in contrast with the sociocultural values and norms of the families whose result is the creation of some expectations which is in contrast and contradicts with those known norms in the socio-cultural environments and this leads to the weakening of the relations in the families and the disturbance in their functions. The puberty is one of those matters whose occurrence is due to the direct relation and contact with social institutions. The onset of puberty is related to different social and cultural, biology and personal differences especially the hereditary trait in the different societies, cities and families, in recent years the communication revolution has been considered as one of the effective factors in precocious puberty. The psychologist analysis and growth indicate that the onset of puberty has been lowered in twenties to early 21st century. The correct understanding of the onset of puberty is significant sue to the fact that the society, family, school have the necessary conditions for dealing with the critical situation of the child in this stage. According to theories of gender socialization, on socialization process, children will be not only existing of social but also find male or female characteristics.(Stanly and Wise , 2000:273) The first intensive study on the psychology of growth done in 1990s in Iran indicate that the average age of puberty onset in the southern states (Khuzestan), eastern states (Ilam and Kurdistan) is different from other states of the country in a way that the average age of puberty begins one year to one and half a year sooner in southern states, the psychologists' studies in Iran have shown the effects of some factors such as media and its spread and their accessibility on the onset of puberty and their behavior in a way that the spread of media works against the differences and tries to remove the differences and direct it toward balance, in other words, the 13 years- old girl who lives in rich urban areas is susceptible and ready to accept puberty due to the accessibility of different media. One of the problems of the adolescents is precocious puberty which occurs due to the watching of improper and immoral events and listening to the materials which have some restrictions. Besides the matters which will be diffused in the mental network of the adolescent, the studies which done in Italy show that the in terms of metabolic system the light and rays of TV and computer changes the secrete of "Melanonin" hormone in the children and lead to precocious puberty of those children who watch TV for a long period of time. The media including TV changes the thoughts and feelings not only through auditory and visual senses and providing some patterns for behavior but also stimulate the human especially in the early years of life when the human brain is under the influence of experiences, through brain massage qualitatively and quantitatively, but seldom we can anticipate the kind of media and the quality of change (as its effect is different in every individual), regarding these information, the present study is going to find and answer to these questions: Apart from improving the quality of life of children and despite the positive educationalcultural aspects and providing communication services, what negative effects does the technology have on the process of puberty in adolescents? How does the encompassing of TV and computer have changed the social interaction of children with environment? This interaction covers the relation of child with his/her parents, peers, society (culture, values and norms). How is the effect of mass media on the physical, social, emotional and intellectual puberty of children? Here two principal aspects will be examined: the role of the visual products of mass media on the identity of children in the process of maturation and the role of light and rays of visual media on the secretion of some hormones which are regarded as key factors in the child puberty. 338 Some investigations have been done in this regard which will be referred here: the researchers have divided the students in three groups and given them the same information. The first group gained that information through study, the second group through watching movie and the third group through computer's screen. Then the members of three groups were examined in terms of the rate of remembrance of information and data, in the first group about 85% of the students of the first group were able to remember the information, this was 25%- 30% among the second group and 3-5% among the third group. Most of the information in the third group was about the imagination rather than the reality. This matter would become unhealthy when the content of delivered information through media is romantic, sexual and aggressive. And the access of children to this kind of information would have severe mental and social consequences and effects on the maturation and puberty. Such programs lead to sexual deviations, aggression, addiction, antisocial behavior, weakening of the family principles and the spread of crime and offences and in many cases irrecoverable consequences. Our county is in the rank of 87 among 178 countries in terms of the availability of internet which is considered among those countries in the average level by the International Telecommunication Union, 35% of the users are young students and the mean time spend on internet is about 52 minutes. Through studying the families, we come to this conclusion that internet is going to an uncontrollable direction and families are no longer able to control the process of effective education of children. Considering the fact that the skills of children in the use of compute is more than that of their patents, so its use would be uncontrollable, so the child will go through puberty in the socialization by these media, and by training some anti-cultural aspects the precocious puberty and puberty crisis would be undeniable, on the other side, imagining the omission of media is impossible but some controls can be exerted on the electronic knowledge of children, but is should not be done compulsory. Considering the decrease of the number of children in the families and the high age gap between parents and children, it can be seen that the child would face solitariness, these control should be done intangibly. Today's family should transfer their experiences through communication with each other by the help of councils with cooperative groups of women in areas. This transfer is better to happen in civil communities as the collective psychological traits can be more effective on the behaviors. Considering the fact that the modern technologies change the mind and thought of children quickly and as the sources of changes are out of individual cultures, it is necessary to encourage children to increase their abilities in thinking and then give them access to these media. The first twelve years of the child's life should be based on the acquiring of knowledge in order the cessation of their growth to be reduced. The recent studies show that every day the internet and computer are taking the place of TV, so the risk of irregular and incorrect use of it threatens all the users, so in order to be sure of the optimum use of computer in the children's life, it is better for the parents to be more familiar with computer and speak to their children about the use of internet and open the correct way of using these technologies to their children. Methodology Considering the significance of this issue which is an interdisciplinary course and needs the experiences and knowledge of experts, Delphi method has been used as the main method, so the views of the experts in communication, educational sciences, psychology, sociology, anthropology and consultants were asked in order to provide the ground for studies. In the second stage, by the use of these experiences, the voting was done among 11-14 years old girls (Nedaye Vahdat Secondary School, Arak, 2010), and the obtained results were examined by the views of experts and in the next stage the librarian method was used in completion of interview and observation as the secondary tools of the research. The population was the 11 to 14 years- 339 old girls from Nedaye Vahdat secondary school who were examined through observation and interview. Discussion (Puberty and the effects of environment according to the expert's view) The first studies done on the puberty dates back to the researches of "Market Mid" in Samera Island, the results provided the ground for those experts who believed that puberty relates just to biology directly. Mid showed that the symptoms of puberty should not be considered as the effect of internal and physical changes, these symptoms will be varied according to the sociocultural conditions, the researches of Mid on the Samera and Gineno are among the traditional sociological and anthropological works which has preserved its controversial identity and is considered as a pattern for the ethnographical researches. Examining the puberty issue, he showed that despite the common believes "The Puberty Crisis" is not a universal phenomenon and it can be reinforced or removed based on the specific kind of training and cultural transfer. The Meud's emphasis in the culture and personality school is on the process of cultural transfer and socialization of people. He believed that the manner of this transfer shapes the people's personality, so the most important goal of anthropologists should be the examination of educational and training patterns in order to understand the way culture effects individual, the relation of dominant dimension on each individual with the culture. In the modern world which is under the influence of media culture, according to Meud's findings, it can be understand that the media can be an effective factor on the awareness and the way it is shaped, since in modern world, different kinds of media have surrounded the life of people and individual within different ages, so it can influence the growth path, and this is "the effect of culture on individual", media culture and collective culture. Other studies confirm this issue including the following: Japanese researchers concluded that peaceful and kind family relation can prevent precocious puberty, also anxiety and stress can predate puberty age for 18 months. According to psychologists the association between father and daughter can plays a great role in calmness of young girls in puberty, lack of attention and support are regarded as the causes of precocious puberty in girls. Besides, eating unhealthy foods, low consumption of fruits and vegetables, emotional pressure, family problems, obtaining good information from the environment, peers and media lead to the precocious puberty in both genders. Psychologists and educational experts believe that with the spread of scientific and information technologies, families spend less time with their children so due to the decrease of supervision and looking for the children on the side of parents, children and adolescents notice the matters and issues which should learn later on time, very soon. And considering the fact that in Iran, the sexual needs will be satisfied after marriage and within religious believes the adolescent who reach puberty will be longer in this period than his peers in other cultures. Also as he spends much more energy and time to get along with it, providing them the information based on the age considerations and also creating a peaceful environment in the family and community are as solutions for reducing pressures in puberty. Inopportune friend making, immoral behavior in low ages and the tendency to street friends with opposite sex are among the precocious puberty crisis which is affected by media. Family, school, community and media are most significant in the creation of free time and the proper growth of instincts. In all communities, the puberty age determine the future and personality of the individual, so all people and institutions who are in contact with children and adolescents are responsible for its guidance. Consultants' experts believe that sexual puberty is combined with cognitive and emotional puberty, precocious puberty is regarded a negative phenomenon for Iranian girls. Uncontrolled use of computer and TV will impose the child in the harmful effects (which is physical, social and mental disturbances) also sight problems, skeleton disturbances, overweight, decrease of 340 social skills, problems in interaction and communication, electronic addiction, virtual crimes and murder can be considered. Technology and its effect on the child's growth In world today which is called the age of information explosion, the concerns of most families is the awareness of their children's learning and supervision of their learning. The growth experts believe that the growth of child's mind can be diagnosed from two perspectives, one is social psychology that child acquire from outside and through family, school and educational transfer and the other is the automatic learning of the child which is called intelligence, i.e. what the child learn by its own. The use of mass media such as TV, computer and games is one of the most significant ways of socialization in so far as in childhood one of the several sources of child's socialization is these mass media and they are inevitable in today's world. What is relevant in Iran is the different status of production and construction and the difference in the content of these programs, as the children might be familiar with different dimensions of society and it is probable that they cannot find healthy and good constructs. So it might be for this reason that most of consultants and teachers are against TV and computer in children and adolescent's room. The presence of electronic devices in the children's room will reduce the time of families' gathering together and it might increase the early familiarization of children with sexual matters, the social interactions and the time of peer playing would be removed. The negative consequences of this matter can be seen in schools, usually these children pay little attention to the instructions in their class and they are willing to be independent and autonomous whose result would be social retreat. The use of TV and computer could be effective in the mental growth of the child when other conditions for education are in their best position such as life environment, in order to provide the health and happiness in children. What the TV offers to child might be effective in the psychological growth and abstract intelligence and personal health but it cannot be responsive to the social intelligence and physical needs of the child. Excessive use of such tools would create some disturbances in the child's growth curve, the child would live in a virtual space and far from social activities like playing with peers and this is far from real life situation so the confrontation of child with the society would be problematic in future. The surrounding of TV and computer might lead to the weakening of social relation of children with their parents. On the other hand high variation of resources and media programs will lead to disappearing of homogeneity between children and surrounding environment, as the community needs some people to make some literatures and behavioral patterns among them, so with the presence of media the least consensus among people within the society and their common norms and social felicity would be disturbed. Eric Sigmon believes that excessive watching of TV in childhood will lead to severe disturbances; the messages of this program would not be good but the main problem is the unlimited and uncontrolled use of TV. Most families allow their children to watch TV unlimitedly in order to avoid spending money for their creation. Adolescents constitute the largest TV and computer audiences, in a study done in England it was shown that the England adolescent spend one third of their life, i.e. 7.5 hours within a day, watching TV and playing computer game. Offensive programs and romantic movies for adults will influence them in a way that some of them become woolgatherer, fierce behavior and the imitation of romantic and sexual behavior without any instinctual base threaten human's future, excessive overweight, Alzheimer, diabetes and decrease of defensive power were among other jeopardies among them. But the major risk was precocious puberty; the researchers concluded that TV has a key role in the decrease of Melanonin hormone secretion. The task of this 341 hormone is to adjust the internal timing of the body and it controls the pace of physical maturity growth, melanonine is produced at nights and the cause of sleepiness at night is the secretion of this hormone. But the bright and shiny screen of TV doesn't allow its secretion at nights, so the amount of this hormone is less among those who watches TV late at nights. This hormone adjusts the puberty age in adolescents and when its amount decreases, it will decrease the puberty age. The rate of puberty age decrease in English adolescents equals with the rate of popularity of TV in 1950s. This means the society with nervous adolescents who have not reached emotional and personal maturity and seek the life in the sexual relations and its result would be the increase in the crimes and ruin of family bases. Italian researchers also concluded that the children's body will produce and secrete Melanonin 30% more after one week on not watching TV and computer screen. So unlike past, today's children who are exposed to this ray more hours will reach puberty sooner than their ancestors, even some girls experience puberty when they are 7 years- old. This experience would endanger their growth and education when it is without any training. Since the age of reaching puberty is variable, precocious puberty is related to natural stimulus in which the children and adolescents receive some information through the speaking of their peers of families and mass media which their knowing would be soon for children. Usually physical maturation will be accompanied with cognitive and emotional maturation, the child who reaches precocious puberty will make some problems for family and community, the necessity for entering maturation is to have enough knowledge of this period and if due to lack of attention of parents, school and community (media) the child reaches precocious puberty, the first problems will be inclined toward family, community and school. Most experts believe that computer and TV has a destructive effect on the growth and intelligence of child, the TV literature blocks the progress and development of child's intelligence, since the mind of child reacts to the radiated ray and stop thinking process. In this regards, the TV industries would react to this, they introduces some products in programs for children and promote and develop the TV industry every 10 years and make it more attractive. If the child spends most of his/her time on the TV screen, he would be deprived of other activities which are important for his development. Moreover it might happen that they are exposed to sexual and aggressive content which is not suitable for their age, and their parent should examine the site addresses which their kids have visited them by filtering software. Also they should encourage their child to interact more with them and show more intimacy with their children. The report of Erick Sigmund shows that TV has some relations with 15 dangerous illnesses among which is cancer and fantasy. Children who spend much time watching TV continuously will become very fat and so the society should provide sport facilities and innovation in physical creation. The incident problem is the content of TV and advertisement and the change of aesthetic and behavior of people, also the duration of watching TV has a significant role in most illnesses, after working and resting, TV takes most of the time of citizens than any other activity. Here the main danger is directed toward children which make some severe disturbances in them. Conclusion Today, information technology has been spread widely and it is combined with all aspects of life from school to work place, bank services, trade and …. Also it plays a significant role in the children's life and it is increasing very fast. The fact that whether this technology improves children's life or not, how is the role of identity in this technology, and that we are facing a precocious puberty are the main focus of the study. Precocious puberty means the appearing of puberty symptoms physically and hormonally in girls before 8 years old, first these girls are taller than their peers and then due to precocious puberty, their bones will be shorter in puberty. The onset of puberty is different in different cities, communities, families due to different 342 sociocultural, biological and personal differences. In recent years, the revolution in communication and the spread of media (TV, internet, satellite …) has been considered as one of the main factors on "precocious puberty" of girls. The true understanding of puberty is important because the society, families and schools should have the necessary preparation for dealing with this critical situation of adolescent. Some of the natural characteristics of this period are the revolution that if s/he deals with it properly he would face fewer problems in his youth. Adolescent is a kind of being which is changing always physically and who is immature in term of emotional status, limited in terms of experience, subjected to the environment from cultural point of view, and lives in dreams and fantasy, but he is in fact faced with reality, s/he enjoys neither from childhood not from adulthood. In this condition the media influence him more. Precocious puberty which results from socio-cultural factors deals with some matters like watching sexual scenes, hearing stimulus sexual stories and products from some channels, the advertisements of different media, clothing, curious, the need to love, unrestrained behaviors of others, morality, lack of normal legitimacy and so on, also some genetic factors and food is also effective, technical scientists believe that some chemical materials in the conserves, nail polish, shampoo and perfumes can lead to precocious puberty and in this case we will see the significant and negative role of media in the advertisement of such products, the media advertisements make some changes in the attitude and motivate and encourage more use of such variations and endanger physical and ethical health of teenagers. The results of this study show that the precocious puberty has two perspective: 1. those factors which were mentioned above, 2. Lack of height growth of adolescents. The adolescent will be subjected to some effective factors such a media, type of food, environmental situations and so on, and they will face stress and since they have not enough experiences especially by the appearance of period symptoms, she will fear and will face social and emotional problems which can be controlled by on time recognition of precocious puberty and doing on- time treatments. Suggestions The relation between parents and educational teachers, friendly communication with the child in critical and vital ages are among the main areas for confronting with premature puberty. Respecting the factors and individual and family controllable factors and situations such as the supervision of parents on their child's use of group media, the use related training to media, such as proper training of children regarding puberty through special programs for experts and psychologists for providing the conditions for confronting with this crisis. Referring to the physicians for the examination and treatment of premature puberty for prevention of skeleton problems, height growth and doing the necessary examinations. Promoting the awareness of parents through media and special programs about making relation with adolescents. Increasing the media's programs and scientific reinforcement of them in terms of providing some solutions for problems about puberty critics. 343 References Brown , K.(1987)" Adolescent Development and Behavior " Englewood cliffs and New Jersey ,Prentice Hall Inc. Fazeli, Nemat of Allah (1385) "The physical maturity of teenagers" Journal of Reproductive ResearchCenter, Medical University of Tehran, No. 23 and 24. Fakuhy, Naser (1381)‖ schools and theories of anthropology‖ Tehran, straw published. Mead, J.‖mind , self and society,Chicago . Navabkhsh, Mehrdad (1380)‖ principles and foundations of scientific research methods‖, Arak, publication of other message. Sarukhani, Baqir (1370) ―sociology of mass communication‖, Tehran, publication of information. Tabatabai, Sadiq (1378) ―The role of video media on the decline in childhood‖, Tehran, publication of information. 344 DECISION MAKING AND FERTILITY BEHAVIOR AMONG WOMEN IN WEST BENGAL , INDIA Koyel Sarkar Center for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India. [email protected] Abstract The multiphasic inter linkage within the various socio-economic and cultural factors along with fertility situation has remained a debatable topic since long and therefore remains the prime focus in this paper. Fertility behavior in any region has a demographic significance and also is a very important developmental indicator in terms of health or women‘s status. The spatial variation in the country show that it is mostly the north-eastern and the northern states of India whose TFR as well as contraceptive usage are throughout in a bad condition, whereas, West Bengal shows a better fertility behavior among the women with a lower TFR and high contraceptive usage and seems it will soon reach the Replacement Level Fertility in few years time. The Cross Tabulation and Binary Logistic Regression analysis has shown that the mass media and standard of living seems to have a strong positive effect among women‘s fertility behavior in West Bengal. Education as an important indicator seems to affect the number of children more than the contraceptive usage. The study also shows that it is mostly the less privileged group in the rural areas who are the ones showing adverse fertility behavior as these are the areas that lack the demand as well as the supply side issues. The study shows that Media Exposure has a strong impact on the fertility behavior of women and so more effort should be put by the government to enhance the connectivity in rural areas so that even the less educated women can have the minimum basic knowledge on family planning and other aspects of fertility situation along with the a good and healthy life. Keywords: Fertility behavior, contraceptive usage, decision making, demographic determinants, media exposure. INTRODUCTION Fertility, mortality and migration are the major indicators of population dynamics of any region. Among these three prime factors, fertility contributes more than any other factor in the growth or natural increase of population. This factor is important in itself as it not only has a demographic significance but also is a very important developmental indicator as it throws light on the various socio-economic, cultural and developmental status of any region. The Demographic Transition Theory itself explains how the better standard of living, medical facilities and overall development have an inverse relationship with the birth rates. However, the delicate inter linkage within these factors along with fertility situation has remained a debatable topic since long. With the long list of socio-economic and cultural variables, we are 345 more interested in how the decision making and female autonomy has turned out to affect women‘s fertility behavior, i.e., are they really linked with one another? If yes, then how. The total number of children ever born to a woman is a very important indicator of the fertility behavior as with increase in the number of children, the standard of living decreases, health status of the mother as well as the child deteriorates, congested and large family size, poverty, etc. creeps in. Women usually go for a large number of children when either they are not educated enough and so have no opinion in the ideal family size by family planning practices or when their state of poverty forces them to find a substitute for earning more family income by giving birth to more children who can help in adding more hands to work (usually physical labor). On the other hand contraceptive usage largely indicates a good and healthy sexual life with desired number of children in a family and avoiding unwanted pregnancies. But even contraceptive usage is possible only when the user (women here) is aware enough to know about the existence of such contraceptives which can help them avoid unwanted pregnancies. Media exposure, education, standard of living, etc are the requirements that can help to initiate the demand for contraceptive usage by women. Therefore, larger contraceptive usage ensures better lifestyle by avoiding high birth order, ill health of the mother, unwanted pregnancies, good and healthy sexual life, etc. Therefore we can see from the above discussion that fertility behavior in terms of children ever born to a woman and contraceptive usage is equally important to understand the developmental status of any region as any other aspect. These indicators not only gives valuable insight to the socio-cultural norms practiced but also important in understanding the lifestyle, health, economic and demographic status of any region. From these factors we can further analyze the issues involved with the women‘s fertility behavior and the conditions that tend to affect directly or indirectly. LITERATURE REVIEW: With the fertility transition in the Demographic Transition Theory, we have seen fertility starts to decline after the mortality declines and when the region goes through an overall development process. Thus this automatically explains, with better standard of living, medical facilities; overall development the fertility shows an inverse relationship. However, to explain this, at times we assume that better educational facilities among the women will tend to affect their fertility in a positive way. The validity of this statement is the issue. Many scholars and researchers are of the view that it is true and education and fertility are directly related. D.Sai Sujatha and 346 G.Brahmananda Reddy109 have argued on the validity of this argument. Their survey in Andhra Pradesh has shown that women‘s education and fertility behavior has a direct inverse relationship after the middle school education among women. Higher the education, lower is the TFR and birth order and higher birth interval, higher participation in family decision making. They conclude with education as an important variable for the development in any region. This view has been supported by various other scholars like Satish B.Agnihotri110 who found that even under different cultural groups like scheduled castes, tribes and general population in West Bengal, education plays a very important role in deciding the fertility status of the region. Robert Jenson111 has similarly argued that the exposure to media has helped in uplifting the status of women in the society. Their demand for education, freedom of movement, decrease in son preference and acceptability to domestic violence, etc shows a great impact on the social development of the region. Again, K.N.S.Yadava and Surender S.Yadava112 along with Vimala Ramachandran113 have found similar trends of low TFR and high female work participation in educated female groups on a spatial variation in the country. In spite of their backing by strong primary and secondary level survey, the validity of the views of these scholars has nevertheless been questioned. These set of scholars argue on the point that the relationship between female autonomy, education with fertility is still not direct. Interestingly, Anne Moursund and OysteinKravdal114 in their analysis of NFHS 2 data found out that it is more of general knowledge and an average educational level in the community or locality influences women‘s fertility behavior a lot more than just female autonomy or education. In evidence from India, where in few regions a decline in fertility has been experienced much before as well as without the FPP setting unlike the other regions, Jean Dreze and Mamta Murthy115 thus questions the validity of the argument of education and autonomy influencing fertility. They have analyzed various other factors that are mediated by female education in decreasing the fertility like access to contraception and public health services, urbanization, religion and cultural factors, etc. This argument has been supported by Kirit S.Parikh and Chranjib Gupta116, who in their discussion of two states using multi-regression analysis on four models have shown that although education acts as an important preconditioner, but actually it affects the fertility behavior very little. Even in the North-eastern states of India, where a 109 Women‟s Education, Autonomy and Fertility Behavior; by D.Sai Sujatha and G.Brahmananda Reddy High Female Literacy, Low Child Population, Is There a Threshold Effect?; By Satish B. Agnihotri 111 The Power of TV: Cable Television and Women‟s Status in India; by Robert Jenson 112 Women‟s Status And Fertility in Rural India; by K.N.S.Yadava and Surender S.Yadava 113 Fertility and Women‟s Autonomy; Vimala Ramachandran 114 Individual and Community Effects of Women‟s Education and Autonomy on Contraceptive Use in India; by Anne Moursund and OysteinKravdal 115 Fertility, Education and Development: Evidence From India; by Jean Dreze and Mamta Murthy 116 How Effective is Female Literacy in Reducing Fertility; by Kirit S.Parikh and Chranjib Gupta 110 347 matriarchical society with high level of female autonomy, education, freedom of movement, employment, etc exists, there still is a situation of high fertility. As rightly said by Udoy Sankar Saikia, Ross Steele and Gour Dasvarma117 fertility always is not affected by education. Other factors like religious and cultural values, insecurities of minority group, etc. are causes for high fertility in these regions. This argument is also supported by another scholar Monoj Alagarajan118 on a survey of Kerala. He states the differentials in fertility do not exist in high income groups, urbanized areas, high literacy, (instead of taking only literacy) etc. even in different religious groups. Apart from these debates of which aspect of the socio-economic factor affects the fertility most, few other important dimensions of fertility have also been studied. In an article by Preet Rustagi119, the author has tried to analyze the gender differentials in fertility behavior in the country and have rightfully emphasized on three factors that gender related development policies are safe, gender related variables are important for planned development issues and focus should be made on individual indicators and not aggregated composite indexes like GDI and HDI. A very interesting contribution in this field is done by Maria E.Cosio-Zavala120, who studied the reproductive behavior of males and females in different cultural, religion, social and regional (various countries) settings. She has succeeded in identifying the changes in female autonomy with various socio-cultural factors both empirically and spatially. Christophe Z.Guilmoto and S.Irudaya Rajan121, have studied the various socio-economic and cultural factors that cause the spatial variation in fertility in the country taking the TFR and CBR as prime indicators. OBJECTIVES: The main objectives of the present paper are as follows:  To know the fertility behavior of women in terms of children ever born and contraceptive usage in West Bengal.  To explore the effect of socio-economic and demographic determinants on the fertility behavior of women in West Bengal. DATABASE: NFHS-3, 2005-06, India West Bengal State Report. 117 Culture, Religion and Reproductive Behavior in Two Indegeneous Communities of North-eastern India: a Discussion of Some Preliminary Findings; by Udoy Sankar Saikia, Ross Steele and Gour Dasvarma 118 An Analysis of Fertility Differentials by Religion in Kerala State: A Test of Interaction Hypothesis; by Monoj Alagarajan 119 Significance of Gender Related Development Indicators: An Analysis of Indian States; by Preet Rustagi 120 Examining Changes in the Status of Women and Gender as Predictors of Fertility Change Issues in Intermediate Fertility Countries; by Maria E.Cosio-Zavala 121 District Level Estimates of Fertility from India‟s 2001 Census; by Christophe Z.Guilmoto and S.Irudaya Rajan 348 METHODOLOGY: The following are the methods which have been adopted to complete the paper:  The women‘s file from the NFHS-3 with a sample size of 6794 women (15-45yrs) has been considered for the study.  Dependent variables: children ever born and contraceptive usage.  Independent variables: education of women, exposure to media, women‘s decision making and occupational status of the respondent and partner.  Background variables: place of residence, religion, standard of living and caste.  Statistical techniques like simple percentages, graph‘s and cross tabulations has been used to explain the frequencies and how they affect one another.  Using the SPSS software, Binary Logistic Regression analysis has also been done to know the effects of background and independent variables on the dependent variables in West Bengal. BACKGROUND SCENARIO: SPATIAL VARIATION IN FERTILITY BEHAVIOR AMONG WOMEN IN INDIA: The trends in the fertility behavior of women show that there exists a huge amount of disparity among the women in terms of fertility behavior. It is mostly the north-eastern states of Meghalaya, Nagaland, etc and the northern states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, etc. whose TFR as well as contraceptive usage are throughout in a bad condition than the national average. For the north-eastern states uniquely, it may be stated that their fear to lose the minority status in spite of having a high literacy situation has resulted in high TFR and low contraceptive usage122. Apart from that, the state of West Bengal has shown a better fertility behavior among the women with a lower TFR (2.3) than the country‘s average (2.7), as well as the percentage of women who do not use contraceptive is far below in West Bengal (45.1%) than the country‘s average (56%). TEMPORAL VARIATION IN FERTILITY BEHAVIOR OF WOMEN IN WEST BENGAL: Over the period of a little more than a decade, WB has shown rapid improvement in the TFR condition, (2.9 in NFHS 1, 2.3 in NFHS 2 and 3) than the country‘s average (3.4 in NFHS 1, 2.9 in NFHS 2 and 2.7 in NFHS 3) and it seems it will soon reach the Replacement Level Fertility within few years. Again, the percentage of women using contraceptives have increased steadily 122 Culture, Religion and Reproductive Behavior in Two Indegeneous Communities of North-eastern India: a Discussion of Some Preliminary Findings; by Udoy Sankar Saikia, Ross Steele and Gour Dasvarma 349 over the years (58%, 67% and 71% in NFHS 1, 2 and 3) which is much more than the country‘s average (41%, 48% and 56% in NFHS 1, 2 and 3). STATEMENT OF PROBLEM:  Low TFR, high contraceptive usage as well as women‘s involvement in decision making on at least one of the 4 topics is 92% in WB.  Even then, with a sex ratio of 963 females per 1000 males and a literacy of 57% in women, West Bengal does not seem to improve much in its fertility behavior since NFHS-1.  Marriage continues to be at an early age, as 37% females are already married in age group 15-19yrs. RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. Do the cultural, economic and social background characteristics affect the fertility behavior of women, if yes then how? 2. Which are the most important variables that are directly linked or have the propensity to affect the fertility behavior alone keeping all the other factors constant? ANALYSIS: In the introductory part we have already discussed on the gravity of the female fertility behavior and its importance in understanding the societal developmental level of any region. For analyzing the fertility behavior we have taken into account the children ever born and contraceptive usage. The more the number of children per household, less is considered the development (both economic and social) as this indicates either poor status of the family who go for more children in order to have many hands to work for earning money as well as for future security of the parents; or since they are more in number so they are poor as cannot afford to live a good lifestyle. Similarly, only the people who are advanced enough will know the good effects of contraceptive usage and will therefore use it to avoid excessive children followed by poverty and scarcity. The likelihood of women having more than 2 children as well as contraceptive usage depends on many background, social, economic and demographic characteristics like that of education, place of residence, standard of living, media exposure, decision making, occupational status, age, marital status, etc. 350 CROSSTABULATIONS: 1. WOMEN HAVING MORE THAN 2 CHILDREN WITH INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: The percentage distribution education-wise shows that the women who are highly educated tend to have lesser number of children than the women who are less or not educated. Education thus is a demand side issue that has an indirect effect on fertility because with more education, women tend to be more aware of the advantages of small family norms, apart from that woman simply knows how to prevent excessive children by contraceptive or sterilizations, etc. Women living in rural areas are also more inclined towards having more than 2 children than the women living in urban areas. This is more of a supply side issue as rural areas lack the proper infrastructure base for proper sterilizations, or medical outlets for the sale of contraceptives, etc. also rural areas lack the proper media connectivity. The standard of living also has a negative relationship with the number of children as this directly depends on the poverty factor, i.e., poor people will want more children for more hands to work for a higher family income. Religion wise, Muslims tend to have larger number of children followed by Hindus and Christians and caste wise, scheduled tribes have larger number of children than the scheduled castes, other backward classes and the generals, without much variation in West Bengal. Women who are more often exposed to the media like television, radio or the newspaper are more likely to have lesser children than the ones who are not much exposed to the media. In the occupational status for both the respondent as well as the partner, it is seen that people who are engaged in the service sector have less number of children than the ones who are involved in household work or not working. That maybe because they are either more aware of small family norms or have less time for rearing up more children so go for small family norms. However, it is seen that women who are more involved in household decision making are more into having large number of children. Lastly, it is seen that age-wise mostly the 35-39 age group women are the ones who have maximum number of children and the least is among the women aged 15-24 years. This is due to the obvious reason that these lower age group women did not have enough time in their married life to reproduce that many children. 2. WOMEN WHO DOES NOT USE CONTRACEPTIVE WITH INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: Religion wise it is seen that the Muslims are among the highest numbers who do not use contraceptives and Christians are the lowest. Women who are more often exposed to the media seem to use more of contraceptives than women who are not regularly exposed to the 351 media. This is because more media exposure leads to more awareness of the contraceptive usage as well as uses of having small families, etc. Women who take most household decisions are the ones who use more contraceptive than the ones who participate less in household decision making. In terms of standard of living, women enjoying high standard of living use more contraceptive than the ones having low standard of living as it is directly correlated with the purchasing power of contraceptives by the family. Caste wise not much variation is observed except the scheduled tribes who are mostly into contraceptive usage. Even though the contraceptive usage is high among high educated and women living in urban areas but the variation is not much. Women involved in service sector are more likely to use contraceptive than women in household works. Partner‘s occupation does not have much implication in contraceptive usage as it shows high non contraceptive usage even among men who are involved in the service sector. Lastly, the age wise distribution shows that it is the middle aged women of 25-34 years who are the non users of contraceptives as mostly these women have undergone sterilizations after their desired number of children as marriage still takes place at an early age in West Bengal and most females are already a mother of two by the age of 25years. Similar is the case of higher aged women who are mostly sterilized or are not in intension of having further intercourse. The lower aged women of 15-24 years of age are very less in number and so they show least contraceptive usage. BINARY LOGISTIC REGRESSION: 1. THE NET EFFECT OF THE BACKGROUND CHARECTERISTICS ON WOMEN HAVING MORE THAN 2 CHILDREN: In the logistic regression we can see that the education, religion, place of residence, standard of living, caste and exposure to the media are the independent variables that affect the dependent variable of more than 2 children keeping all the other factors constant in West Bengal. Education level highly explains the fertility behavior of women. With increasing level of education, women are more likely to have lesser number of children than the ones who are less or not educated. Muslim women are more likely to have almost double the number of children than the Hindu women. Very importantly, the women living in the rural areas are more likely to have higher number of children than the ones living in the urban areas. In terms of standard of living, women with a high standard of living are to some extent likely to have lesser number of children (almost half) than the ones with a lower standard of living. Caste wise, the scheduled tribe and the other backward classes are quite likeable to have higher number of children than the scheduled tribes. Media exposure highly explains the fertility behavior of women as it 352 shows that more the women are exposed to media more they are likely to have lesser number of children than the ones who are very less or not at all exposed to the media. The age wise distribution of women in the state also significantly affect the number of children as the women of lower age groups are the ones who are yet to reproduce more and have thus not completed their reproductive cycle so they have lesser number of children than the higher age groups who have completed their reproductive cycle and hence have larger number of children. However, , contradicting the earlier belief, women‟s decision making and occupational status (of respondent or partner within or outside the household) does not affect the children ever born to any extent among women in West Bengal. 2. THE NET EFFECT OF THE BACKGROUND CHARECTERISTICS ON WOMEN NOT USING CONTRACEPTIVES: Independent variables like religion, standard of living, women‘s decision making, caste and exposure to media are among the few variables that have a significant impact on the contraceptive usage among women in West Bengal. It is seen that the Muslim women are more likely for not using contraceptive than the Hindus and Christians score even lesser than the Hindus (reference). This maybe because of the strong religious beliefs among the Muslims who are pronatalists than the Christians who are mostly by nature more of antenatalists. Women who are more involved in household decision making are the ones who are more likely to use contraceptive than the women who hardly participate in household decision making. Higher standard of living also explains that women tend to use more of contraceptives than that of lower standard of living. Caste wise, the scheduled castes are the ones who are more likely of not using contraceptives than the ST‘s or other caste categories. Exposure to the mass media highly explains the contraceptive usage among women in West Bengal. Women who are more exposed to watching TV, listening to the radio or reading the newspaper are the ones who are more into contraceptive usage than the women who are seldom exposed to the mass media. The age wise distribution of women also seems to significantly affect the usage of contraceptives in women of the state. Higher the age more are the women not prone in using contraceptive as by that time they have mostly attained their desired number of children and hence undergo sterilization. However, contradicting the earlier belief, education, place of residence and occupation (within or outside residence) does not significantly seem to affect the contraceptive usage in West Bengal. 353 CONCLUSION It is important that women should use more of contraceptives and go for a smaller number of children to avoid unwanted pregnancies, ill health of the mother and the child and also poverty induced large families. For many years Government of India tried to promote Family Planning by mass media, which seems to have a strong positive effect among women‘s fertility behavior in West Bengal (both children ever born and contraceptive usage) as it is mostly the women who are regularly exposed to the mass media like TV, radio and newspaper are the ones who are in a good fertility situation i.e., has less than 2 children and also uses contraceptive. Similarly, standard of living is also more likely to have a direct effect on the fertility behavior of women. Education as an important indicator seems to affect the children ever born but not much to the contraceptive usage. Women in the rural areas with less education and low standard of living are more likely to have more fertility and use less contraceptive than others in any social condition. This study calls for a more target oriented approach by the government to capture the less privileged group specially in the rural areas as they are the ones who are most deprived of all the facilities provided by the government in terms of free family planning education, sterilizations, reproductive educations, etc. These areas lack the demand as well as the supply side issues from the want of contraceptives and small family norms to the free medical facilities and education as provided by the government health centers or medical outlets supplying basic contraceptives like condoms, etc. The study has shown strong impact of the Media Exposure on the fertility behavior of women and so more effort should be put in by the government to enhance the connectivity of the media in rural areas so that even the less educated women can have the minimum basic knowledge on family planning and other aspects of fertility situation along with the a good and healthy life. REFERENCES Agnihotri Satish B.; High Female Literacy, Low Child Population, Is There a Threshold Effect?; Economic and Political Weekly; vol 37; no 39; Sep 28 – Oct 4 2002; Pages 4054-4059 Alagarajan Monoj; An Analysis of Fertility Differentials by Religion in Kerala State: A Test of Interaction Hypothesis; Population Research and Policy Review; vol 22; no 5/6; Dec 2003; Pages 557574 Dreze Jean, Murthy Mamta; Fertility, Education and Development: Evidence from India; Population and Development Review; vol. 27; no 1; March 2001; Pages 33-63 Guilmoto Christophe Z., Rajan S.Irudaya; District Level Estimates of Fertility from India‘s 2001 Census; Economic and Political Weekly; vol 37; no 7; Feb 16-22 2002; Pages 665-672 354 Jenson Robert; The Power of TV: Cable Television and Women‘s Status in India; Sept 23 2008; Moursund Anne, Kravdal Oystein; Individual and Community Effects of Women‘s Education and Autonomy on Contraceptive Use in India; Population Studies; vol 57; no. 3; Nov 2003; Pages 285-301 Parikh Kirit S., Gupta Chranjib; How Effective is Female Literacy in Reducing Fertility; Economic and Political Weekly; vol 36; no 35; Sep 1-7 2001; Pages 3391-3398 Ramachandran Vimala; Fertility and Women‘s Autonomy; India International Center Quarterly; vol 511; Winter 1996; Pages 1-9 Rustagi Preet; Significance of Gender Related Development Indicators: An Analysis of Indian States; Indian Journal of Gender Studies; vol 11; no 3; 2004; Pages 291-343 Saikia Udoy Sankar, Steele Ross and Dasvarma Gour; Culture, Religion and Reproductive Behavior in Two Indegeneous Communities of North-eastern India: a Discussion of Some Preliminary Findings; Sujatha D.Sai, Reddy G.Brahmananda; Women‘s Education, Autonomy and Fertility Behavior; Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences; vol.I (1); Jan-June 2009; pages 35-50 Yadava K.N.S., Yadava Surender S.; Women‘s Status and Fertility in Rural India; The History of the Family- an International Quarterly; vol 4; no 2; 1999; Pages 208-229 Zavala Maria E.Cosio; Examining Changes in the Status of Women and Gender as Predictors of Fertility Change Issues in Intermediate Fertility Countries; 355 ADOPTION OF DESTITUTE ON THE MARGINS OF SOCIETY: A CASE STUDY FROM URBAN INDIA Kalpana Prasanna ([email protected]) Flat No. 584 Block C 8 Kendriya Vihar, Yelahanka BANGALORE 56 064, INDIA Tel: +91-80-28561476(Resi) Abstract The process of adoption has a special place as it provides an opportunity for the childless to have a child. It also provides a social service to the nation in providing a home to the otherwise unwanted and invisible margins of society. Traditionally, adoption was limited to the extended family. Today, adoption has been considered ‗a specialized child welfare service‘; thanks to the restructuring of the economic order, increasing interactivity thorough mass media and the process of social development..The objective of this study was (1) identify family-level indicators that promote adoption, (2) understand the institutional and legal factors enabling or hindering adoption in the Indian context. The study is both exploratory and analytical in its approach. The universe for the study includes all the adoptees and their respective families living in Bangalore city (during the period 2005-2006). Stratified-random sampling technique (a sample of 50 adoptive families from Bangalore) was used for selecting samples.This study discovered that couples definitely prefer to wait for a biological child before adoption; they prefer to go through a placement agency, they belong to nuclear families, and they do not have any specific social criteria for adoption. Most of the adoptive parents are educated and belong to middle and higher income level. Adoption of a child takes a minimum of six months and there is a deliberate effort on the part of the adoptive parents to allot time to assimilate the adopted child in the family. The adoptive parents are also comfortable fulfilling the legal formalities associated with adoption without any inhibition. The organized adoption process carried out by the placement agencies does not necessitate legal consultation by adoptive parents. It appears that social pressure to adopt a child is not predominant. Couples apparently adopt irrespective of support from the family and community. They believe that incentives in terms of maternity and paternity benefits to adoptive parents will promote adoption. Adoptive parents would like to belong and participate in support group meetings and programmes organized by the adoption placement agencies & Voluntary Co-coordinating Agencies for support after adoption. This was identified as a key need by adopting couples. There are social and legal support systems to make adoption a child-centric activity which focuses on the identity of the child. The fact remains that continuance of family dominates the rationale of adoption. INTRODUCTION It is both a tradition and a practice to have a child in the family. This is a desire experienced by most couples all over the world. However, some couples may not be able to bear children. The popular belief is that childless couples prefer to adopt a child. The presence or absence of biological children is an important variable which was examined. The response shows that majority of the couples wish to experience parenting through a biological child. The factors that actually lead to the adoption of a child/ren are multi-fold, the primary one being a need for the child in the family. The other causes include loss of biological child, loss of parent/s by a child who is related to the couple, divine calling, need of a sibling for an existing biological child and inability to have a second biological child. Adoption plays a vital role in fulfilling the needs of desolate children. There are around 44 million destitute children in India; 12 million of these are orphans (citation). There are around 356 300 Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) across India that run orphanages to cater for the needs of these children. However, these organizations can not adequately cater for the needs of all the desolate children in India. In addition, it is believed that orphanages and other institutions can not provide the standard of care for all children. .A definition by World Health Organization (2001) states ―Adoption is regarded as the most complete means whereby family relationships and family life are restored to a child in need of a family‖. When constituted of mother, father and children, the family shows itself to be enduring normal setting for the upbringing of the child (citation). The alarming magnitude of destitute children and the inadequacies of institutional care gives adoption a special place in the care of India‘s desolate children. In addition to providing a social service to cater for needs of desolate children, adoption plays and important role in providing childless families with children. METHODOLOGY Sources of data The data for the present study has been collected from primary and secondary sources. The secondary sources include review of selected articles, books, journals, magazines and documents selected from the Internet as well. Review of Literature The review of literature has provided many insights in identifying various issues relating to adoption. Most of the studies have dealt with legal issues. There is a lack of focus on various social variables such as age, economic background, role of biological factors and pressure from the society. The role of family support and attitudes towards adoptions also needed exploration. The present study attempts to explore the social variables relating to adoption in the given legal framework. The Universe The Universe for the present study includes all the adoptees and their respective families living in Bangalore city. An exhaustive data relating to all the adoptees and their respective families was not available as it is not necessary to have either legal documentation or registration of adoption. Thus, the universe of the present study includes all those adoptive parents who happen to live in Bangalore and those adoptive parents who have adopted children through various placement agencies located in Bangalore. Sample The sample for the study was selected by using stratified-random technique. Fifty parents who have adopted children from four adoption placement agencies in Bangalore have been taken into consideration for this study. The adoption agencies were selected on the basis of geographical spread and to ensure inclusion of agencies operating at various levels. It includes three categories of adoptive parents, which was taken to ensure a representative sample of adoptive parents. The table below depicts the same. Sl.No. Nature of adoptive parents Number of respondents Total Males Females 1 Adoptive parent who have sought 24 20 44 assistance from placement agencies at Bangalore 2 Non-local adoptive parents living in 2 2 4 Bangalore 3 Local adoptive parents who have 2 Nil 2 adopted children without the assistance of placement agencies 357 Analysis of Data: Bangalore was chosen to conduct this study due to the fact that it has the maximum number of adoption placement agencies in Karnataka. The data collected from respondents has been analysed to understand the various aspects of adoption. I) Profile of Adoptive Parents Age-and Gender Composition of Adoptive parents (Table 1.1) MALES FEMALES TOTAL Age Num Percent Number of respondents Percent <25 26-35 yrs 36-45 yrs >46 yrs 1 11 14 2 3 40 50 7 2 15 4 1 9 68 18 4 Total no. of Percentage respondents 3 26 18 3 6 52 36 6 It is apparent from the above table that younger women vis-à-vis men prefer to go in for adoption. Eighty-eight percent of the adoptive parents are in the age group: 26-45 years. This could be due to the social pressure to have a child within first few years of marriage. The child-bearing age of the woman is also an important consideration. The data also indicates that men prefer to wait until the age of 35 at least before deciding on adoption. Educational level Educational background of the Adoptive Parents (Table 1.2) Males Females Total Number of respondents 4 Percent Number of respondents 7 Percent Number of respondents 11 Percentage Matriculate/ 8 14 11 Nonmatriculate Graduate 18 36 28 56 46 46 Post graduate 26 52 15 30 41 41 Not specified 2 4 2 2 Total 28 100 22 100 50 100 The data in the table above indicates that majority of parents who choose to adopt a child have a higher educational background. 358 Income level of adoptive parents (1.3) Income Level of Adoptive Parents 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Number of parents Percentage Less than Rs.10,000 – Rs.15,000 – More than Rs.10,000 Rs.15,000 Rs.20,000 Rs.20,000 The income level of the adoptive families is another essential aspect to be examined. It is seen that majority of the parents adopting a child/children have a monthly income of more than Rs.20, 000/- per month. The placement agencies specify a minimum income of Rs.6, 000/- per month to be eligible to adopt a child. This is in the context of expenditure involved in child rearing. Nature of the adoptive family at the time of adoption (Table 1.4) Sl.No Family type Number of Percentage families 1 Joint family 11 22 2 Nuclear family 30 60 3 Single parent family 01 02 4 Widowed/Spinster/Divorced 02 04 5 Extended family 04 08 6 Not specified 02 04 TOTAL 50 100 Adoptive Parents and biological children (Table 1.5) Percentage 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% Percentage 0% Percentage Parents with biological children Parents without biological children 359 It is both a tradition and a practice to have a child in the family. This is a desire experienced by most couples all over the world. However, some couples may not be able to bear children. The popular belief is that childless couples prefer to adopt a child. The presence or absence of biological children is an important variable which was examined. The response shows that majority of the couples wish to experience parenting through a biological child. This is proven by the fact that 88% of the parents who opted for adoption were childless couples. II) Preferences with regard to adopted child Preferential attitude towards the adoptee (Table 1.6) Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Preferred social background of the adoptee To be a relative From the same caste group From the same linguistic group From the native place No preferences Not specified TOTAL Number of respondents 03 05 00 01 37 04 50 Percentage 6 10 0 2 74 8 100 It has been found that 74% of the respondents did not have any specific social criteria for adoption. One of the possible reasons for this could be due to the factor that adoption placement agencies do not encourage such preference by prospective parents. Age preference of the adoptive child (1.7) Sl.No Nature of respondents Number of respondents 1 Parents who were specific 19 about the age of the adoptee 2 Parents who were neutral 25 about the age of the adoptee 3 Parents who did not indicate 06 any age specification TOTAL 50 Percentage 38 50 12 100 The respondents (38%) have indicated a preference towards adopting an infant or young child. They cited easy adjustment on the part of the child as a reason for the same. It is seen that 50% of the adopters did not specify any age preference. Gender Preference in Adoption (1.8) Respondents Preference for Male Child No. Percent Male 3 11 Female 3 14 Total 6 12 Preference for Female Child No. Percent 6 22 5 22 11 22 No Preference No 19 14 33 Percent 67 64 66 The preference towards a male child is an established fact of our social life. Historical evidence suggest that the custom of adopting a male child was universal in the past. This was done for religious as well as lineage reasons. It was found through the above study that 22 % of the respondents indicated a preference for female child. This justifies the changing trend, a finding 360 as per the study done by CARA in 2004. The predominant pattern (66 %) confirms that the couple intending to adopt a child do not have any gender preference. III) Family Support & assimilation Family Support received for adoption (Table 1.9) Sl.no 1 2 3 4 Particulars/Nature of parents Parents who received family support Parents who did not receive family support Not applicable Not specified TOTAL Number of parents 28 Percentage 19 38 01 02 50 02 04 100 56 This study has made an attempt to collect information on family support received y the adoptive parents. Nearly one out of two families (56%) that went in for adoption was supported by their families. However, couples are willing to adopt a child even if they do not receive support from their family members. Duration to complete the process of adoption (1.10) Duration taken No. of parents Less than 6 months 40 6-12 months 9 More than 12 months 1 Percentage 80 18 2 The time taken to complete the formalities relating to adoption varies on the basis of number of factors. The process involves documentation, confirming consent by the concerned individuals, legal requirements etc. In most of the cases (80%), the process of adoption demands a time span of about six months Assimilation of the adopted child into the adoptive family (1.11) Sl.No Duration needed Number of parents 1 Less than 1 month 19 2 1 - 3 months 21 3 3 -6 months 06 4 More than 6 months 03 5 Did not specify the time duration 01 Percentage 38 42 12 6 2 It can be seen that majority of the respondents felt that adopted child can be assimilated into the family within three months (80%). The study also reveals that the older the adoptee is, the longer the time taken for assimilation. It is also true that the attitude of the adoptive family and the adoptee will influence the duration of assimilation. Adoptive parents taking time off to settle with the adopted child (1.12) The parents are the primary care givers for a child. The sequence of events are pre-determined in case of a biological child. In the case of adoption, both the child and parents need time to adjust with one another.The number of parents who took time off from work to settle down with the adopted child formed about 58 percent. Those who could not take time off from work 361 indicated that they had sought help from parents or parent-in-law to look after the child in their absence. Social Pressure on childless couples to adopt a child (1.13) Sl.No. Social Pressure from Number of parents Percentage who faced this pressure 1 Family 8 16 2 Neighbours/friends 4 4 3 Co-workers 1 2 4 Self/Spouse 2 4 5 Parents who did not 34 68 face any social pressure 6 Parents who did not 3 6 specify about social pressure factor TOTAL 50 100 The adoptive parents are believed to adopt children to complete their family. Sometimes, a family may adopt a child to overcome social pressure, if any. It is found that adoptive parents had experienced social pressure from family, neighbours, co-workers, spouse and friends. However, majority of the adoptive parents (68 percent) did not have any social pressure. Thus, adoption has been a natural choice of the adoptive families. Consultation/effort to have a biological child prior to adoption by adoptive parents (1.14) It is a natural desire on the part of a couple to have a child in the family. There are instances when couples fail to have a biological child. Traditionally, the Hindu families believed in consulting religious mendicants or astrologers. This was done to clarify the possibility of bearing a child or to work out a remedial measure to have a child. It is only in the recent years, medical science has established the fact that ―childlessness‖ could be rehabilitated through medical assistance. The data indicated that 58 percent of the parents have explored the causes for their inability to have a child. They have opted to consult medical professionals, religious mendicants and at times a combination of both. Consultation/effort to have a biological child prior to adoption by adoptive parents Parents who did not specify about consultation 18% Neither medical nor religious 24% Medical Professionals 30% Religious Mendicants 4% A combination of medical/religious 24% 362 Multiple adoptions (1.15) 5 10 2 2 1 More than 2 0 88 44 1 20 40 60 80 Number of adoptive parents 100 120 140 Percentage Most of the parents prefer to adopt one child to satisfy their desire for having a child in the family (88%). However there were cases of adoptive parents who adopted more than one child. The desire to help the underprivileged, divine calling and concern for children have been cited as reasons for the same. IV Legal components of adoption Adoptive parents seeking legal help (1.17) Sl.No Response from parents 1 2 3 Needed legal help Legal help not needed Not specified response TOTAL Number of responses 12 27 11 50 Percentage 24 54 22 100 The laws govern the adoption process carried out through placement agencies. It is also stipulated by co-ordinating agencies and other State/Central bodies. The data indicated that 24% of adoptive parents sought legal help in order to obtain clarification on certain aspects of declarations and documents to be produced prior to adoption. There are 54 percent of respondents who have indicated satisfaction over the streamlined adoption procedure adhered to by the placement agencies. They did not feel the need to seek any legal counsel during adoption process. FINDINGS  Couples prefer to wait for a few years after marriage to have a biological child before opting for adoption.  Most of the couples adopting child/children through placement agencies have a minimum educational level of graduation.  Majority of the adoptive parents constitute nuclear families  Persons having intimate personal rapport serve as the source of information about adoption.  It is mostly childless couple who prefer adoption.  The adoptive families with biological children consulted their wards prior to adoption.  Majority of the respondents did not have any specific social criteria for adoption.  The adoptive parents indicated the need for a child in a family as a major reason for adoption.  The absence of support from family members is not an obstacle for adopting a child. 363  The adoptive respondents are likely to give importance to the adoptee child rather than to its age.  Most couple would prefer to adopt young children.  There is no visible preference in terms of gender of the adoptee.  The number of couples opting for multiple adoptions is limited  Adoption is not an instantaneous process. It takes a minimum of six months to complete the process.  The process of assimilation of an adoptee into a family takes about three months in most cases.  There has been a deliberate effort on the part of the adoptive parents to allot time to enable the adoptee to adjust with the new family.  The choice of retaining or changing the original name of the adoptee is to provide psychological comfort to the adoptee.  Most of the adoptive parents belong to the middle income and upper income groups.  Social pressure to adopt a child is not predominant.  Most couples would like to find reasons for childlessness and prospects of having a biological child prior to adoption.  The organized adoption process carried out by the placement agencies does not necessitate legal consultation by the adoptive parents.  Most of the adoptive parents are comfortable in providing information and fulfilling legal formalities associated with adoption.  The motivated adoptive parents will be will to fulfill all the prior requirements without any inhibition.  Incentives in terms of maternity or paternity benefits to adoptive parents will promote adoption in our society.  Adoptive parents would like to belong and participate in support group meetings and programmes organized by the adoption placement agencies, Voluntary Co-ordinating Agencies and fellow adoptive parents as a means of fellowship CONCLUSION Adoption is not a recent phenomenon. It has been in existence from time to time. The postindependent India has witnessed many legislative measures, non-governmental efforts and greater awareness among the childless couples. Although there are instances of adoption by the couple with biological children, the most predominant are those who are childless. It is a fact that these belong to middle and upper-income group than lower-income group. Most of the adoptive couples or persons have an educational level of a graduation or post-graduation. It is observed that most of the adoptive parents restrict themselves to one child. These persons do not generally indicate any kind of preferential option of adopting either male or a female child. The absence of such a preference is an indication of their concern to the child rather than their own requirement of having a child in the family. The legal provisions prescribe certain conditions to adoptive parents. Most of these provisions have been progressive in nature. There is always an attempt to enforce formalities to complete the process of adoption. Although adoption could take place at the family or kin group level in an informal way, it is an elaborate process through placement agencies. The streamlines procedure of adoption through placement agencies takes some specified period involving a few months. This time span has many positive contributions. It will ensure assimilation of the adoptee into a family along with an assured commitment on the part of the adoptive parents. The most recent references relating to adoption indicate that it is no longer an instantaneous process but elaborate in nature. This will ensure the adoption process to give appropriate consideration to the psychological, social and economic conditions of the adoptive 364 parent and the adoptee. Thus, it could be concluded that the process of adoption is becoming more integrative and proactive in nature. Books REFERENCES Bhargava Vinitha Dr.2005. Adoption in India: Policies and Experiences. SAGE Publications, New Delhi. Davis Kingsley 1995. Human Society. Surjeet Publications, New Delhi. Goode.J.William & Hatt.K.Paul 1952. Methods in Social Research, Mcgraw Hill Book Co. Singapore Kapadia K.M. 1992. Marriage and Family in India. Oxford University Press, New Delhi Lobo Aloma Dr. & Vasudevan Janapriya 2002. The Penguin Guide to Adoption. Penguin Books India, New Delhi Pandarinath H. Prabhu 1991. Hindu Social Organisation, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai Tandon M.P. 1977. Family Law of India. Allahabad Law Agency, Allahabad Young Pauline V 1977. Scientific Social Surveys & Research, Prentice Hall of India Ltd, New Delhi. Reports/Journals/Studies Arora Krishnan (ed.) 2000. The Juvenile Justice (Care & Protection of Children) Act 2000 Bajpai Asha 1995 – Case for Common Law of Adoption in the cause of justice to the child – A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of M.Phil at the National Law School of India University, Bangalore. Bare Act 2005. The Guardians and Wards Act 1890. Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi Dr. Khwaja Ali (ed.) 2002. Souvenir & Handbook on Adoption, Voluntary Coordinating Agency, Bangalore. Economic & Political Weekly Sep 21, 2002. Adoption Laws need to reform. Raju Siva 1999. Social Attitudes towards Child Adoption in Mumbai, a study, Mumbai. Website Links www.adoptionindia.nic.in (Central Adoption Resource Agency, New Delhi) www.csa.org.in (Catalysts for Social Action, Adoption Portal) 365 How Rural-Urban Migration Contributes to the Development of a Megacity: A case from Bangladesh Asif Ishtiaque1 Department of Geography and Environment, Faculty of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Email: [email protected] 1 Abstract Like other developing countries, rural-urban migration is the prime reason of developing megacity in Bangladesh. It is the most important factor for rapid urbanization as well. Dhaka, the only megacity in Bangladesh, became a megacity having more than 10 million of population in 2001. Dhaka is the center of attraction of this region since 7th century and the development phase of this megacity can be categorized into five- Pre-mughal period, Mughal period, British period, Pakistan period and independent Bangladesh period. Although rural-urban migration plays the crucial most role to turn Dhaka from a city to megacity, it was not very significant during the first three period. With the partition of subcontinent Dhaka became the capital of independent Bangladesh and huge numbers of migrants start to step into this city. Dhaka, the 9th largest of 21 megacities of the world, drags people towards it with several ‗forces of attraction‘. This study, on the rural-urban migrants residing over the slums of Dhaka city, finds that availability of jobs, easy access to informal economy, ‗Dhaka means Taka‘ conception and ‗illuminating Dhaka‘ are the prime forces of attraction of Dhaka megacity. Keywords: Megacity, Dhaka, Rural-Urban Migration, Migration toward Megacity, Forces of Attraction. Introduction Development of cities and urban centers as well is intrinsically related with human migration, especially with rural-urban migration. The huge labor requirement of urban centers is fulfilled by the labors from the rural areas (Harris 1970). In terms of Bangladesh, the development of urban centers is closely related with rural-urban migration. It is the most important factor for rapid urbanization in Bangladesh (Ishtiaque 2011). Migration can be broadly defined as the change of residence from one civil division to another for a period of time or on a permanent basis. Migration occurs for various reasons, but due to PEST factors (political, economic, social and technological) people are more likely to move (Ullah 2004). Rural-Urban migration is the most crucial component of internal migration of any country. It is a powerful symbol for regional inequality, in terms of economy, opportunities and living standards (Islam 2006). Rural-out migration or urban-in migration happens to diminish the gap between needs and gains (Islam 1996b). This migration always plays an important role in developing cities, megacities. In the developing country like Bangladesh population mobility is a necessary condition for sustainable development and poverty alleviation (Islam 1996a). Poverty and physical mobility are closely interrelated (Anderson 2002). Anh (2003) opined that migration is a driver of growth and an important route out of poverty with significant positive impact on people‘s livelihoods and wellbeing. Migration towards urban centers becomes an important livelihood diversification strategy for the poor groups of any country (Berner 2000). This picture is clearly depicted in Dhaka. Dhaka megacity is the most popular destination for the poor groups of the country and Dhaka is now considered as ‗city of urban poor‘ (Islam 2001). Megacity Dhaka At present World has 21 megacities, defined as having over 10 million in population (World Urbanization Prospect 2009). Dhaka joined this ‗megacity‘ rank in 2001 with a population of 10.7 million (BBS 2003). Dhaka now holds 14.65 million populations in an area of 1530 square 366 kilometers and becomes the world‘s 9th largest megacity (World Urbanization Prospect 2009). Between 1990 and 2005, the city doubled in size — from 6 to 12 million (Burkart 2008). By 2025 Dhaka will be home of 20.94 million people — larger than Mexico City, Beijing or New York. In 2025 Dhaka will become the 5th largest megacity (World Urbanization Prospect 2009). Dhaka has increased 35 times in last 60 years. This increase is occurring mainly due to high level of rural-out migration. Every year rural people pour into Dhaka city nearly at a rate of 400,000 each year (German 2010). Migration and redefinition of urban boundaries contribute three-fifth and twothirds respectively to the urban growth of Bangladesh for the last four decades (Afsar 2000). Dhaka is the only megacity in Bangladesh. It is the fastest growing urban center in Bangladesh. The megacity Dhaka includes the entire area of Dhaka City Corporation, Gazipur Sadar upazila of Gazipur district, Narayanganj Sadar and Bandar upazilas of Narayanganj district and Savar and Keraniganj upazilas of Dhaka district, extending an area of more than 1500 square kilometers (Rasheed 2008). Figure 1 denotes the hierarchy of urban and rural centers123 of Bangladesh and a simplified one-way migration flow. Dhaka: Development of a Megacity Dhaka City is centrally located in Bangladesh, in the southern part of the district of Dhaka (Afsar 2000). It is situated between latitudes 24˚40´ N to 24˚54´ N and longitudes 90˚20´ E to 90˚30´ E and defined by the Buriganga river in the south; the Balu and the Shitalakhya rivers in the east; Tongi Khal in the north and the Turag river in the west. The majesty of Dhaka City has developed over a long span of time (Hossain 2008). The city was under the suzerainty of different kings and rulers and its growth was hindered and distributed from time to time. Sometimes the growth gained momentum during the reign of some rulers and other times it did not (Asaduzzaman 1997). We can categorize this development into Pre-Mughal Dhaka, Era of Mughals, British Period, Pakistan Period and Bangladesh Period. Pre-Mughal Dhaka (Before 1608) Dhaka was under the Buddhist kingdom of Kamrup in the 7th and 8th centuries. From about 9th century A.D it was governed by the Sen Kings of Vikrampur. Dhaka of that time was probably a small town, with 52 bazaars and 53 lanes, lying between the rivers (Birt 1906 and Ruddock 1964). After the Hindu Rulers, Dhaka was successively under the Turks and Pathans for a long time (1299-1608) before the arrival of Mughals. The Afghan fort in Dhaka was located at the present Central Jail. After Pathans, Dhaka went under the Sultans of Sonargaon from whom the sovereignty was acquired by the Mughals (Islam 1984). 123 The urban and rural centers of Bangladesh are classified based on their population size during the census of 2001. Details can be found in BBS National Report of Population Census 2001. 367 Figure 1: Hierarchy of Urban and Rural Centers in Bangladesh and One-way Migration Flow among Them Era of Mughals (1608-1757) The city began to flourish as a commercial and political centre, expanding in the west up to Chandi Ghat during 1602-1604. After the Sultans the Mughals took over the city and started to attribute more importance to it. During the early Mughal rule, the city covered an area of about 2.20 sq. km and was confined within the small continuous zone of the present old city. Dhaka City got its pomp and splendour during the Mughal rule and attained the prestigious position of the premier city of the empire. The city gained its reputation as a capital during the early period of the 17th century (Asaduzzaman 1997). It was made capital of the province of Bengal in 1608 by Subader Islam Khan Chisti for its political and military importance, and being a capital, it required more space for administrative, military purposes and accommodation. Centering the old market, the provincial capital Dhaka began to develop rapidly as a major city of the province (Dani 1962). During the rule of the Mughals Dhaka City grew in a north-western direction. D‘oloy shows that the greatest urban growth took place under Subedar Saista Khan (1662-1667 and 1679-1689) (D‘oloy 1824). At that time, the city extended from the Buriganga river in the south to Tongi Bridge in the north, a distance of about 25 km (in a north-south direction) and from Jafrabad (Sarai Jafrabad) in the west to Postogola in the east, a distance of about 15 km in a east-west direction. Of course, this huge Mughal city incorporated many villages and suburbs within its urban area and at that time the city had a population of over a million (Travernnier 1925). The city then started to lose its glory with the shifting of the provincial capital to Murshidabad in 1717 (due to a personal clash between the Emperor Azim-Us-Shan and Subedar Murshid Kuli Khan) (Karim, 1964). From that time a number of influences from European traders started to increase in Bengal. At that time the size of Dhaka City was about 4.5 sq. km and the population 368 was about 1 million (Taylor 1840). The main city was confined in a small area on the northern bank of the river Buriganga around the Lalbagh and Chawk-Mughaltoli area where the older part of the city is today (Asaduzzaman 1997). British Period (1757-1947) East India Company from Britain took control of Bengal after a brutal battle in 1757. Under the control of the East India Company Dhaka City became a declining urban centre and between 1757-1864 it had a tremendous decrease in population and area (Hunter 1976). The population of Dhaka City which was estimated to be nearly 200,000 in 1800 dropped to 51,000 in 1873. Kolkata of present India was the focus of economy and commerce at that time. Kolkata developed as an urban center by the British, and this development process started with the coalescence of three villages- Sutanoti, Gobindopur and Kolikata. Kolkata was also the political nucleus of the total Bengal region while Dhaka lost its attraction due to the rapid emergence of Kolkata. Perhaps for that reason people started to leave Dhaka and the population dropped within a short period of time. The energetic controller of Dhaka, Mr. Walters founded the Dhaka Committee in 1830 and under his chairmanship began the development of Dhaka town. The total urban area during that time rose to a total of 14.5 sq. km and the total population was 51,635 in 1867 (Hossain 2008). Dhaka City began to rise from a declining and stagnant condition after the transfer of power to the Crown in 1858 by the British East India Company. The first local administration, the Dhaka Municipality was found in 1864 by Mr. Skinner (Taifoor 1952). After 1864, the lowland areas in the north of Islampur, Tantibazar, Kamrangir Char, Goalnagar were gradually filed for urbanisation and at the same time Wari, Gandaria, Old Cantonment (Purana Paltan) Narinda, Hazaribagh, Nawabganj, Sarai Jafarbad, Race Course Green Pastures and Rayar Bazaar were also brought under the town‘s jurisdiction (Geddes 1917). Thus the area of Dhaka City was expanded into 17.0 sq. km. and Dhaka City started to flourish again, its population increasing to a total of some 90 thousand in 1901 and reaching over a hundred thousand in the subsequent ten years (Asaduzzaman 1997). With the advent of 20th century Dhaka began to experience the pressure of population on its resources. For the first time in British period Dhaka became the provincial capital in 1906. As Dhaka became the administrative capital this whole region became Dhaka‘s hinterland. In migration flow increased very much during that time. Though in 1911 administrative capital was shifted to Kolkata, the level of urbanization started to increase slowly. But Dhaka remained as a mere district till the partition in 1947. Pakistan Period (1947-1971) Partition in 1947 brought about a momentum to the growth of Dhaka. Dhaka became the provincial capital of then East Pakistan. Partition of the sub-continent not only restricted the spatial extent of migration of Bangladeshi people, it also caused a great deal of socio-economic disruption by dislocating three to four million people within a very short time (Mahbub 1997). At partition Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) gained 699,709 muhajirs (Muslim migrants) from India (Census of Pakistan, 1951). The influx of people from India on the one hand and the onrush of people to the newly established administrative, commercial and educational centre on the other contributed to an unprecedented growth of the city (Siddiqui 2000). The need for office space for administrative and commercial purposes as well as residential needs resulting from the increase in population led to the growth of the city on several levels. During this period, the Dhaka Improvement Trust (DIT) was created in 1956 (which was later transformed into RAJUK in 1987) for supervision of the overall planning and development of the city. Beside different urban development projects, DIT developed a number of residential areas to meet the housing needs of the emerging elite class (Khan 2001). For the development of the city, wetlands were being encroached and filled up, deforestation started. Thus the city started to expand in north369 south direction. The Banani and Gulshan areas were acquired by the government in the early sixties under the 1959-Master Plan of Dhaka City and by 1961, the city population grew to 718,766 and the area at that time was about 125 sq. km (BBS Urban Area Report 1991). From the very beginning of the history of Bengal, the dominant reason behind the growth of Dhaka city was rural out migration and urban in migration. Although there was a pressure of population at that time on the scarce resource of Dhaka, it was not very acute. ―Gola vora dhan, pukur vora mach‖ (Abundant rice in house, plentiful fish in pond) concept was still prevailed in the rural areas of Bangladesh. During the Pakistan period the developments of urban centers were very slow and pressure on the land resources was not so acute, rural-urban migration was not very significant. During this period two census reports of 1951 and 1961 represented 4.46% level of urbanization on average and the urban growth rate was only 2.64% (Census of Pakistan 1951 and 1961). Bangladesh Period (1971- At Present) After liberation in 1971 Dhaka for the first time became the capital of an independent country. The urbanization process achieved tremendous growth to meet the needs of the newly independent country‘s capital. The city‘s population suddenly increased to 2,068,353 in 1974, it began to expand in all directions including the low-lying areas of the east, such as Jurain, Goran, Badda, Khilgaon, Rampura, and to the west including the areas of Kamrangirchar, Shyamoli, Western Mohgammadpur, Kallyanpur (Chowdhury 1991). This sudden increase of population occurred due to high level of rural out migration. Just after the liberation a famine broke out in 1974, which was known as ‗Famine of 1974‘. Though the Pakistanis were fled away by the Liberation Fighters of Bangladesh, but before it they ruined the economy and commerce of Bangladesh. Massive crop failure brought about a severe food crisis all over the country. This famine played an important role in rural out migration. Many people came to Dhaka in search of food and employment. However, the main cause of the rapid growth of Dhaka is not that particular one. For the first time Dhaka became the capital of an independent country. Urbanization in Dhaka started to grow very fast. Dhaka became the nucleus of the country. It became the administrative, economic, commercial capital. Dhaka also had the highest level education institutions in its territory. Thus people were dragged by Dhaka. As very rapid urban growth (along with a fast increase in population and structural development) started to take place a new structural plan was needed. The population leapt to 3 million within a decade of the independence of the country and the city covered an area of about 510 sq. km. by 1981 (Siddiqui 2000). During this period the swamps and wetlands within the city started to disappear quickly and new areas of residential, administrational, business and commercial importance began to develop. In addition, slum and squatter settlements also sprang up in different areas of the city (Hossain 2008). Dhaka City has faced its highest rate of physical and population growth during 1981-1991, with the population doubling during that decade and the city expanding from 510 sq. km to 1353 sq. km (Mahbub 1997). The city now includes the surrounding areas of Gazipur, Sadar and Bandar thana of Narayangong and the entire Keraniganj, Savar thana (BBS Urban Area Report 1991). Dhaka got the term ‗megacity‘, after 141 years of becoming a municipal corporation, in 2001 having a population of 10.7 million. And in January 2011, Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) has been divided into two parts- north DCC and south DCC for proper management. Table 02: Historical Development of Dhaka in terms of Population and Area 370 (1608-2015) Area Density (sq. km) (per sq. km) 1608 Pre-Mughal 30,000 2 15000 1700 Mughal Period 900,000 40 22500 1800 British Period 200,000 4.5 44444 1867 British Period 51,636 10 5164 1872 British Period 69,212 20 3461 1881 British Period 80,358 20 4018 1891 British Period 83,358 20 4168 1901 British Period 104,385 20 5219 1931 British Period 161,922 20 8096 1941 British Period 239,728 25 9589 1951 Pakistan Period 411,279 85 4839 1961 Pakistan Period 718,766 125 5750 1974124 Bangladesh Period 2,068,353 336 6156 1981 Bangladesh Period 3,440,147 510 6745 1991 Bangladesh Period 6,887,459 1353 5091 2001 Bangladesh Period 10,712,206 1530 7001 2015 (P) Bangladesh Period 16,000,000 1530 10458 (Source: BBS Population Census 1974, 1981, 1991, 2001; BBS Urban Area Report 1991; D‘oloy, 1824; Taylor, 1840; Siddiqui, 2004) Year Periods Population Forces of Attraction of Megacity Dhaka Now why do the migrants come to the urban centers, specifically to megacity Dhaka? To study the ‗forces of attraction‘ of this megacity Korail slum, the largest slum of Bangladesh, was selected as study area. A slum was selected because slum is the popular destination for ruralurban migrants and Ullah (2004) found about 91% of the rural-out migrants‘ final destination is slum or squatter settlement. In Dhaka more than 37% of the total city population lives in slums and the slum population density is 220,246 persons per km2 (CUS 2005). Random sampling method was adopted to choose total 319 respondents. Only the household head was selected as respondent. Both open ended and close ended questionnaire method were used to collect the migration information of the respondents. Face to face interview as well as FGD was used to conduct the survey. For data analysis several sophisticated statistical techniques have been employed. Dhaka was the regional center since before 1600 A.D and still now it drags people from all over the country. Several factors work as ‗forces of attraction‘ here. Some of them are- availability of jobs, access to informal economy, presence of industries/factories, higher income probability, higher service facilities, central geographical location etc. 124 The census of 1971 could not be held due to Liberation War. 371 Figure 02: Historical Expansion of Dhaka Mega City Potential Forces of Attraction The rural areas of Bangladesh are at the bottom of the spatial tier (Amin 1994). From this lowest spatial tier a huge number of people migrate towards the highest spatial tier, Dhaka Megacity. This survey revealed a bunch of forces of attraction that drag people toward the megacity. X1 = Central geographical location/ Accessible from all places; X2 = Nearest city; X3 = Availability of jobs; X4 = Easy access to city‘s informal economy; X5 = Presence of industries and factories; X6 = Higher income probability; X7 = Higher service facilities; X8 = ‗Dhaka means Taka‘ conception; X9 = Illuminating Dhaka; X10= Better livelihood. Among these factors not all of them equally influence migrants to come to Dhaka. Only four have shown significant influence on dependent variable ‗migration‘ at 95% level of confidence. These ‗forces of attraction‘ are- availability of jobs (X3), easy access to city‘s informal economy (X4), ‗Dhaka means Taka‘ conception (X8) and Illuminating Dhaka (X9). Table 03: Regression Coefficients Forces of Attraction Regression Coefficient Significance Availability of jobs (X3) 1.854 .043 Easy access to city‘s informal economy (X4) 2.075 .009 ‗Dhaka means Taka‘ conception (X8) 1.008 .015 Illuminating Dhaka (X9) 1.064 .038 Constant -.588 Source: Computed from Surveyed Data Y = -.588 + 1.854* X3 + 2.075* X4 + 1.008* X8 + 1.064* X9 372 This survey represents that four potential ‗forces of attraction‘ termed as ‗availability of jobs‘, ‗easy access to city‘s informal economy‘, ‗‗Dhaka means Taka‘ conception‘ and ‗Illuminating Dhaka‘ play a significant role in ‗migration toward megacity‘. The Cox & Snell R Square and Nagelkerke R Square value are 0.798 and 0.848 respectively, which shows the usefulness of the model. Easy access to city‘s informal economy is one of the dominant forces of attraction. In Bangladesh based on 2005 LFS (Labor Force Survey) the unemployed rate in Bangladesh is only 4.3%. Of the 95.7% of employed population, 87.71% is in informal sectors. In Dhaka division 83.1% of the employed population is in informal sectors (BBS, ND). Workers employed in the informal sector increased by about 8% from the 1970s to 1980s (Amin 1994). In 1988, there were more than 500,000 rickshaw-pullers in Dhaka; a number that had increased to about 900,000 by the year 2002 (Ullah 2004). City‘s informal jobs include rickshaw pulling, hawker activities, roadside small business, day laboring etc. Table 04: Division-wise Employment Scenario in Bangladesh Nature of Employment Number of Total Division Manufacturing Formal Informal Employment Industries Dhaka 2,483,181 12,211,304 16414 9,197,967 Chittagong 1,415,581 7,782,386 4841 14,694,485 Sylhet 312,383 3,242,190 NA 3,554,574 Rajshahi 763,399 10,202,852 10613 10,966,251 Khulna 488,485 5,069,714 2842 5,558,199 Barisal 355,552 3,029,563 NA 3,385,115 Total 5,818,582 41,538,009 47,356,591 34710 Source: Maligalig, Cuevas and Rosario (2008) and BBS (2008) Dhaka is the highest provider of industrial employment opportunities among all the statistical metropolitan areas (SMAs). Dhaka SMA, Chittagong SMA, Khulna SMA and Rajshahi SMA have 3,094,444 and 864,145 and 274,687 and 121,550 number of industrial employments respectively. Rural areas of Bangladesh are not well developed. Many people in there have fascination about Dhaka city. The high rise buildings, wide streets, glimmering lights, big shopping malls attract them. Todaro (1985) termed these features as ‗bright city lights‘. To them Dhaka is an illuminating city, which lights never shut down. In rural areas the concept ‗Dhaka means Taka‘ is an age old concept. It is evident that in rural areas the scope of earning is very limited. Whereas, in Dhaka there is always a huge chance of getting employed in any type of work as Dhaka is the biggest city having the largest number of urban population and as Dhaka is the center of all kinds of economic activities. That is why many rural people, who are in senile stage of their lives, tell the young one that Taka flies in the air of Dhaka and thus inspire them to move to Dhaka. Conclusion Rural-Urban migration is a historical phenomenon in Bangladesh. It plays the most significant role to the development of megacity Dhaka, although Dhaka was the regional center since mid 7th century. This paper discusses how rural-urban migration contributes to the development of megacity Dhaka. Actually Dhaka started to develop as an urban center from mid 7 th century, the development continued in the Mughal era until 1800 A. D., when the British East India Company emphasized to the development of Kolkata. Until then rural-urban migration did not play any crucial role to the development of Dhaka city, but from the late 19 th century, with the 373 transfer of power from East India Company to British Raj, Dhaka again became the center of attraction for this Bengal region. And with this the onrush of rural people started to find their destination at Dhaka and thus rural-urban migration significantly started to contribute to the development of this city. This paper also discusses the forces of attraction of megacity Dhaka. Among many forces only four forces have considerable influence over the household head to migrate to megacity. Huge number of migrants, attracted by these forces, rush to the megacity every year. The megacity‘s urban infrastructure is not capable of retain the migrants, and for this reason many of them are forced to find their destination in slums. This massive flow of migrants causes a fast but unsustainable development of Dhaka megacity. Actually the rural areas of Bangladesh lack both economic and social opportunities. The huge migration flow towards the megacity shows that the government‘s policy of rural development and poverty alleviation failed to decrease the rural-out migration flow. This study finds that people come to megacity mainly due to economic reasons like getting employed. 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Migration Letters 1 (1): 26-41. ‗World Urbanization Prospect: The 2009 Revision‘ published by United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 376 VIDEO BROADCAST COURSES AT THE ISLAMIC AZAD UNIVERSITY KARAJ BRANCH (Case Study) Dr.Nayereh shahmohammadi Expert in charge of planning and organizing educational text book, Research and Educational Planning Organization ,Education Ministry ,Iran, Email : [email protected] Abstract Distance educators are increasingly adopting both synchronous and asynchronous ICT-based modes of communication to enhance distance learning environment. With the use of ICT-based modes, distance learners are now able to participate in class in real time; interact with their lecturer and peers; and access course and external information/resources at their own convenient time, place and pace.This paper seeks to assess the extent to which video broadcast enhances learning environment for distance learners at the Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch. Apart from print, video broadcast is also used as a delivery mode and modes such as audio and video conferencing, and WebCT(tools) are used to supplement distance learning. This paper employs a multi-perspective evaluation design with survey questionnaires as the main and interviews as the supplementary technique of data collection. Results suggest that video broadcast mode at Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch enriches the distance learning environment. ICT-based attributes such as tele-presence, interaction and flexibility emerge as being enhanced by video broadcast mode. Keywords: Tele-presence, Webct, Video conferencing, ICT-based mode, Video Broadcast, Synchronous, Asychronous Introduction Information and communication technology (ICT), which refers to the convergence of telecommunication networks and personal computer technology, has the capacity to reach across the globe to those connected to the Internet. The increasing use of ICT in distance education is seen as transforming distance education. This paper focuses on third and fourth generations of distance education, which are seen to be causing a paradigm shift in distance education. The third generation of distance education or the tele-learning model refers to distance education enabled by ICT-based synchronous modes of communication such as video broadcast and video conferencing. The fourth generation, which is also known as the flexible learning model, refers to distance education enabled by ICT-based asynchronous modes of communication such as email and computer conferencing tools. Using the tele-learning and flexible learning models as a framework, this paper seeks to assess video broadcast, video conferencing, email and WebCT homepages for their ability to enhance learning environment for distance learners at USP by creating flexibility, interaction and tele-presence. Distance Education Distance Education refers to education where instruction and communication between the teacher and learners are mediated through a mode of communication other than face-to-face. Due to the sole reliance of distance education on modes of communication enabled by technology, distance education has always been in a stage of transition. Based on the use of various modes of communication, Taylor (2001) categorized distance education into five generations or models. These are correspondence model, multimedia model, tele-learning model, flexible learning model and intelligent flexible learning model. The first generation of distance education is also referred to as correspondence model. During this generation, predominantly print-based modes of communication were used for delivery of instruction and communication between the teacher and students. While the correspondence 377 model provides flexibility in term of place, it allowed minimal interaction. The second generation of distance education, which is also known as multimedia model, is marked by the rise of the Open University and the use of other modes of communication in conjunction of print. Along with print mode, other modes such as interactive videos, audiocassettes and videocassettes were also introduced during the multimedia model. According to Taylor (2001), Computer-based learning tools such as Computer-Mediated Learning (CML) and Computer Aided Learning (CAL) were also introduced during this period. Tele-learning and flexible learning models, also known as the third and fourth generation distance education are discussed separately in the next section. The modes of communication studied in this paper fall within the framework of these models. Finally, the intelligent flexible learning model or the fifth generation of distance education refers to the use of more sophisticated technology such as intelligent agents, which also enable content-content interaction. Tele-learning model According to Bates (1995), Kaye (1990), Mason & Kaye (1990) and Peters (2000), tele-learning model or the third generation of distance education is causing a paradigm shift in distance education. This model has brought about a significant structural change in distance education. Tele-learning is made possible with the help of ICT-based synchronous modes of communication such as video broadcast, audio conferencing and video conferencing. With the use of these synchronous modes distance learners receive ‗live‘ instruction and are able to participate in class in real time. Bates (1995) claims that synchronous mode of communication enable distance learners to be in direct contact with their lecturer or the author of the course. With the use of ICT-based synchronous modes the course lecturer delivers lectures whereas in print-based distance education lecturer-student communication and interaction is absent or minimal. Since the course lecturer delivers lectures, Collis (1996) argues that the pedagogical design of tele-learning remains same as ‗face-to-face‘ classroom presentation of lectures. The difference is that ICT-based synchronous modes of communication extend these lectures to distance learners. Video broadcast enables one-way communication and is normally used for delivery of lectures. Video conferencing enables two-way communication and is normally used for tutorials. Actually, video conferencing is seen as providing an effective interactive tool in distance education. Satellite-based video conferencing is even seen as offering the ―next best thing to being there‖ (Johnson, Kemp et al 2002, 2). Apart from enabling distance learners to attend class in real time, Collis (1996), Mason (1998) and Peters (2003) claim that ICT-based synchronous modes of communication create a sense of presence or ‗tele-presence‘ for distance learners. Mason describes tele-presence as the ―real time interaction with its opportunity to convey tone and nuance helps to develop group cohesion and the sense of being part of a learning community‖ (1998, 31). ICT-based modes of communication such as video broadcast, which normally involve a large group of learners, are seen to create a sense of belonging and presence of others. Video conferencing, on the other hand, involves a small group, which is seen as creating a greater presence sense or ‗tele-presence‘ (Bates 2000, Collis 1996, Johnson, Kemp et al 2002, Mason 1994). According to Mason (1998), a greater sense of presence of other learners keeps distance learners up with their peers and thus, the pace of the course. Both, video broadcast and conferencing allow distance learners to see their lecturer and peers through the screen, which creates a sense of belonging and learning together for them. Flexible learning model Like the tele-learning model, flexible learning model or the fourth generation of distance education is also seen as causing changes to distance education. However, flexible learning refers to the use of asynchronous modes of communication such as computer conferencing tools and email. Modes used in flexible learning model allow distance learners to interact and communicate with their lecturer and peers, and access course materials and external resources at a place, time 378 and pace convenient to them. While both synchronous and asynchronous modes allow distance learners flexibility in terms of place, only asynchronous modes provide flexibility in terms of time and pace. Flexibility in terms of place is a central concept in distance education regardless of the mode of communication used. Flexibility in studying from own place allows distance learners to carry on with their education without having to go to classroom for face-to-face education. Though flexibility in terms of place is enabled by all modes of communication, including print, the use of ICT-based modes of communication, enable synchronous/live delivery, which is a major structural change in distance education. In the case of communication between the lecturer and students and amongst students, synchronous mode such as video conferencing enables live interaction, and email and computer conferencing tools, on the other hand, enable time-delayed interaction. Both the modes provide spontaneous and fast communication than in print-based correspondence model. Flexibility in terms of time and pace are fostered by the use of asynchronous ICT-based modes of communication. Flexibility in terms of time allows distance learners to access course materials and external resources, and communicate with their lecturer and peers at a time convenient to them (Blurton 1999, Harasim 1990). Flexibility in time also allows distance learners the time to read; understand; and refer to the original information before providing their response (Collis 1996, Harasim 1990, Harasim, Hiltz, et al 1996). Similar to flexibility in time, flexibility in terms of pace also allows distance learners to read, understand, respond and study at their own pace. (Harasim, Hiltz, et al 1996, Mason 1998).ICTbased mode such as computer conferencing encourages and allows flexibility in terms of time and pace. Apart from fostering flexibility, the use of computer conferencing tools and email also enable distance learners to interact and communicate with their lecturer and peers at a fast pace (Harasim, Hiltz et al 1996, Mason 1998). Research Design The literature on tele-learning and flexible learning models discussed above is used as a framework in this paper to evaluate the use of video broadcast, video conferencing, email and WebCT-based homepages at Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch(IAUZ-KB). Table 1 provides the modes and the dimensions used to evaluate their ability to foster flexibility, interaction and tele-presence. The matrix provided in Table 1 is used to collect and analyze data from six video broadcast courses selected for this study. Video broadcast mode made a jump start in 2010. In the second semester of 2010, 38 on-campus courses were broadcast to the region for the benefit of on-campus students. The number of courses offered through video broadcast has gradually increased from 3 courses in semester I, 2010 to 10 courses in Semester II, 2010. Six out of the 10 courses offered in Semester II 2010 were selected for this study. These courses were computer science, education, geography, history/politics, physics and sociology. All of these courses were offered through video broadcast and had provision for the use of email and WebCT-based homepages. Geography and physics courses used video conferencing for weekly tutorials, while sociology used video conferencing for tutorial on an irregular basis. Large courses such as computer science and education had weekly local tutorials conducted by tutors at the regional centers. 379 Table 1: Modes, dimensions and attributes matrix Video broadcast Flexibility Interaction Study at own place, N/A time and pace Video N/A conferencing Lecturer Email Communicate with lecturer and peers at own place, time and pace WebCT homepage Access assignment tips, etc at own place, time and pace Tele-presence Part of large class Learning with others Acknowledged by the lecturer Part of learning community Learning with others Acknowledged by the lecturer Noticed by others Need to keep up with course readings N/A Communicate with lecturer, peers and friends/relatives notes, N/A N/A This evaluation study employed both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection. Survey questionnaire was used as the main method of data collection while interviews were used to supplement the main method. The survey questionnaire was sent out to all 292 distance students enrolled in the six courses across the region. Of the 292 distance students approached, 195 returned completed surveys giving a response rate of 67%. For the interview, 59 out of 211 distance students were selected. Findings Table 2 provides the profile of survey respondents, which shows a pattern based on gender, occupation and age component of the respondents per course. 380 Table 2: Profile of survey respondents per course Total Male Female Computer Science 60 62% 38 % Education 69 38 % 62 % Geography 17 47 % 53 % History/Politics 8 50 % 50 % Physics 31 68 % 32 % Sociology 10 30 % 70 % Students Teachers Age Range 52% (under21) 67 % 17 % 35% (2130) 36% (2130) 4% 94 % 51% (3140) 41% (2130) 35 % 59 % 35% (3140) 38% (under21) 38% (2175 % 30) 25% (3140) 52% (under 21) 87 % 10 % 48% (2130) 30% (under21) 20% (2130) 60 % 20 % 30% (3140) 20% (41-50 ) The pattern shown by computer science and physics courses in Table 2 reflects the traditionally gender-based representation in science and technology courses. A majority of computer science and physics respondents were male, young and full-time students. This can be explained by the fact that both the courses are first year degree science courses attracting predominantly male students from high school. Education course, on the other hand, shows an opposite pattern. There were more female than male and more mature than younger student respondents in education course. Education course is a third year degree course and a majority (94%) of the respondents were school teachers, this can be explained by the fact that this course is one of the compulsory courses for the teacher training programme. Similar to education, geography course also has more females and teachers. History/politics with small course number had equal percentage of male and female respondents and a fair distribution of young and mature respondents. Sociology course had more females, fulltime students but a fair distribution of young and mature students. Like history/politics, sociology is a small course. The pattern shown in Table 2 is also reflected in the course-based analysis and discussion of the study findings, which is discussed according to the three ICT-based attributes: a)flexibility b)interaction c) telepresence. 381 a)Flexibility Response from distance students in all the six courses suggests that video broadcast courses provided them flexibility by enabling them to study traditionally on-campus courses, while keeping their jobs and staying with their families. Response derived from interviews also confirmed this claim. Despite problems such as limited access to personal computers and the Internet; low bandwidth; and poor quality sound and picture highlighted by the respondents from all the courses, majority appreciated the offering of traditionally on-campus courses for distance students. Though video broadcast as a synchronous mode of delivery did not provide flexibility in terms of time, recorded lectures allowed flexibility in terms of time and pace. Though all the course lectures were delivered live from Campus, they were also recorded at the centres. Figure 1 shows the percentage of respondents who received live and/or recorded lectures per course. In computer and education courses a higher percentage of respondents received recorded than live lectures. These lectures were during the day and a majority of education course respondents teach during the day. Despite live video broadcast of computer and education lectures, both the courses had Saturday sessions during which the recorded tapes were screened at the regional centers. Screening of recorded tapes on Saturdays was also accompanied by tutorials conducted by local tutor. In the case of geography course, though a majority of respondents were teachers, they did attend live video broadcast lectures because their lectures were in the evenings. In some cases, respondents attended live lectures and borrowed recorded tapes for viewing as well. Respondents across the courses who borrowed and viewed videotapes of lectures in their own time acknowledged the flexibility they experienced by being able to viewed lectures in their own time. All distance students enrolled in video broadcast courses had access to email and WebCT. Through email, students were able to communicate with their lecturer and peers, at a convenient time to them. Access to WebCT-based homepages, on the other hand, enabled distance students to access lecture notes, assignment tips and other relevant information in their own time. However, though distance students had flexibility in being able to access email and WebCT homepages, flexibility was limited by the access to the Internet. Therefore for a majority (79%) of distance students access to the Internet was limited by the opening hours of the Computer Labs A high percentage of respondents from education course reported access to the Internet as one of the major obstacles. This can be explained by the fact that teachers could only travel to their respective centre after school hours compared to either computer science or physics distance students, who were predominantly full time and accessed the Internet during the day. In a similar way, the extent of flexibility in terms of working at own pace was also limited by the factors influencing flexibility in terms of time discussed above. 382 b)Interaction Interaction is the second theme that emerged from the analysis of the data. Video broadcast, video conferencing and email are discussed in this section in relation to their ability to foster an interactive learning environment for distance learners. Though video broadcast allowed only one-way communication, distance students response suggest that lecture delivered through video broadcast enabled students to understand lectures and complete assignments. A majority of distance students reported that they found lectures through video broadcast (either live or recorded) similar to face-to-face lessons where lecturer explains concepts and formulas and thus, is easier to understand. Since these were the first video broadcast courses for most of them, their response appear to reflect a comparison with print-based courses that they have been engaged in. Students also reported that video broadcast allowed them to watch, hear and recognize the lecturer. They found knowing/recognizing the lecturer through video screen helped them to associate with the lecturer, which also gave them encouragement to contact the lecturer through email. Like video broadcast, video conferencing was also found to be an effective and interactive mode of communication. Geography and physics courses used video conferencing for weekly tutorials conducted by the course lecturers based at the campus. Students in these courses found video conferencing useful and liken it to ‗face-to-face tutorial‘. Like video broadcast geography lecture, video conferencing tutorial was also in the evenings, which enabled school teachers and other working students to attend it live.Physics distance students also had weekly tutorials with their lecturer through video conferencing and found it very useful. Finally, the use of email enabled distance students to communicate with their lecturer, peers and friends/relatives. Though most of the video broadcast courses selected in this study did not have pedagogical design in place to encourage and ensure proper utilization of email for interaction purposes, distance students did use email. Therefore, email was mostly used to communicate with the lecturer, peers, friends/relatives. In the case of email to the lecturer, distance students mostly enquired about information regarding lecture notes, assignments, tests and marks. Students also communicated with their peers around the region and on-campus peers for clarifications, notes and assignment tips. Results also show students in the six courses used email differently. It is clear from Figure 2 that distance students enrolled in computer science, history/politics and sociology courses made higher use of email than students in the other courses. Another apparent pattern from Figure 2 is that the use of email to friends/relatives is either same or higher than email to the lecturer and/or peers across all the courses. This is even evident from very low use of email by students in education and geography courses. The very low usage of email by education students, as stated earlier, can be attributed to the fact that most of the students were working and attended Saturday sessions to view recorded video tapes rather than live lectures. It is also a reflection of the limited access to the Internet for education students. Education distance students at one of the centers with a large (48) student number had additional constraint 383 of inadequate venue/facilities. Due to the unavailability of classroom at this centre, education course Saturday sessions were conducted at a nearby secondary school, which did not have the Internet access: Apart from the problem of limited access to the Internet, the absence of appropriate pedagogical design embedded into the use of email is also an obstacle. Sociology is the only course, where the lecturer allocated 10% marks for online participation. This is obvious from the response of sociology students, who used email to communicate with the lecturer and peers as same as for friends/relatives. For most of the other courses, the use of email to communicate with friends/relatives has the upper edge. In the case of geography, students reported that they interacted and had discussion with their lecturer weekly through video conferencing and therefore, there was no need to use email. Finally, despite the limitations, results suggest that the use of video broadcast, video conferencing and email fostered an interactive learning environment for distance learners at Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch. c)Tele-presence Tele-presence is the third theme derived from the analysis of the data. Results show that the use of video broadcast as a delivery mode and video conferencing as a supplementary mode suggest the presences of the different dimensions of tele-presence. Figure 3 provides student response regarding the four dimensions of tele-presence. According to Figure 3, geography course data shows the highest percent of students indicating the presence of the dimensions of tele-presence. This can be explained by the fact that geography course also had a high percentage of students attending live video broadcast lectures. On the other hand, education course, where a high percentage of students viewed recorded lectures, shows the lowest percent of students indicating the presence of the dimensions of telepresence. The overall result; however, shows that students felt positively towards the four dimensions of tele-presence. Geography and physics courses used video conferencing on a weekly basis for tutorial and students from both the courses reported that they felt positive about the dimensions of telepresence such as ‗part of the learning community‘; ‗learning with students from other centres‘; ‗acknowledged by the lecturer‘; ‗noticed by other students‘; and ‗need to keep up with course readings‘. This claim was also supported by student response from the interview. Students pointed out that they prepared themselves before tutorials, therefore this shows that they were conscious of their lecturer and peers. The analysis of data clearly suggests the emergence of four themes i.e. interaction, tele-presence and limited access to the Internet. Discussion & Conclusion Despite the obstacles such as limited access to the Internet, poor quality sound and picture, and low bandwidth highlighted by distance learners, the data suggests that video broadcast, email and WebCT homepages created a flexible learning environment for distance learners. The fact that video broadcast brought traditionally on-campus course live to the doorsteps of distance 384 students suggest flexibility in terms of place. Furthermore, along with flexibility in terms of place, recorded video broadcast lectures provide flexibility in terms of time and pace. This result not only demonstrates changes brought about to distance education at Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch, but it also supports the literature that synchronous modes of communication enables distance learners to receive live lectures. Apart from video broadcast, the use of email and WebCT homepages also created a flexible learning environment for distance learners. Although distance students felt that these modes created flexibility, it should be noted that flexibility in this regard was limited by the access to the Internet and does not support that literature mentioned asynchronous modes of communication allow distance learners to interact with their lecturer and peers, and access resources at any place, time and pace convenient to them. Moreover, results show that video broadcast courses and the use of video conference and email foster an interactive distance learning environment. Though video broadcast mode allows only one-way communication, results show that distance students found studying through video broadcast enhanced their learning environment. This concept was not identified in the literature or foreseen to be incorporated into the matrix in Table1 but distance students reveal two aspects in support of this claim. First, students felt that by being able to watch and hear the lecturer deliver the lectures, it was easier to understand lectures and particularly computer programming concepts and physics formulas. This supports Collis‘ claim (1996) that synchronous modes extend classroom type ‗face-to-face‘ lectures to distance learners. Secondly, students found that the lecturer are accessible after watching and hearing him/her on the screen. By recognizing their lecturer from the screen, students felt more comfortable asking questions and/or clarifying doubts through video conferencing or email. Most of the distance students viewed video broadcast courses in comparison to print- based distance courses, where the lecturer was not in direct contact with students and where they did not have access to video conferencing tutorials and email. Apart from video broadcast course in general, results suggest that the use of video conferencing also created an interactive learning environment for distance learners. Video conferencing was reported to be a useful and effective means of communication and interaction with the lecturer. It was liken to ‗face-to-face‘ tutorials. In the case of one of the courses, video conferencing was apparently being favored against the use of email. This further supports the literature by Johnson and others (2002) that video conferencing can offer the ―next best thing to being there‖. Finally, the data reveals that email enabled distance learners to communicate and interact with their lecturer, peers and friends/relatives. While the use of email to communicate with friends/relatives had an upper edge over lecturer and peers can be explained by the fact that though students in most of the courses had access to the email, the use of email was not incorporated into their course design. Moreover, the use of email in different courses differed, which reflects the restriction caused by the limitation of access to the Internet as well as course design to incorporate the use of email. This suggests that though email has potential to create interaction between the lecturer , students and amongst students, the access to the Internet and course design to be embedded into the use of email are important factors in determining the effectiveness of interaction. Finally, distance students felt positive about the dimensions of tele-presence during video broadcast lectures and video conferencing tutorials. Despite the limitations imposed by the access, speed and quality of technology, distance students felt positive about the dimensions of tele-presence. This supports the claim by Collis (1996), Johnson & others (2002), Mason (1998) and Peters (2003) that synchronous modes create a sense of presence or tele-presence. In the case of video conferencing tutorial students also reported that they had to keep up with course readings and attend tutorials prepared so that they were able to respond to the lecturer‘s questions. This suggests that students felt the presence of other students. The synchronous and asynchronous modes of communication enabled by the use of ICT modes at have duly caused changes to the structure of distance education at Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch, which 385 also supports the literature that tele-learning and flexible learning models are causing a paradigm shift in distance education. While results suggest that the use of ICT modes enabled flexibility, interaction and tele-presence, it is equally important to note that access to the Internet and lack of appropriate course design to incorporate the use of the modes were raised as two major constraints. References Anderson, T. (2003). Modes of Interaction in distance Education: Recent Developments and Research Questions. In M. Moore & W. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of Distance Education. New Jersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bates, A. W. (1995). Technology, Open Learning and Distance Education. London: Routledge. Blurton, C. (1999). New Directions in Education. In UNESCO (Ed.), World Communication and Information 1999-2000 report UNESCO. Paris: UNESCO. Collis, B. (1996). Tele-learning in a digital World: The Future of Distance Learning. London: International Thomson Computer Press. Harasim, L. S. (1990). Online Education: An Environment for Collaboration and Intellectual Amplification. In L. Harasim (Ed.), Online Education: Perspectives on a New Environment. New York: Praeger. Harasim, L. S., Hiltz, S., Teles, L., & Turoff, M. (1996). Learning Networks: A Field Guide to Teaching and Learning Online. Cambridge: MIT Press. Johnson, R., Kemp, E., Kemp, R., & Blakey, P. (2002). From Electronic Textbook to Multidimensional Learning Environment: Overcoming the Loneliness of the Distance Learner. Paper presented at the International Conference on Computers in Education, Auckland. Kaye, A. (1990). Computer-Mediated Communication and Distance Education. In R. Mason et al (Eds.), Mindweave: Communication, Computers and distance Education. Oxford: Pergamon. Mason, R. (1994). Using Communications Media in Open and Flexible Learning. London: Kogan Page. Mason, R. (1998). Globalising Education: trends and Applications. London: Routledge. Mason, R. & Kaye, T. (1990). Toward a New Paradigm for Distance Education. In L. Harasim (Ed.), Online Education: Perspectives on a New Environment. New York: Praeger. Peters, O. (2000). Digital Learning Environment: New Possibilities and Opportunities. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 1(1). Peters, O. (2003). Learning with New Media in Distance Education. In M. Moore & W. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of Distance Education. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Taylor, J. (2001). Fifth Generation Distance Education. Higher Education Series, Department of Education, Canberra, 40. 386 ISLAMIC ANTHROPOLOGY IN CONTEMPORARY EPOCH Dr. Mohsen Tousi (email: [email protected]) Somayeh Soltanpour (email: [email protected]) Abstract Any System of Knowledge That looks into human kinds different Dimensions or special Groups and Cortex of Man is called Anthropology Anthropology has various types that are distinct from each other in terms of approach or attitude.Anthropology can be based on a variety of experimental approaches to anthropology, mystical, philosophical and religious be classified.But according to a macro or holistic approach to anthropology and anthropological wisdom or prospective component was divided.To solve the puzzles and questions about human in history philosopher has chosen different ways of studying humans.Some has chosen the experimental method so the experimental anthropology has been established that includes all fields of human sciences. Some tried to find different aspects of human by philosophical thoughts, so they called this type of anthropology, the philosophic anthropology.Some tried to find who is human by looking in to religion so they build religious anthropology.In Islamic thoughts human is really different from other creatures. He is not an animal that can walk on two feet and can talk, he is different from animals. Human in qouranic thought is a very mysterious creature that cannot be defined with few words.Quran has praised and criticized human, the highest praised and the greatest criticizes were given to men. He could go high as angels and can lower himself worse than an animal. From Quran‘s point of view human can and have the ability to bring himself up even higher than angles, he also has the ability to lower himself to hell. Human has this ability to decide his own destiny. Religious anthropology By reading and studying the theories about human that was given throughout the history we will find quite a mount of them that all point out human to structure and anatomical theory‘s but none of them say a thing about cognitive excellence structure of human. Anatomy and somatology studies the chemical activity of human and physicians study physical disorders in human. Sociologist of the industrial world study human in order of his use in industrial world and how much dose a human worth economically. Health care tried to prevent diseases and tried to fix the health problems in the society. Education offices tried to teach and improve intelligence and physical health of people. All this scientists tried to change was based on human body, health and intelligent. They have found a lot of secrets about the structures of human body and other things on earth and beyond it but they filled to achieve morality for human, they did not improve cognitive excellence in humanity. But the truth is that mankind did not grow morally with its giant growth in science. And that is one of the biggest tragedies of the time. All the knowledge and science is in the hands of people who do not respect morality, god and religion. We have to always have in mind this old saying of all religion that the main work and aim of mankind is not reproduction, science or in one word is not upgrading life, it is improving the quality of moral and spiritual perfection. Science by expressing qualities in mathematical language putted the spiritual and moral quality unqualified to be measured so they slowly had been forgotten. While what can be measured in mathematical language is not more important than what cannot be measured. Maturity and the quality of morality and behavior are the priority of human life. It is only through religious knowledge that we can understand and find ways to approach morality and human behavior. The failure of social scientists at understanding human behavior and the phenomena of moral – humanity behavior is that they do not believe and did not try to understand the hull complex structure of human. Identifying the human complex structure is out of the ability of natural sciences professionals. Because it‘s complication are more than the information and the knowledge that these Specific fields of science have. 387 Human at The same time is an object, a living being and is a center of spiritual activity, like compassion, sacrifice, righteousness and martyrdom…. Closeness to God, piety and faith are more important than eating, sleeping and generate. Biologists and most natural science scholars believe that success in life depends on terms of survival of man and its generation and the increase amount of power and efficiency of the body and intelligence. In religious thoughts, if man could not or did not gain any good spirit and did not approve his morality and did not try to gain the best for his society and others, he‘s a loser and unsuccessful in his life. And the real winners and succeeded peoples are: ― Successful indeed are the believers* Who are humble in their prayers,* And who keep aloof from what is vain,* And who are givers of poor-rate,* And who guard their private parts,* Except before their mates or those whom their right hands possess, for they surely are not blamable,* But whoever seeks to go beyond that, these are they that exceed the limits;* And those who are keepers of their trusts and their covenant,* And those who keep a guard on their prayers;* These are they who are the heirs,* Who shall inherit the Paradise; they shall abide therein.‖ (Chapter al-mohmenoon 23, verse 1-11) Islamic anthropology, applied knowledge and promote public service and their approach to God. Divine Ethics requires that human could recognize himself from others of his rank and could find and define his position to them. This recognition should be based on their evaluation of their personalities and behaviors and others too, for this they should classify behaviors and actions and characters, and understand the association between each type of behavior with each type of personality, find The mystery of the formation and development of a character, and we should know that the character of everyone will start to gain shape after freely choosing the life that it belongs to and that is actualizing emotional behavior so emotional, or sensory perception, learning, memory and recall specific actions and behaviors or actions that are rational and have the integrity could be brought up and shown. So we could say that the uncertain and ambiguous actions and behavior of an individual can be specified and evaluated and they all could be named and can be avoided or be replaced by each other. Nonreligious scholars and scientists that tried to look into ethics and morality and there influence on human and society admitted that they could not recognize the cognitive excellence of the human. John Dewey (1859 - 1952) American philosopher, psychologist, and sociologist admit to this inability: ―The development therefore of a more adequate science of human nature is a matter of first rate importance. The present revolt against the notion that psychology is a science of consciousness may well turn out in the future to be the beginning of a definitive turn in thought and action. Historically there are good reasons for the isolation and exaggeration of the conscious phase of human action, an isolation which forgot that " conscious " is an adjective of some acts and which erected the resulting abstraction, consciousness," into a noun, an existence separate and complete These reasons are interesting not only to the student of technical philosophy but also to the student of the history of culture and even of politics. They have to do with the attempt to drag realities out of occult essences and hidden forces and get them into the light of day. They were part of the general movement called phenomenalism, and of the growing importance of individual life and private voluntary concerns. But the effect was to isolate the individual from his connections both with his fellows and with nature, and thus to create an artificial human nature, one not capable of being understood and effectively directed on the basis of analytic understanding. It shut out from view, not to say from scientific examination, the 388 forces which really move human nature. It took a few surface phenomena for the whole story of significant human motive-forces and acts As a consequence physical science and its technological applications were highly developed while the science of man, moral science, is backward. I believe that it is not possible to estimate how much of the difficulties of the present world situation are due to the disproportion and unbalance thus introduced into affair.‖(Human nature and conduct, John Dewey, p.p. 321-323) Crisis of mankind, it is importance, and the necessity of solving it immediately are the problems that have required the religious anthropology, the anthropology that deals with the processes of degeneration and excellence. We know that the human innate stimuli are such as natural forces and the national capital, that have more effect on the survival and viability of the community than other sources of national wealth, because it is one of the most important part of the social processes. So it is vital to understand it and this is possible only with religious anthropology. By understanding the human innate stimuli we can find valuable law and social systems for societies. These phenomena help us to understand the historical process, social process, and predict the future of any human community. Religious anthropology provides useful approaches and tips for scholars in sociology. Philosophy, law, psychology, and political science for their research topics, and it give them the ability to not use non-critical categories of psychology and baseless anthropology. In the religious books such as Quran, Bible, and Torah the God in addition of expressing who he is, he shows the way of reaching to him, what is right and wrong, Facts about human structure and growth and decline of his spirit and the reasons of human behavior and how to evaluate it. The human structure is part of this psychology and anthropology. Human structure is a system and organization that God has given him: ― * ‖ ―Who creates, then makes complete,* And Who makes (things) according to a measure, then guides (them to their goal),‖ Human structure is composition and mixture of negative and positive talents and abilities and features a variety forces: ― ‖ ―Surely we have created man from a small life-germ uniting (itself): We mean to try him, so we have made him hearing, seeing.‖ There is independent will for the man that gives him the ability to select and to be responsible for what he does or does not do; his personality will improves with the temptation. ― * * * ‖ ―And the soul and Him Who made it perfect,* Then He inspired it to understand what is right and wrong for it;* He will indeed be successful who purifies it,* and he will indeed fail who corrupts it.‖ This theory about the human structure is contrary to all human imagination. Philosophers, sociologists and psychologists who have addressed this issue, believe in that human nature is either absolute good or evil. Some imagine human as a whit piece of paper that society, family, economic conditions and the ways they are produced and the relation between them can draw any lines they desire on it. As if evil, oppression, arrogance, wars, murder and pillage, or devouring are behaviors that is caused by social environment or disability or poverty or from psychotic and intellectual disorders. 389 Human character The most important matter on human character that Islamic anthropology has to say is as follows: A: human character existent with in the within the existent system of the world and universe. B: This structure is influenced by social and natural environment and it has effects on both, by Qualitative transformation of people in a society their nature and social environment changes too. C: Among individuals there are common features that they are based on, when we talk about human structure or character we mean this part of human. D: Some hereditary characteristics that is dedicated to some people or a social group it‘s their special character and it‘s apart from the common features. E: in our personality there is a vulnerable part that put us in biological and moral danger. These vulnerabilities that are rooted in our innate structure can be called negative talents. F: Beside this vulnerable section of our structure, there are positive talents and abilities that were granted to us that help to get closer to God, and try to approach his moral attitudes. Some of those talents are: 1. Intelligence, or talent to dominate nature. 2. Knowledge of itself existence. 3. Personality. 4. Wisdom. 5. Knowledge of God, and good and bad. 6. Will. 7. Knowledge of weaknesses and opportunities of environment and its structural. 8. Seeking the truth. 9. Knowing mechanisms of excellence. 10. The ability to repent Some of the human entity structures such as, family, race, and somewhat social environments, have imposed upon him without his will. ― ‖ ―Praise belongs to God the First, without a first before Him the Last, without a last behind Him. Beholders' eyes fall short of seeing Him describers‘ imaginations are not able to depict Him He originated the creatures through His power with an origination He devised them in accordance with His will with a devising Then He made them walk on the path of His desire He sent them out on the way of His love They cannot keep back from that to which He has sent them forward nor can they go forward to that from which He has kept them back. He assigned from His provision to each of their spirits nourishment known and apportioned No decreaser decreases those, whom He increases no increaser increases those of them whom He decreases Then for each spirit He strikes a fixed term in life for each He sets up a determined end he walks toward it through the days of his span he overtakes it through the years of his time Then, when he takes his final step and embraces the reckoning of his span God seizes him to the abundant reward or the feared punishment to which He has called him That He may repay those who do evil for what they have done and repay those who do good with goodness as justice from Him (holy are His names and manifest His boons).‖ (The Perfect Book of al-Sajjad, In Praise of God) Linkage of human character with the world The reactions that we show toward sin and ignominy as regret and discomfort and toward good work and oblation as pleasure and confidence it is not the only reaction toward these behaviors, because human forms a small part of existence System and he himself is a system that they 390 function together. As soon as we prayer or do good deeds, both our entity and the existence System of the universe will move in an harmony to promote us and to give and show divine mercy. Specific mercy is a particular massive and continuous process of existence system of the world that will be actualized by worshiping God and good deeds that people do. But the common mercy of God is not as a reword like the specific mercy, it is given to all creatures as boon and benignity. The specific mercy a reward to people who use there boon and benignity in the right way that will count as thanks to God for what he has given us, but it will be Withhold from those who are disbelievers of God and how misuse the boons and benignities that were given to them. The agony and the torment is this withholding specific mercy from God and the Satisfaction and comfort is the security and confidence that is caused by receiving the specific mercy. This is the meaning of this verse: ― * * * ‖ ―O soul that art at rest!* Return to your Lord, well-pleased (with him), well-pleasing (Him),* so enter among my servants,* and enter into my heaven.‖ In addition to individual, community and nation will be affected by this law too. So if a society choose to go the wrong way and misuse the benignities that they were given they have to face the consequences of not receiving the specific mercy from God. ― ‖ ―Surely Allah does not change the condition of a people until they change their own condition; and when Allah intends evil to a people, there is no averting it, and besides Him they have no protector.‖ And when God wants punishment or foreboding for people no obstacles can stand it and there is no one who can support them. So receiving specific mercy is like receiving a grant for pure life and progress in it for believers. In the point of view of Islamic anthropology progress in morality and reaching for divine morality for individual entity is not apart or separate from the universal existence but it is in an accurate coordination with complex movements of existence system of universe. Our entity is a small component in this universe. References Quran. The Perfect Book of al-Sajjad. Human nature and conduct, John Dewey, New York, Henry Holt and company, Tenth Printing, July, 1928. 391 BUSINESS EDUCATION AND THE ENTREPRENUERSHIP EDUCATION AGENDA: A SYNERGY FOR UNEMPLOYMENT REDUCTION IN NIGERIA. Obi Emmanuel Chinasa Department of Accounting Ignatius Ajuru University of Education St. John‘s Campus P.M.B. 5047 Port Harcourt – Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Phone No: 08037063917 ABSTRACT Unemployment or the search for paid employment in Nigeria has become endemic. This is support by the claims that Nigerian education system is bookish and academic oriented and lacked vocational and entrepreneurial values. Hence, the need to refocus education towards programmes that will inculcate knowledge and skills that prepare citizens for employment and self-reliance, economic diversification and sustainable development. The paper examines the business education programme and the entrepreneurship Education Agenda as a Synergy for the reduction of unemployment in Nigeria. The paper concludes that unemployment in Nigeria requires a combination therapy as the synergy will bring about a new pedagogy in which students are prepared with knowledge and practical skills but more especially creativity, spirit of initiative, responsibility, capacity for confronting risk and the boldness to start small scale business on graduation. This will reduce unemployment or the thinking for paid employment. Keywords: Business Education, Entrepreneurship Education, Synergy, Unemployment, Self Employment. INTRODUCTION The prevalence of unemployment in Nigeria remains a great challenge confronting the government and the people today. This call for scholars of various disciplines of learning to brainstorm on how best our educational system and methodology can begin to yield result in curbing this menace. Business Education has been carefully designed to meet basic skills, knowledge and capabilities to function either as a business teacher or business executive. According to Ubulon and Ukwuije (2000), Business Education is an aspect of educational programme … which prepares students for careers in business. It is education needed to teach people business, education needed to handle personal affairs and education needed about business in order to be good citizens of a society. Indeed the gains and good scorecard of Business Education, youths have continued to grapple with unemployment in Nigeria. Ewuzie (2012) asserts that the harsh economic realities in the country today, not withstanding upcoming generations of graduates when given proper orientation and entrepreneurial education can become successful here in Nigeria. Entrepreneurship Education is the programme designed to inculcate the knowledge, skills and mindset needed to conceive and start your own business. As part of the on-going effort to find lasting solution to the high level of unemployment in Nigeria and to move the country towards self-reliance, economic growth and sustainable development; this paper deals on ―Business Education and the Entrepreneurship Education Agenda: A Synergy for Unemployment Reduction in Nigeria.‖ BUSINESS EDUCATION: AN OVERVIEW The term Business Education has been viewed differently by scholars. A generally acceptable definition has been difficult to arrive at because research and theoretical formulations have continued to grapple with the problem, providing as many definitions as there are experts. Some 392 schools of thought believe that business education is a programme of study to produce teachers for secondary and post-secondary schools. Hence they view Business Education as education for business teachers – a specialized and professional arm of the technical and science education focused at preparing and equipping those to impact business skills and competences to students and other business trainees. Another school of thought views the concept of Business Education as education for business. Supporting this view, Ubulom and Ukwuije (2000) assert that business education is an aspect of educational programme… which prepares students for careers in business. It is education needed to teach people business, education needed to handle personal affairs and education needed about business in order to be good citizens of society. Even Osuala (1981) supports this view when he opined that Business Education is a programme of Instruction which consists of two major parts: whereas one part consist of office and vocational education for office career through refresher and upgrading education; the other part consists of a programme to provide students with information and competencies which are needed by all in managing personal business affairs or using the services of the business world. However from the foregoing, this paper shares the same view with the centre point position advocated by Otamiri (2008). He viewed Business Education as a fusion of pedagogical and entrepreneurial preparation. He maintained that Business Education therefore involves the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills (including teachings skills), attitudes, understanding and knowledge related to occupation in various sectors of the economy and social life. GOALS OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Business Education has been carefully designed to meet basic skills, knowledge and capabilities to function either as a business teacher or business executive. Ubulom (1999) speaking about the objectives of Business Education outlined the goals of Business Education to include: a) To make available to all students the opportunities to explore and learn about the world of business and the possible interests and potential careers it has to offer. b) To help develop in all students, the ability to choose wisely the goods and services that business has to offer. c) To assist in developing an intelligent understanding on the part of all students of the various occupation to be found in the world of business. d) To development in practical ways an understanding and an appreciation of the actual function of our economic system. e) To enable students acquire business knowledge and skills that may be needed for personal use. f) To prepare students to enter into and follow business as a career. g) To prepare students to perform business activities common to many professional areas. h) To prepare students for more effective study in the field of business. i) To prepare students to be business teachers. Furthermore Aina (2002) also listed the goals of Business Education to include: To apply the various business concepts acquired in class to real life situations To acquire skills and the competencies required for the performance of basic business jobs i.e. take simple administrative decisions and deal with correspondences. iii. To keep simple records of financial and other transactions in the office and operate and carter for office machines and equipment iv. To identify and discriminate among alternatives available to them in the market given limited resources. i. ii. 393 Obi and Otamiri (2010) summarized the actual and operative goals of Business Education as enunciated in the departmental handbooks of various departments of Business Education to include: 1. To produce efficient and effective management, secretarial, accounting and marketing managers. 2. To produce lecturers who will handle business and related courses in our universities and colleges. 3. To propagate the development of the business thought and philosophy in business and management. 4. To prepare people for self-employment in situations where there is no available paid employment 5. To expose the students via the available courses to the limitless horizon of the business world and prepare them for roles as qualified administrators and managers in business organization. 6. To develop in the student‘s requisite skills and expertise in management of both private and public enterprise and arm them with the analytical, ability needed to meet the growing challenges of present and future Nigerian and international environment. 7. To prepare and equip those who pass through the progamme to be able to establish and run their own private business venture as self-employed citizens of the society. THE MEANING OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION Entrepreneurship Education as defined by the consortium for entrepreneurship education (CCE, USA) is a form of education that seeks to prepare people especially youths to be responsible enterprising individuals who become entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial thinkers and who contribute to economic development and sustainable communities. It is not based on a textbook course, rather students are immersed in real life learning experiences where one have an opportunity to take risk, manage the results and learn from the outcomes. Entrepreneurship is the act, the skill and dexterity of the entrepreneur in doing business. According to Uwaneje and Aduwa-Ogiegbaen (2006) entrepreneur Education is the knowledge, skills and mindset needed to create jobs by conceiving and starting a new business. In broad terms, entrepreneurship has to do with the ingenuity to create business ideas, develop the business, manage it, make profit and reap possible risk involve. Adiele (2010) defined entrepreneurship education as that form of education which inculcates into the individual learner concepts, skills and knowledge on how to start a new business, create jobs, create business ideas, develop the business, manage it and make profit. THE ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION AGENDA Entrepreneurship Education entails entrepreneurship courses, training and certification for educators, economic developers, business counselors and entrepreneurs. Moris and Jones (1993) opine that entrepreneurship education programme should include efforts aimed at ensuring that the training offered at all levels of education inculcates in the students‘ knowledge and skills that will enable them on graduation to: a) Identify and evaluate opportunities b) Identify a business concept c) Identify the needed resources d) Acquire the necessary resources and e) Implement, operate and harvest the venture. Adiele (2010) also noted that ―the curriculum content should be such that will expose the learners to the business options that are relevant to the economy and which will offer them career opportunities they present‖. He maintained that in the long run the education offered in 394 schools should be able to inculcate in learners creativity, spirit of initiative, responsibility, capacity for confronting risks and independence. In line with perceived objectives of entrepreneurship education, its content or agenda should focus on the following: i. Innovation Thinking: The students should be coached on how to recognize opportunities that others have overlooked. How to develop new ideas, new technology, new goods, new methods and imaginative skills for re-organizing an enterprise for good. ii. How to start Business of your own: Entrepreneurship Education should provide the students with the right mindset, and boldness on how to breakthrough the chins of starting business of one‘s own after graduation. It should afford students the opportunity to be informed of different types of business and what it requires to venture into them. It should also expose the student on sources of raising finance that could be exploited. iii. Inculcation of management skills: Entrepreneurship education should be designed to practically equip students with organizational skills, time management, interpersonal skills and financial management skills. iv. Inculcation of problem solving skills: Entrepreneurship education should inculcate in students requisite problem solving skills and decision making abilities. This will help to enhance their social-psychological development e.g. self-esteem, ego and self efficacy. v. Growing your business and creating employment: Entrepreneurship Education should prepare the students on how to grow their own business after graduation and create jobs i.e. by becoming employer of labour and not job seeker or mere employee. ENTREPRENUERSHIP EDUCATION METHODOLOGY Entrepreneurship Education if it must be a catalyst education programme as it is designed should be practical and plausible. In line with this Umameiye and Aduwa (2006) advocated that apart from classroom instructional delivery, the entrepreneurship educators should include approaches such as seminars, visitation, internship and practice firm as options to enhance quality delivery in entrepreneurial education. Adiele (2010) discussed these approaches as follows: a) Seminars: Seminars and workshop should be made part of the school curriculum. Successful entrepreneurs should be invited to present papers on the nature of their business and the career opportunities it offers. Seminars programmes will help to further stimulate students‘ interest in diverse business areas. b) Visitations: Excursion should be regularly organized to firms, industries and commercial ventures to expose students to the rudiments of entrepreneurial practice. This will bring them close to management tasks as well as create opportunity for them to have direct contact with various business enterprises. c) Internship: Internship is a period of attachment to firms, business centres and offices etc. who are involved in small and medium scale business enterprise. Here opportunity will be provided for the students to blend theory with practice. During the Internship period, students will be exposed to diverse experiences and gain the requisite entrepreneurial awareness as well as gain knowledge in business plan development. 395 d) Practice firm: Practice firm is the practical aspects of the entrepreneurship training where students are expected to demonstrate in practical terms the operations and preconditions of managing a successful enterprise. During the period, students should be made to set up mini business enterprise and run them as real business is done. They will be expected to assume various roles such as managing director, manager (sales and marketing) and as accounts officers etc. these roles should be rotated amongst the students to expose them to the various positions in a firm. UNEMPLOYMENT SITUATION IN NIGERIA The prevalence of unemployment, underemployment, high competition in the labour market and the frustration of job seekers cannot be overemphasized. According to Ewuzie (2012), ―in Nigeria and indeed other parts of the world, youths represents over 70 percent of the population and it has been observed that one of the greatest challenges bedeviling developing countries is the issue of unemployment among the most productive sections of the population‖. Merriam Webster‘s collegiate dictionary defines unemployment as the state of not being engaged in a gainful occupation‖. This can be measured by the proportion of labour force who were available for work but did not work. Over the last one decade, unemployment in Nigeria has been on the tremendous increase and this causing many social vices such as youth restiveness, kidnapping and Boko Harm etc. Olayinka (2010) quoting the then minister of labour and productivity Adelokunbo Kayode, ―the greatest challenge confronting government today remains massive unemployment, which has served as a breeding ground for anti-social vices…‘‘. Dike (2009) also noted that ―the Federal government of Nigeria recently acknowledge that about 80% of Nigerian youth are unemployed and about 10% underemployed. Even Oluba (2010) observed that ―this national problem has made the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) to be at a loss on what to do about the burgeoning unemployment size‖. He maintained that the sources of this massive unemployment, is a widespread liking for white collar job as well as the unemployability of school graduates. The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) in March 2009 estimated that national unemployment rate was 19.7%. Mirroring unemployment from the global scene, the UN agency in its annual report on youth unemployment trends as reported by O‘ Conner (2012) forecast the global youth unemployment rate would reach 12.7 percent this year and stay at this level for at least the following four years‖. It is based on this Dr. Ekkeherd Ernst, head of the ILO‘s employment trends unit advised that countries with the most acute problems must try to stimulate their economies, for instance through infrastructure programmes. The recent effort by the national economic team in Nigeria to intervene in job creation is very commendable. Equally laudable is the call for inputs from the public on workable job creation strategy for various sectors and for the country as a whole. THE FUSION OF BUSINESS EDUCATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION: ITS SYNERGISTIC EFFECT IN UNEMPLOYMENT REDUCTION Business Education and entrepreneurship education is two different field of study but from foregoing discussions, the line dividing business education and entrepreneurship education may be tiny, as such difficult to identify. This is because they seem to work towards addressing the hydro-headed syndrome of unemployment, and the economic self-reliance and diversification of Nigerian economy. The basic tools of the both area of study include: 1. Teaching, mentoring, training and coaching 2. The use of vocational education curriculum/techniques 3. And creating job/or opportunity for graduates to become self employed. 396 This view is supported by earlier work of Otamiri (2008) when he posited that Business Education is a fusion of pedagogical entrepreneurial preparation. Also the centre for Entrepreneurship Education and Development (CEED, Canada) described Entrepreneurship Education as a vehicle for teaching or inculcating necessary entrepreneurial skills to the citizenry to enable them pilot their various project successfully thereby promoting the growth of small and medium enterprises in the country. This is the mission of entrepreneurship education in the vocational education curriculum. In Nigeria and indeed other parts of the world, youths represent over 70 percent of the population and it has been observed that one of the greatest challenge bedeviling developing countries is the issue of unemployment among the most productive section of the population. While the situation may appear to have intensified in recent time, especially in Nigeria, there has been a serious clamour for a workable integration of entrepreneurship into the curriculum of the various of fields of study, be it Engineering, Science, Medicine, Social Science and especially Business Education to stem the tide of unemployment among youths in the country. Quoting Mrs. Edith Nweke the state coordinator of NYSC in Calabar, Akpan (2010) noted ―as a mother it is disturbing me to see young graduates roam the streets in search of jobs, whereas they can create jobs themselves‖. With the wide spread nature of unemployment in the Nigeria, like the medical practitioner would recommend the use of ACTs (Artermisinin – Based combination therapy) in treatment for malaria especially for endemic area so the fusion of Business Education and entrepreneurship education is expected to create the required synergy to fight unemployment head long. This fusion is much relevant in tertiary education curriculum as it provides students with skills and knowledge to successfully launch and operate their own business venture, provide them with the opportunity to develop practical skills and perspectives that are vital to entrepreneurial success and as a result reduce unemployment by creating jobs, productivity increase and diversify the economy. After a careful study of the expected synergistic effect of this integration, Momoh (2010) is moved to say ―I have a dream of a new Nigeria: A dream of a nation that will be dominated by self-employed youths, where students in our tertiary institutions will not think paid employment but run their own businesses. He further maintained that so when you now see Nigeria students thinking of being self-employed, don‘t be surprised, it is a wind that is blowing across the globe. Tertiary institutions have also caught the bug with the introduction of entrepreneurship programme into their curricula. CONCLUSION The paper examines the business education programme and the entrepreneurship education agenda and how the integration of both area of study can create a synergy for dealing with the issue of unemployment. Unemployment in Nigeria has become endemic and therefore requires a combination therapy. This will bring about a new pedagogy in which students are prepared with knowledge and practical skills but more especially creativity, spirit of initiative, responsibility, capacity for confronting risks and the boldness to start small scale business on graduation. This will reduce unemployment and or the thinking for paid employment. REFERENCES Adiele, E. E (2010) Entrepreneurship Education a strategy for achieving self reliance and Economic development. Journal of Management and Enterprise Development Vol. 7, No. 3 Ain, O (1986) The future of Business Education in Nigeria: A challenge to Business Educators. Business Education Journal vol. No.1 397 Aina, O (2002) Business Education, Technology and National Development. Business Education Journal vol. III No. 5 Akpan, A (2010) NYSC boss decries sagging unemployment in Nigeria. Lagos: The Guardian Newspaper Tuesday 9. February. CELCEE (2003) what is Entrepreneurship? In Gibb, A. (1998) Educating Tomorrow‘s Entrepreneurs. In economic reform today. Growing an Entrepreneurship economy. Dike, V. E. (2009) Technical and vocational Education Key to Nigeria‘s Development Ewuzie, K (2012) Experts identify entrepreneurial education as key to curb unemployment. Lagos: BusinessDay Newspaper Tuesday 15 May Momoh, S. (2010) The new craze for entrepreneurship Lagos: BusinessDay Newspaper Monday 21 June. O‘Connor, S. (2012) Youth Unemployment to remain high until 2016 Lagos: BusinessDay Newspaper Wednesday 23 May. Obi, E. C and Otamiri, S (2010) Information and Communication Technology in Business Education: Challenges and the way forward. Journal of Management and Enterprise Development. Vol. 7, No. 4 Odunaike, K. O., Amoda, M. B and Olatoye O. A (2010) Relevance of Business Education is Entrepreneurship in Ogun State owned universities in Nigeria. Journal of Management and Enterprise Development. Vol. 7, No. 3. Olayinka, C (2010) NDE, Turkey to partner on Job Creation Initiatives. Lagos: The Guardian Newspaper Tuesday, 9 February. Oluba, M. (2010) On the National employment Agenda. Lagos: Business Day Newspaper Monday, 20 Sept. Osuala, E. C (1987) Business Education: Principles and Practice. Onitsha: Africana Fep. Publishing Co. Otamiri, S (2008) Business Education and self-employment: A Case for Entrepreneurship Education. Business Education Journal. Ubulom, W. J (1999) Pedagogy of Business Education. Port Harcourt: Minson Nigeria Ltd. Ubulom, W. J. (2003) An Evaluation of Undergraduate Business Education Programme of tertiary institutions in Rivers State. Business Education Journal Vol. 4 No. 1 Uwamieye, R and Aduwa-Ogiegbean, S. E (2006) Developing Entrepreneurship Culture among young people in Nigeria. Journal of curriculum studies (CON) vol. 13 No. 3 pp 398 MEDIA IMPERIALISM AND BODY IMAGE PERCEPTION IN KUWAIT Charles Mitchell, M. Sc. Juliet Dinkha, Psy. D. Tasneem Rashwan Monica Matta Charles Mitchell: [email protected], Instructor of Journalism, Communication and Media, American University of Kuwait Juliet Dinkha: [email protected], Associate Professor, Psychology, American University of Kuwait Tasneem Rashwan: [email protected], Student, American University of Kuwait Monica Matta: [email protected], Student, American University of Kuwait Abstract Mass Media has a long-standing reputation of influencing perception and affecting behavior. And in the age of globalization investigating its influence in different cultural contexts has become increasingly relevant. Perpetuating unrealistic standards of body types is just one way mediated messages are said to influence negatively an audience. By way of TV, magazines and movies, the media imperialism of the United States is having a strong presence in small countries like Kuwait. The same media effects, on body image and identity, that are found in the US should also be observable. Furthermore, the social comparison theory states that an individual evaluates their own opinions by comparing themselves to others. Exposure to US media, in this case US television shows, offers individuals characters to whom to compare themselves. This study examines how US media imperialism and the social comparison theory through media affects body perception by examining how often college-age young adults watched shows with prominent thin television characters compared to shows that had a diversity of body types in the core cast. Being exposed to programming with only thin characters is expected to correlate positively with body dissatisfaction. The study included distributing 286 preliminary surveys to discover what were the most popular shows being watched by college students (mostly 18 to 25 year olds). After the most popular shows were identified, surveys were circulated to a sample of 240 college-age young adults (120 males and 120 females) to determine if any correlation could be made between their television show preferences and their body dissatisfaction, or lack thereof. Keywords: body image, media imperialism, cultural imperialism, social comparison theory, Kuwait Introduction Cultural imperialism is a mode of thought that asserts that foreign culture invades countries through the dissemination of primarily American entertainment and news content. The American mass media is vastly imported to other nations and the fear is that these countries, many being third world, will have their own cultural values and traditions eroded and replaced with American mores and viewpoints. Critics say that American values and the American point of view is becoming dominant across much of the world due to the exportation of Hollywood films, TV shows and international news based out of the United States. Case in point, is US exported news coverage about regions such as South America, who are often portrayed as in 399 involved with drug trafficking and revolutions, as these are issues that primarily affect US interests and US audiences. In many countries US media has displaced or/and eroded the local media, who are unable to compete with the demand and marketing dollars of US entertainment. To this extent, many countries who see the danger of cultural/media imperialism have placed media quotas on US entertainment content to help offset the damage done to their own domestic media industries and to hinder possible cultural influence and degradation (Dominick 2009). Petras (1994) asserts that cultural imperialism has two main goals: to gain an economic foothold on foreign markets and the other being political and to shape audiences through cultural hegemony. Cultural imperialism consciously works to separate the audience from their own cultural heritage and traditions. In his article, Petras makes the point that audiences are largely working class who see US media as a way of assimilating a desirable modern lifestyle. The author postulates that the message is often directed toward young people who are more susceptible to the influences of mediated messages. The youth are the primary market of US media imperialism not only because they are the most lucrative demographic, but because they are the most attracted to US consumerism and ideas of individualism (Petras 1994). Petras discovered the following: In relation to the third world, cultural imperialism can be defined as the systematic penetration and domination of the cultural life of the popular classes by the ruling class of the west in order to reorder the values, behavior, institutions and identity of the oppressed peoples to conform with the interests of the imperial classes (p. 2070) However, there isn‘t a popular consensus on the definition of media imperialism (Fejes 1981). In his article Fejes, articulates that media imperialism emerged from the dependency model as opposed to modernization theories. Modernization revolves around the development of social values, while the dependency model focuses on the relationship between developed and underdeveloped nations, and the problems that arise from that link: underdeveloped nations are at a disadvantage in a political and economic system that favors developed nations. Modernization theorists view the developing countries as evolving social ideas and ideals on a continuum with western industrial nations as the archetype of where this evolution will eventually culminate. No matter the definition, the influence of media imperialism especially on body image is prevalent and empirical. A wide body of studies have deduced strong causal relationships to substantiate its influence. One three-year study of body image of Fijian women, after the introduction of television, discovered that western programming with the depictions of thin American ideals of beauty led to a precipitous increase in bulimic behavior among teenage girls 400 in the country. Moreover, the Fijian females‘ sense of being beautiful had also decayed dramatically due to US TV programming (Wykes & Gunter 2005). This has been the trend in other countries: In Italy where men often report to prefer full figured women, the influence of media imperialism on body image is again observable. Florentine women are now facing problems with perceptions of their bodies because of the prevalence of US media messages. This trend is especially pervasive among teenage girls. Furthermore, the rise of eyelid surgery, to mimic western features, is becoming increasingly commonplace amongst Asian women in fareast countries (Fedorak 2008). Body image Body image dissatisfaction is the theory that individuals are unhappy with how they look in relation to their body. Researchers have been holding the media responsible for the rise in body image dissatisfaction in accordance with the sociocultural theory, which posits that people learn from social interaction. In the article, Striving for Bodily Perfection? An Exploration of the Drive for Muscularity in Canadian Men (2003) the authors of the study postulated that exposure to idealized male bodies would positively correlate with a desire to be more muscular and that men who use common social comparisons when evaluating their physical appearance will show a positive correlation with a desire to be more muscular. The researchers surveyed 310 male undergraduates enrolled in a community college and used the DMAQ scale (an 8-item scale that measures the desire to attain a more muscular body) and a modified USC scale to measure how much they use social comparisons (Hopkins, Morrison, Morrison 2003). The findings concluded that there was a strong correlation with fitness magazines showcasing ideal male body types and comparisons to universal standards of the idealized male form, with the strength of dedication of the respondents‘ to attain muscularity. Moreover, when one speculates how the media emphasizes unrealistic and aesthetic ideals, an image of a tall thin woman with perfectly groomed hair with unblemished skin often comes to mind, but studies have revealed that there has been an increase in emphasis on male aesthetic ideals in the media. In their paper, Jamie Farquhar and Louise Wasylkiw (2007) argue that since the 1980‘s the image of the male body has evolved to one that has been about the male form as a process, to where a man‘s physical appearance has now become an object. Now the focus is not on what the body can do but what the male body looks like. To test their hypothesis the authors performed a content analysis of a sample of male bodies in the ads lining the magazine Sports Illustrated, from 1975 to 2005 (Farquhar, Wasylkiw, 2007). The authors construed that since the 1970‘s there has been a steady and strong increase in the trend of 401 conceptualization of men‘s body as an object, with a consistent surge in discrete male body parts across the sample of magazines. In the past, the majority of research on body image dissatisfaction has focused on females who have consistently shown dissatisfaction with their bodyweight (Harrison 1997). However, research has been increasingly focusing on males‘ body dissatisfaction (Morry, Staska 2001; Agliata, Tantleff-Dunn, 2004; Hobza, Walker, Yakushko, Peugh 2007). Though studies have discovered that both males and females do experience discontent with their body image, they have also given light to the differences in how males and females evaluate their physical appearance. Furthermore, the studies also show that the predictors and effects of body dissatisfaction differ for males and females. disorders. One result of body dissatisfaction is eating Eating disorders have been established to be affected by exposure to various mediated messages resulting in body dissatisfaction. Kristen Harrison (2000), distributed a questionnaire to 366 adolescents in three age groups, 6th, 9th and 12th grades that measured their media exposure and their interest in the messages that promoted body improvement. To measure their eating-disorder symptomatology, specifically their risk of developing anorexia nervosa, Harrison used the Children‘s Eating Attitudes Test. Certain subscales from the Eating Disorders Inventory to measure bulimic symptomatology, body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness were utilized. Harrison hypothesized that exposure to thin-ideals through magazines and fat characters through television would produce body dissatisfaction among females and that exposure to media with fat characters would also negatively affect the male audience. Additionally, these relationships would be significant when a high interest to the content was controlled. Furthermore, she expected that males would be less affected by the male thin-ideal than the females. Harrison determined that exposure to fat-characters predicted the eatingdisorder bulimia and anorexia for females. Surprisingly, exposure to fat-character themed shows also predicted body dissatisfaction and anorexia in young men. The findings of the effects of watching television shows were intriguing to Harrison and are further explored by our current study. The media has shown to be a reinforcing agent for individuals on the ideal body type, as well as a way for individuals to evaluate themselves. When audiences are exposed to thin ideal body images or fat-characters, they are at higher risk of becoming dissatisfied with their bodies (Harrison 2000; Hobza, Walker, Yakushko, Peugh 2007). There are mountains of evidence that support the idea that exposure to mediated aesthetic ideals have an effect on behavior and attitudes. Anschutz, Van Strien and Engels (2011) discerned in their study of 124 female students that female students who practiced dietary restraint in their daily lives ate less snack food while watching a movie that had commercials with 402 slim models and diet products. The researchers theorized that those who were concerned with or were watching their weight would eat less after consuming ads with thin actors and diet oriented products. And to control for the mood of the movie, the researchers measured the students‘ mood towards the movie itself. The authors concluded that restrained eaters were reminded of their eating behaviors when they were watching media content with commercials of slim models and diet products. As part of their study, Farquhar et. al.(2007) also uncovered that viewing media that emphasizes and idealizes aesthetic attributes contribute to negative selfevaluations. Furthermore, Grabe and Ward (2008) conducted a meta-analysis on research studies in 2008. Their data revealed that exposure to media that depicts the thin-ideal body is associated with body image dissatisfaction, internalization of the thin body ideal, eating behaviors and to a general sense of body image dissatisfaction in women. Grabe and Ward analyzed published papers such as experimental studies reporting media having a stronger effect on internalization of the thin ideal and eating disorder symptomatology than body dissatisfaction, while other studies show equal effects. Though the studies‘ results seem to vary, according to Grabe and Ward media exposure to a thin-ideal body is related to body image dissatisfaction in women. Gender differences How the media influences men and women differently has emerged through numerous studies. One example is an investigation by Marian Morry and Sandra Staska (2001). The study‘s findings surmise that when women read beauty magazines they are more likely to internalize the body image of the models in the magazine, and these women‘s degree of internalization is also a predictor of self-objectification – the concept of viewing one‘s self as an object first and as a subject secondly. Consequently, individuals who self-objectify see themselves as entities that others judge by appearance, leading to a preoccupation with looks. For the female subjects in the Morry et al. study, internalization was also the only predictor of body dissatisfaction. Conversely, men would read fitness magazines and their degree of internalization of these ideal body type positively predicted body dissatisfaction. The researchers expected to find evidence for five hypotheses: 1) Men reading fitness magazines would internalize societal ideals and women reading fashion magazines would also internalize societal ideals. 2) Consuming magazines should link with self-objectification in both sexes and that internalization would regulate the self-objectification. 3) Consuming magazines would relate to body dissatisfaction, again regulated by internalization of societal archetypes. 4) An occurrence of eating issues should be observed, and mediated by internalization of societal archetypes. 5) Finally, reading 403 fashion magazines (female respondents) and fitness magazines (male respondents) should produce a relationship with body shape dissatisfaction (Morry and Staska 2001). The researchers recruited 150 students and allocated a questionnaire that included five different scales: the Magazine Exposure Scale, Eating Attitudes Test, Self-Objectification Questionnaire, Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire, and Body Shape Questionnaire. The authors found that reading magazines was associated with internalizing societal ideals. For women reading magazines also predicted self-objectification. For men reading fitness magazines with a tendency towards internalizing, predicted body shape dissatisfaction but not eating problems, but when men read fitness magazines while being already dissatisfied with their body type, eating problems were present (Morry, Staska 2001; Stice, Schupak, Shaw, Stein 1994). Other studies further show that when men are exposed to media images depicting muscular-ideal characters these messages definitively lowered their muscle satisfaction (Hopkins, Morrison, Morrison 2003). The authors surveyed 104 male students and showed them either 15 commercials that depicted men having muscular physiques with their shirts off or 15 commercials depicting men not particularly muscular and wearing clothing that hid their body type. Expecting to find that exposure to ideal-muscular body images on television would lead to an increase in body dissatisfaction, the researchers did indeed find that the men‘s dissatisfaction with their muscle size and physical attractiveness had increased while watching the muscularideal commercials more than the control group (Hargreaves, Tiggermann 2009). Interestingly, though men‘s body-esteem is affected by exposure to muscular body types, their self-esteem was not affected (Hobza, Walker, Yakushko, Peugh 2007). However, certain studies says that when men are exposed to ideal image advertisements they become depressed, indicating that more research in the area is needed to reach a consensus on the subject (Agliata, Tantleff-Dunn, 2004). Case in point, when males are exposed to media ideals that emphasize performance attributes, it can contribute to self-evaluation (Farquhar & Wasylkiw, 2007). A method to better understand how media exposure affects individuals is to study ways that can protect them from the harmful effects of thin body ideal exposure, such as eating disorders. For example, when women are exposed to average sized women in mediated messages this leads to less restrictive dieting habits (Fister & Smith 2004). Internalization has been found to be an important factor in mediating body dissatisfaction in individuals (Morry, Staska 2001). Culture is indicated also to take a back seat to internalization, according to a study done on Asian-American women that deduced that those who internalized media messages on ideal body types reported lower self-esteem (Lau, Lum, Chronister, Forrest 2006). 404 Arab Body Image This study attempts to investigate how common body dissatisfaction is in Kuwait and taking from studies done on other countries that are part of the Gulf Cooperation Council. Countries in the GCC are culturally very similar and have experienced similar economic booms because of their reliance on oil wealth; therefore perusing research that was done in those countries can shed light on how Kuwaitis feel about their bodies. Thomas, et al. (2010) explored the pervasiveness of onerous eating habits among female Emirati college students in the United Arab Emirates and the connection between these habits and heightened body image issues. The Eating Attitudes Test was distributed to 228 female students attending a local university in the UAE. To measure body dissatisfaction the students also completed the Figure Rating Scale. The researchers discovered that nearly 1 in 4 of the students scored high enough to indicate irregular eating patterns and possible eating pathology. Further, nearly three out of four of the students were dissatisfied with their body image. A positive correlation between disordered eating attitudes with body image dissatisfaction, and a negative correlation with body image ideals was found. The study indicates that disordered eating attitudes amongst the UAE young female population is comparable to countries like the US, where eating disorders have been present for years (Thomas, Khan, Abdulrahman 2010). A research study conducted on Saudi Arabian schoolgirls (Al-Subaie 2000), examines the dieting behavior of female Saudi teenagers. In the paper, 1,271 Female students from Grades 7 to 11 filled out a demographics sheet and the Eating Disorders Inventory, including their height and weight. More than one in six scored positively on the Drive for Thinness subscale. However, the intriguing part is the effect of predictors of dieting behavior: the girls‘ body mass index, speaking a western language, having lived in a western country, well-educated parents, small family unit, and having gainfully employed parents. Sixteen percent of the school girls from the study were found to be above the pretest evaluation for the drive to be thin, had previously lived in the west for at least six months. The authors Soh et al. of the article Eating and Body Image Disturbances Across Cultures: A Review (2006) interpreted the findings as an indicator of exposure to western culture. But the limitation here is that traveling to a western country or speaking a western language can be the result of coming from of an affluent or well-educated household, so other variables may be at work, which could be affecting the results of the research (Al-Subaie, 2000; Soh, Touyz, Surgenor 2006). 405 Social comparison theory The social comparison theory posits that individuals compare themselves to others in order to evaluate or to enhance some aspects of the self. The media is a primary agent of the social comparison theory. Researchers who examined this theory postulate that when individuals compares themselves on with universal standards of body image then negative effects on their own body image was often found (Morrison et al. 2003). Serving as a self-evaluation tool, the social comparison theory depends on whether the individual internalizes or differentiates his or herself compared to others who are viewed as superior or inferior (Suls, Martin& Wheeler 2002). A study conducted by Frisby (2004) examined how much race played a role, if any, in body image self-evaluation. She exposed African-American women who had different levels of body esteem to advertisements of thin, physically attractive, white and black models and gauged their self-esteem afterwards. She surmised that viewing Caucasian ideals did not lower the African-American women‘s self-evaluation regardless of the previous level of body image. However, when exposed to idealized black models, the black women who previously reported low body esteem now reported body dissatisfaction. Frisby‘s study argues that when black women are exposed to idealized images of women who are similar in racial makeup to themselves problems of self-esteem may surface (Frisby 2004). In at look at male participants, Thornton and Moore (1993) investigated men‘s self-ratings of their physical attractiveness. The respondents were divided into groups and exposed either to the highly attractive models or less attractive models. As anticipated, the men who had been exposed to the highly attractive models reported high-levels of body dissatisfaction (Morrison et al. 2003). The present study is investigating the media‘s influence on male and female body image dissatisfaction in an Arab country with a high prevalence of US media. The following are the hypotheses that we will prove in our research: Hypotheses 1) The more respondents watch US TV shows, will lead to greater appearance evaluation 2) Comparable effects of TV shows on body dissatisfaction found in Western studies will be observed in our study in Kuwait. 3) Watching TV shows with skinny characters will lead to greater body dissatisfaction. 4) Female respondents will report greater body dissatisfaction than male respondents. 5) Respondents viewing shows with average body types will report less body dissatisfaction than those watching shows with skinny characters. 406 Method Sample A paper-and-pencil cross-sectional survey (N = 233) has been conducted in several classes of a liberal arts college in Kuwait. More than three-quarters of the student sample (75.9%) reported they were Kuwaiti citizens, while the rest reported being nationals of other countries (one respondent did not report his/her nationality). About a half of the sample (48.9%) reported they were males. Seven respondents did not report their gender. Over the half of the respondents (50.4%) were from 21 to 24 years old; 46.1% reported they were 18-20 years of age, and 3.4% didn‘t report their age. Procedure Paper-and-pencil questionnaires were distributed in a number of classes to ensure higher response rate. The survey was administered in English, which is the official language of the university where the study was administered. Measures TV show viewing Before identifying how often respondents viewed certain television shows, we first generated the list of shows, both Western and Arabic, which were the most popular among the college students. For this purpose, 286 students were surveyed. Based on the students‘ responses, the list of 21 most viewed TV showed was created. Nine of these shows were Western (predominantly American, such as ―How I Met My Mother‖, ―Modern Family‖, ―The Office‖, among others), and 11 were produced in the Middle East (e.g., Noor (‫)ن ور‬, Ajial (‫)أج يال‬, Al-Ghareeb (‫))ال غري ب‬. Each respondent rated on a scale from 0 (―Never‖) to 3 (―Often‖) how often he/she viewed each of the selected shows. Viewing Western and Arabic shows. The responses to the questions about show viewing were averaged separately for Western shows and Arabic shows. As a result, two continuous variables, Viewing Western Shows and Viewing Arabic Shows, were computed. Viewing shows with skinny characters. Four coders rated each show on a scale from 1 (―not at all‖) to 7 (―a lot‖) with regards to how skinny its characters were. Shows with the highest rating were considered as shows depicting skinny characters. Viewing scores for these shows were averaged to create a single variable. To account for possible gender difference in perceptions of 407 characters‘ skinniness, two male coders and two female coders rated the shows separately (intercoder reliability for males: Pearson correlation = .75, p<.001, intraclass correlation = .74, p<.001, Chronbach α = .85; intercoder reliability for females: Pearson correlation = .69, p<.001, intraclass correlation = .68, p<.001; Chronbach α = .81). Viewing shows with average-body characters. Four coders rated each show on a scale from 1 (―not at all‖) to 7 (―a lot‖) with regards to average body types its characters had. Shows with the highest rating were considered as shows depicting average-body characters. The overall variable was computed based on the viewing scores for these shows. As in the previous case, gender differences in perceptions of characters‘ body averageness were taken into consideration. Two male coders and two female coders rated the shows separately (intercoder reliability for males: Pearson correlation = .79, p<.001, intraclass correlation = .79, p<.001, Chronbach α = .88; intercoder reliability for females: Pearson correlation = .74, p<.001, intraclass correlation = .74, p<.001, Chronbach α = .85). Due to the fact that each show was rated on two scales representing characters‘ skinniness or body averageness, some shows were rated high on both. Such shows were excluded from the analysis. We also used The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire appearance scale (MBSRQ-AS) by Cash, et al. (1985, 1986) a 34-item self-report appearance focused inventory for the assessment of self-evaluation and orientation of five subsets that excludes fitness and health items, which are found in the larger, more comprehensive questionnaire. The shorter questionnaire measures appearance orientation, appearance evaluation, overweight preoccupation, self-classified weight, and body area satisfaction. Appearance orientation. Appearance orientation that represented extent of investment in one's appearance was measured with the use of 12 items (Cronbach‘s alpha = .74 for males; .72 for females, Cash et al., 1985, 1986). The respondents rated each of the 12 statements on a scale from 1 (―strongly disagree‖) to 7 (―strongly agree‖). Then, one variable was computed by averaging scores for each of the 12 items. Appearance evaluation. Appearance orientation conceptualized as the feeling of physical attractiveness or unattractiveness; satisfaction or dissatisfaction with one's looks was measured with the use of seven 7-point items (Cronbach‘s alpha = .61 for males; .79 for females, Cash et 408 al., 1985, 1986). For each item, 1 corresponded to ―strongly disagree‖ and 7 corresponded to ―strongly agree.‖ A single variable was calculated by averaging scores for each of the seven items. Overweight preoccupation. Overweight preoccupation was defined as fat anxiety, weight vigilance, dieting, and eating restraint. This variable was calculated as an average of scores obtained with the use of four 7-point scales, where 1= ―strongly disagree‖ and 7=―strongly agree‖ (Cronbach‘s alpha =.66 for males; .75 for females, Cash et al., 1985, 1986). Self-classified weight. Self-classified weight represented how one perceives and labels one's weight, from very underweight to very overweight. Two 7-point scales from 1 (―strongly disagree‖) to 7 (―strongly agree‖) were utilized to measure this variable (Cronbach‘s alpha =.66 for males; .78 for females, Cash et al., 1985, 1986). Body areas satisfaction. Body areas satisfaction conceptualized as satisfaction with discrete aspects of one's appearance was measured with the use of nine items (Cronbach‘s alpha = .77 for males; .82 for females, Cash et al., 1985, 1986). The respondents rated each of the nine statements on a scale from 1 (―strongly disagree‖) to 7 (―strongly agree‖). Lastly, we also distributed the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Scale (SATAQ-3), which directly measures awareness and acceptance of cultural ideals of attractiveness. With this scale, we directly aim to gauge the impact of media messages on the level of general internalization; internalization from watching athletes, pressures felt from aesthetic ideals, and if respondents look to general mediated messages such as film, TV and magazines for information about the ideal standards of appearance (information). The following are descriptions of the variables used in this scale. Internalization-General. Internalization-General meaning general influence of the media on perceived body size ideals was measured with the use of nine 5-point scales from 1 (―strongly disagree‖) to 5 (―strongly agree,‖ Cronbach‘s alpha = .85 for males; .83 for females, Calogero et al., 2004; Heinberg & Thompson, 1995; Thompson et al., 1999, 2004). Internalization-Athlete. Internalization-General that represented internalization of athletic ideals and sports figures in the media was measured with the use of five 5-point scales from 1 (―strongly disagree‖) to 5 (―strongly agree,‖ Cronbach‘s alpha = .70 for males; .71 for females, Calogero et al., 2004; Heinberg & Thompson, 1995; Thompson et al., 1999, 2004). 409 Pressures. Media pressure to achieve certain body size ideals was another variable measured with multiple 5-point items. from 1 (―strongly disagree‖) to 5 (―strongly agree,‖ Cronbach‘s alpha = .81 for males; .85 for females, Calogero et al., 2004; Heinberg & Thompson, 1995; Thompson et al., 1999, 2004). Information. Information was conceptualized as the degree to which media is used as a source of information for determining body size ideal (Heinberg & Thompson, 1995; Thompson et al. 1999). The variable was measured with nine 5-point items from 1 (―strongly disagree‖) to 5 (―strongly agree,‖ Cronbach‘s alpha = .51 for males; .61 for females, Calogero et al., 2004; Heinberg & Thompson, 1995; Thompson et al., 1999, 2004). Gender. Gender was included in the analysis because it was predicted that viewing television shows would be associated with body image variables in two gender groups differently. Results Simple linear and multiple regression tests were run to explore the relationships among independent variables (total TV show viewing; viewing Western TV shows; viewing Arabic TV shows; viewing TV shows with skinny prominent characters; viewing TV shows with characters who have average body types) and dependent measures (appearance orientation, appearance evaluation, overweight preoccupation, self-classified weight, body area satisfaction, general internalization, internalization from watching athletes, pressures felt from aesthetic ideals, and information). Only significant results are reported in this paper. Nine simple linear regressions were run to explore the association between total TV show viewing and the nine dependent measures. It was indicated that total TV show viewing was positively correlated with appearance orientation, β = .14, p ≤ .05, appearance evaluation, β = .24, p ≤ .001, general internalization, β = .37, p ≤ .001, pressure, β = .34, p ≤ .001, and information, β = .31, p ≤ .001. Nine multiple regressions were conducted to test the relationships between viewing Western and Arabic TV shows and nine dependent measures. First, it was found that viewing Western TV shows explained 4% (R2) of variance in overweight preoccupation (β = .20, p ≤ .001) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,208)=8.71, p≤.05). Viewing Arabic TV shows added less than 1% to the variance explained (R2 change, n.s.; F(2,208)=4.48, p≤.05). Viewing Western shows positively contributed to overweight preoccupation (β = .19, p ≤ .05; β = .04, n.s., respectively). Second, viewing Western TV shows explained 6% (R2) of variance in information 410 (β = .25, p ≤ .001) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,207)=13.54, p≤.001). Viewing Arabic TV shows added 5% to the variance explained (R2 change, p≤.001; F(2,207)=12.68, p≤.001). Viewing both Western and Arabic shows positively contributed to information (β = .17, p ≤ .05; β = .23, p ≤ .001, respectively). Third, viewing Western TV shows explained 9% (R2) of variance in pressure (β = .29, p ≤ .001) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,207)=19.06, p≤.001). Viewing Arabic TV shows added 1% to the variance explained (R2 change, p=.87; F(2,207)=11.11, p≤.001). Viewing Western shows positively contributed to pressure but the same phenomenon was not observed with Arabic shows (β = .25, p ≤ .001; β = .12, n.s., respectively). Fourth, viewing Western TV shows explained 11% (R2) of variance in general internalization ((β = .33, p ≤ .001)) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,207)=25.49, p≤.001). Viewing Arabic TV shows added 2% to the variance explained (R2 change, p≤.05; F(2,207)=14.91, p≤.001). Viewing both Western and Arabic shows positively contributed to general internalization (β = .29, p ≤ .001; β = .14, p ≤ .05, respectively). Nine multiple regressions were conducted to test the relationships between viewing Western and Arabic TV shows and nine dependent measures with the sample split by gender, i.e., responses from males and females were analyzed separately. Males. First, the model with the two TV show viewing variables and appearance evaluation as a DV was significant, F(2,106)=3.42, p≤.05, with viewing both Western and Arabic shows explaining 6% (R2) of the variance in appearance evaluation although Arabic shows were not statistically significant on this variable (β = .27, n.s.; β = -.19, p =.07, respectively). The more male respondents viewed both types of shows, the less positively they evaluated their appearance. Second, viewing Western TV shows explained 7% (R2) of variance in self-classified weight (β = .25, p ≤ .05) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,106)=7.94, p≤.05). Viewing Arabic TV shows added only 1% to the variance explained and was not significant (R 2 change, n.s.; F(2,106)=4.35, p≤.05). Viewing Western shows positively contributed to self-classified weight, while Arabic shows were not significant in this regard (β = .23, p ≤ .05; β = .09, n.s., respectively). Third, viewing Western TV shows explained 5% (R2) of variance in general internalization (β = .22, p ≤ .05) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,105)=5.31, p≤.05). Viewing Arabic TV shows added 2% to the variance explained and so was not a significant factor (R2 change, n.s.; F(2,105)=3.50, p≤.05). Viewing both Western and Arabic shows positively contributed to general internalization (β = .17, n.s.; β = .13, n.s., respectively). Females. First, viewing Western TV shows explained 6% (R2) of variance in information (β = .25, p ≤ .05) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,96)=6.28, p≤.05). Viewing Arabic TV shows added 8% to the variance explained (R2 change, p≤.05; F(2,96)=7.99, p≤.001). Viewing 411 both Western and Arabic shows positively contributed to information (β = .20, p ≤ .05; β = .29, p ≤ .05, respectively). Second, viewing Western TV shows explained 6% (R2) of variance in pressure (β = .24, p ≤ .05) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,96)=5.84, p≤.05). Viewing Arabic TV shows added less than 1% to the variance explained and was not a significant agent (R2 change, n.s.; F(2,96)=3.14, p≤.05). Viewing Western positively contributed to pressure with Arabic shows having negligible effect in this area (β = .23, p ≤ .05; β = .07, n.s., respectively). Third, viewing Western TV shows explained 11% (R2) of variance in general internalization (β = .33, p ≤ .001) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,96)=11.46, p≤.001). Viewing Arabic TV shows added 2% to the variance explained and so was not a significant variable (R 2 change, n.s.; F(2,96)=6.95, p≤.05). Viewing both Western shows positively contributed to general internalization but Arabic show viewing was not significant (β = .30, p ≤ .05; β = .15, n.s., respectively). Finally, nine multiple regressions were run separately for male and female respondents to test the relationships between viewing TV shows with skinny prominent characters and viewing TV shows with characters who have average body types as IVs and appearance orientation, appearance evaluation, overweight preoccupation, self-classified weight, body area satisfaction, general internalization, internalization from watching athletes, pressures felt from aesthetic ideals, and information as DVS. Males. First, viewing TV shows with skinny characters explained 6% (R2) of variance in appearance evaluation (β = -.25, p ≤ .05) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,113)=7.57, p≤.05). The model with the two TV show viewing variables (viewing TV shows with skinny characters and viewing TV shows with average body characters) and appearance evaluation as a DV was significant, as well, F(2,113)=4.02, p≤.05, with viewing TV shows with average body characters explaining extra .04% (R2) of the variance in appearance evaluation (β = -.21, p≤.05 for skinny; β = -.08, n.s. for average). The more male respondents viewed both types of shows, but especially shows with skinny characters, the less positively they evaluated their appearance. Second, viewing shows with skinny characters positively contributed to overweight preoccupation (β = .19, p ≤ .05), explaining 4% (R2) of variance in the DV, F(1,113)=4.18, p≤.05. Third, the model with the two TV show viewing variables (viewing TV shows with skinny characters and viewing TV shows with average body characters) and self-classified weight as a DV was significant, F(2,113)=4.50, p≤.05, with both IVs explaining 8% (R2) of the variance in self-classified weight (β =.03, n.s. for skinny; β = .28, p≤.05 for average). Viewing TV shows, especially those with average-body-type characters, was positively associated with self-classified weight. Fourth, viewing shows with skinny characters was positively correlated with information 412 (β = .20, p ≤ .05), explaining 4% (R2) of variance in the DV, F(1,112)=4.43, p≤.05. Fifth, viewing shows with skinny characters explained 8% (R2) of variance in pressure (β = .29, p ≤ .05) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,112)=9.32, p≤.05). Viewing shows with average characters added less than 1% to the variance explained (R2 change, n.s.; F(2,112)=4.66, p≤.05). Viewing both types of shows, but especially, shows with skinny characters, positively contributed to pressure (β = .26, p ≤ .05 for skinny; β = .03, n.s. for average). Sixth, viewing shows with skinny characters explained 7% (R2) of variance in general internalization (β = .27, p ≤ .05) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,112)=8.64, p≤.05). Viewing shows with average body characters added less than 1% to the variance explained (R2 change, n.s.; F(2,112)=4.37, p≤.05). Viewing both types of shows, but especially shows with skinny characters, positively contributed to general internalization (β = .25, p ≤ .05 for skinny; β = .04, n.s. for average). Females. First, viewing shows with skinny characters positively contributed to overweight preoccupation (β = .21, p ≤ .05), explaining 4% (R2) of variance in the DV, F(1,111)=5.12, p≤.05. Second, viewing shows with skinny characters explained 9% (R2) of variance in information (β = .30, p ≤ .001) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,111)=11.25, p≤.001). Viewing shows with average characters added extra 1% to the variance explained (R 2 change, n.s.; F(2,111)=6.38, p≤.05). Viewing both types of shows are positively associated with information (β = .19, n.s. for skinny; β = .16, n.s. for average). Third, viewing shows with skinny characters explained 7% (R2) of variance in pressure (β = .27, p ≤ .05) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,111)=8.74, p≤.05). Viewing shows with average characters added less than 1% to the variance explained (R2 change, n.s.; F(2,111)=4.36, p≤.05). Viewing both types of shows, but especially, shows with skinny characters, positively contributed to pressure (β = .25, p = .07 for skinny; β = .03, n.s. for average). Fourth, viewing shows with skinny characters explained 10% (R2) of variance in general internalization (β = .32, p ≤ .001) when entered to the model by its own, (F(1,111)=12.74, p≤.001). Viewing shows with average body characters added another 3% to the variance explained (R2 change, p = .06; F(2,111)=8.35, p≤.001). Viewing both types of shows, but especially shows with average body characters, positively contributed to general internalization (β = .14, n.s. for skinny; β = .25, p = .06 for average). 413 References Agliata, D., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2004). The Impact of Media Exposure on Males' Body Image. (23 ed., Vol. 1, pp. 7-22). Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. Al-Subaie, A. S. (2000). Some Correlates of Dieting Behavior In Saudi Schoolgirls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28, 242–246. Anschutz, D. J., Van Strien, T., & Engels, R. (2011). Exposure to Slim Images in Mass Media: Television Commercials As Reminders Of Restriction In Restrained Eaters. 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Cherly Anto Frezina Bharathidasan University, Trichy-24,India [email protected] N. Junofy Anto Rozarina Bharathidasan University, Trichy-24,India [email protected] ABSTRACT Millions of biological species constitute the life on earth. New species have been regularly discovered. Around 8000 new species are identified each year. Preserving these species and their habitats from extinction is very important as the loss of the species can affect the biodiversity largely. This paper focus on primarily focus on ‗Extinction and loss of bio-diversity‘. This passage shows as how extinction has become a source for loosing the biological richness. The major causes of the extinction of species were discussed as Overexploitation, Pollution, Habitat degradation, Deforestation, Introduced species, Invasive species, Global warming, Disease eradication, Co extinction of a species etc. Managing the loss of species is analysed with mainly Selective Breeding and Cloning. Again the History of Extinction, effects of extinction and managing the loss of species are discussed. Keywords: Extinction and loss of bio-diversity- The History of Extinction- Threats Causing Extinction- Effects of extinction-Managing the loss of species. Introduction Millions of biological species constitute the life on earth. The variety of life on Earth and its biological diversity is commonly referred to as ‗biodiversity‘. The United Nations declared the year 2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity. New species have been regularly discovered. Around 8000 new species are identified each year. Most of these newly identified species have not yet classified. It is said that nearly 90% of all arthropods are not yet classified. Most of these species are newly formed ones due to mutation. These newly formed species helps in maintaining biodiversity as so many species are getting extinct each year. So, modern biodiversity may not be much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago. India, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, Madagascar, Zaire, Australia, China, Indonesia and Malaysia are the twelve mega biodiversities in the world. These countries contain most of the species population. Preserving these species and their habitats from extinction is very important as the loss of the species can affect the biodiversity largely. 417 Extinction and loss of bio-diversity: Human intervention has led to imbalance in the ecological diversity. Extinction refers to the complete end of a species. Species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. It is said that a typical species becomes extinct within a million years of its first appearance. About 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are now extinct. Prior to dispersion of humans across the earth, extinction generally occurred at a continuous low rate. But now it is accelerated by human intervention. Now, around 140,000 species get extinct each year. This figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, as only a small number of species evolve each year. Biologist E. O. Wilson estimated that if current rates of human destruction of the biosphere continue, one half of all species of life on earth will be extinct by 2100. 30% of all natural species will be extinct by 2050. He further said that extinctions are occurring about 100 times higher than before. The History of Extinction: Bio-diversity, the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution, consisted of protozoan and single celled organisms until 600 million years ago. The growth in the population of species during the starting of the Phanerozoic (540 million years ago) is very rapid. Over the last 100 million years, global diversity showed little overall trend, but was marked by massive losses of diversity classified as mass extinction events The period since the emergence of humans has shown a steep reduction in biodiversity. This reduction is named the Holocene extinction. It is caused due to the destruction of the species‘ habitat. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) says that there has been at least five mass extinctions in the history of life on earth, and four in the last 3.5 billion years in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period time125. The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event which took place 65 million years is known to have wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs, among many other species. A massive eruptive event is considered to be the cause of the "Great Dying" about 250 million years ago, which is estimated to have killed 90% of species existing at the time. The dinosaur extinction took place 65 million 125 Sahney. S and Benton. M.J.(2008), ‗Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time‘(PDF), Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological 275(1636): 759-65. DOI: 10 1098/rspb.2007.1370.PMC 2596898. PMID 418 years ago wiping out most of the dinosaur species. The Permian extinction of 245 million years ago wiped out 96% of all marine species. Threats Causing Extinction: The list of the causes that can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species is endless. Any species that is unable to survive or reproduce in its environment, and is also unable to move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of a species may come suddenly a species loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Among many reasons, Humans contribute the maximum to extinction through over harvesting, habitat destruction, loss and fragmentation, over exploitation, Pollution, Invasive alien species, introduction of new predators and food competitors, over hunting, Co-extinction and other influences. Explosive, unsustainable human population growth is an essential cause of the extinction crisis. The major causes of the extinction of species are discussed below. Overexploitation refers to the hunting which is done at a rate above the maximum sustainable yield. If the number of individuals that are hunted are higher than the number of individuals that will be born, the population will decline. About 25% of world fisheries are now overexploited. Pollution destroys the purity of the biodiversity by making the habitats of species unfit. It is one of the major reasons for the mass death of many species. Pollution my also poison the species directly. Habitat degradation is the main cause of species extinctions. Destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling and pollution destroy the originality of the habitats. The degradation of a species' habitat may alter the fitness landscape to such an extent that the species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. Deforestation is partially linked to the previous point. Increased human encroachment upon wild areas, increased resource extraction destroys the habitat of the species. Around half of the original forests have disappeared, and they are still being removed at the rate of 10% higher than any possible level of regrowth. Introduced species are the next threat. Humans have been transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another, sometimes deliberately and sometimes accidentally. Invasive 419 species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken them or degrade their habitat. Global warming affects the ecosystem largely. The species which is not capable of adapting to the new climate gets extinct. Disease eradication process has prompted humans to work towards the extinction of many species of viruses and bacteria. Co extinction of a species is the loss of one species due to the extinction of another. The extinction of one species' wild population can often have knock-on effects, causing further extinctions. It is referred to as chains of extinction. If any one species is removed from the ecosystem, the cycle can break down, and the community may become dominated by a single species. Effects of extinction Firstly, when an species becomes extinct, the food chain gets disrupted. This may affect the other organisms in the food chain and even lead to the extinction of other species. As discussed earlier, we call this ‗the chains of extinction‘. Sometimes, due to disruption in ecosystem due to extinction, the nutrient cycles affected. In some ecosystems, single species may account for up to 50% of recycled nutrients. However, species that heavily recycle N are not always the same ones that recycle the most phosphorus. In some special cases, the surviving species may be able to compensate for lost species by increasing their roles in nutrient recycling. The Bio diversity is completely uprooted and the other species population will be greatly affected. Extinction of many edible and medicinal species can be considered as a huge loss to humanity. Many such valuable herbs and animals have become extinct. Managing the loss of species: 420 Selective breeding is a method used by scientists to create domestic animals with the characters they need. All the domestic animals have their wild ancestors. The wolf became the dog, the wild boar became the pig, the aurochs became the domestic cattle, the tarpan became the horse, etc. People bred the animals that had the characteristics that they needed. In this way, some of the wild ancestors have completely disappeared from earth, such as aurochs and the tarpans. In the selective breeding experiment, the scientists have tried to recreate the wild ancestors such as the aurochs and the tarpan. This can be done to bring back the wild breed of animal that has become extinct or is in the verge of becoming extinct. Cloning126 is used to revive animals by using its DNA from the remains of an extinct species, through the process of cloning, the species can be "brought back to life". In order for such a program to succeed, a sufficient number of individuals will be cloned from the DNA of different individuals to create a viable population. Though bioethical and philosophical objections have been raised, the cloning of extinct creatures seems a viable outcome of the continuing advancements in science and technology. Many times, some species are wrongly judged as extinct. About one-third of the mammals declared extinct have been rediscovered within few years. Mostly, the loss of a species is compensated by another species. The substitute make up the absence of the extinct species. For easy proliferation of the endangered species, the governments must set a higher bar for critically endangered species. The will prove helpful to the scientists involved in breeding. Afforestation must be promoted. Though there is no substitute for undisturbed forests, we can try our best to create a close-to-natural habitat for the endangered species. When deforestation is checked and over fishing is stopped, most of the endangered species can be removed from that list. Bibliography: A. Hallam and P. B. Wignall, Mass Extinctions and Their Aftermath (Dec 4, 1997) A. Hallam, Catastrophes and Lesser Calamities: The Causes of Mass Extinctions (Sep 1, 2005) Chopra K, Economic Aspect of Bio-Diversity Conservation, Micro and Macro Strategies for intervention, Singh, Sasthri, Mehtha and Uppal, WWF-India 571- 579 Ehrlich, Anne (1981). Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species. Random House, New York. ISBN 0-394-51312-6. 126 Nicholas wade (2008-11-19),‗Regenerating a mammoth for $10 Million, The New York Times.Retrieved 2010-05- 17,www.nytimes.com/2008/11/20/science/20mammoth.html?_r=3 421 Extinction: How Life on Earth Nearly Ended 250 Million Years Ago by Douglas H. Erwin (Apr 1, 2008) Finlayson,"The Humans Who Went Extinct: Why Neanderthals Died Out and We Survived," published by Oxford University Press. Copyright 2010 Dow Jones & Company, Inc. Jaiwal, Pawan K.; Singh, Rana P(Ed) Improvement Strategies of Leguminosae Biotechnology Focus on Biotechnology, Vol. 10A, Springer 2003 Kumar, A.S. Walker and Molur, Prioritisation of endangered species, Setting bio-Diversity Conservation priorities for India, Singh, Sasthri, Mehtha and Uppal, WWF-India 341-425 M. J. Benton, When Life Nearly Died: The Greatest Mass Extinction of All Time (Sep 1, 2005) M.K.Ramachandran, Economics of Agro-Based Industries- -2009 Environmental Education and Pollution Control - Tilottama Senapati & Ranjan Kumar Sahoo –2009 Mark V. Barrow, Nature's Ghosts: Confronting Extinction from the Age of Jefferson to the Age of Ecology (Oct 15, 2009) Nicholas wade (2008-11-19),‗Regenerating a mammoth for $10 Million, The New York Times.Retrieved 2010-05-17,www.nytimes.com/2008/11/20/science/20mammoth.html?_r=3 Robert Chambers, 1844, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 1994 reprint: University of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-10073-1 Saberwal, Ragarajan and Kothari(2001), People, Parks and wildlife: Towards co-existence, New Delhi, Orient Longman. Sahney. S and Benton. M.J. (2008), ‗Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time‘(PDF), Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological 275(1636): 759-65. DOI: 10 1098/rspb.2007.1370.PMC 2596898. 422 ENTRENCHING DEMOCRACY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE: THE ROLE OF ICT S.A.Adesola Department of Computer Science Federal College of Education (Special), Oyo-Nigeria Email: [email protected] Abstract With the rapid spread of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), new opportunities have been opened for a revival of public discourse and improved governance efficiency. ICTs offer concrete opportunities for local and national governments to improve their performance in terms of transparency, participation and decentralization. The mainstreaming of ICTs within planning and design of development strategies helps to strengthen the establishment of efficient, effective and transparent governance systems. This paper takes a critical look at Democracy and Governance. What constitute Good Governance was also itemized. The role of ICT in entrenching Democracy and Good Governance was also discussed. Finally, conclusion was drawn and recommendations for way forward were given. Keywords: Good Governance, Democracy, e-Democracy, e-Governance, and ICT. Introduction With the rapid spread of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), new opportunities have been opened for a revival of public discourse and improved governance efficiency. ICTs offer concrete opportunities for local and national governments to improve their performance in terms of transparency, participation and decentralization. The mainstreaming of ICTs within planning and design of development strategies helps to strengthen the establishment of efficient, effective and transparent governance systems. On-line tools can significantly improve the rendering of services and information flows from administrations to their constituencies; communication among administrations and citizens can be enhanced and, lastly, ICTs offer unique opportunities for broadened citizen involvement and participation in the decision-making process. This is particularly relevant in the developing countries context, where many countries have only recently undergone the transformation to democratic regimes, and where despite the efforts to introduce democratic governance, problems such as corruption of public administration and lack of transparency are still present. Issues in Governance and Good Governance Fundamentally therefore, to describe governance as a good one and to determine whether it is a bad one requires the understanding of the essence of the state which are not only embedded in the constitution but also a function of the religious ideals and the nature of current problems confronting the state. Governance can be defined as the process that is employed to achieve the noble end of the state. Thus, governance simply implies the art of governing a people within a given territory or a state. It consists of two essential elements of the state, namely the structure of the state and the procedures of the legislative, judicial and those of the executive and administrative bodies at all the tiers of government. In one word, governance remains a state in action. Governance as is the control of an activity by some means such that a range of desired outcomes is attained. Thus, governance in a political sense is a more complex activity. Secondly, political governance is service oriented. Governance is better conceived from Lasswel traditional definition of politics as who gets what, when and how and perhaps how much. Thus, governance has a lot to do with the allocation of values in the society, which to a large extent is political in nature. 423 In this regard the World Bank view governance as, ―the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country‘s economic and social resources for development (Odunuga, 2003). The Bank further identified the following three key aspects of governance: the form of a political regime; the process by which authority is exercised in the management of a country‘s social and economic resources and the capacity of governance to design, formulate and implement policies and discharge functions. The United Nations Development Programme (Odunuga, 2003). sees government and governance as being synonymous. Accordingly, it defined governance as a complex mechanisms, process, relationships and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences. Government, as an art of governance, enjoys four important attributes which include sovereignty, power, authority and legitimacy (Ekei, 2003). All these elements or attributes are the instruments of effective governance in the sense that they provide the necessary anchor and legal/moral justifications to the government. Thus, governance includes institutional and structural arrangements, decision making processes, policy formulation and implementation capacity, development of personnel, information flows and the nature and style of leadership within a political system. By governance therefore, we mean the manner in which power is exercised by governments in the management and distribution of a country‘s social and economic resources. The nature and manner of this distribution makes governance a bad or a good one. Thus, when resources are distributed to promote inequality or to achieve personal or group ambitions, the essence of governance which coincides with the essence of politics and essence of the state is defeated. Good governance, as a concept, is applicable to all sections of society such as the government, legislature, judiciary, media, private sector, corporate sector, trade unions and lastly nongovernment organisations (NGOs). According to Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), good governance has eight major characteristics (UNESCO, 2005). It is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making (OECD, 2001). Failure of governance implies that those in political control have not properly managed the economy and other social institutions. According to the World Bank (1992) bad governance has many features, among which are: failure to make a clear separation between what is public and what is private, hence a tendency to divert public resources for private gain; failure to establish a predictable framework for law and government behaviour in a manner that is conducive to development, or arbitrariness in the application of rules and laws; excessive rules, regulations, licensing requirements, etc, which impede the functioning of markets and encourage rentseeking; priorities that are inconsistent with development, thus, resulting in a misallocation of resources and excessively narrow base for, or non-transparencies, decision-making. According to Obadan (1998), when these features occur together they create an environment that is hostile to development. In such circumstances, he further argued that the authority of governments over their peoples tends to be progressively eroded. This reduces compliance with decisions and regulations. Government then tends to respond through populist measures or, as in some authoritarian regimes, resort to coercion. Either way, the economic cost tends to be high, including a diversion of resources to internal security and escalating corruption. Also bad governance by entailing corruption, and lack of accountability and transparency, provides opportunities for the well connected elites and interest groups in the society to corner for themselves a sizeable proportion of the society‘s resources at the expense of the masses (Obadan, 1998). Thus, bad governance is contrapuntal to a nation‘s socio-economic and political development. 424 Therefore, resources of the state must be managed in such a manner as to achieve the desired level of socioeconomic progress for all members of the political community. It is important to note that the resource utilized must also be commensurate with the level of development attained. In short, good governance is about the performance capacity of a government or as it relates to leadership capability. Failure of governance therefore, could expressly mean failure of leadership. Indeed, the best governors are those who met their society in a condition of social and political nadir and are able to save the society or lift it up from doldrums to the position of fame and prosperity. Governance is good provided it is able to achieve the desired end of the state defined in terms of justice, equity, protection of life and property, enhanced participation, preservation of the rule of law and improved living standard of the populace. Governance is termed bad when it fails to achieve the purpose(s) of the state. The concept of "governance" is not new. It is as old as human civilization. Simply put "governance" means: the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented). Governance can be used in several contexts such as corporate governance, international governance, national governance and local governance. Good governance has 8 major characteristics. It is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law UNESCAP, 2012. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decisionmaking. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society. Characteristics of Good Governance 1. Participation: Participation by both men and women is a key cornerstone of good governance. Participation could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is important to point out that representative democracy does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision making. Participation needs to be informed and organized. This means freedom of association and expression on the one hand and an organized civil society on the other hand. 2. Rule of law: Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires full protection of human rights, particularly those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force. 3. Transparency: Transparency means that decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules and regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement. It also means that enough information is provided and that it is provided in easily understandable forms and media. 4. Responsiveness: Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe. 5. Consensus oriented: There are several actors and as many view points in a given society. Good governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve the goals of such development. This can only result from an understanding of the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community. 6. Equity and inclusiveness: A society‘s well being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of 425 society. This requires all groups, but particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well being. 7. Effectiveness and efficiency: Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment. 8. Accountability: Accountability is a key requirement of good governance. Not only governmental institutions but also the private sector and civil society organizations must be accountable to the public and to their institutional stakeholders. Who is accountable to whom varies depending on whether decisions or actions taken are internal or external to an organization or institution. In general an organization or an institution is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions. Accountability cannot be enforced without transparency and the rule of law. Governance in Nigeria In 2000, Nigeria was rated as the most corrupt nation in the world out of a total of 90 countries (Transparency, 2000). While in 2001, Nigeria was rated the second most corrupt nation out of a total of all 91 countries assessed (Transparency, 2001). In 2002, Nigeria retained its number two position as the most corrupt country out of a total of 102 (Transparency, 2002). Though by 2005 Nigeria was ranked number six out of 186 countries (Fordham.edu, 2005). Nigeria was ranked as the most corrupt country out of a total of 133 (Transparency In 2003) Despite all social and economic policies that have been implemented by successive administrations, Nigeria has remained a laggard in social, economic and political developments. Subsequently, political instability, abject poverty, acute youth unemployment, heightened crime rate, poor health prospects, widespread malnourishment have been the main features of Nigeria‘s political economy. One of the major explanations for the failure of all development programmes in Nigeria has been the absence of democracy and the intermittent military intervention in politics. However, with the benefit of hindsight and as demonstrated by the current experience, even the periods of civil rule - 1960-1966, 1979-1983 and 1999 to date failed to produce any positive or better results (Ogundiya, 2010). This assertion is vindicated by the report of a survey conducted by Simbine (2000) in Ogundiya (2010) which showed that, in term of performance, respondents in her study gave higher ranks to three military regimes (General Murtala Muhammed 1975-1976, General Muhammad Buhari 1983-1985 and General Yakubu Gowon, respectively), even though the two civilian administrations of Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, 19601966 and Alhaji Shehu Shagari, 1979-1983 were included. This shows that there is no automatic connection between democracy and development. Secondly, though discussable, the result implies, in the context of the Nigerian experience, that the record of the military is a bit better than that of their civilian counterpart. Nevertheless, over generalization may be dangerous in this regard, every indicators pointed to the fact that Nigerians were worse off during Shagari‘s administrations. Meanwhile, it is not an overstatement to contend that the return of the country to electoral democracy in 1999 has not made significant impact on the economic and social wellbeing of the people. Fundamentally, the question of good and bad is ethical/moral. According to Madhav (2007), good governance has much to do with the ethical grounding of governance and must be evaluated with reference to specific norms and objectives as may be laid down. It looks at the functioning of the given segment of the society from the point of view of its acknowledged stakeholders, beneficiaries and customers. It must have firm moorings to certain moral values and principles. The question dealing with governance, though significantly related to democracy, is culture specific and system bound. It depends to a large extent on the historical experiences of a nation, its cultural norms, aspiration of the people and the stated political and economic objectives of the state, including individual and group preferences, current issues, the 426 expectations of the governed, the nature and type of the political system, the ideological and religious predisposition of the state and a host of others. For instance, the fundamental objective principle entrenched in the Nigerian constitution provides the yardstick for measuring good governance. Section 14(1) states that, ―the Federal Republic of Nigeria shall be a state based on the principles of democracy and social justice‖. This is further strengthened in Section 16 (1 and 2) of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution. Section 16 (1) a, b, c and d, says that, ―The state shall, within the context of the ideals and objectives for which provisions are made in this constitution - Harness the resources of the nation and promote national prosperity and an efficient, dynamic and self-reliant economy; Control the national economy in such manner as to secure the maximum welfare, freedom and happiness of every citizen on the basis of social justice and equality of status and opportunity; without prejudice to its right to operate or participate in areas of the economy, other than the major sectors of the economy, manage and operate the major sectors of the economy; Without prejudice to the right of any person to participate in areas of the economy within the major sector of the economy, protect the right of every citizen to engage in any economic activities outside the major sectors of the economy. Section 16(2) states that, ―the state shall direct its policy towards – The promotion of a planned and balanced economic development; That the material resources of the nation are harnessed and distributed as best as possible to serve the common good; That the economic system is not operated in such a manner as to permit the concentration of wealth or the means of production and exchange in the hands of few individuals or of a group; and that suitable and adequate shelter, suitable and adequate food, reasonable national minimum living wage, old age care and pensions, and unemployment, sick benefits and welfare of the disabled are provided for all citizens. The Concept of Democracy and E-Democracy Democracy can be defined as, ―government by the people; especially, rule of the majority; a government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodically held free elections (Merriam-Webster, 2012) E-Democracy: E-democracy is a term that elicits a wide range of reactions. E-Democracy is the use of information and communications technologies and strategies by ―democratic sectors‖ within the political processes of local communities, states/regions, nations and on the global stage. The ―democratic sectors‖ include the following democratic actors: Governments, Elected officials, Media (and major online Portals), Political parties and interest groups, Civil society organizations, International governmental organizations, Citizens/voters (Steven Clift, 2003) E-Governance There are distinct differences in how representative institutions and elected officials use ICTs compared to administrative agencies and departments. The use of ICTs by parliaments, heads of state/government, and local councils (and elected officials in these institutions) lags significantly behind the administrative-based e-government service and portal efforts. This is a services first, democracy later approach. This focus of e-government resources on services does not mean that e-democracy is not gaining increased attention in some governments. In fact, leading eservice governments are now at a point where they are exploring their e-democracy responsibilities more seriously. 427 Information and Communication Technology for the Enchancement of Democracy The integration of information and communications technologies (ICTs) in development cooperation, with a view to promoting economic development and broad poverty reduction. ICTs have the potential to contribute to economic development and democratization – including freedom of speech, the free flow of information and the promotion of human rights – and poverty reduction. Investment in traditional e-government service delivery is justified based on the provision of greater citizen convenience and the often-elusive goal of cost-savings. Another phenomenon that is becoming more and more relevant today is the use of mobile technology for broadened participation of civil society in decision–making process. Due to their availability, simple use and cost-effectiveness, mobile phones are more and more considered by governments and NGOs as a powerful means to engage citizens in political and social debates. 4 According to the World Information Society Report 2007 , jointly published by ITU and UNCTAD in May 2007, the number of mobile cellular subscribers around the world is growing rapidly. Thus, the number of mobile cellular subscribers rose from just 12 million in 1995 to over 1.15 billion in 2005, at the growth rate of 58 per cent per year in the developing economies. Low income countries are making important gains in mobile telephony with mobile phones outnumbering fixed lines by seven to one in Least Developed Countries (LDCs), and by as much as nine to one in Sub-Saharan Africa. By the end of 2007 it is estimated that about half the world will have a mobile phone connection compared to about 300 million who have computers. Today e-governance is used: 1. As a tool for bringing openness and effectiveness to local administration. Conducting transactions openly has proved to be very effective at fighting corruption. This is crucial for all those countries especially Nigeria, where levels of corruption are still high. An example of the efficient use of ICTs to fight corruption is the launching of the Electronic Graft Management (EGM) project in Kenya. The EGM project offered a corruption reporting facility in six towns with existing Internet infrastructure. Anonymity of users was ensured and reports were 1 transmitted to EGM centers for analysis and follow-up with relevant authorities. 2. To enhance service delivery by providing the citizens with services that is cheaper, more efficient and faster. Electronic services have the advantage of enabling the citizens to obtain information and to carry out transactions 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and are particularly suitable for simple administrative transactions, such as requests for permits, or submissions of tax files. Goals for e-government in governance that promote democracy and effective governance include: 1. Improved government decisions 2. Increased citizen trust in government 3. Increased government accountability and transparency 4. Ability to accommodate the public will in the information-age 5. To effectively involve stakeholders, including NGOs, business, and interested citizen in new ways of meeting public challenges. Challenges Encountered in using ICT for e-Governance Many e-governance initiatives aiming at enhancing citizen participation and engagement have not fulfilled the potential offered by new technologies, and many of them have manifested a regression towards improved information provision models of e-governance. This is mainly due to the lack of institutional and legal e-readiness, as well as the lack of political will to fully explore the potential offered by ICTs. Another important challenge lies in putting in place necessary infrastructure, creating conditions for capacity building and awareness-raising, and in defining a clear vision and strategic goals of e-governance implementation. 428 In addition, lack of awareness on behalf of both the local population and policy-makers on the role ICTs play in enhancing good governance and local development is often reported. The basic problem is that people simply do not see – in concrete, practical terms – how ICTs can make a difference to their lives, and how they can contribute to their development as individuals and as citizens of a country. Recommendations for the way forward A possible solution to tackle the problems of connectivity and availability of technology could be to promote further implementation of Community Multimedia Centres (CMCs). CMCs offer affordable or free computer and internet access, training, and possibilities to connect with more remote communities through the use of local radio. Conclusion From the above discussion it should be clear that good governance is an ideal which is difficult to achieve in its totality. Very few countries and societies have come close to achieving good governance in its totality. However, to ensure sustainable human development, actions must be taken to work towards this ideal with the aim of making it a reality. To be involved in defining the future of democracy, governance and public work at the dawn of the information-age is an incredible opportunity and responsibility. With the intelligent and effective application of ICTs, combined with democratic intent, we can make governments more responsive, we can connect citizens to effectively meet public challenges, and ultimately, we can build a more sustainable future for the benefit of the whole of society and world in which we live (Steven Clift, 2003). References Ekei JC (2003). ―Governance in Traditional Africa: Implications for a Nascent Modern African Polity‖ in Oguejiofor J Obi (Ed.) Philosophy, Democracy and Responsible Governance in Africa, New Brunswick and London, Transaction Publishers pp. 445-456. http://www/fordham.edu/economics/2000 http://www.transparency.org/cpi/2001/2002. 06.28. http://www.infa.please/2003. http://ww1.transparency org./cpi/2005/ http://www.merriam –webster.com/info/2012 4 John Onunga (2007). Kenya World Information Society Report 2007 , jointly published by ITU and UNCTAD in May 2007, Madhav G (2007). Report of the one man Comittee on Good Governance, July Human Right Obadan MI (1998). The State, Leadership, Governance and Economic Development, A Presidential Address Delivered at the Annual Conference of the Nigerian Economic Society, Kano. The National Centre for Economic Management and Administration (NCEMA). Odunuga S (2003). ―Failure of Governance and the Phenomenon of Conflict in Africa‖ in Steven Clift (2003). E-Democracy, E-Governance and Public Net-Work. http://www.publicus.net. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Constitution. United Nation Economic and Social commission for Asia and Pacific (UNESCAP, 2012) UNDP (1996). Report on the Workshop on Governance for Sustainable Human Development, MDGD, New York, April UNDP (1999) Compendium of African Governance Performance: Good Governance and Conflict Management, New York. p. II. UNESCO (2005). Good Governance http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-UNESCO 429 United Nations Development Programme (1997). Human Development to Eradicate Poverty. http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1997/. World Bank (1992). Governance and Development. Washington: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. 430 LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP: ESSENTIAL FACTORS FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND ACHIEVEMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS By Blessing E.N Thom-Otuya, Phd Department Of Political Science Ignatius Ajuru University Of Education Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt, Nigeria [email protected] Abstract Leadership and followership are very essential factors for national development and achievement of organizational goal. Leadership and followership is a major universal challenge to all nation States; while some countries have overcome the primitive or dictatorial stage to propel their economy and social welfare of her people to a comfortable level; other emerging developing economy are still reeling to grow above the challenges of impotent leadership and followership syndrome. Nigeria is one of those emerging nation states that is highly endowed with great mineral natural resources, fertile soil with coastal prowess and acclaimed human resources, yet her leaders have not been able to deliver to her citizens the quality of environment and life needed for human sustenance, comfort and self actualization. This paper discussed Leadership from the macro level. It looked into the concept of leadership, Types, qualities, functions and problems of leadership from the Nigeria perspective and the relationship between Leadership and followership. The paper is aimed at enlightening political leaders and their followers of their responsibilities, and promoting good governance in Nigeria. This paper recommend that, leadership and followership relationship should always be harmonized as to enable the society or group to achieve her vision and set goal. Leadership and followership should adopt a new paradigm shift were values, and leadership traits, integrity and other discussed qualities herein will serve as the basis for consideration or conceding Leadership. Consensus selection of leaders should be avoided; Leaders should be elected through democratic and transparent process. Tribal sentiments should be set aside in electing and criticizing our leaders. Our target and criteria for assessment should be our vision and goal as a people. Keywords: Leadership, Followership and National Development. Problems and Nigeria INTRODUCTION Leadership and followership are mutual activities of great influence to national development in all parts of the world. In Nigeria, after her independence in 1960, Nigeria has moved from Parliamentary system of government to Presidential system of government, she has experienced both civilian and military regimes yet, her leaders have been unable to deliver to her citizens the quality of life commensurate with her numerous endowed resources. In Nigeria, government has failed to provide portable drinking water, electricity, good roads, effective service delivery, employment, housing scheme, quality health care, quality education, credible electoral system etc. According to Achebe (1983) in Ngwube (2010), the trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership. There is the inability of Nigerian leaders to rise to the challenge of personal example which according to Achebe, the hallmark of true leadership. In fairness to Achebe, our leaders have not led by example. Ngwube affirmed that, sycophancy; and mere oratories have not helped the situation but have rather compounded it. 431 The quality and ingenuity of a country‘s leadership can make or mar a country‘s development or growth. Leadership can decisively influence the quality of life of her people and her national power vis-à-vis annihilating them through war and poor governance. The perception of the followers of their leaders in Nigeria is an issue of great importance. In most cases the followers hold the view that their leaders lacks the skill required for governance, and that the leaders act not in accordance with the needs and aspirations of the people but in accord with their personal agenda or interests not unconnected with imperialistic forces. Followership in Nigeria has not generated much debate. But there have been cases of resistance movements that have been spearheaded by followers. These resistance cases are protest against poor governance and ineptitude of Nigerian Leaders. Nigerian followers are very loyal and supportive to leadership and have participated actively in the achievement of the nation‘s goals. Though when a people are ravaged by poverty, it will weaken their ability to rise up to their challenges of checkmating the excesses of their leaders. This docility will have a great negative impact on Leader- followership relationship. Leaders that are checkmated by their followers will limit their excesses and realign themselves to public opinion. But in the midst of docility and sycophancy, leaders will be getting away with their misappropriations and ineptitude. But competition among elites seeking leadership status can be a major source of conflict and check on leadership. Leadership can be conceived both from the macro and micro level. Macro level refers to societal governance; while micro refers to group or organizational governance. This paper will be discussing Leadership at the macro level which encapsulates the latter. It will look into the concept of leadership, types, qualities, functions and problems of leadership from the Nigerian perspective. The paper is aimed at enlightening political leaders and their followers of their responsibilities in promoting good governance in Nigeria. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Leadership is defined in various ways. We shall examine some of the definitions and apply them to this study. Bryman (1992) in Ngwube (2010) define Leadership as a process of social influence whereby a Leader steers members of a group towards a goal. Leadership here involves influence. It is concerned with how the Leader affects followers and the leader is the focal point. Fafowora et al (1995) also see leadership as implying a purposeful direction of the affairs of the Led. Leadership is all about influence. Northouse (2001) defined leadership as a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. Tannenbaum in Thom-Otuya(2007) define Leadership as interpersonal influence exercised in situation and directed through communication process, toward the attainment of goals. Utomi(2004) defined Leadership as the art of mobilizing in a least cost manner to achieve a clear goal. Stogdill in Irikana and Orisa(2007) define Leadership as the process of influencing the activities of an organized group towards goal setting and goal achievement. R.J House in ThomOtuya(2007),described leadership as the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization of which they are members. According to Newman (1997) leadership is the special and unique ability to influence people to move towards goals that are beneficial and meet the group‘s best interests. In this papers, leadership will be seen as one who is in a position of integrity or trust, direct and conduct the affairs of a group or group of persons, influencing their behavior and decisions 432 towards complying to the achievement of some desired goals. Leadership therefore involves the element or skills of: vision, motivation, integrity, initiative, courage and successfully mobilizing an organization or group of persons towards a goal. Followership: can be described as adherence to a leader. But in this exposition, followership is the virtue of supporting leaders and helping them to lead well. For followers to help their leaders do well, they have a responsibility to actively participate in the achievement of a nation‘s goal. Jehn and Bezrukova (2003) contended that followership is a people oriented behavior, and this behavior builds relationships between leaders and followers, providing an environment that promotes all organizational members to focus on a common goal. Both authors suggested that good followers may be a catalyst for change in an organization as followership ―inspires others to follow toward a common goal; creates enthusiasm and desire to excel; fully engages others, build confidence; moves the organization ahead as one entity rather than separate parts‖ ( Jehn and Bezrukova, 2003 p.728). Werlin (2002) contended that good followership relationships must build on motivation rather than control, and that instilling values into followers is essentially to develop a culture of trust and good relationship. He asserted that, the balance of power between leader and follower; however, must be maintained in order to provide a culture of openness that promotes self engagement. National Development: Lawal and Oluwatoyin( 2011) describe national development as the overall development or a collective socio-economic, political as well as religious advancement of a country or nation. However in this paper, it will be describe as the ability of a country or countries to improve the social welfare of the people, by providing social amenities like quality education, potable water, transportation, infrastructure, medical care, etc. LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP IN NIGERIA Every society needs to be led by their leaders. Ever since the social contract between man and government, in which man surrendered some of his right to the centre called government, there was a social contract that as a result of the surrender of these rights, government should be able to use law to regulate the society and ensure the security and welfare of the people. It is this situation that gave rise to Leadership and followership in any human society. The relationship of leadership and followership is anchored on leadership because he is the driver of the relationship. It is incumbent on a leader to give direction and for the followers to comply. In Nigeria, ever since her independence, she has been facing leadership crises hence, she has moved from a Parliamentary system of government to a Presidential form; Nigeria has wobbled from one civilian regime to another military regime yet. Leadership in Nigeria has not been able to deliver the needed dividend of our God gifted resources to her people nor a satisfactory social welfare services, even social amenities; yet her followers have been very faithful. There is great need to sustain the relationship between the leadership and her followers. A clarion call for new generational leaders is very necessary to take Nigeria to another great level of self sufficiency and effective leadership. The traits of a leader like intelligence, integrity, masculinity, and dynamism, dominance, extroversion and conservatism could project leadership in a better light in the eyes of his followers. These qualities will endear him to the followership. 433 Newman (1997) listed ten essential qualities which he referred to as Laws in which an effective leadership should possess to enhance followership. They are: a leader should have vision, discipline, wisdom, courage and humility. A Leader should be a decision maker, have executive ability, be tactful and diplomatic, able to develop friendships and exude enthusiasm. Leadership is put in place in other for her to achieve a certain goal. To do this, Irikana and Orisa(2007) affirmed the leader must be efficient, skillful, insightful, courageous and motivate members to work towards the goal. The perception of the followers of their leadership can distance or endear them to leadership. In midst of a very corrupt environment like Nigeria, it takes a leader of high integrity to be able to command genuine followership. Integrity is the quality of honesty and trustworthiness, and leaders who adhere to a strong set of principles and take responsibility for their actions are exhibiting integrity (Northouse, 2001). Northouse further noted that leaders with integrity inspire confidence in others because they can be trusted to do what they say they are going to do. Cunningham (2002) in Ngwube (2010) stated that of all the qualities a leader must possess, integrity may be the most important one of them. He added that integrity involve the three Rs: Respect for self; Respect for others; and Respect for all your actions. Integrity is one of the greatest challenges facing Nigerian leaders. Overtime, Nigerians have been good followers but her leaders lack integrity. Corruption is very massive; it deters the progress of the people, dwarf government concrete achievements, deters foreign investments due to lack of trust at the international level, and reduces the confidence of the people on her Leadership. Integrity is therefore a platform for effectiveness in leadership. A chief executive with integrity will have positive impact on his subordinates/followers and the organization will subsequently experience strong followership, performance and high productivity. Nigeria needs paradigm shift – a positive change in attitudes and value system in order for her to achieve her set goal of national unity and economic growth, including warding off poverty; and further military incursion into governance. Improve the wellbeing and security of the people; this is a primary task of leadership. If followership is to be cultivated the morale of the people must be activated to be very high. According to Morgenthau (1978: p.140): ―National morale is the degree of determination with which a nation supports the foreign policies of its government in peace or in war. It permeates all activities of a nation, its agricultural and industrial production as well as its military establishment and diplomatic service. In the form of public opinion, it provide an intangible factor without whose support no government, democratic or autocratic, is able to pursue them at all. Its presence or absence and its qualities reveal themselves particularly in times of national crisis, when either the existence of the nation is at stake or else a decision of fundamental importance must be taken upon which the survival of the nation might well depend‖ National morale is a very essential ingredient for an enhanced Leadership and followership relationship; and for leadership to enjoy high compliance, influence the behavior of her followers and sustain followership. There is need for her to be sensitive to the needs and opinion of her followers. 434 Followership needs to have a strong public opinion pool of the activities of her leaders or else leadership can unconsciously turn to be dictatorial. A strong public opinion pool will serve as a check on leadership. Where followership tends to be docile in the activities and actions of leadership, she has contributed to the detriment of her welfare and growth. People should stop seating at the fence believing that change to a new paradigm shift of strong trait of integrity will be actualized through miracle; change is created through human effort hence Nigerians should leave up to their civic responsibilities in other to create a good and sustainable leadership and followership relationship. TYPES OF LEADERSHIP There are various classification (or types) of Leadership. This paper classified the types of Leadership according to Thom-Otuya (2007:pp.58-59) they are: 1. Autocratic (boss centered) Leadership: is a type of Leadership where the leader makes decisions on his own without consulting others. This type of leadership is also called ‗dictatorial‖. In this context, the leader assumes monopoly of knowledge. He is personal in his praises and criticisms of individuals but remains aloof from the group. The leader decrees what will be done and the followers have no choice but to accept it. All the military regimes in Nigeria are good examples of a dictatorial leadership. 2. Democratic (subordinate centered) Leadership: is one in which the leader invites the participation of subordinates or followers in decisions that affect them. This type of leader is characterized by his concern for the achievement of set goals with the group. He is sensitive and understands the need of the individual, groups within the organization and helps them to fulfill their needs as well as the functions of the group. In his relationship with his members, the leaders offer both praises and criticisms. He tries to influence without dominating the thinking and behavior of the group. Nigeria‘s present democratic dispensation projects this type of Leadership by structure/form, not by substance. 3. Laissez-Faire (free-reign) Leadership: is a leader that leaves many of the decisions up to the subordinates or followers to make. He gives his subordinates a ―free reign‖ over their activities; has little or no attempt to evacuate or regulate the members of the group of their progress towards achieving their goals and objectives. In most cases, the laissez-faire leaders can be said to be enjoying leadership of position and not that of functions. In other words, he is a leader in the real sense. Such leaders are not prepared to shoulder blames for their failures but prefer to share praises for any achievement. QUALITIES OF LEADERSHIP An American business journal ―fortunes‖(Thom-Otuya,2007: pp 64-65) listed fifteen(15) executive qualities of Leadership. They are: 1. Good sense of judgment 2. Dependability 3. Initiative (4) Integrity (5) Foresight (6) Energy (7) Drive (8) Human relation skill (9) Decisiveness (10) Emotional stability (11) Fairness (12) Ambition (13) Dedication (14) Objectivity and (15) Cooperation. President Corazon Aquino of Philippines (Thom-Otuya, 2007:pp 67-68) qualified leadership with its alphabet related acronym. They are: 435 L – Leadership is love of and loyalty to God, Country and People. E – It is enthusiasm energetic effort to help and serve others. A – It is action, accomplishment. D – It is dedication, discipline, dignity, decency, devotion to duty, decisiveness for the general welfare. E – It is excellence, exemplary work for others to follow and emulate. R – It is reliability, responsibility; respect for the law arid the right of others, reconciliation for peace and unity. S – It is sincerity, service, self-sacrifice, social justice to make life better for mankind. H – It is humility, honesty, honor, helpfulness, hardwork for accomplishment and fulfillment. I – It is integrity, interest, initiative, and idealism. P – Finally leadership is patience, perseverance, beyond partisanship, religion or creed; it works for peace, progress and prosperity of mankind. According to Irikana and Orisa(2007) some basic qualities expected of a good leader are: (1) Intelligence (2) Self Control (3) Sociability (4) Integrity (5) Honesty (6) Patriotism (7) Courage (8) Foresight (9) Oratory ability (10) Alertness and (11) Empathy A leader that possesses these qualities must enjoy, obedience, support and positive followership of his people, and will be attuned to high compliance in the achievement of his set goals, and effective in dispensation of justice and public welfare. QUALITIES OF GOOD FOLLOWERSHIP Irikana and Orisa (2007:p 111) listed the qualities of good followership as:  Total obedience to the laws of the land or constituted authorities;  Unalloyed loyalty or allegiance to the leadership that be;  Eschew indiscipline in any form or shapes;  Explore channels of grievance resolution;  Commitment to goals and aspiration of the country;  Demonstrate appreciable virtues and values;  Avoid sycophancy but telling the leadership the truth;  Show true patriotism and participativeness;  To be well enlightened and responsive;  Imbibe the principle of self reliance;  Offering constructive criticism and providing solutions;  Be prepared at all times to respond to call for national services;  Be willing to accept responsibility for his actions; and  Develop the attitude of co-operation with his leader for the accomplishment of group goals. 436 FUNCTIONS OF LEADERSHIP Leadership functions are very numerous and articulated differently by various author, but all pointing to the ability of a Leader to mobilize his people to achieve a set goal. These functions of Leaders are:  Taking initiative: constitutes the most fundamental function of Leadership. A leader must be creative and logical enough in other to take action for every situation that confronts him. Initiators of action in an organization or states become history‘s most important Leaders. Taking initiative in detecting and remediating problems distinguishes leaders in many modern organizations and nation-states.  Evaluating Followers Needs, Aspiration, and Capabilities: for Leadership to command high followership there must be deliberate attempt by leadership to motivate their followers. Every person need hope to survive, and motivation has to do with the leader understanding the needs of his follower. Understanding the needs of your followers has to do with another leadership skill of patiently listening to your followers. It equally involves knowledge of their capabilities, including energy, endurance and commitment. Irikana and Orisa(2007) noted that, a purposeful and insightful leader creates new ideas, project discussion, etc and positively and invariably lead others in the group t o develop or carry out the tasks.  Fostering and maintaining Communication: is one of the leading functions of a leader. Leaders initiate instrumental relationships when they assign people to work in teams and task forces or appoint ministers, commissioners, advisers, etc. It is the task of a leader to prevent fragmentation and foster cooperation and team work amongst his subordinates and followers; this can be done through effective communication. Effective communication reduces doubt and suspicion among groups; sustain followers‘ interest and participation in group action or policy adoption and implementation.  Representing Members‟ Aspirations and Values: one of the consistent noted function of leadership has been the expression and symbolization of their followers‘ aspiration and values. In developed societies, leadership role is assigned to people believed to reflect the values and aspirations of members. Some author will refer to this as implementation of group philosophy. To achieve this (Irikana & Orisa), rules and regulations are stated and implemented. This is to guide against conflict of interest among the group, and for the general good to prevail at all times.  Providing Resources: command of resources both material and non material promotes the exercise of leadership and compels the loyalty of followership. The entrepreneur who provides capital to Start-up Company attains influence over its operators. Strategic plans formulated by executives also constitute resources, providing direction to the Management team 437 that work under them. In war, strategy itself becomes a crucial resource. In politics, followership expects one reward or the other from their leaders. Leaders process or facilitate the passage of a budget so that, they have both material and non material resources to provide for their followers. Followers also become more loyal to leadership as soon as budget has been passed so that, they can be involved in the material gain of implementing the budget. FUNCTIONS OF FOLLOWERSHIP Surrender to leadership: followers must be willing to obey the laws of the land, and to be directed and guided by a constituted authority. Obey the command of a leader: followers should be loyal to leadership. Act as mirror of leadership: follower must checkmate the activities or excesses of leadership; for this to be done, followership need to be articulate, vibrant and vocal, this will act as a check on the leadership, and this will assist to reduce the excesses of leadership to the barest minimum. PROBLEM OF LEADERSHIP IN NIGERIA There are different problems that leaders have which impact on their productivity and inability to neither deliver the common goal nor motivate her people. The problem is not universal rather peculiar to some variables such as: environment, cultural, historical experiences, etc. This study will discuss the problems as it affects Nigeria. The notable problems that affect leadership in Nigeria are:  Lack of legitimacy: Legitimacy is the foundation of leadership. Most Nigerian leaders come into power through a questionable or spurious process. When a military dictatorship imposes himself on the people as their leader, he creates an atmosphere of fear which is very inimical to good governance. The people are only coarse to followership; they cannot criticize or dialogue with their leaders. In the same manner civilian leaders come to power through questionable electoral process. Most election results that brought our Presidents into power have been widely contested in a tribunal or Supreme Court. This issue of legitimacy reduces the people confidence on their leaders because their votes do not count in the election of their leaders.  Lack of vision: Nigerian Leaders are not voted to power due to their manifesto; hence they profess no ideological creed that governs their sense of judgment on general issues and issues of public welfare. Their dream for the larger society cannot be determined due to lack of robust debate before they ascend to leadership position. Newman (1997) wrote that, vision is the key to understanding leadership. That imagination is one of the most powerful things a leader must possess because; imagination is a leader dream machine. He further stated that, confusion 438 on leadership of the vision will result in diminished accomplishments. The vision, along with the leadership, must be clear and concise.  Lack of integrity: This is the quality that makes subordinate and followership to trust their leaders. Integrity and character is synonymous with honesty. This is a platform for effectiveness in leadership. A chief executive with integrity will have positive impact on his subordinates and the organization will subsequently experience performance and productivity improvement. Nigeria is a country that parades corruption as a value system; this can be attributed to lack of integrity on the part of her leadership. Corruption has ruined the economy of Nigeria, and it is putting her leadership into suspicion by her people and the International community. Nigerians lack trust for her leaders. If Nigeria is to develop and grow according to her potentials, her leadership must act with integrity at all times.  Ethnicity: Nigeria parades over two hundred and fifty ethic tribes. She was not a country until 1914 when her Colonial masters amalgamated the southern and northern protectorates of communities and tribes within the river Niger geographical zones into one Country. The amalgamation brought different perceptions, some saw it as a mistake, while others saw it as a necessity for the administrative convenience of the colonial masters. Since then till now, Nigerians including her leaders pay more allegiance to their tribe than to the country. Even in time of elections people vote according to their tribal interest, when leaders emerge too, they reciprocate these tribal gestures. Nigerian leaders should grow above tribal sentiments and look at the country as one indivisible nation that her cultural diversities could be used as strength rather than as a weakness. National interest should prevail over tribal or ethnic interest. PROBLEM OF FOLLOWERSHIP IN NIGERIA Poverty: Followership in Nigeria has some problems that prevent her from playing certain roles that is identified with followership and, that can check the excesses of leadership. Poverty is one major factor that impairs the role of followership in Nigeria. In Nigeria those who are rich are very rich and wealthy; the poor are really poor; the middle class wobbles between self sufficiency and poverty. Followers that are poor are afraid to criticize or checkmate the excesses of their leadership because of fear of oppression from the leadership. A poor followership is a weak and fearful crowed that is constrained to be docile over the activities of her leadership. Ethnicity: the second problem that confronts followership in Nigeria is ethnicity. Followers pledge loyalty to their tribe first before the larger society Nigeria. Nigerians protects corrupt leaders without integrity and shield them from criticism and prosecution. When a corrupt leader is prosecuted, his tribes‘ men will come to his defense and rescue. Even the way we vote or choose our leaders is influenced by ethnicity because it is believed that if the leader is there, he 439 will empower his tribes men first before others and programme some projects to his tribe and empower his people with robust government and corporate contracts. Nigerian followership should exculpate themselves from tribalism and put the interest of Nigeria before their tribal interest or else the country will continue to wallow in poverty and insecurity. Sycophancy: Nigerian followers are fund of not telling their leaders the truth, they praise them, tell them lies; as soon as they leave their office, that is when follower turn against their leader to criticize his lapses. Negativized quietude: This is a situation where followers remain adamant and aloof of the excesses of leadership activities. Susceptible to use by some leaders to fan trouble: followers‘ sometime ally with leaders to create trouble in the society so that; they can divert the attention of the people, to execute their personal interest. Powerlessness in influencing government decisions: this is a major problem of followers in Nigeria. Elections in Nigeria are highly manipulated. Leaders do not come to power through the peoples vote, they manipulate election and election results to the extent that vote casted do not make any meaning. Since peoples votes do not count, their opinion too is undermined. The case of fuel subsidy is a vivid example, despite peoples protest, government stood their ground. Sitting on the fence and watching the reckless abuse of office by leaders: Corruption and abuse of office would have reduced tremendously in Nigeria if followers have been bold enough to come out to criticize or challenge the excesses of their leaders. CONCLUSSION AND RECORMENDATION The importance of leadership and followership in any society or organization is very essential if such society and organization is to succeed in achieving its set vision, goals and objectives. Over the years Nigerian leaders have not been able to satisfy the desire of her people; expenses have not been able to match productivity. The welfare and security of her people cannot be guaranteed. The vision, goal and the national morale of her people cannot be assured by her leaders. However, there is a call for a new paradigm shift were the values and traits of leadership has to change for the purpose of confidence building and a harmonious relationship between leadership and followership. The integrity and skills of Leadership will go a long way to rebuild confidence in leadership and followership relationship, rather than oratory and charisma. Their determination to fight corruption in the paradigm shift should be resolute. Followership too has some responsibilities to accomplish in other to sustain a harmonious leadership and followership relationship. They should cultivate good public opinion pool that will serve as a check on leadership since docility will plunder them into dictatorship and underdevelopment. 440 This paper will recommend that leadership and followership relationship should always be harmonized as to enable the society or group to achieve her vision and set goal. Leadership and followership should adopt a new paradigm shift were values, and leadership traits, integrity and other discussed qualities herein will serve as the basis for consideration or conceding Leadership. Consensus selection of leaders should be avoided; Leaders should be elected through democratic and transparent process. Tribal sentiments should be set aside in electing and criticizing our leaders. Our target and criteria for assessment should be our vision and goal as a people. REFERENCES Achebe, C (1983). The trouble with Nigeria, Enugu, Fourth Dimension Publishers. Fafoura, O., Adeniran,T & Dare, O. (1995) Nigeria in search of leadership. Lagos, Spectrum Books Ltd. Irikana, G.J and Orisa, Allwell(2007) Themes in social studies education in Nigeria, Port Harcourt; Antovic Ventures. Jehn, K.A., & Bezrukova, K(2003). A field study group of diversity, workgroup context, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior,25, 703-729. Lawal, T and Oluwatoyin,A(2011). National development in Nigeria: Issues, challenges and prospects. Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research. Vol 3. P.2 Morgentau, Hans (1973) Politics among nation: The struggle for power and peace. New York: Alfred A. Knight Inc. Newman, Bill (1997). 10 laws of leadership. Benin City, Marvelous Christian Publications. Ngwube, I.K (2010). Leadership for change. Management in Nigeria, Nigeria Institute of Management, July – September, V. 46; No. 3 pp7-14 Northouse,P. (2001). Leadership: Theory and practice, 2nd Edition London: Sage. Thom-Otuya, V.C (2007). Organizational behavior: A practical approach. Port Harcourt, Niceprints International. Utomi, Pat (2004), Leadership as Impediment to development. Lagos, Guardian Newspaper, March 4, P.13, Werlin, H.H (2002). Bureaucracy and democracy: An essay in memory of Dwight Waldo. Public Administration Quarterly; 290-315. 441 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AS THE BASTION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA Green Iheanacho Department of Political Science, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt, Nigeria 08063302384 e-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT The oft quoted slogan of sustainable development, it has been argued; cannot become achievable without a conscientious effort at ensuring an integrated and practical approach towards that goal from the grass root level. The grass roots is the countryside where it has been argued that most of those who eagerly respond to activities and schemes for primary industrialization are found; and from where the workforce and resources for heavy industries and operations come from. The locality participation model of the community development theory expounds the methods and processes of articulating the consciousness of the need for development among the citizenry at the community level, so that when this is achieved, the collectivity of such efforts in developmental programme by the various communities would form a solid foundation for all round national development. This paper submits that this approach if used to mobilise the people will achieve sustainable development. Keywords: community, development, initiative, needs, and self-help. INTRODUCTION Community development is everyone‘s responsibility. It can be further stated that community development is a responsibility which begins from the bottom (that is, the grassroots and not from the top (which is the government). It can therefore be said that for effective community development to be achieved, the local inhabitants must know what it is all about, what it entails, and what it will result to. Akanimo (2000) holds the view that before community development will be achieved; there must be mass mobilization of the local populace to the consciousness of the need for development and how that development can be achieved. Essentially, community development has long been identified as a sine qua non for the general development of the larger society and the country in general. Ewa (1978) submits that it is this need for community development that gave rise to the balkanization of the country into smaller units right from the colonial era, starting from Sir Authur Richards. In this views, Sir Arthur Richards as the Governor of Nigeria had argued that dividing the country into units with the mandate and responsibility for the development of the smaller units vested in the people of such units will hasten the development of such regions, hence he went ahead and divided the country into three regions of North, East and West in 1946, with the explanation that the exercise is to allow each regions and their people to develop at their own pace (Orjiako 1981). Since then the balkanization exercise has been continuously and consistently carried out at both the national level and at the level of the local units themselves. This exercise resulted in Nigeria growing from three regions in 1946 to become four in 1963; and 12 in 1967; 19 in 1976; 21 in 1985; 30 in 1991 and 36 in 1995. Conceptual Definition of Terms: Some terms in this work need special attention at explanation so that the intention and direction of using them will become clearer. These include: 1. COMMUNITY: Sociologically, community is defined as a group of people who live in a geographically defined territory and share common socio-cultural attributes with similar sociocultural institutions-political, economic, cultural and social. These may be common businesses, common methods of education, common world-view, common religious beliefs and practices etc. from the foregoing definition there are different types of communities depending on the size, origin, make-up and activities of each communities. To this end, two major types of 442 communities are easily identifiable. These are (1) Traditional (primary) community, and (2) Secondary (Adopted) community. A traditional community (Gemeinschaft) is one which is usually small and the inhabitants can easily trace their origin to a common ancestor or community. The people of traditional communities are usually emotional and sentimental, which may be as a result of their common origin with everyone looking and perceiving one another as brothers and sisters, no matter the size of their community. Such communities usually have a common world view with common aspirations. The people from such communities are relatively equal in terms of achievements and progress in life. Secondary or adopted communities (Gesselschaft) are usually communities with people of diverse background-different ancestors, different cultures, different world view etc. the people are usually outgoing, less sensitive and less emotional. They aspire differently and engage in what fancies anyone‘s attention. They are very progressive and achievement minded. This type of community is usually associated with urban areas or large areas where it is usually difficult to establish the identity of those who make up; live and work in such communities. There is no common culture in such secondary communities. Both types of traditional and adopted communities can be either open or closed. According to Obikeze (2006), an open community or society is one in which the inhabitants are free in all the ramifications of freedom-freedom of movement to wherever they desire to go; freedom to engage in whatever activity they choose; freedom to live their lives the way they choose. Closed societies or communities are the ones in which the opposite of the life in open societies obtain. The people have their lives, regulated by the government or other overseeing agencies. In some cases, the people choice of work to do, their lifestyle and their world-view is dictated by the government as was the case in the former communist bloc of the defunct Soviet Union and their allies. By the reason of folklore, and in some cases, actual history, most communities in Nigeria belong to the primary or traditional type. (Aliyu 1982). 2. DEVELOPMENT: Desai (2008) submits that development is a generic term. This means that it has many uses and variants; which variety is clarified in the context of the definition of the usage. For the purpose of this work; development is defined as a permanent condition of positive growth, resulting in a higher level or condition, which is better than the previous stage or position. (Iheanacho 2000). In the views of Long John (1998), development is induced. It has to be worked to be attained. This is more apt for community development which is desired for the transformation of such places to become better and more conducive and more hospitable than they previously were. As a desired stage, the attainment of any stage in community development has to be planned, programmed, and the process towards development implemented, evaluated, reviewed and ascertained. 3. NEEDS: Obikeze defines need as ―the pressing problems which are important to be addressed in order to achieve development‖. Community, development is about addressing identified needs of any community in order to transform them. Obikeze identifies the most pressing of the problems of a community as ―felt needs‖ that is, the needs which the community feels most. The first step towards the attainment of development is to identify their ―felt needs‖; analyze them and map out strategies for addressing them; formulate the policies for such strategies, and implement such policies effectively. Awa (1986) explains that felt needs can be classified as; (1) Demonstrated felt needs that is, where the communities have proceeded with action to demonstrate their commitment to grapple with their most pressing need. (2) Solicited felt need: This type of need is one developed out of desire to be like others e.g. if the Government builds a hospital in a community, and another community Solicits for such a hospital to be built for it. (3) Ascertained needs: This is determined out of consultation and interaction with the people by the government or it officials. 443 (4) Generated felt need: This defines need established through the mobilization of the people to sensitize them towards a particular need which exists but which their consciousness or awareness does not establish as a felt need. 4. SELF HELP: According to Elekwa (1999), this is a programme of action actuated into a project proposal to be executed by the people themselves for their community; or with assistance that comes through the government or other developmental agencies during the conventionalization or during the implementation of such projects. Self help projects are evidence of effective and successful mobilization of the people which goes beyond crating awareness in the people to energizing them into action. Self help projects are resorted to as a result of the insensitivity of the government to the plight and need of the people or as a result of non or inadequate representation at the level of decision making in governance; compelling the people to take their own developmental destiny into their own hands. 5. INITIATIVE: Initiative general means volition, resolution, expression of commitment, or pursuit. In this study, initiative goes beyond this general assertion to mean a determination and procedural engagement with a cause. Ejiofor (1978) says that it means: i. all the processes and decisions involved in conceptualizing community development, ii. deciding on the activities to bring about the desired developmental goal, iii. formulating workable and achievable policies; iv. commitment to pursuing the implementation of such blueprints relentlessly until the achievement of set goals; v. evaluating the process followed; vi. fashioning out a permanent action guideline for repetition of the execution of similar or other developmental projects; vii. outlining a maintenance scheme that will transform into a culture for the upkeep and retention of achieved developmental milestones. Okafor (2008) submits that this developmental initiative makes developmental endeavours to become a culture among a people or a community. It becomes eventually an annual engagement during which either a developmental stock-taking is made, or developmental landmarks are reviewed, renewed, or new ones are initiated and carried out; this being the case with the Augustbreak meeting syndrome among the communities of the Ibo nation. Theoretical Framework: This work is predicated on the Principle of co-operation model of the locality participation theory of community development. Etuwor (1995) explains that the locality participation theory of community development has many variants namely: 1. Principle of co-operation model 2. Historio-cultural model 3. Social awareness model and 4. Mass mobilization model. He says that the principle of co-operation model works through the dictum of ―unity is strength‖ as the slogan to engender the spirit of co-operation among the people to unite for the developmental needs of their communities to be met. He concludes that the rallying call and basis of the success of this approach is co-operation for development which compels the people to look beyond every distraction or divisive tendencies and focus on the developmental objective decided upon. Historio-cultural model, according to Etuwor is the community developmental approach which relies on the found memories of the developmental zeal of the people‘s pasts; and the cultural characteristics of ―need to develop‖ inherent in some groups psyche, whose tendency is always to engage in one developmental agenda or the other. Examples of this approach in some areas where markets, roads, health centres, schools, churches of various designs and magnitude constructed on the past ages litter the landscape; and the present generation engage in more 444 grandiose and gigantic projects such as the building of secondary school, construction of bridges, and other more expansive and expensive projects. Social awareness model explains community development embarked upon as a result of the awareness and realization of the need for such developmental engagement by the people of such communities. Such awareness may come as a result of witnessing and observing what is going on in the communities or the realization of the need for such projects. Examples include the need to embark upon building a postal agency or post office upon realizing the importance of the dearth of medium of external communication by the community with the outside world; or the building of a market to attract outsiders to the economy of a community. Mass mobilization model refers to a situation where community development is engendered through the propaganda, motivation, compulsion of the government or other developmental agencies. Such mobilization can be carried out through developmental campaigns, advertisements, visit of mobilization officers, radio and television jingles, television and radio discussions, promotions and directives (Ogbuagu 1999). In all of these, the principle of co-operation model appears to be the most preferable model, hence it is recommended here. The reason for the recommendation includes: 1. It is a learning process which promotes co-operation and unity that ensures peace that cannot easily be forgotten but can be, and is easily transferred from generation to generation. 2. As a learning process, it is scientific and can be repeated and replicated from community to community promoting the inter-community co-operation of the operators. 3. It is cost effective because as a joint effect it eliminates unnecessary and extraneous expenses and the estimate is determinable and the cost predictable. 4. Its cost-benefit-analysis is positive because it involves felt need project chosen by all and which must be a necessity to the community and the benefit cannot be over-emphasized. 5. It is recommended for peace education. Akwe (2008) is of the view that policies and programmes which involve the co-operation of all state holders in a particular community and which extends to other communities, are vehicles for inter-community integration which can bring about the needed stability that would create a conducive environment for good governance and afford the government to save the resources which would have been spent on security matters, and divert them into beneficial developmental goals. Community development can only be achieved through the co-operation and involvement of all and sundry, especially by all those who have a stake in the community whether within it or outside of it. It therefore becomes necessary to take measures for explain developmental proposals to the proper understanding of all in such a manner that everyone knows their roles and express their willingness and ability to fulfill those roles and play their parts so that the developmental objectives will be achieved to the attraction and interest of others in other communities. Such other communities would be attracted in such a way that they will commission their own projects such that their own projects would complement the projects in the other communities. In this way, integrated community development would have be achieved in a way that a network of inter-community dependence and relationship would be established thus promoting peaceful co-existence, unity and co-operation. CONCLUSION: Community development is evidently an instrument of peace, unity and co-operation, and a platform for building solidity part and legitimacy for the government. The principle of cooperation model of the locality participation theory of community development makes community development an enterprise that would highlight and priorities development projects from community to community in a manner that would ensure the effective integration of the communities and create a network of mutual dependence, advantageous benefits and peace; bringing about stability that would promote good governance and the conducive environment 445 for greater dividends of bigger and higher development projects to such communities by the government. RECOMMENDATIONS: 1. The issue of community development should be taken more serious by the government and her official as well as the agencies and organizations engaged in development issues. 2. Grants, aids, support, logistics should be used as incentives to attract communities to engage in development projects. 3. Trained personal and officials should train and equip local people for community development in the communities 4. Government should commend communities by augmenting their developmental efforts with more projects that would attract other communities to engage in development in order to get their own projects from the government. 5. Community development should be made courses of study in post-primary and tertiary institutions and such programme adequately funded and professionalized. 6. Prizes, certificates, awards should be given to outstanding communities and such projects taken over by the government for running and management. REFERENCES Akanimo, E. (2000) Development: The way forward. Aliyu, (1982) Development in the savannah. Amacheazi E, Ogbuagu, C. and Oleru, J (1999) Moving Nigeria to greatness Owerri: M. Cajec. Battern, T.R (1989) Communities and social development. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Collins, P (ed) (1980) Administration for development in Nigeria, Lagos: African Educational Press. Ejiofor, E.C (1978) Politics and dynamics of development in Nigeria. Abakaliki: Uma and Bros. Publishers. Elelwa, N.N (1999) The management of people and their environment. Nsukka: Filladu Publishers. Eresia-Eke, I (2000) The Local Government Chairman in Nigeria. Port Harcourt: Odseme Publishers. Etuwor, T.C (1985) ―The Niger Delta and Resource Control‖ in The Observer Newspaper 22/5/85. Ewa, S.N (1978) Integrated social and economic development. Abakaliki. Umeora Books. Frank, C.D (2002) Industrialization and development in Nigeria. Lagos: Hocks Ltd Iheanacho, G.O.S (2002) ―Interest Articulation and Aggregation in an Ethnically Unbalanced Federation. The Niger Delta 1957-1996‖. Unpublished M.Sc Thesis Department of Political and Administration Studies. University of Port Harcourt. Lagos: Times Press. Long John, R. (1998) Economic planning and development Uyo: Inyang-Umoh Publishers Obikeze, O.S (2006) Issues in community development. Onitsha: Book Point Ltd. Ogundu, A.P (2001) ―Militarism and national development‖. Paper Presented at the Conference of Social and Economic Development in Nigeria Organized by the Nigerian Institute of Social and Econ Research (NISER) Ibadan. Okafor, S.K (2008) ―Managing the Oil Wealth for National Development‖ in the Journal of Policy Analysis 6 (3). Orjiakor J. (1980) Nigeria: Yesterday, Today, and …. Owerri, Horizon Books Potter R. B. and Desal, V (ed) (2008) The Companion to development studies. London: Hodder Education. Zaria: Savannah Books 446 A SURVEY OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS IN NIGERIA: THE CHALLENGES AND WAY FORWARD FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Okorie, Cornelius Ofobuisi and Eje, Benjamine Odaa Ebonyi State College of Eduction ,Ikwo-Nigeria [email protected] Abstract The main trust of the paper is to survey an array of National Development plans in Nigeria since colonial era. Every development plan is geared towards promoting the well being of the citizens through economic growth. In keeping with this, Nigeria has had many National Development plans with an estimated low impact on the living standard of Nigerians. How can this paradox be explained? Given this problems, the paper wants to know why these national developments plans have not achieved the desired result. The paper x-rayed a gamut of development plans, analyzed each and identified there faults. In the end, recommendations were made with a view to ensuring that the present vision 20:2020 realizes the intended objectives. The contention is that there is a fundamental conflict between the developmental objectives which politicians and planners preach and the realities of economic and social condition under which the generality of the people live. Keywords: National, Development, Plans, Sustainable, Vision 20:2020. Introduction Every responsible government owes the citizens the duty of enhancing their living standard. This can only be achieved through sound economic policies that are capable of engendering speed and consistent economic growth. The concept of National Development Plan goes beyond fiscal policies. It involves deliberate and determined activities in order to achieve a projected growth rate and path for a national economy (Ayo, 1988). Planning in Nigeria began in the 1940‘s. From independence in 1960 to 1985, Nigeria launched and implemented four medium-term development plans. After the period, Nigeria has been galloping with myriads of economic planning and policies, some of which includes, Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), National Rolling Plan (NRP), New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD), National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS), Vision 2010 and Vision 20:2020. Each of these plans has had one fault or the other thereby given rise to another. Sometimes they are not fully exhausted due to changes in government. The present vision 20:2020 is incidentally launched with the hope of guaranteeing dependable economic growth in Nigeria. It is hoped that the present economic council would transform the economy for better. This is more important because of the observable shit from military strength to economic strength as a major determinant of a country‘s position in the comity of nations. A SURVEY OF NATION DEVELOPMENT PLANS IN NIGERIA The quest for Nigeria‘s development has passed through different stages. It is of relevance to note that despite the philosophy and objectives of each national development plan, there are some centrifugal and centripetal forces affecting each development plan since the colonial era. 447 In 1946, the colonial government introduced a Ten Year plan of development and welfare. The plan had an expenditure of N110,0 million (Alapiki, 2004). Expectedly, N46 million of the money was to be realized from the Colonial Development and Welfare Act. Ademolekun (1983) and Obiemeka & Obikezie (2004) noted that the main trust of the plan was transportation and communication and on a few cash crops in the area of agriculture. These were considered the bed rock for future development in Nigeria. In the views of Ayo (1988), the plan was filled with many flaws purposely to satisfy the exploitative tendencies of the colonial masters, particularly from the hinter lands. Other defects of the plan were exclusion of Nigerians at the planning stage, lack of skilled manpower to carryout the duties. In analyzing the plan, Dean 1972:15 notes that These were not plans in the true sense of the word. More accurately, they constituted a series of project which had not been co-ordinated or related to any overall economic targets… In 1962, the first indigenous National plan was initiated. The plan was aimed to last until 1968. The main trust of the plan according to Alapiki (2004: ) were to (a) Achieve a minimum of 4 per cent per annum growth rate during the plan period; (b) Invest 15 percent G D P in order to achieve the 4 percent growth and to raise the per capital consumption by 1 percent per year. (c) Achieve a self- sustaining growth not later than the end of the third or fourth national development plan. This would imply an increase in the saving ratio from about 9.5 percent of G D P during 1960-61 to aloud 15 percent. (d) Facilitate rapid development of educational, health and employment opportunities and to make these accessible all citizens, (e) Achieve a modernized economy consistent with the democratic, political and social corporations of the people, (f) Maintain a reasonable measure of stealthy through appropriate fiscal and monetary policies directed at promoting the stability of the Nigerian currency. The plan had a proposed investment of N2,132 million (National Development Plan, 1962-68, FMED). The document as well shows that the public sector was expected to invest about N1,352.3 million while the private sector would raise N780 million. It also showed that the key areas of investment includes transport, N242.2million, electricity N161.4million, trade and industry N105.0 million, the least was judiciary which is N2.5million. The plan made significant achievement in the following areas of constructing the Port Harcourt Refinery, the Nigerian security and Minting Plant, Jabba Paper Mill, Bacita Suger Mill, Niger Dam, Niger Bridge, Lagos- Port Extension (Obiemaka and obikezie (2004), Glad (2009) and Onwe (2011). In spite this, the civil war actually interrupted the implementation, by diverting the resources for the unity of the country. Also, the private sectors were not included during formulation. By 1970, the second National Development plan was launched. Given the devastating effect of the civil war and in recognition of the outstanding faults of the previous plans, a national conference on Economic Development and Reconstruction was held in March 1969 (Ogenride 2008). According to the publication of the Federal Ministry of Economic Development Plan 1970-74, (1970) the planned expenditure stood at 3,3502 while outlay expenditure was N2,237.7. The general philosophies of the plan among other things include; a. High overall rate of economic growth before the end of the next 20 years; b. Rapid industrialization of the economy; 448 c. d. e. f. g. Increased production of goods for domestic consumption; A drastic reduction in the magnitude of the repayment problem; Increased diversification of the economy; More equitable distribution of income among persons; Maintenance of reasonable measure of stability (Ayida, 1987:88) These objectives and philosophies were not achieved. There were observable difference between planned expenditure and the actual investment. For instance, transport sector planned N2,42.2 million and spent N516,8 million.(see publication of the ministry in 1974) The third national development plan was designed to last from 1975-1980. The initial jumbo investment of the plan was N30 billion which was later appropriated to N43.3 billion. The plan reviewed wider consultation of professionals, technocrats and business merchants. Objectives of the plan were According to Alapiki (2004) were, a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Increase in per capita income, More even distribution of income, Reduction in the level of unemployment, Increase in the supply of high level manpower Diversification of the economy, Balanced development and Indigenization of the economic activities. The planned investment was N43.3,3 billion while the actual investment stood at N29, 433.9 billion. Transport sector took the larger chunk of N6, 814 million while the least was allocated to labor which is N2, 852 million. Ejiofor (1987) and Obiemeka and obi (2004) blamed the inability of the plan to realize its full objectives to shortfall in oil revenue. Also, the military that are in power probably lacked the experience needed to implement the plan properly. Other possible impediments include corruption and greed, sentiment and lack of skilled manpower. By 1981, the fourth national development plan was introduced. The objective of the plan were i. increase in the real income of the average citizen, ii. more even distribution of income among individuals and socio - economic groups; iii. reduction in the level of unemployment and underemployment, iv. balance development, v. increased participation by citizens in the ownership and management of productive enterprises, vi. greater self-reliance, vii. increase in the supply of skilled manpower viii. reduction of the dependency of the economy on a narrow range of activities ix. development of technology, x. increased productivity and xi. promotion of a new national orientation.(Obiemeka and Obi, 2004) The plan had a projected investment of N42,200.0 billion out of which N7,334.4 billion was actually invested and spent(Alapiki, 2004). The plan indeed had broad consultative base and visionary ingenuity to guarantee sustainable economy. According to the report recorded by 449 Alapiki, transport sector received the highest investment plan of N 6, 790.5 while in the end N 2, 507.3 was actually invested. Part of the problem includes incessant military interruption democratic experimentation from 1979-1983, corruption and lack of adequate private investment. However, the plan was interrupted following the August 27th military coup d‘ tat. Following the military intervention, a short development plan was introduced in December 1985. Later the Structural adjustment Programmes (SAP) projected to last for two years was introduced. In view of the development, a new national development plan was developed and referred to as National Rolling Plan. In the view of Onah (2010), the rolling plan was seen as part a longer perspective plan and its role was to translate the longer vision into short-term reality of 2 or 3 years and has to anchor on the annual budget. The first national rolling plan was launched in January 1990. Others include national rolling plan of 1995-1996 and 1997-1999. However, by September, 18th 1996, Gen-Sani Abacha (Nigeria‘s Head of State) introduced vision 2010. The objectives of vision 2010 were thus. i. Examine the long term development options open to the Nigeria economy, ii. Identify possible problems or hindrances that may occur during the period of the plan, iii. Offer possible solution in terms of policies and programmes iv. Determine the pattern of future investment in all the key sectors of the economy and address policy measures necessary to achieve the set policy (Alapiki 2004). Onah (2010) noted that the vision was designed to review the strengths and weakness of Nigeria‘s economy with the view of re-positioning the economy for prosperous feature. The death of Sani Abacha on June 1998 resulted in the terminal of the vision 2010 as the document melted into oblivion. From 1999, the country was deeply involved in debt cancellation and re-scheduling thus being the first African country to cancel her debt with the Paris club. In doing this, Chief Obasanjo championed new Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) and this guided significantly the national economic policies. Others include National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) By 2007, late Umaru Musa Yar Adua introduced his 7 point agenda. The entire agenda was wrapped-up in the vision 20:2020 which was incubated by Obasanjo. It was held that the vision will indeed launch Nigeria‘s economy to an enviable height thus making it one of the 20 largest economies in the world so as to enable it consolidate its leadership in Africa and as a significant global economic player. Nwali and Nkwede (2010) encapsulate vision 20:2020 on the premise of making Nigeria have larger, stronger, diversified and competitive economy. Accordingly, the vision covers the macroeconomic frame work, a combination of propositions and projections designed to place the economy on a robust, double digit growth trajectory from the year 2010 to 2020. 450 THE CHALLENGES OF THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS IN NIGERIA Between 1946 and date, Nigeria has had not less than ten major development plans. Also, there are other economic packages aimed at re-positioning the country for more dependable and vigorous economy. A survey shows that Nigerian‘s are brilliant in terms of policy formulation. Each of the plans are brilliantly conceived and masterfully crafted, but then why have they not achieved the desired results? Obiemeka and Obikezie (2004:244) outlined the problem of national plans to include; i. Shortage of professional planes, ii. Financial constraints iii Plan indiscipline. iv Paucity of data v lack of mass commitment, and vi conflict areas in planning In a similar contribution, Nwali and Nkwede (2010) opined that the problems with national development plans particularly the vision 20:2020 has been premised on corruption, poor implementation, political influence and cultural barriers. Ake (2003) corroborated this view stating that problem of development strategies in Africa are manpower shortage and a confusion of agendas. Given the above submissions, other problems that have continued to jeopardize the actualization of policy trusts of national development plans includes (not limited) greed and corruption, capital flow, bad leadership and ethnicity, power failure, conflicts and insecurity caused by long years of neglect, abject poverty and increasing unemployment. RECOMMENDATIONS Given the above identified problems, it is the humble submission of this paper to make the following recommendations. Subsequent national development plan should be premised on broad based national plan involving representatives of different tiers and private investors. It is also recommended that the anti-corrupt agencies should be strengthened through legislative bill. It is also important to imbibe the spirit of budget discipline, and attitudinal change campaign starting from the leaders. CONCLUSION National development plan is an acceptable economic strategy aimed at guiding the economy of Nigeria. Over the years, it has been a tradition in Nigeria. The paper reviewed several national plans with a view to finding out why it has failed to launch Nigeria on the track of developed country. Nigerian‘s have both material and human resources capable of enhancing the country‘s economy. The challenges facing the national plans were highlighted and far-reaching recommendations made. 451 REFERENCES Ademolekun, I (1983): Public administration: A Nigerian and comparative perspective; Lagos: Longman Adogamhe, P (2007): Nigerian national economic empowerment development strategy NEEDS: a critical assessment; the annual convention of international ‗studies Chicago, USA. Alapiki,H.E(2004): The Nigerian political process: Port Harcourt: Amethyst & colleagues publishers. Ayida, A.A (1987) Reflections on Nigeria development: ibadan, Heinemann Education Books. Ayo E.J (1938): Development planning in Nigeria. Ibadan: University press Ltd. Dean, E (1972): Factors impending the implementation of Nigerian‘s six year plan NJESS. VOL 8. NO1 Ihimodu,I.I (1984): ―an appraisal of kwara state of Nigeria development plan‖ Nigerian journal of financial management, VOL3 No.2 Nwali T.B and Nkwede, J.O (2010): Government and administration in Nigeria: Contemporary issues, terminologies and classical concepts, Abakaliki. De oasis communication & publishers. Nwali, T.B (2004): The deserts of Destiny; A Road Map for discovering great potentials, Abakaliki: De Oasis communication & publishers. Obiemeka, A.A and Obikeze, O .S (2004): Public administration in Nigeria: Onitsha. Bookpoint ltd. Onah,F (2010): Managing public programs and projects, Nsukka, Great AP Express publishers. Stopper, W .F (1966): Planning without fails: lesser in resource allocation from Nigerian‘s development. Harvard university press. Cambridge. Nigeria: National Development Plan 1962-68. Federal Ministry of Economic Development, Lagos. Nigeria: Second National Development Plan 970-74 Nigeria: Ministry of Economic Development and Reconstruction, Lagos, 1970. 452 TIME RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION KALU, JOYCE NNUOLA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT E-mail:[email protected] Phone: 08038581818 ABSTRACT This work has attempted to expanciate on the meaning and strategies of time management practices. In order to expose the practice of effective use of time by the school administrators, it became necessary for this work to analyze the specific tasks of school administration, the knowledge of which will guide the administrator in proper scheduling of tasks, ordering of priorities and allocation of time according to their degree of importance in achieving educationally productive goals. The value of time management were examined and these include the achievement of meaningful productivity, avoidance of stress and frustration, the creation of balance between work, lfe, leisure and rest, etc. This work finally looked at the factors that influence the administrators‘ effective use of time which include interruptions and events that just come up, lack of professional training and knowledge of time management skills, large population of students and staff and fear of offending people. Keywords: Planning, Effective Time Resource Management. Introduction Time, as Nwaiwu (2000 p. 171) notes, is the interval between the beginning and the end of an operation. In our traditional society people used the position of the sun and the shadow it casts to make an estimate of time during the day. The length of the shadows cast by the sun helped people estimate time in the morning, mid-day, afternoon and evening, when to start going to the market, when children were expected back from school or when to leave the farm for the house. At the dawn of a new day, the early cock crow indicated different segments of time before the day finally breaks. The first cock crow signaled the breaking of a new day when distant travelers usually set out on their journey while others waited for the second cock crow to start on their daily business. That was in the traditional society marked by simple organisations where time calibration and allocation was done in large segments of early morning, dawn, afternoon, evening and Night. Business was strictly private, organisations were simple, and accountability was to self or family. Given the complex systems of our present organisations with highly computerized technology, and specialized functions, personnel cannot rely on mechanisms that have broken the day into morning, noon and night to perform functions effectively. Hence the efficacy of timing device called clock which has segmented the day and night into hours, minutes and seconds to guide man in time allocation and performance of his multifarious and multidimensional tasks. Whatever resources are available to the organisation are managed within a definite time frame. An organisation stipulates when work commences and closes, when to recruit personnel, when to orientate recruited personnel, when to supervise them, when to appraise, when to receive visitors and when to go for work-break. When, talks about time and time are one of the most precious assets (resources) of any organisation. That ‗when‘, indicates the time frame work within which to allocate the various management functions of an organisation. How managers of an organisation spend their time on 453 their job determines to a large extent the productivity level of the organisation and its effective and efficient performance, profits and survival of the individual and the organization as a whole. Time is an immaterial resource, inelastic, scarce and erodes fast and once spent, cannot be wound back, stored or recalled for use. The effective and efficient management of time is as important as the management of other human and material resources available to the administrator. This is because given an abundance of human and material resources (which is never the case at any time) a poor time manager would be faced with low productivity inefficiency, ineffectiveness, low morale, stress and frustration with himself and among his workers. The Meaning of Time Management Time management as postulates by Achunine (2004 p.218) can be defined as the effective and efficient utilization of a manager‘s or an administrator‘s corporate time to achieve organisational and personal goals. It involves identifying tasks to be performed, planning and scheduling of organisational activities, prioritizing such activities, allocating time to the tasks according to their degree of importance in enhancing productivity minimizing interruptions and frivolities and dealing with routine tasks in such a way that the truly important tasks could receive due attention. How a school administrator applies these strategies/principles to the management of his contract time will determine largely the coverage of the school‘s curricular prescriptions for a given period of time. It will also determine the school‘s performance in the internally and externally set examinations, the discipline tone and general performance in other areas of school administration. When time are scheduled and appropriate amount of time allocated to the performance of each according to their degree of importance in achieving definite organizational goals and at the same time pruning time wasters, one can be said to exercise control of one‘s corporate time. Time utilization, Adedeji (1998 p.220), remarks could be explained within the framework of doing the right thing at the right time in the workplace. For effective classroom management and control, time management skills must be imbibed. Wikipedia defines Time Management as ―a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals. This set encompasses a wide scope of activities, and these include planning, allocating, setting goals, delegation, analysis of time spent, monitoring, organizing, scheduling, and prioritizing. Initially, time management referred to just business or work activities, but eventually the term broadened to include personal activities as well. A time management system is a designed combination of processes, tools, techniques, and methods. Usually time management is a necessity in any project development as it determines the project completion time and scope. Tasks Of School Administration The introduction of the 3-3 system of secondary education with its comprehensive programme offerings and new social expectations have made the tasks of the present school administration more cumbersome, stretching and challenging. If administration is to facilitate teaching and learning, how one schedules the various tasks and allocates commensurate amount of time to the various tasks, determines to a large extent the productivity level of the organisation. These various tasks and functions have been identified by Agabi (2002) Policy implementation and programme planning Human Resource Management • Student Personnel Management • Instructional Resource Maintenance • School plant management • School finance Management • Record Maintenance Time Management • Maintenance of a Healthy school community relations. 454 These tasks and functions are all in the principal‘s duty schedule. They can be productively addressed by the administrator; if he acquires the necessary tune management skills by Killian, Michael and Sexton (1999 p.83). These tasks have been categorized into; • Professional goal functions • Critical/crises functions, and • Maintenance functions Alegbe (1989 p.338)) agreed that curriculum and instruction are at number one in importance in achieving school goals, most school principals do not allocate commensurate amount of time to them. It is believed that since the boards of education and The Ministry reward and reinforce the well- managed and efficiently operated school, principals perform more of routine office jobs by which they can easily be assessed and pay only lip service to curriculum and instructional matters (professional goal matters). It is certain that when principals allocate most of their time for instructional leadership functions, negative outcomes result in the schools. Strategies Of Time Management There are some strategies which guide effective and efficient utilization of time by managers/Administrators. Sound time management is more than what common sense or experience can teach one. The strategies must be learnt and practiced until one gets involved with the science and art of time management. Its application is not strictly guided by true laws but it can be systematically practiced. Achunine (2004 p.79) proposed that time could be managed through the following; 1. Planning: Administrators should plan effective use of their time and should not perform tasks by chance. Planning can either be short-range covering daily, weekly, monthly tasks or longer-range. The daily time table is an example of a clear, rather rigid plan of how the days in each week can be spent productively in the school. It shows a daily/weekly plan of time allocation to the various school subjects, programmes and other resources. It ensures that everyone in the school is productively engaged all the time, doing what the school approves as worthwhile. The issue of the school time table highlights the importance of managing time to great advantage. For a school administrator to plan effective and productive use of core time he must be very familiar with the specifics of his job and the goals the school and school system are striving to achieve during a definite time period. In line with this Smithson (1998 p. 178) postulates that every school administrator must have details of his job description embracing all the task areas of the principalship. An analysis of the duties and responsibilities based on clear knowledge of the job description of the principalship and the goals of the school system would inform a principal which functions he can perform based on his superior expertise and experience and which he may delegate to other staff. Achunine (2004 p.228) states that it is advisable to keep a ―things-todo‖ list or draw up a personal time chart on a daily and weekly bases. The chart conveys at a glance what he is expected to do and what he expects himself to do to achieve mapped out goals and objectives. 455 Personal Time Chart Activity From…….. Monday To………... Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday When tasks are planned, administrators should not allow urgent events to thwart their plan of activities. Nwankwo and Lulsegged (1985 p.26) articulated some consequences of poor planning — continuous lack of, or inadequate, time and opportunity for carrying out the essential duties. Increased misunderstanding and confusion, Lack of direction, purpose and commitment Frequent stampede or panic measure to beat deadlines Generally poor quality of administration and lower quality of products among members. Lack of coordination Lack of self-realization arising from time wastage and little lime to attend to private matters. Conflicts in schedules, timing, activities and even interpersonal relations. 2. Scheduling Task/Activities This skill involves the school administrator in making an inventory of specific activities which would lead to the realization of the long and short-term school goals. Goal setting and subsequent strategies developed to achieve those goals are the key to spending time productively. For example; i) School goals: To provide more security for the school property. Activities: a) Building fences b) Providing burglary proof for windows and door c) Hiring security men. ii) School goals: Involving the community more closely in school affairs. Activities: (a) Arranging PTA meetings (b) Arranging Old Boys‘ Forum (c) Arranging school‘s Day (d) Arranging school‘s social/cultural day activities. iii) School goals: Introducing science programme for the school. Activities: (a) Recruiting science teachers (b) Procurement of science instructional materials (c) Developing science curriculum/laboratories. 3. Setting Up Priorities And Time Allocation When tasks have been scheduled, the next move is to put the specific activities through which the goals of the hoo1 are expected to be achieved into hierarchy, according to their degree of importance in enhancing productivity, from the most educationally productive to the least educationally productive functions. 456 Killian, Michael and Sexton (1999 p.134), proposed the idea of time scheduling and time allocation to tasks based on how educationally productive they are for ensuring effective teaching and learning. In their time management ladder, they grouped the numerous functions of the school administrator into three categories; The professional goal functions, the critical/crisis functions and maintenance functions, with the professional goal functions at the apex of the ladder and the maintenance functions at the base of the ladder in order of priority. The professional goal functions embrace all efforts by the administrator towards the development and implementation of the curriculum and instructional matters and most functions in staff personnel matters that lead directly to effective teaching and learning. Maintenance functions embrace all routine management tasks geared towards maintaining stability and status quo in the school. The middle level critical/crisis functions embrace mostly activities critical to student personnel administration and fiscal management etc. Killian and Sexton (1999 p.89) maintained that it is very important to allocate large quality time at a stretch to programmes of importance instead of allocating bits of time stretched out for a long period to the same function. For instance, allocate some two to three weeks in the year at a stretch for supervision of all teachers in the school, lasting for about three hours each day. This will give the administrator a clear and comprehensive picture of the direction the programmes of the curriculum are going and what general and specific problems there are in relation to effective teaching and learning in the school. Allowances must however be made for emergencies and unexpected events as they are bound to come up in any human organisation. Over-estimation of time should be preferred to under-estimation to avoid frustration of not meeting deadlines. Daily Planning Document Priority Estimated time order of needed for activities completion Priority 1 Activities Priority 2 Activities Priority 3 Activities Setting Priorities By Executives When is this Who else is time available? competent to do it? 4. Delegation A principal must ask himself, which of the activities mapped out on the schedule could be done by someone else just as well as he can, or even better?‖ There is no time enough for the administrator to do all that are considered important, so the school administrator should carefully select some assignments which he is best suited to perform in the school based on his expertise and experience and delegate others to some other competent staff. Wayne, Edwards (2002 p.140) are of the view that a lot of maintenance functions and pupils personnel matters should be delegated to the vice- principals, guidance counsellors and class masters. 5. Evaluation At the end of each day, an executive should ask himself: ―How has my official time been spent today? How much have I kept to the scheduled for specific activities? What activities actually consumed the largest amount of time? Have I maintained the priority list and estimated time allocation?‖ (Achunine 2004 p.229). 457 6. Eliminating Frivolities And Time Wasters Managers and administrators are contracted to spend their core time usefully towards the achievement of organisational goals. In Africa, misappropriation of official time for unofficial activities is evidenced among many managers, (Alugbuo, 2005 p.62). Principals are expected to put in a contract time of six and half hours on each working day. The debit time principals owe as a result of not completing the contract hour is not made up in most cases through spending extra time in the day or week. Frivolities and time wasters in school organisation include receiving and attending to personal visitors during official hours, escorting personal visitors out, going to the market or mechanic workshop, spending unauthorized break periods, attending to other social engagements, prolonged phone chats and unnecessary meetings. In a study on time management by principals, Achunine (2004 p.34) discovered that whereas principals would wish to allocate only 4% of their working time to non official tasks, in actuality they allocate 7.05% to these activities. This amount of time was found to be more than 6.4 1% they allocate to staff personnel functions and 4.55% they allocate to finance and business management. Time spent on frivolities is time robbed the organisation and time spent away from productivity, effectiveness and efficiency. If ―frivolities‖ must find their place within the organisation‘s contract time, they must be scheduled within the authorized break periods. If however, the unexpected happens, for example, an administrator‘s visitor must be attended to in the office; such amount of time spent on him must be made up outside the official hours. Time spent on gossips and unofficial conversations is big time wasted. Rest and leisure must be planned and allocated proper place for effective use of time. Values Of Time Management Alegbe (1989 p.218) enumerated about five values of time management. include: 1. To Avoid Stress And Frustration People feel frustrated when they do not finish important jobs they set out to do within a time limit. Such people develop panic in their lives and at times rush in inadequately done tasks. At such times, people find themselves working long hours even into the nights, weekends and spending what should be rest and leisure hours rushing under stress to get specific tasks accomplished. Procrastination wastes corporate time and makes task performance run into time allocated to other obligations. Stress sets in when this happens. Thus managing time is stress management of the highest order. 2. Balance Between Work And Personal Life Some administrators complain that school work does not allow them time to do some of the things they would personally want to do (such as writing a book, attending conferences, seminars and workshops and even taking their annual leave and family leisure) whereas some others have time for all they would want to do. This is attributable to how well one can plan for effective use of time. Good time management skills integrate the administrator‘s corporate time plan with that for his personal life. Good time management enables one to achieve a more balanced life with adequate time and energy for work, leisure, home, family and self. 3. For Meaningful Productivity ―Time equals productivity‖ so goes a saying in the business world. How managers of organisations spend their time on their job determines to a large extent the productivity level of the survival of the individuals and organisation as a whole. When people work on intelligently scheduled programmes, allowing more time for priorities, eliminating frivolities and time wasters, they become more effective and efficient in their work thus leading a 458 meaningful productivity. Efficient and effective use of time automatically increases the productivity level of an administrator. 4. Goal Achievement When an administrator properly schedules his corporate and personal activities and allocates proportionate time to the performance of the functions, he tends to achieve both corporate and personal goals which he has mapped out. 5. Staff Development Since an administrator skilled in tune management delegates specific functions to staff, he offers in-service opportunities to staff to learn, grow, ultimately develop competence through practice and experience. Factors That Influence Time Management Even though what administrators do on a given day may be determined in part by advanced planning, scheduled daily/weekly responsibilities, certain factors play a major role in influencing time management practices of administrators. Some of the factors include; 1. Events That Just Come Up: Events that just come up tend to make the planning process highly influenced. They have the characteristic of shattering an administrator‘s daily, weekly, monthly or yearly Calendar e.g. teacher‘s strike action, emergencies in the school compound etc. Duignan (2000 p.178) observed that certain activities or events (unplanned for) come up and often initiate a series of reactions from the administrator that last for a whole morning, day or week. The administrator is therefore compelled to spend much of his time reacting to events that just come up instead of acting on already scheduled events. Administrators are however advised to develop strategies whereby they act on their task priority instead of spending a huge proportion of their time reacting to events that come up. 2. Lack of professional training and lack of knowledge of skill of time management. Wayne, Edwards (2002 p.229) postulates that many school administrators do not have a professional training in educational administration, and such could not be said to be conversant with the specifics or job description of the school administrator. It is when he is sure of what to do that the individual tries to order his priorities right. Lack of appropriate academic and professional knowledge and skill could be blamed for the inadequate performance of many principals. In addition some school administrators have not been exposed to courses/ seminar in time management as do other managers of industries. Surely, training deficiencies are contributory to inefficiency and ineffective management of resources in general and time in particular. 3. Large staff and students population: Drucker (1995 p.281) found in his study that the principals of schools with large student population, especially those located in the urban areas spend unnecessary large proportion of their school hours on pupils and personnel matters and public relation issues instead of curriculum and instruction planning and implementation, principals in the rural schools with lesser student population spend more time than their counterparts on curriculum development than on public relations and pupils problems. In order not to allow the expenditure of time resource to waste unnecessarily to issues that are not directly connected to improving curriculum, teaching and learning, the size of students/staff population should be minimal. 459 4. Fear of offending people: Fear of offending people has been identified as one of the factors that could influence how the principals spend their time. Some administrators could be constrained to reschedule their time unnecessarily if they are the type that fears offending people, especially visitors to the school. Achunine (2004 p.228). But school administrators should learn to say No at times since there is no time and nowhere anyone could do what everyone wants. The important thing is to tackle scheduled priority tasks at the scheduled time since these will enhance the administrator‘s productivity level. Conclusion Even though in human situation no one can scientifically and completely manage time resource, yet through acquisition of time management skills, through practice and exercise of discipline, and also plugging time leaks and will to achieve, administrators can control their time to enhance productivity at work place. References Achunine (2004), Management of Administration of Secondary School Education, Owerri; Totan Publishers Agabi (1991), Introducing Educational Planning. Port Harcourt: International Centre for Educational Services. Adedeji (1998), The Relationship between Resource utilization and Academic performance in vocational education in Osun State Secondary Schools, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis; University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Alegbe (1989) ―The role of the educational administration iii the Nigerian Environment: Getting Better or Worse‖. Novelty md. Enterprise Lt Alugbuo, (2005), Time Management: Implication for administrative efficiency and effectiveness, Public Service Management Journal Vol.1 No.4; Owerri Government Press. Drucker, P. F. (1995), The Effective Executive, London; William Heinemann Ltd. Duignan (2000), Administrative Behaviour of School Superintendents: A descriptive Study; The Journal of Educational Administration. Vol.XV, No.2. Federal Republic of Nigeria; FRN (2004), Lagos: Ministry of Education Press. Killian, Michael and Sexton (1999), Climbing the Ladder to leadership. NASSP Bulletin Vol.63, No.425. Nwaiwu, (2000), Factors of effective secondary school administration in Owerri Zone; unpublished M.Ed Thesis; University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Smithson (1998), Secondary School size: a continuing conundrum for administrators and planners, the journal of Educational Administration; Vol.XV, No.2. Wayne, Edwards (2002), The role of prinapals in five New Zealand Primary Schools: An ethnographic perspective, The Journal of Educational Administration; Vol.XVH, No.2. Wikipedia. En, Wild. Org/wiki/Time Management. 460 WOMEN RIGHTS AND EMPOWERMENT IN THE ARABIAN GULF COUNTRIES Dr. Muhammad Azam Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan Email: [email protected] Abstract Women have been and continue to suffer from social inequality and injustice in male-dominated Arabian Gulf societies. However, over the last decade, particularly in the wake of 9/11, this unappealing situation, though only to some extent, has begun to change with varying degrees in the six states Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. In this exploratory as well as comparative study, an effort is made to explore the situation of women rights and freedoms on the ground, reforms introduced by the governments and progress made by women in the Gulf Region. It is argued that largely changed international environment played a significant role for promoting women rights and their empowerment in the region under study. Keywords: Gulf countries, human rights, women rights, women empowerment, emancipation of women Introduction Ruled by authoritarian dynastic regimes, Arabian Gulf countries are among the list of those countries where women are deprived of their rights to the extreme. Though, the six states of Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates are essentially a part of the larger Middle East and have many characteristics in common with other Middle Eastern Arab countries, their sociopolitical system is much more conservative regarding women rights violations. However, through reforms, Kuwait has added an element of pluralism in its power structure and Kuwaitis, including women, have started enjoying political rights and freedoms, but only to a small degree. On the other end of the Arabian Gulf, Dubai, out of seven federating units of the United Arab Emirates, is the only state which allows people exercise social liberalism to some extent but women rights are again in a pathetic situation. The phenomena of ‗Arab Spring‘ and twitter revolutions in the Arab states of Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya, and the boiling situation in neighboring Yemen have rung alarm bells in the capitals of the Arabian Gulf states. Restiveness and anxiety among the ruling elites (dynastic families) and sub-elites are visible and they find it really difficult for themselves how to chart future strategies in order to sustain their grip on the masses. They are, as a matter of fact, at a point where their regimes are in danger either they allow the masses to exercise their rights or not. Undoubtedly, this wave of Arab revolutions has provided wider room for the Arab women. In light of these revolutions women in the Arab Gulf now look toward a promising future for themselves as well. Retrospectively, we see the onset of the new millennium and the twenty-first century as a threshold in the prolonged history of women struggling for their rights in the Middle East including the Gulf countries. However, it were the events of 9/11 which proved to be a watershed in the world especially Middle Eastern politics. Resulting change in the US foreign policy in the wake of the events of 9/11 provided real boost to sociopolitical change in the region. Women rights NGOs and activists were encouraged by increasingly supportive international, and to a lesser degree national, environment. Curbs on them were gradually assuaged (discussed under subheading ‗Women Emancipation and empowerment‘). 461 International community, on the one hand, increased pressure on the governments for reform and improvement of the lot of women, and on the other, provided support to women rights activists and NGOs. Western governments, through governmental agencies and nongovernmental organizations supported the cause of women‘s emancipation and empowerment in the region. To see, how the international community and foreign NGOs played their part, steps taken and activities carried out by the United States are delineated in the following pages (under sub-heading ‗US Contribution and Participation‘). It can be safely argued here that the dynamics of largely changed regional and international politics were so compelling that kingdoms in the Arabian Gulf had no choice but loosen the grip on their female populations. Though not comprehensive, a process of reform regarding women rights and empowerment was set in motion (discussed under sub-heading ‗Women Emancipation and Empowerment‘). But, first of all, let us have a glance at the background realities. Background Despite the fact that women associations exist in these countries 23 in Bahrain, 25 in Saudi Arabia, and 43 in Oman, for example the condition of women rights is not fitting. Women are gravely discriminated against. Access to education, job and business opportunities has many constraints. Males resort to violence against women with impunity. Constitutional, legal, judicial and administrative structures and procedures generally disfavor them. Gross violations of women rights and liberties are widespread in the region. In the preceding decades, the situation was even worse than the present one. In late 1980s, there was no presence of women at all in the formal political systems in the Arabian Peninsula. Women in these states were not judges, police officers, army commanders, ministers, tribal leaders or heads of state. They did not sit on tribal councils, municipal councils, or legislative or consultative assemblies.lviii During the same period, politics in the Arab Gulf States appeared, on the surface, ―to be the exclusive domain of men.‖lix Women in the Gulf societies face restrictions in all spheres of life. Males on the one hand, control the lives of women and on the other, many of them think of women as weak and without intellect. They are taken as ―the intimate enemy.‖ And it is noticed that it is very rare that a woman is not afraid of their husband in Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries. lx In all of the Gulf States, with the exception of Saudi Arabia, participation of local women is lower than the foreigners in labor force.lxi Social structure of Oman is patriarchal and conservative in its understanding of gender equality.lxii Children of Qatari women from non-Qatari fathers are deprived of citizenship rights. Out of all six countries under study, Saudi Arabia is the worst case when it comes to depriving women of their rights and violations thereof. The types of straitjackets for women are more assorted in Saudi Arabia than they are in the adjoining countries. In education sector, they are not entitled to study subjects like chemistry and biology. In economic sector, it is not lawful for them to set foot in certain types of businesses and to deal with male customers. Travelling without a male guardian or their approbation is illegal. According to an estimate, only six percent of the Saudi women have identity cards.lxiii So much so, Saudi women are not allowed to drive cars. As an unprecedented move during the Gulf War in 1990, a group of 70 Saudi women defied the governmental ban and drove cars through Riyadh.lxiv School girls are not allowed to play sports. ―Women have been hoisted on the flag of national culture‖lxv in Saudi Arabia, remarked an analyst to the end of the 1990s. 462 US Contribution and Participation Successive incumbents of the White House and their cabinets have been championing human as well as women rights in the region along with the catchphrases on the subject of democracy promotion but practically it proved only to be lip service. Had the events of 9/11 not taken place, in all probability, the Bush Administration would also have trodden the same path. In the wake of 9/11 American intellectual elites built up a tremendous pressure on the US foreign policymakers to such an extent that they had no other choice except to raise the ante for reform in the Arab World. Democracy promotion in the region became the top priority at least at the diplomatic front. It was the most important foreign policy goal as far as the pronounced foreign policy of the Bush Administration towards the Middle East was concerned. Rights of women and their empowerment became a fundamental component of the strategies devised for democratic promotion in the region. Critics may not agree with this account. They might be doing so due to the misadventures and blunders committed by the Bush Administration. Ground realities, however, have provided evidence that the US policy of democracy promotion in the Arab world did play a role in the ongoing and unfolding revolutions we see in the Arab Middle East these days. A diametrically changed sociopolitical environment which affords a favorable milieu to the women prevails in the region. The question is, is this all a coincidence? Although, Clinton Administration supported political rights of women in the Gulf countries of Kuwait, Qatar, and Oman, it behaved differently with reference to Saudi Arabia in order not to upset the Saudi regime due to strategic considerations. Improving human rights conditions and empowering women in all the six countries, were among the fundamental objectives of the policy of democracy promotion in the region. Democracy assistance programs run by Middle East Policy Initiative (MEPI), Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (DRL), and United States Agency for International Development (USAID) focused on women‘s empowerment along with political and education reform. Empowering women is among the MWPI‘s five stated goals. The organization was established soon after the incidents of 9/11. The Administration also employed the concept of public private partnership in order to increase the efficacy of its programs and projects. MENA Businesswomen‘s Network and Vital Voices are the best examples of such partnerships. American NGOs were encouraged to partner with local reformers in the region. The Congress provided requisite legal instruments. Advance Democracy Act and the 9/11 Commission International Implementation Act (both enacted in 2007), for example, are among such legal instruments. The following extract from the 11 Commission International Implementation Act illustrates the role played by Congress in the process of women empowerment. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has…a lack of political outlets for its citizens, that poses a threat to the security of the United States, the international community, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia itself. … It is the sense of Congress that, in order to more effectively combat terrorism, the Government of Saudi Arabia must undertake and continue a number of political and economic reforms, including…providing more political rights to its citizens, [and] increasing the rights of women….lxvi In order to bring awareness, the Americans launched propaganda campaigns, organized trips and exchanges between women from America and the Gulf. Conferences, seminars, group discussions, debates, dialogues, and fora were also conducted. Such events were arranged within the Gulf region and without. A considerable number of women from the Gulf had the opportunities to concentrate on and speak to each other on the topics of human rights, women 463 empowerment, and related reforms. In this way, all types of these activities played a role in publicizing the cause and demand for upholding women rights and equal opportunities and social justice for them. Since the Administration engaged a wide variety of institutions and organizations public, public-private, international, and local-private it was able to reach wider audiences from the Gulf. The activities were also distributed in geographic and temporal terms both. On the opportune time of election campaign in 2008 in the United States, American diplomats in the United Arab Emirates conducted seminars spotlighting topics like women‘s involvement in politics and civic participation. In collaboration with the UAE Academy, University of Washington (UW), a public-sector American university, offered certificate programs in Abu Dhabi. The initiative was commenced under University of Washington Educational Outreach (UWEO). Young job seekers were the key target. Quite interestingly, among the participants, females were more than 80 percent. It was a rare opportunity for the females to be part of such programs at the graduate level and learn in an open environment. Despite the fact that females are much more in higher education institutions than their male counterparts, they have far lesser opportunities of visiting abroad. In these circumstances, the initiatives of this sort were helpful in popularizing liberal values for promoting women rights. The certificate programs offered by the University of Washington were instructive as well as productive. The classes and sessions had a liberal environment. Male and female students were not segregated. A co-educational environment provided them the golden opportunity to interact with opposite sexes without unnecessary restrictions. UWEO program manager reflects, ―We‘re getting these women and men ready for a co-ed workplace… . It‘s fun to watch them interact. They‘re not quite sure how to behave at first.‖ The program manager explains: These programs bring us closer to humanizing the politics… . People walk in with preconceived notions… . We have two veiled women with gloves and two men with beards and short robes in our programs all signs of religious conservatism. But these four participate well,…and all are professional, engaged and interact with both genders. It‘s a real stereotype buster.lxvii American diplomats in Kuwait arranged roundtables attended by female activists and government officials. The U.S. ambassador to Kuwait held a meeting with the minister of housing in 2008. MEPI made arrangements for Arab businesswomen to join American companies as interns. MEPI programs also facilitated female education. To ameliorate the lot of women in Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates, MEPI crafted a public-private partnership. Bahrain Forum for Public-Private Partnership was set up in 2007 by the MEPI in collaboration with the Vital Voices. Civil society organizations and other associations from private sector are offered membership to the forum. Its main emphasis is on arranging regular dialogues and facilitating cooperation between private sector organizations and women NGOs in Bahrain. A second exemplar of public-private collaboration is Middle East and North Africa Businesswomen‘s Network (MENA BWN). It is a partnership between MEPI, Vital Voices Global Partnership and local businesswomen‘s organizations emphasizing on women empowerment in social, economic and business spheres. The Network, established in 2006, envisaged a growing culture of women‘s entrepreneurship. Three organizations Bahrain Businesswomen‘s Society, Dubai Business Women‘s Council, Kuwait Economic Society out of the seven founding members of the Network hail from the Gulf countries. In 2008, Qatari Business Women Forum was also invited to join. The network‘s raison d‘être is to advance the role of women in society and promote a regional culture of women‘s entrepreneurship. The Network Hubs organized a range of events. Corporate Ambassadors Program of MENA 464 Businesswomen‘s Network was expanded in 2008. Women executives from the U.S. were brought to the Network Hubs for partaking in various events and activities like workshops and advocacy training. Among the participants of most of the public diplomacy exchange program arranged by the American government in Oman in 2009, at least 50 percent were females. Scholarships were offered by the American government to study Islam and women. A U.S. funded program underway in 2008, was mapped out to bring awareness among Omanese women of their rights by means of technology training. In Qatar, a US-sponsored program was drawn up for edifying female journalists. The objective was reinforcing women‘s role in local media. Election-training programs were arranged for Saudi women to encourage their participation in politics. Women Emancipation and Empowerment After having made a mention of the unpleasant state of women rights in the region and the part played by the United States in the wake of 9/11 for the betterment of women it appears apposite to have a look at the reforms unheard in the Gulf states vis-à-vis women rights and empowerment. In the subsequent lines and pages an analysis of the steps taken by the governments and development and progress made by the women over the last decade is furnished. It will help us find out about what lies ahead for women subject to these autocratic regimes. On top of that, it will help us discern the extent of contributions made and pressure exerted by the international community, particularly the United States in making the regimes introduce unprecedented reforms and take measures for upholding women rights and emancipating and empowering women. Women empowerment is the area that was at the front in terms of successes, achievements, and breakthroughs witnessed after 2000 in the region. All other areas, including education, media, culture, and economics, etc. left behind. The most probable reason being that prior to the onset of the 21st century this area straggled behind all others. Keeping this fact in mind, reformers and democracy activists and promoters paid most of their attention toward emancipation and empowerment of women in the Gulf. Beginning in March 2003, with Oman taking the lead by introducing the first female minister, women held ministerial positions in all six Gulf countries before March 2009, as shown in the following table. Women, not only contested and secured seats in the parliamentary and municipal council elections in majority of the Gulf countries, but were also appointed by the governments to these bodies. Table: First women ministers in the Gulf countries Country Oman Qatar UAE Bahrain Kuwait Saudi Arabia Year 2003 2003 2004 2004 2005 2009 Saudi Arabia. In Saudi Arabia, liberal-feminist struggle has gained momentum over the last decade. King Abdullah has shown himself to be an ally in the struggle. The king appointed 465 Nora al-Fayez as deputy minister in the ministry of education in February 2009. She was to run the girls‘ section of the ministry. The section was heretofore in the clerics‘ command. The government also engaged women as members of the National Human Rights Association when it was founded in 2004. Women were granted the right to vote and contest elections for the board of the Saudi National Agency for Engineers in December 2005. One of the seats was captured by a woman who was the sole female candidate in the number of 71. Two women were also elected to the board of Saudi Journalists‘ Association in June 2004. The first point in time when a group of women were enabled to participate in elections in Saudi Arabia came off in November 2004. They exercised their right to vote in board elections for the Saudi Chambers of Commerce and Industry. Next year, in 2005, women were also entitled to contest elections for Jeddah Chamber of Commerce and Industry. They scored victory on two seats in the board. The Saudi government also eliminated some of the legal restrictions from civic and social life of women. In 2008, the government lifted a ban on females mixing with males in the workplace. A year earlier, in 2007, bans on women checking into hotels alone and renting apartments for themselves were quashed. Foundations of a separate hotel for women were laid in Riyadh in 2008. King Abudllah, when he was the Crown Prince had proffered to allow Saudi women to drive cars. Saudi Foreign Minister also concurred with the idea in 2007. Besides, the minister acceded to the civil society‘s call for women‘s right to drive be framed as a social issue rather than a political or religious one. Women also partook in the National Dialogue and they were present in the sessions. Reform measures were also introduced to enhance women‘s role and participation in business and economy of Saudi Arabia. On foreign trips, King Abdullah for the first time in the country‘s history took Saudi businesswomen along. Saudi women are now able to move into business areas previously proscribed for women like real estate and information technology. Saudi trade ministry, in a response to female activists‘ demand, overturned the requirement to hire a male representative with power of attorney. Admittance into the labor force was also made less complicated for women. Female activists and intellectually aware women have been taking part in sessions of the Saudi Shura Council periodically on invitations by the Council‘s president. The women were also afforded opportunities to exchange views on social issues concerning women with the Council members. In order to expand women‘s political rights, deputy minister for municipal and rural affairs put forward the suggestion for enfranchisement of Saudi women in 2009. But it is the Arab Spring that compelled the Saudi King to grant voting rights to women and the right to contest elections. However, they will be able to participate in the next local elections in 2015 for the first time. Bahrain: In 2002, Bahrain signed the international convention on women‘s rights. As a signal towards alleviating discrimination against the women and other excluded groups, the king appointed women, secularists and liberals as members of the Consultative Council in 2002. The first female chairperson of the General Assembly of the United Nations was a Bahraini woman nominated by the government. Starting from 2004, women became ministers in Bahrain one after the other. The government designated Noda Hafiz as minister of Health in April 2004. Thus, she turned out to be the first female minister in the country. Next year, in 2005, another woman, Fatima Al-Baluchi, was appointed as Minister of Social Affairs. Mai bint Mohammad Al-Khalifa was nominated as Minister of Culture and Information in 2008. A woman, for the first time in Bahrain, was placed to the Civil Court in 2007. In the same year, a woman was selected as the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Bahrain. In 2008, 32 women 466 were performing their duties as directors general in the government offices. Five more top echelon posts were occupied by women. A Bahraini gained victory for the first time on a parliamentary seat in 2006. In October 2002, eight women vied for the parliamentary seats. The king‘s wife extended considerable support to female candidates. Fifty-two percent of those who cast their votes in 2002 were women. Six women were nominated by the king to the Consultative Council in 2003. The number moved upwards to 10 in 2006. In 2002, 34 women contested municipal elections. The government of Bahrain also took measures in order to reform civic life of women. In 2005, the king enjoined for the enactment of laws that would bring all forms of discrimination against women to an end. Patronized by the state, Supreme Council for Women gives backing to NGOs operating to bring awareness among Bahraini women of their legal rights. NGOs now enjoy the liberty of carrying out activities for improving human rights conditions in Bahrain. The women were also granted permission by the parliament in 2005 to sponsor their foreign spouses and children. Around one fifth of the top positions in media organizations are occupied by women in Bahrain. In schools and universities, the number of females has surpassed the number of males. With an enhanced representation in the Shura Council, expanded political rights, and ratification of United Nations‘ Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) by Bahrain, the lot of women has visibly got better. Kuwait: A woman was picked as minister in Kuwait in 2005 for the first time when Massouma al-Mubarak was chosen as minister of Planning and Administration Development. In 2008, Nouria Al-Subaih, another woman, was deputed as Minister of State for Housing Affairs. Two women, Fatimah al-Sabah and Fouzia al-Bahr, were delegated to the Municipal Council, for the first time in Kuwait‘s history. Appointment of first female minister in fact followed the parliament‘s approval of historical legislation that conferred political rights on women. Though, they did not gained victory, 32 women fought for parliamentary seats in 2006 and 28 in 2008. It was, however, in May 2009, when four of the women contenders defeated their opponents in parliamentary elections and made headlines in media all around the world. All of the four winners Massouma Al-Mubarak, Salwa al Jassar, Aseel al Awadi, and Rola Dashti have graduated from advanced countries. Their margin of victory surpassed observers‘ calculations. Other women contestants, who lost the elections, also fared better than they had done in the yesteryear. One of them, Thikra Rashidi, bagged 6,600 votes. In fact, women candidates have carried out effective election campaigns in a professional manner. Women now also play a significant role in Kuwait‘s economy as they are in charge of the country‘s half of the economic activities. In education, they have not only outnumbered males but by two-third majority in the universities. Qatar. The foremost thing in Qatar that draws our attention is related to the constitutional procedure whereby the basic law was implemented after its approval in a popular referendum in which men and women both cast their votes in 2003. In May 2003, Sheikha Ahmad AlMahmoud took the charge of Ministry of Education as the first female minister in the country‘s history. In 2008, another woman, Shaikha Ghalia bint Mohammad Al-Thani was named as Minister of Health and stood to be the country‘s second female minister. Shaikha Abdulla alMisnad was selected as president of the Qatar University in 2003. In the same year, a woman was deputed for the first time as a public prosecutor. In 2003, a woman stood unopposed and won the seat in municipal elections. She became Qatar‘s first elected female official. The election law ratified by the Shura Council in May 2008 vouchsafed political rights to women. However, they had cast their votes before when they took 467 part in the approval of the constitution in 2003. A woman was also inducted as a member of the National Committee for Human Rights at the occasion of its establishment in 2003. Three women contested municipal elections in 2007. Qatar University, for the first time, admitted women students in electrical engineering, chemical engineering, and architecture in 2008. Oman: In the entire Gulf region Oman appointed the first female minister in March 2003. Others followed the course. Aisha bint Khalfan, as the first female minister, took charge of National Authority for Industrial Craftsmanship in March 2003. In 2004, Rajiha bint Abdul Amir, Sharifa bint Khalfan, and Rawiyah bint Saud Al-Busaidiyah were nominated as Minister of Social Development, Minister of Tourism and Minister of Higher Education respectively. A woman joined the board of the Businessmen‘s Council as a member in 2003. The government of Oman also inducted two women as ambassadors, to the United States and Holland. In 2008, 16 percent of Majlis al Dawlah (the State Council) seats were filled by women and 35.4 percent of the posts in the civil service were also held by women in Oman. Fifteen women candidates competed for elections in 2003 and 20 in 2007. In 2006, there were nine women members in the State Council and 16 in the Shura Council. Increased political awareness among the Omanese women is indicated by the fact that the number of female voters doubled in 2003 compared to that of 2000. One hundred thousand women cast their votes in 2003. Thirty-eight (38) NGOs working for the betterment of women of Oman are aided by state-sponsored Women‘s Association. Oman also took the lead among the Gulf countries when Omanese women made entry in the General Prosecution Office in 2004. Furthermore, a woman, Farah Yahya Al-Numani, became a female firefighter for the first time in Oman. United Arab Emirates: In November 2004, the government of United Arab Emirates named a woman as minister for the first time when Shaikha Lubna Al-Qasimi was given the charge of the Ministry of Economy and Planning. Less than two years later, a second female minister was selected. Maryam Al-Roumi became Minister of Social Affairs in February 2006. Further two years down the road two more women were appointed as ministers in 2008. Maitha Al-Shamsi and Reem Ibrahim Al-Hashemi took charge as Ministers of State in 2008. Thus, the number of women ministers rose to four. In July 2003, the foreign ministry inducted eight women as diplomats. In 2009, women accounted for around ten percent of the country‘s diplomats. A woman was promoted as the Secretary General of the Council of Ministers. Nine out of total 40 members of the Federal National Council are women. Two of the Council‘s eight standing committees are also chaired by women. Emirati women have also been engaged in the activities of various international bodies like International Union of Parliaments, the Union of Arab Parliaments, and the Transitional Arab Parliament. United Arab Emirates signed United Nations‘ Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 2004. In 2002, a network of female professionals, UAE Businesswomen Council, was founded. More than 12,000 women are its members. In November 2006, another organization Dubai Women Establishment (DWE) for the development of women was set up. First woman judge Kuloud Ahmed Juoan AlDhaheri was designated in the United Arab Emirates in March 2008. In the same year, Fatima Saeed Obaid Al-Awani took charge as first woman registrar in the country. Shaikha Najla Al Qasimi and Hassa Al Otaiba were posted for the first time as the United Arab Emirates‘ female ambassadors to Sweden and Spain respectively. In 2003, 32 women were employed in special security force. Women account for 30 percent of the civil service in the country. Sixty-three Women candidates ran for the Federal National Council elections in December 2006 for the first time in the United Arab Emirates. In 2007, female literacy rate was 90% in the country. 468 Eighteen percent of the faculty in higher education is female and more than 4.5 billion dollars of wealth is in women‘s control.lxviii Conclusion Given the poignant history of deprivation of women of their rights for long in the region under study it appears that the level of this deprivation has softened over the first decade of the 21 st century. And, the process has gained a momentum that continues to bring more and more good news not only for the women of these states but also for those around the world who want to see the repressed Arab women enjoying their rights and liberties and making progress in every field of human activity. A number of domestic, regional, and international factors are behind the change that women of the Gulf region are witnessing right now. The 21st century dawned on the younger generations of the Arab world with a message of hope for liberty and freedom. Nine eleven proved to be a stimulus in the process of change. International scenario swiftly turned in favor of oppressed women in the Arab Middle East and they made entries in the power corridors of politics and economy. Though, a lot remains to be done for realizing the goal of their unqualified emancipation, whatever has been attained is of consequence. Millions of women inhabiting these countries now have a sanguine view of their future. Now they frequently make news related to various fields of life. A newborn cognizance of her sociopolitical entity in the Arab woman is perceptible. It can be figured on that these Arab women will be able to enjoy equal political rights over the next one or two decades. Endnotes and References 1 Christine Eickelman, ―Women and Politics in an Arabian Oasis,‖ in Farhad Kazemi and R.D. McChesney (eds.), A Way Prepared: Essays on Islamic Culture in Honor of Richard Bayly Winder, (New York: New York University Press, 1988), p. 199, cited in J.E. Peterson, ―The Political Status of Women in the Arab Gulf States,‖ Middle East Journal 43(1), (Winter 1989), p. 34. 1 J.E. Peterson, ―The Political Status of Women in the Arab Gulf States,‖ Middle East Journal 43(1), (Winter 1989), p. p. 34. 1 Marcel Kurpershoek, Arabia of the Bedouins, (London: Saqi Books, 2001), p. 90; Mary Ann Tetreault and Haya al-Mughni, ―Modernization and its Discontents: State and Gender in Kuwait,‖ Middle East Journal 49(3), (Summer 1995), pp. 406, 415; Carmen Bin Ladin, The Veiled Kingdom: A unique insight into Saudi society and the Bin Laden family, (London: Virago, 2005), p. 71. 1 Gender and Economics in MENA: From Theory to Policy Making, (Dubai: Dubai School of Government, 2009), p. 26. 1 Jeremy Jones, Negotiating Change: The New Politics of the Middle East, (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2007), p. 173. 1 Eleanor Abdella Doumato, ―Women and Work in Saudi Arabia: How Flexible are Islamic Margins?‖ Middle East Journal 53(4), (Autumn 1999), p. 569; www.cdhr.info/ Campaigns/WomenRightsBriefing, accessed on Jun. 20, 2009; www.ndi.org/content/ saudi_arabia, accessed on Dec. 23, 2009. 1 Ellis Goldberg, Resat Kasaba, and Joel S. Migdal (eds.), Rules and Rights in the Middle East: Democracy, Law, and Society, (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1993), p. 163; Richard Dekmejian, ―The Liberal Impulse in Saudi Arabia,‖ Middle East Journal, 57(3), (Summer 469 2003), p. 403; Saad Eddin Ibrahim, ―Special Report: Crises, Elites, and Democratization in the Arab World,‖ Middle East Journal 47(2), (Spring 1993), p. 298. 1 Eleanor Abdella Doumato, ―Women and Work in Saudi Arabia‖ p. 575; www.cdhr.info/Campaigns/WomenRightsBriefing, accessed on Jun. 20, 2009. 1 www.cdhr.info/Resources/HR1TitleXIV, accessed on Dec. 26, 2009. 1 http://www.outreach.washington.edu/uweo/press/releases/010172008_abud habi.asp, Jan. 7, 2008, accessed on Apr. 26, 2009. 1 Gulf Yearbook 2008-2009, (Dubai: Gulf Research Center, 2009), pp. 66, 70–1. 470 SYNOPSIS OF RELIGION AND CHILD ABUSE: NIGERIA EXPERIENCE Alexander Olufemi Afolabi OKEBUKOLA Department Of Christian Religious Studies Michael Otedola College of Primary Education P.M.B 1028 Epe, Lagos State,Nigeria Okebukola 52 @yahho.com(08033538327) ABSTRACT Child abuse is a common practice in Nigeria which should be minimized if not eradicated. Abuse, injustice, oppression, battery incidence and wickedness are prevalence against religious norms that teach wholeness, peace, liberty, emancipation and justice. It is against this background that the paper reviews the various components of child abuse, within this understanding, to examine the influence of religion on child abuse in Nigeria. It then concludes with recommendations towards elimination of child abuse. Introduction Child abuse has received considerable attention within the last two decades. Perhaps because of severe economic depression, indeed it has received substantial attention worldwide. The United National, through its member‘s organization such as UNESCO (United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) has focused on this issue, recognizing the worst forms of such abuse. Nigeria, being a religiously pluralistic state has it in record three main and prominent religions; African Traditional religion, Christianity and Islam, among the three. Two religious have played important roles in the development of millions of Nigerian citizens. However, it is instructive to note that some religionists have negatively harnessed religion to perpetuate all forms of social problems including child abuse. Child abuse as a concept describes all sorts of injustice, abnormality and inhuman treatment given to the young feeble ones by the adult generation (Olok-Ake 2000) child abuse as a social problem is not a new historical phenomenon. Historical accounts of child abuse could also be found in the Biblical and Quranic stories of ancient period of Jews and Arabs. In the history of Pharaoh of Egypt, both the Quran and Bible reveal how king Pharaoh killed the male children of the community. King Pharaoh killed the male children in order to avert the fulfillment of the prophesy on the male ascension to throne. In the same vein, the antiquated Arabs are reported in the Qur‘an to be in the practice of killing their female children before the coming of Islam, which was known as the period of ignorance (Jahiliyyah). The case of Joseph and his paternal brothers is another example of the age long practice of child abuse in human history (Hitti 1970). Also Yakubu (1994), reports that in the traditional African societies, physical punishment of children, whipping, flogging and labouring were very common practices. CONCEPT OF RELIGION As a concept, religion has come to occupy a centre stage in both our consciousness and in academic discourses. According to Peter (1998), religion is a system of symbols which act to establish powerful, pervasive and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seems uniquely realistic. Adeoye and Adeleke (2000) opined that religion contributes to the maintenance of order in the society. It does this by creating conditions for integration of the individual in the sense of 471 personal adjusted and social integration in terms of its ability to provide legitimating for social arrangement. Among the various roles that religion plays according to Ate (1993) are conditions for cohesion, shouldered self discipline, well-being and concluded by of culture and traditions. And religion restrains deviance and promotes loyalty. Religion should give and maintain the above services; if the particular religion fails to perform the aforementioned functions then such religion has failed as observed by Greeley (1989) in its functional value to the people and society as whole. CHILD ABUSE Child Abuse is the physical, sexual, emotional mistreatment, or neglect of child. In the United States, the centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Department of child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm or threat of harm to child.Dzurgba (1991) believed that child abuse can occur in a child‘s home, or in the organizations schools or communities that child interacts with. Kalu (1996) opined that child abuse can be basically summarized as experience which constitutes acts developed or commissioned to inflict harm directly on a participating child to reduce chances of that child in developing potentials as a human being and in complete disregard to basic right and protection of a child. Oloidi (2007) be moaned that child abuse is any kind of inhuman act that jeopardizes the physical. Psychological growth along with the futurity of the child either intentionally or unintentionally. Child neglect may mean the denial of basic rights and need of the child, by parents, school, peers, government and cultural community occurring as acts of commission or omission (Oloko 1992). Religion and Child Abuse: Nigeria Experience Religion has been as source of child abuse among some adherents in Nigeria. Although, while child abuse is discouraged in these religions, some religionists mischievously used religion to practice child abuse. Example abound. The Good Shepherd Orphanage in Lagos was reported to be engaged in illegal adoption of babies as well as sheltering young pregnant girls and selling off their babies at birth. Many of these sold cannot be traced and one cannot determine what became of them (Dave-Odigie 2008). In certain regions of Nigeria, disease (such as HIV/AIDS, malaria etc) accidents, drunkenness mental health problems, the smoking of marijuana, divorce, infertility and other misfortunes are generally blamed on witchcraft. The devil‘s children are identified by powerful religious leaders at extremist churches where Christianity and traditional beliefs have combined to produce a deep rooted belief in and fear of witchcraft. The priest spread the message that child-witches bring destruction, disease and death to their families. The religious leaders therefore offer help to the families whose children are named as witches but at a price the church run exorcism or deliverance.Many are held in Churches often on chains and deprived of food until they confess to bring a witch. 472 In Northern Nigeria, the al-majiris system in which children in Quranic schools are left to roam the street to beg for alms is regarded as child labour or child abuse, since they are to bring back home their proceeds to their Quranic teachers. Kisekka (1987) observed that the mallam often move from city to city and when they die or if the beggars whom the children help die, the children reportedly become delinquent, street dwellers if male and prostitute if female. Causes of Child Abuse Child abuse is a complex phenomenon with multiple causes. Understanding the causes of abuse is crucial to addressing the problem of child abuse. The following factors are responsible for child abuse in Nigeria. Children resulting from unintended pregnancies are more likely to be abused or neglected. Poverty: majority of the parents are poor they could not afford to maintain or take good care of their children, this is why we see some teenagers male and female being taken away outside the country serving as labourers, prostitute risking their lives to all types of dangerous diseases associated with illegal and premature sex. Unemployment and financial difficulties are associated with increased rates of child abuse. Broken homes: The divorce of a child‘s parents and the broken home environments are contributory factors in the problems of child abuse and neglect due to diminished parental care. Some stepmothers are cruel to the children of the estranged or former wife and would not hesitate to abuse such children. Neglect by busy Parents: The children may become neglected or abused because the parents claim to be too busy to find and spare time with the child and supervise him. Ebigbo (2002) argued that it occurs most commonly in homes in which all material needs and more have been provided. The ever busy parents discover too late that the children have found alternative pursuits often involving crimes and drugs. Mental disordered/imbalance: Psychiatric or mental illness, disorder or imbalance is one of the causes of child battering. It is generally believed that child battering could be caused by psychiatric illness, frustration, imbalanced psychological disposition immaturity, impulsiveness, egocentricity, hypersensitivity and poorly controlled aggression under high expectation, addiction to drugs including alcohol etc. Other causative agents are: Maltreatment, Desertion, Ejection, Refund of bride price, sexual incompatibility, intimidation child custody, Religious differences, child marriage, seduction, unmarried mothers, Juvenile delinquency and Extra-marital relationship resulting in pregnancy. 473 Effects of Child Abuse The effects of child abuse in Nigeria like other third world nations are devastating and outrageous. It is social problems that afflict all societies. From medical angle, it causes physical damage and injuries. Daudu (2008) believed that the effects may be emotional, physical, psychological as well as social child abuse by parents could result in the loss of self esteem and personality disorder on the part of the child. The child could feel insecure, hated and indifferent to life. A child may also have constant strong feelings of guilt and rejection.A female child, who is given out to early marriage, may be made to drop out of school or totally denied her right to education. A child that is neglected may grow up to become a thing readily available for use by selfish adults thereby becoming a nuisance to the society and an embarrassment to the parents. Conclusion and Recommendations The paper examined the place of religion in promoting child abuse in Nigeria, therefore on this premise it is apposite to make the following recommendations towards effective control of child abuse. The religious bodies should create a social welfare department with a committee to oversee the welfare projects for child development.Religious organizations in the country should embark on more social welfare services to alleviate poverty and prevent child abuse in the society.Both the church and the Mosque are duty bound to raise awareness on the problem of child abuse.Preaching against child abuse in the congregations by the religious leaders would go a long way to assist both the parents and the children. Organizing House to house campaign against child abuse: as some religious people do go from house to house to preach the gospel and win souls for God, they can extend the same gesture to the spreading of information against child abuse in likely manner. Counseling of parents on how to use their child by the religious leaders would go a long way through counseling collectively or on one on one basis, this is important in order to correct some parents who always handle their children carelessly and engage in abusing them unknowingly. Nigerian government should take every appropriate measure to ensure that the state legislation provide an adequate framework for effective legal measures against all forms of child abuse. REFERENCES Adeoye, M.N and Adeleke, S.B (2000): Social inequality and Religious Commitment; Lagos Murphis Communication Ltd. Ate, P.A (1993): Social Studies and Environmental Education. Nigerian Journal of Social Studies Review, Volume 11 pp 111-112. Dave-Odigie, C.P (2008): ―Human Trafficking Trends in Nigeria and Strategies for combating the crime‖ Peace studies Journal Vol Issue 1 Abuja. Daudu, M. (2008): Contemporary Ethnical Issues in Christian Perspective Zaria: Shola Press. Dzurgba, A. (1991): The Sociology of Religion Ibadan: Wemilore Press Ltd. Ebigbo, P. (2002): The Problems of Child Abuse and Neglect in Nigeria and strategies for over coming them in Aminu L.S. and Olikoshi, B (Eds). The Nigerian child Now and in the future: Lagos Federal Ministry of Health and UNICEF. Greeley, A.M. (1989): Myths of Religion: An inspiring investigation into the Nature of God and a Journey to the Boundaries of faith. New York: Warner Books. Hitti, P.K (1970): History of the Arabs. London Macmillan Education Limited. 474 Kalu, W.S. (1996): ―The nature of child Abuse and Neglect ANPPCAN Advocacy series in Nigeria Child Rights Monitor ANPPCAN Vol. 1. Kisekka, M.N. (1987) Children in Kaduna state, Nigeria; Problems and Needs. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and Kaduna: Department of sociology and Kaduna child welfare committee. Oloidi, C.K (2007): ―Contemporary Public Issue‖ Osogbo, Rem Osarayi and sons enterprises. Olok-Ake, A. (2000): Protecting children in the midst of conflict: Local, National and Regional Initiatives Proceedings of the Conference on War affected children in West Africa-Accra. Oloko, B. (1980): ―Children‘s Work in Urban Nigeria: A case study of young Lagos street Traders‖. UNICEF Staff Working paper page 4, 11-12. Peter, V.V. (1998): ―Religion‖ in Barnard A(eds) Encyclopedia of social and cultural Anthropology London Routledge. UNICEF (1986): Proceedings of the international Workshop held at Enugu Nigeria 27th April – 2nd May. Yakubu, A.M. (1994): ―Medical Aspects of child Abuse and Neglect in Nigeria‖. African Network for the Prevention and Protection Against child Abuse and Neglect (ANPPCAN). The ANPPCAN Child Rights Monitoring Centre Kaduna December pg 13. 475 GENDER DIFFERENTIALS AND DETERMINANTS OF CHILD HEALTH IN INDIA Koyel Sarkar Research Scholar M. Phil, Population Studies Center for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India. [email protected] Abstract: Any country‘s level of development is determined by the quality of its human capital. In this regard children‘s health hold prime importance as they are the future generation of the country and their health status will determine the level of development. However, India is a land of diversity and thus the area of health is equally influenced by a whole lot of socio-cultural features that differs from place to place and person to person. On one side there is shortage of services and their proper regional distribution while on the other side there is differential utilization of the existing services. It is this differential utilization of child health care that is important and therefore in this paper an attempt to study the various factors affecting child health has been made. Higher mortality among girls can be attributed to socio economic and cultural factors which give more importance to boys. A spatial analysis using the Arc Gis, reveals that a general neglect of girl child in evident in the country especially in the northern states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, etc. However, the longitudinal analysis (Binary Logistic Regression) shows that in Uttar Pradesh, the scenario is way different from the rest of states. The study shows that education of the mother and the standard of living has a strong positive influence over child health. Also, more educated mothers are more likely to have less number of births and their age at first birth is usually high. This automatically leads to better child health. However, the employment status of the mother has varying influence in child health. Working mothers usually have less time for their children and so daily monitoring of their child‘s food habits is usually not possible, but since they are in constant social interaction they are aware of the importance of vaccinations on child‘s health and so get their children vaccinated. Thus these mothers usually tend to have vaccinated but underweighted children. However, social factors like religion, caste and also the place of residence do not seem to affect child health much. Keywords: Gender Differentials, Child Health, Socio-Cultural Features, Mother‘s Education 476 INTRODUCTION: Any country‘s level of development is determined by the quality of its human capital. In this regard children‘s health hold prime importance as they are the future generation of the country and their health status will determine the level of development. The World Health Organization defines health as ―the state of complete physical, mental and social well – being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity‖. Since children‘s health determines the health of the country in future, the government has put in a lot of efforts to improve the standard of living of the people, health and family welfare. Keeping in mind that women are the primary caretakers of the household and their health will determine the family‘s health, the country has made maternal and child health services an integral part of the various 5 year plans and promotion of maternal and child health has been one of the most important objective of the family welfare programmes in India. More recently, efforts to improve maternal and child health have been enhanced by the activities of the family welfare programme and by the introduction of the Child Survival and Safe Motherhood Programme (CSSM). The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has also sponsored special projects under the Maternal and Child Health (MCH) care programme including the Oral Rehydration Therapy programme, the establishment of regional institute of maternal and child health in states where infant mortality is high. Particularly for child‘s health, the vaccination of children, against the six diseases (tuberculosis, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, poliomyelitis and measles) has remained a major focus. The National Immunization Programme is being implemented under the national health policy whereas the Universal Immunization Programme, introduced in 1980‘s with the objective to cover at least 85% of all infants against the six vaccines preventive diseases have been successful to a large extent covering major parts of the country. Among the others are the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), Millenium Development Goals, etc. whose major focus remain child health. However, India is a land of diversity and thus the area of health is equally influenced by a whole lot of socio-cultural features that differs from place to place and person to person. These sociocultural features tend to affect both the demand side factors as well as the supply side factors in terms of health. On one side there is shortage of services and their proper regional distribution while on the other side there is differential utilization of the existing services. It is this differential utilization of child health care that is important and therefore in this paper an attempt to study the various factors affecting child health has been made. 477 OBJECTIVE: The prime objective of the paper is to assess child health status in the country. Specifically, the paper will aim to: c. Spatially study the variation in condition of child health and the incidence of ―gender bias‖, if at all exists, in child health care in the country, and d. To study the independent socio-economic determinants, more importantly how the mother‘s background characteristics tend to influence child‘s health in Uttar Pradesh. DATABASE: Data for this study is primarily taken from: c. Data on IMR and CMR (all India, district level) has been taken from Population Foundation of India, census based estimates for 2001. d. The children‘s file of Uttar Pradesh, from National Family and Health Survey 3 has been used which was conducted in 2005-06 by the International Institute of Population Sciences, Mumbai. METHODOLOGY: For this study, five variables have been chosen which would determine the child health conditions in country. The first three variables, infant mortality rate (IMR), child mortality rate (CMR) and mortality differentials between girl and boy child help to analyze the child health status and also gender bias (if at all exists) in the country. The next two variables, children ever had vaccination and weight by age (from NFHS 3) help to reach the second objective which is to analyze the factors that affect child health in Uttar Pradesh. The present study uses the following techniques to reach the objectives: d. A spatial variation of infant and child mortality along with mortality differentials between girl and boy child have been mapped with the help of Arc Gis on all India district level. e. Bivariate Analysis to find the association between the independent and dependent variable and their level of significance. f. Binary Logistic Regression in SPSS has been carried out to examine the relationship between each of the independent variable and the dependent variable, while controlling the influence of the other variables. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM: In spite of all the developmental efforts done by the government through various policies and programmes like, National Population Policy (NPP), Family Planning or Welfare Programme (FPP / FWP), Reproductive and Child Health (RCH), Child Survival and Safe Motherhood 478 (CSSM), MDG, NRHM, etc. child mortality, underweighted children, prevalence of chronic and preventable diseases like tuberculosis, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, poliomyelitis, measles, etc. in India remains to be significantly high specially in the north Indian States of UP, Bihar, MP, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, etc. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: The present study assumes that gender bias does exist in child health care in household level and mother‘s education, employment status and other determinants like urban areas, high standard of living will lead to better child health. Also in terms of social stratifications it is assumed that Hindus and general castes will have better child health conditions than the others. ANALYSIS: Infant Mortality, Child Mortality and Mortality Differentials: a spatial distribution (country level) According to the objective of the paper, the analysis has been done on two specific areas, i.e., gender differences on the spatial variation of child deaths and the socio-economic determinants affecting child‘s health. To understand the second objective we must first look into the spatial variation on child health in terms of mortality situation in the country. Infant and child mortality is an important indicator of child health as less mortality will mean better health conditions. It also shows the level of social development, spread of medical facilities, etc. in any region. On the other hand, a gender difference in mortality rates along with mortality differentials between them has a greater importance as this can also show the presence of ―gender bias‖ in a region. More so, the gender bias becomes clearer if done in terms of ages. Infant mortality (less than 1year of age) as well as Child mortality (1 to 4 years of age) is highest in Uttar Pradesh (73 and 96) and lowest in Kerala and Goa (15 and 16) respectively. Apart from Uttar Pradesh, high levels of infant and child mortality are found in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh in the central region, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in the northeastern region, Jharkhand, Orissa, and Bihar in the eastern region, and Rajasthan in the northern region. These are regions with low levels of literacy, standard of living, development, etc and therefore suffer from adverse health conditions. In contrast, all states in the southern and western regions have lower levels of infant and child mortality. However, variations within the states are also evident and to get a clearer picture, a district level analysis of IMR, CMR and mortality differentials among male and female children have been done: 479 c. Female Infant Mortality Rates and Female Child Mortality Rates: At the age of less than 1 year maximum female death over most of the country is seen in the districts of the Indo-Gangetic plain, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, North eastern states and few districts of southern states. The southern peninsular part of India has fewer deaths. Exception of few border districts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra high death group can be attributed to the high sex ratio in spite of having less number of absolute deaths. The pattern is similar when we look at the female death differences by the age one to five years. The districts with low deaths are all located in the southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra. The zone with maximum female deaths is concentrated in central region i.e., entire UP, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and also few districts in the North East. d. Superimposition of IMR and CMR with Mortality Differentials: However, a high female death does not imply a gender bias by itself. The difference between the sex-wise mortality rates gives a better picture. For this purpose the mortality differentials between male and female have been plotted on maps at district level. The overlapping exercise helps identify broad regions of gender discrimination as manifested in differential mortality rates. Maps were drawn overlapping IMR and CMR with the difference between the male and female mortality rates to look at the regional pattern of gender difference in mortality. A triangle of high mortality differentials can be identified in northern India running from eastern Rajasthan to Bihar to Haryana. Within the entire region the gap between male and female deaths is high. This Triangle Zone has been called ―a zone of survival disadvantage for girls‖ by some scholars. In south India, high differences are observed in districts lying on the border of Karnataka and Maharashtra as well as Kerala. The entire country can be divided into four groups: Regions having low IMR, CMR and low MD: These can be said to be the better off regions where the general living conditions for infants is good and there is no gender issue as well. It includes most of southern peninsular districts in India. Regions having low IMR, CMR and high MD: These are the regions of real concern. The female deaths are low. This indicates that basic requirements for survival of kids are available. However, the mortality differentials are high. This indicates there is deliberate neglect of the girl child, so that she is unable to live as well as her male counterpart. This zone includes few districts of Kerala, northern Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, western Rajasthan, Haryana, and Bihar. 480 Regions having high IMR, CMR and high MD: These are regions where the high FD indicates that the general conditions for survival of infants are not suitable. However, high mortality differential shows a preference for male child and a neglect of female child. This region includes northern UP, central Madhya Pradesh and southern Rajasthan. Regions having high IMR, CMR and low MD: These are areas where kids die of other reasons. Gender is not an issue. This is a very narrow tribal belt in central India as can be seen from the maps. Child Health: (Uttar Pradesh) From the above analysis we have seen the worse of states in terms of child health and gender bias in child health is UP, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Since studying all these states together would make the work more complicated and simple mapping will not give us a clearer picture of how the socio-economic determinants affect child‘s health, I have taken Uttar Pradesh on which a longitudinal analysis has been worked out focusing primarily on what effect does the socioeconomic characteristics have on children. Conceptual Framework: We all know how education acts as a black box in improving health conditions through boosting knowledge, social interaction, skills, autonomy, self confidence, etc. In this study, we will analyze of how certain independent variables of mother‘s like education, place of living, age at first birth, etc are intimately connected and attempt to explain child‘s health. Already known, that higher education of the mother will lead to better human, social and economic capital. The advantages of knowledge, communication, skill, autonomy, etc. thus gained automatically reduce her age at first birth, birth order, etc. If the mother is working, on one hand her social interaction will increase, she will be more aware of conditions of better health even if she is less educated and thus will lead to better health of her child. While on the other hand, it may also happen that due to working outside and being occupied with other work, she may not have enough time for her child and this may result into adverse health conditions. Few characteristics are inborn in certain social stratifications like caste, religion, etc. which are expected to be linked with child health. Therefore these have also been studied. 481 Bivariate Analysis: Keeping the above conceptual framework in mind, we can now show the actual relationship between each of the independent variables and the dependent variable (children ever had vaccination and weight by age of the children) with the help of bivariate analysis. Independent Variables Ever had vaccination Weight by age Frequency % No 236 3.3 Yes 5068 71.9 Normal Underweight 4298 2124 61 30.1 Missing values Missing % 1747 24.8 629 8.9 Children ever had vaccination: The dependent variable shows a clear trend with education of the mother, age at first birth, birth order of the child, occupational status of the mother, place of residence, social groups, and standard of living. Higher educated mothers are more likely to get their children vaccinated than less educated mothers. Mothers, who had their first child at a lower age of less than 18years, are likely to have higher birth orders and so less likely to get their children vaccinated. Most mothers with high age at first birth have their children vaccinated. Working mothers generally tend to be more socially aware and so are more likely to have their children vaccinated than mothers who work at home. Among the social groups the OBC‘s and the Hindus receive the highest percentage of vaccinations; the SC‘s and Muslims being the least. As in case of place of residence due to more facilities in urban areas, children get more vaccinated. 482 Children‘s weight by age: Clearly, women with less education, low age at first birth and high birth order are the ones with underweighted children. Women who are employed and work away from home have less time for their children and so end up in underweighted children. In the social groups, the SC‘s, and the Hindus have more of underweighted children. Due to poverty people with low standard of living and lack of good nutritious food in rural areas result in more underweighted children. Therefore the expected results are: high education, higher age at first birth and low birth order among mother‘s leads to healthy children. Being more aware, mothers who are employed and are working outside get their children vaccinated but unfortunately end up in underweighted children. This is because working women have less time for tracking their children‘s food habits which is not a single day affair and requires a daily check. Overall, SC‘s result in unhealthy children, Hindus though get their children vaccinated, have underweighted children. On the other hand, Muslims in spite of having less vaccinated children end up in normal weighted children; this may be because of the high protein intake in the dietary habits (meat, etc.). Mothers living in rural areas and with a low standard of living end up in having unhealthy children. Binary Logistic Regression: Though bivariate analysis throws light on the relationship between the dependent and independent variables, it does not control the influence of the other variables and therefore logistic regression is carried out to find out the net effect of each independent variable on the dependent variable while controlling the influence of other variables. Net Effect of Background Variables on Vaccination of the Child: The binary logistic regression analysis show that keeping all other variables constant, education of the mother has the strongest effect on children‘s vaccination. Higher the education, more likely is the children to get vaccinated. Age at first birth and birth order show moderate significance in affecting vaccination of children. Mothers with high age at first birth, above 24years, are likelier to get their children vaccinated than mothers with low age at first birth and lower the birth order of mothers, higher gets the chance of vaccination of children. Occupational status of mothers does affect vaccination of children but moderate to less. Mothers who are working are more likely to get their children vaccinated than mothers who do not work. Again, mothers who are working away from home are even more likely to get their children vaccinated than mothers who are working at home. This is because simply working does not influence the knowledge, skill, awareness among women; it is actually influenced by working outside where 483 more social interaction, communication, exposure is met. Social stratifications like caste, religion or place of residence does not influence the vaccination of children. However, standard of living has moderate positive influence over children‘s vaccination i.e., higher the standard of living higher is the chance of children getting vaccinated. Net Effect of Background Variables on prevalence of Underweighted Children: The binary logistic regression analysis show that keeping all other variables constant, the prevalence of underweighted children is the least among the secondary educated mothers and surprisingly even higher educated mothers tend to have more underweighted children. The reason for this unexpected result maybe that mothers with higher education tend to be employed which may leave them with very less time for proper child care. Age at first birth of the mother as well as the place of living has very little influence on the child weight by age. However, higher birth orders of the mother have more chance of children being underweighted. Mothers working away from home usually have less time for their child care and so end up in having more underweighted children. Standard of living shows the maximum influence, as mothers enjoying high standard of living usually have the least underweighted children. The reason may be that even if these mothers are working outsides, they may have babysitting facilities at home who can take proper care of the child. CONCLUSION: Higher mortality among girls can be attributed to socio economic and cultural factors which give more importance to boys. A general neglect of girl child in evident in the country specially in the northern states of UP, MP, Rajasthan, etc. such neglect can be attributed in the practices such as abandonment of the girl child, shorter duration of breastfeeding, restricted nurturing, lack of access to proper nutrition, less medical care at times of illness, etc. However, the longitudinal analysis shows that in UP, the scenario is way different from the rest of states. According to data availability and to study how background variables affect child‘s health, the study has been done. It shows that education of the mother and the standard of living has a strong positive influence over child health. Also, more educated mothers are more likely to have less number of births and their age at first birth is usually high. This automatically leads to better child health. However, the employment status of the mother has varying influence in child health. Working mothers usually have less time for their children and so daily monitoring of their child‘s food habits is usually not possible, but since they are in constant social interaction they are aware of the importance of vaccinations on child‘s health and so get their children vaccinated. Thus these mothers usually 484 tend to have vaccinated but underweighted children. Social factors like religion, caste and also the place of residence do not seem to affect child health much. There are however certain limitations to the study. Health has multiple dimensions. Studying it on the basis of only children ever had vaccination and weight by age does not give the actual picture of child health in any region. Moreover, the study is based on the demand side factors like, whether the children are being vaccinated or not, whether the children eat proper nutritious food, etc. but the supply side factors like the availability of health care services, etc have not been incorporated in the study. Including these factors could have possibly resulted in a different conclusion as to what are the actual reasons for the ill health of children. Minor errors can also be possible due to small sample size. However, in spite of these limitations, the study can be considered successful in achieving the target objectives. Mother‘s education, employment status, standard of living has a strong affect on children‘s health in Uttar Pradesh. Therefore the government should focus more on education of mother, increasing their age at marriage to result in high age at first birth, promotion of small family norms, etc. to achieve better child health and overall development. REFERENCES: » Arnold Fred, Kim Choe Minja And Kim Choe T. K. Roy: ―Son preference, the family-building process and child mortality in India‖; Population Studies; Vol. 52, No. 3, November, 1998, pp. 301-315. » Arokiasamy Perianayagam: ― Regional Patterns of Sex Bias and Excess Female Child Mortality in India‖; Population (English Edition, 2002-), Vol. 59, No. 6, Nov. - Dec., 2004, pp. 833-863. » Chaudhury Rafiqul Huda: ―The Effect of Mother's Work on Child Care, Dietary Intake, and Dietary Adequacy of Pre-School Children‖; The Bangladesh Development Studies; Vol. 10, No. 4, December 1982, pp. 33-61. » Croghan Thomas W., Beatty Amanda, Ron Aviva; ―Routes to Better Health for Children in Four Developing Countries‖; The Milbank Quarterly, Vol. 84, No. 2, 2006, pp. 333-358. » Joshi ArunR.: ―Maternal schooling and child health: preliminary analysis of the intervening mechanisms in rural Nepal‖; Health Transition Review; Vol. 4, No. 1, April 1994, pp. 1-28. » Kravdal Oystein, ―Child Mortality in India: The Community-Level Effect of Education‖; Population Studies, Vol. 58, No. 2 (Jul., 2004), pp. 177-192. 485 » Measham Anthony R., Rao Krishna D., Jamison Dean T., Wang Jia, Singh Alaka; ―Reducing Infant Mortality and Fertility, 1975-1990: Performance at All-India and State Levels‖; Economic and Political Weekly; Vol. 34, No. 22, May 29 - Jun. 4, 1999, pp. 1359-1367. » Pande Rohini P., Astone Nan Marie; ―Child Mortality in India: The Community-Level Effect of Education‖; Population Research and Policy Review; Vol. 26, No. 1, February, 2007, pp. 1-29. » Sivakami M.: ―Female work participation and child health: an investigation in rural Tamil Nadu, India‖; Health Transition Review; Vol. 7, No. 1 April 1997, pp. 21-32. » Streatfield Kim, Singarimbun Masri, Diamond Ian: ―Maternal Education and Child Immunization‖; Demography; Vol. 27, No. 3, August, 1990, pp. 447-455. » Tinkew Jacinta Bronte, Dejong Gordon F.; ―Do Household Structure and Household Economic Resources Predict Childhood Immunization? Evidence from Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago‖; Population Research and Policy Review; Vol. 24, No. 1, February, 2005, pp. 27-57. » Winikoff Beverly; ―The Effects of Birth Spacing on Child and Maternal Health‖; Studies in Family Planning; Vol. 14, No. 10, October, 1983, 486 CRIME: CONCEPT, CAUSES AND MILITATING FACTORS FLORENCE N. ANUMBA Federal College of Education(Technical) Omoku-Rivers State Nigeria ABSTRACT Nature sets out its orderliness for mankind to abide by. This orderliness follows the course of, and can therefore be termed, natural law. Acts in conformity with the orderliness are deemed good deeds, while those that run counter are bad. Unlike in the state of nature, where the order of the day was the survival of the fittest; the evolution of civilization resulted in every society becoming conscious of nature‘s orderliness, though the mode of expressing them differed from place to place. Man has the tendency to congregate, survive and also prosper in the society. The degree of structure and order based on the society‘s cultural heritage is expressed in its values and aspirations, and prohibitions charged on acts likely to endanger the health and safety of its citizens, as well as those that infringe on their enjoyment and possession of property – be they personal or communal. Murder, Armed Robbery, Rape, Stealing and manslaughter are examples of prohibited acts that endanger people‘s lives and well-being. They had thrived due to industrialization, globalization and complex changes taking place in countries the world over. This paper dwells on the nature of crime, why crime is prohibited, why they thrive and factors that militate against it. INTRODUCTION ―No man is an island‖, is a common saying. This means that societies comprise the aggregations of individuals. The instinct to congregate, survive and prosper in societies is, therefore, human. Prior to the evolution of civil societies, state of nature existed, but was anarchical, hence it was not a crime that man was wolf to man. It was not until the Greek period that serious attention began to be paid to Law, Justice, Politics and economics – the spontaneous development of the law – which ushered in respect for the dignity of man as human. For an individual living alone, what is required is habit. But, when humans congregate, for societies to function fairly and effectively, they create and maintain norms (which with time metamorphose into customs) and values according to their beliefs and aspirations. As societies become more complex and industrialized, the necessity of creating prohibitions on acts likely to mar the well-being, health, safety and interests of individual members of the society, and the need to protect the values and aspirations of the society itself becomes very paramount. What normally shape the law against prohibited acts are traditions, or the religious belief system and the political ideology of a people. On what is an ideology, Azikiwe (1979) answered: ―… Firstly, it is a systematic body of concepts about human life or culture. Secondly, it is a manner or content of thinking characteristic of an individual or a group‖. However, the word ‗Crime‘ refers to prohibited acts, and the law against crime is Criminal Law which according to Morlan (2001) is a litany of prohibitions and duties, behaviours that the State considers to be unacceptable or actions that the State demands. Prohibited acts also harm societal collective interests, hence states make laws to check them. Examples of crimes are: Murder, Stealing, Manslaughter, Rape, Conspiracy, Assault, Procurement, Burglary, Armed Robbery and Conversion. When any of these or other crimes is committed, the offender is normally apprehended, charged and prosecuted. The aim of trial is to dispense justice through the instrumentality of the law, by balancing the interest of the offender, the offended and that of the State as the major stake holder. Babatunde (2003) opines, the interest of the accused must be 487 balanced with the interest of the victim as well as the interest of the State, as the keeper of public good. DEFINITION OF TERMS Crime: The Merrian Webster Dictionary defines ‗crime‘ as a serious offense against the public law. The Black Law Dictionary sees ‗crime‘ as an act that law makes punishable; the breach of a legal duty treated as the subject matter of a criminal proceeding. A crime is an act prohibited by the State; it is a wrongdoing for which the offender must pay, hence the State stipulates, executes and punishes the doer with canning (in case of minors), fine or a term of imprisonment or both – in the event of conviction. Concept: This means the idea of something; an understanding of what something means. Cause: A cause is that which bring about something – an event or a result; something that compels something to happen. Militate: This means prevent, check or hinder the existence of something. Factor: A factor is the circumstance or situation that produces a result or is responsible for the existence of something. THE NATURE OF CRIME The principle of ‗actus non facit reum, nisi mens sit rea‘ is a cardinal principle of natural law. It means that an act does not make a man guilty unless his mind or intention is guilty. It therefore means that when a crime is said to have been committed, it cannot be swallowed line, hook and sinker to be a crime. To call an act a crime, two elements must come into play. They are the ‗actus reus‘ and the ‗mens rea‘. Without these factors manifestly seen to be coincidentally present in the commission of an act, it is no crime, and non can be said to have occurred. In general terms the conduct of the accused and his state of mind at the time of the conduct both determine whether he has committed a crime or not. To test what is unlawful and dangerous, Babatunde (2003) has this to say, the test as to what is unlawful and dangerous does not depend on the knowledge or thinking of the accused. It is based on the objective test, that is, what a reasonable person would describe as unlawful and dangerous. It is also necessary to point out here that a crime can be committed by a person without his actually doing the wrongful act. Thus, a person who procures another to commit an offence is said, in law, to have done the act himself, and, it is immaterial whether the offence committed is that counseled or procured or an entirely different one. In the event of conviction, the procurer suffers the same punishment as the procured. ACTUS REUS: The Black Law Dictionary defines the Latin phrase ‗actus reus‘ as ―guilty act‖; the wrongful deed that comprises the physical component of a crime and that generally must be coupled with mens rea to establish criminal liability. However, by actus reus is meant the wrongful or offensive act; the bad deed. It is bad because it runs counter to natural orderliness; it is an erosion of societal value, therefore, the society frowns at it. It is prohibited by the State. Actus reus is the harmful act forming the basis of liability. This presupposes that no matter the degree of evil intention in a person‘s head, (even when it is confessed) if it is not put into action, a crime has not been committed, and none can be said to exist. Thus, in the crime of ‗Murder‘, for example, the accused must have shot, stabbed or hit the victim and caused his death. In ‗Stealing‘, the accused must have taken away the money or other material(s) belonging to another. In ‗Conspiracy‘, he must have taken part in the plot to carry out the harmful act. In ‗Robbery‘, according to Sect. 9 of the Robbery and Firearms (Special Provisions) Act No. 47 of 1970, he must be proved to have been armed with “firearms” or “offensive weapons‖ at the time of committing the robbery. The actus reus of 488 an act may also consist of elements entirely external to the physical actions of the accused. This, eventually, takes us to the types of actus reus. Actus reus may be by any of the following: By conduct: This exists when the offence do not require proof of any result or consequence, what is required is only proof of the action. An example is the offence of dangerous driving, proof that the accused drove dangerously is enough to ground the action, without the prosecution going, extra miles, to prove injury caused or life lost by the act. By result: This occurs when the crime requires the proof of a result arising in the act. A case in point is the crime of assault where injury suffered by the victim is part of the actus reus. By circumstance: Actus reus is circumstantial when it consists of factors that are entirely external to the physical action of the accused. An example is an action done when drunk. What needs to be proved is the state of affairs that had to be found to exist with a little or no participation of the offender. It is however, submitted that the voluntary act occasioning liability can be found at earlier stage of the accused – voluntarily becoming intoxicated, for example. In the circumstance, what the information must disclose is certainly not the guilt of the accused, but a prima facie case for him to answer. Omission: An omission to act may also form the basis of criminal liability. An actus reus is, ordinarily, a positive act of the accused; one may then ask: ―How then can failure to act (omission) become illegal or result in a liability?‖ The answer is that while there is no liability for failing to act, if at the time of failing to act, the accused was under a legal duty to take positive action, the failure attracts a liability. For an omission (to act) to be criminal, i.e result in a criminal liability, recourse has to be taken of moral and legal duties. If the accused person has only the moral duty to act, but failed, such omission has no basis in law; but where he is under a legal duty, i.e he owes the victim a duty of care, the omission forms the basis of criminal liability. An omission or failure to act may also result in criminal liability, if it constitutes an invitation to treat. Involuntariness of action: This factor inquires whether the conduct or act of the accused, resulting in the prohibited consequence, is of his free-will or not. If the accused‘s prohibited act result from no fault of his own, it will occasion no criminal liability. This is because he was not in control of his action when causing or indulging in the action that produced the prohibited result. For involuntariness of action to avail an accused, either insanity or automatism must be found to be present. Thus, for the defence of involuntary act not to be negatived, impaired consciousness must result. Generally, for the defence of automatism to avail an accused, his act must be a reflex, spasm, or convulsion, or must have occurred while he is in a condition depriving him of effective control of his action; and the act or condition is not the result of anything done or omitted with the fault required for the offence or voluntary intoxication. And a person is not guilty of an offence (by virtue) of omission to act if he is physically incapable of acting in the way required, and his being so incapable is not the result of anything done omitted with the fault required for the offence nor of voluntary intoxication. Therefore, for an act to be termed a crime, it must constitute actus reus and mens rea. MENS REA The Black‘s Law Dictionary defines ‗Mens rea‘ as ―guilty mind‖; a state of mind that the prosecution, to secure a conviction, must prove that an accused had when committing a crime, criminal intention or recklessness. Howbeit, mens rea is the evil intention or bad state of mind of the accused when committing a prohibited act. The mens rea in stealing or theft is the intention to deprive the owner of the property. According to Morgan (2001) with the notable exception of strict liability, the criminal law does not punish a man for his actions alone. The prohibited actions must be accompanied by a culpable state of mind. 489 However, mens rea are varied; and the apportioning of a type to an offence is a matter of judicial and or legislative framework. In simple terms, deliberately committing a prohibited act attracts more severe punishment than recklessly or carelessly committing same. Most criminal offences require proof of intention or recklessness. Such recklessness is sufficient to ground an action. An act is labeled recklessness because it involves unjustifiable risk, being very unnecessary, could have been avoided as a reasonable man would have realized the obvious risk involved in such act. An accused person may raise the defence of Mistake, i.e as not having the requisite mens rea. Such mistake may be mistake of fact or mistake of law. An accused person raising the defence of mistake must make sure that the offence is one requiring some degree of fact on his part. It is for the state to establish beyond reasonable doubt that the accused was not mistaken, so did have the requisite mens rea for the offence he is charged with. In the case of IBEH v. STATE (1997) 1 NWLR (PT. 484) 632 at 65 S.C, the Supreme Court held that the proper role of the court in a criminal trial is to evaluate all the evidence before it and be sure that the case of the prosecution has been proved beyond reasonable doubt, but if there is doubt, whether based on material contradiction, or lack of sufficient evidence, the benefit of that doubt must be given to the accused person. He cannot plead a mistake of law, for ignorance of law is no excuse. Offences impliedly or expressly requiring proof of fault will apply to the defence of mistake, denying mens rea. In DPP v. MORGAN (1976) A C 182, the accused persons were convicted of rape, but they appealed against the judgement contending that they had believed that the complainant consented to sexual intercourse. The judgement held that the accused defence of mistake would have availed them only if it was honest and reasonable. The appeal was therefore dismissed. But the House of Lords upheld the appeal, holding that a defendant is to be judged by the facts as he honestly believed them to be. In the circumstance, recourse need to be had on the particular state of mind of the accused – all the evidence, and the presence or absence of reasonable grounds for possessing that state of mind. Compulsion: An accused person raising the defence of compulsion is seeking to establish that he performed the act for which he is charged involuntarily as a result of another person‘s action. The offender must have been persuaded to commit the act under a necessity, that is to say, by compulsion or inconvenience. Compulsion may be through duress, mental coercion, necessity or obedience to orders. Irrebutable Presumption against mens rea: Children are considered not fully responsible for their actions. This is because they cannot exercise self-control like adults. They are doli incapax (incapable of wrong or incapable of committing a crime). They know not the meaning and consequences of their actions. The presence of actus reus, but absence of mens rea raises the presumption of innocence in favour of the minor, exculpating him from the criminal responsibility of his actions. Thus, the presumption is irrebutable. However, if the accused commits a prohibited act against Z in the mistake of A, he will not be able to escape liability for the wrong because the actus reus and mens rea are both present, irrespective of who he wanted to offend. Generally, the nature of prohibited acts is that the two factors of wrong act and criminal mind must simultaneously come together in the commission of an act. Where only one is involved, the act is not criminal, and cannot ground an action in a criminal charge. 490 WHY CRIMES ARE PROHIBTED Man‟s inclination towards nature: Man is endowed with reason by creation. Creation is also a manifestation of perfection of order. Acts in deviation of the order are prohibitive. According to Okpara (2005) Law of nature is law of reason. It imposes obligations and prohibitions and confers natural rights (human rights). As it agrees with the rule of reason, it is in harmony with human nature. Man is endowed with reason by his creator to obey natural law of the universe. Natural laws are objective moral principles which depend upon the nature of the universe; by nature, they are imprescriptible, inalienable and above all, universal. Expatiating positive law, Okpara (2005) yet posits, it is understood that the great ancient and medieval philosophers believed that natural law commends things that are intrinsically good and prohibits things that are intrinsically evil. Risk of harm and injury: Crimes are also prohibited because of their risk of harm and injury to the individual, as well as the collective, interests and well-being of the citizens of the society. No society exists in vacuum, but consists of a population of people. A society may be likened to a state or nation. A state is a geographical entity with population and government, while a nation, according to Ramsay Muir in Appadorai (1968), is a body of people who feel themselves to be naturally linked together by certain affinities which are so strong and real for them that they can live happily together, are dissatisfied when disunited and cannot tolerate subjection to people who do not share these ties. Maintenance of law and order: Every people so linked together have common norms, desires, aspirations and values they cherish, duties and obligations they owe each other, prohibited acts and behaviours they frown at. The acts infringe on personal and collective interests of the members of the society, they constitute clogs in the wheel of progress, thus their end result is punishment. In the definition of Culpable Homicide punishable with death, Sect. 221(b) of the Penal Code, for example, it is stated that whether death was the probable or only likely consequence of an act or of any bodily injury, is a question of fact. Thus, if from the intentional act of injury committed, the probability of death resulting is high, the finding should be that the accused intended to cause death or injury sufficient in the ordinary course of nature to cause death, This was held in the case of GARBA vs. STATE (2000) 4 S.C, 157. In Sect. 31 of Penal Code, injury is defined as harm illegally caused. No people or nation flourishes in disorderliness, violence, and crime. As Lord Denning (1979) posits, in any case, whatever your role, I would as Master of the Roles, remind you that it is, in the long run, on the maintenance of law and order that civilized society depends. Retardation of Development: Crimes are also prohibited because the breed loss, hinder, disrupt and frustrate economic activities. A crime-ridden nation records retrogression, or at best, arithmetical progression in all facets of its development. Nations, in particular and the world generally, have recorded unprecedented draw-backs in advancement, since the emergence of drug and human trafficking, terrorists activities and other similar international crimes. Recently in Nigeria, people vacated their residence in the North for safety, following the horrors of Boko Harram in the country; and for foreign investors to respond to Nigeria‘s call to invest in the country, expatriates are apprehensive of coming to fish in the troubled water. The end result is that business and employment opportunities are stifled, while national development stagnates. Security of lives and property: Crimes are also prohibited because not only do they cause injuries and harms to the victims, and the offenders as well, they also ruin their lives. Many had lost their lives in the process of stealing, even worthless things. A young man once stole louver glasses, he was caught and burnt alive by a mob before Police could intervene. Apart from such dangerous 491 self-helps, a variety of punishments are attached to crimes by their enabling statutes. A case in point is the crime of stealing. Sect. 390 of the Criminal Code states: Any person who steals anything capable of being stolen is guilty of a felony, and is liable, if no other punishment is provided, to imprisonment for three years. (1) If the thing stolen is a testamentary instrument, whether the testator is living or dead, the offender is liable to imprisonment for life. (2) If the thing stolen is a postal matter or any chattel, money, or valuable security, contained in any postal matter, the offender is liable to imprisonment for life. Miserable state of affairs: Whether the punishment for a crime is death sentence, life imprisonment or less, in fact no matter how short the period of sentence, the victim‘s state of affairs remains incurably bad, because once a convict, always a convict. A convict is robed of the essence of his life and dignity of his human person. He spends the rest of his life as a second class citizen, devoid of access to most of his fundamental rights – he can no longer vie for, hold, be appointed to or elected into any public office. Crimes are ruinous, hence they are outlawed. CAUSES OF CRIMES/WHY THEY THRIVE Avariciousness: In spite of multiplicity of laws, decrees, promulgations, enactments, crimes have persisted. Man‘s inclination to amass wealth, to satisfy his insatiable wants, to boost his ego, lead people to indulge in crimes. Crimes also persist owing to people‘s intention to defraud others. In the case of BABALOLA v. THE STATE 103 (1989) 7 S.C. (PT.1) 94, stealing was defined to consist of an intention not only to take away the property, but also an intention to permanently deprive another of the use and ownership of such property. Habits: Crimes have also persisted because of habits grown and nurtured over the years. When habits are formed, particularly bad habits, they persist, in spite of efforts to get rid of them. Gangsterism, peer group syndrome, cultism, idle and disorderly habits promote crimes in youths which affects the society negatively. Children from broken homes, who grew up in motor parks, under bridges, and in the streets are most likely to be chronic criminals. Values a nation‟s educational system promotes can directly or indirectly make the ground fertile for crimes to flourish. In Nigeria, moral education has been stifled since the take over of school by the government from religious organizations. Inculcation of moral ethics and discipline of children in schools have been thrown to the winds. Worst still, at homes, parents have very little or no time to observe, monitor or attend to their children and wards – due to avarice. In majority of homes, children are left in the care of house-helps who do not only lack the requisite knowledge and ability to control, but also the skill to sow the good seeds of morality in children. Ingobro (2010) observed, the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) has started the infusion of national values curriculum in the educational system in Nigeria, particularly the basic education system to ensure that the youths of the nation are taught to imbibe the right attitude and moral values from their childhood. This effort should be applauded. Complex changes erupting all over the world encourage crimes. Acculturation, distorted value orientation, confused belief systems aggravates crime. At homes, majority of parents do not live by examples again, they encourage indolence, sponsor examination malpractice; in schools, teachers‘ dedication to duty has depreciated to zero, students snob and insult teachers, and exhibit apathy in their studies. Churches which are also agents of socialization, have taken to mad rush after wealth, commercializing the gospel, rather than focus on evangelization like the early missionaries. 492 Industrialization is one of the factors breeding crimes. Industrialization is a development marker. The advanced nations of the world are all industrialized. It has an attendant evil of multiplicity of crimes – taking people hostage following oil exploration and exploitation, its contagious crimes of kidnapping, youth restiveness, armed robbery, drug and human trafficking and ritual killings are examples of these crimes. Technological developments have also made crimes to flourish. Pornography in the internet is an example. Children and young persons these days lavish their precious time watching Western culture films, brandishing guns and destructive weapons; these have not only encouraged, but also increased crime wave the world over. The economy of all the nations of the world is monetized, hence too much priority is placed on money. In a world where money is accorded the highest priority over everything, and of course, supersedes every other consideration, crimes thrive. FACTORS THAT MILITATE AGAINST THE GROWTH OF CRIME 1) Strict adherence to the rule of law: The rule of law simply means that the law rules. In the days of Buhari and Idiagbon regime in Nigeria, armed robbery was punishable with Public Execution. Worst still, the convicts were taken to the Primary Schools nearest to their houses in their villages and there fired to death in the open fields, after asking them to address their people for the last time, or proffer words of advice to the youths. Before this stage, their names were announced several times over the radio, and this attracted every dick and harry to the fields except their relatives who dared not show up. The practice drastically checked the offence of robbery. Strict adherence to the law is a veritable tool to curb crimes. 2) Awareness and Sensitization: Though ignorance of the law is no excuse, one may neither know, and still not know that one does not know that an act is prohibited nor know the gravity of the consequences of the act. Government should endeavour to create awareness of prohibited acts and also sensitize the public of the consequences. As Otabo (2010) disclosed, during a visit of the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission, the National Association of Nigerian Students (NANS) Senate expressed their readiness to partner with the ICPC through organizing Anti-Corruption workshops, seminars, rallies and campaigns to complement the efforts of the anti graft agency. 3) Education: Education, generally and legal education, in particular, in secondary schools and tertiary institutions, as general courses, is very vital to the curbing of crimes in our societies. If the rudiments of some law courses like: Criminal Law, Law of Tort, Law of Contract, Business Law and Constitutional Law are infused in the Schools‘ Curriculum and taught effectively, youths will be conscious of their acts and shun crimes. Studies in Human Rights Law, in addition, will infuse, in the scholars, the spirit of respect for human dignity every person owes the other; and more still learn that one‘s right to swing his arms ends where the other‘s right to defend his nose begins. 4) Probity and Accountability: It is a maxim of equity that he who goes to equity must go with clean hands. People in the helm of affairs often embezzle public funds, loot public treasuries, and exhibit conducts so porous that the masses are provoked to take to the streets dragging, as a do or die affair, one public office or the other. Such conducts are contagious and breeds crimes. Offenders should be made to face the music. Nwozor (2010) revealed, the ICPC has arraigned a Professor and renowned Cardio Thoracic Surgeon at the UNTH Enugu before Hon. Justice L. A. Umezulike of the Enugu High Court, on a four count charge of using his office to confer corrupt advantage upon himself and for demanding gratification before performing official duty. The same Newsletter disclosed that ICPC also secured conviction of an Ex NDLEA Boss sentencing him to jail for corruption; while in another pending action, Court 493 resumes hearing on Corruption charges against Ex-Minister. Prosecution of corrupt public office holders, without fear or favour, discourages robbery with the pen. 5) Preservation of national interests: Self-centeredness encourages crimes. The desire in people to live in paradise on earth, without regard to national values, sees them into committing all manner of crimes. There is a great need to infuse the spirit of nationalism in the entire citizenry so that all will develop special regard to hold the nation on high esteem. This will go a long way to check the growth of crimes. 6) Home Training: Good home training and moral upbringing hinders crime. It is from the home that bad attitudes and habits are either nipped in the bud or allowed to grow with children to full blown adult criminals. Parents‘ lukewarm attitude in monitoring the company their children keep, how they spend their times, especially their free periods, their general attitudes in order to nip the bad in the bud, breed crimes. They should not spare the rod and spoil the child! Parents who connive a their children bringing home material things (not theirs) for keeps, to use or wear, must not cry wolf when the children mature to full blown thieves and robbers – when they would be too late to control. Some men do not provide necessaries for their households, they abandon their responsibilities, including their children‘s school needs, to their wives, hence such children join the bandwagon hawking – come rain, come sunshine – to help their mothers make ends meet. Such helpless children end up in the motor parks, streets, and often stray into brothels, and gambling houses where they take to juvenile delinquency and become nuisance to the society. CONCLUSION Crimes are evil wind that blows nobody good. They throw the society into insecurity, confusion, violence and panic; they cause injuries, pain, grief, losses and at times, death to individual victims, hence the state punishes it, regardless of whether the victims choose to pursue it or not. In Nigeria, since the break out of Boko Harram Sect that have been bombing media houses, tertiary institutions, public places and churches in particular, the law makers have not found a solution to the mayhem. The increase in crime wave and the mode of operation all over the world have encapsulated the inhabitants of the earth planet into a timid box. Boko harram in Nigeria, coups d‘etat, rebels and terrorists restiveness in countries, particularly the under-developed ones, ritual murder, drug and human trafficking the world over have subjected nations to a state of awe, apprehension and insecurity. On their part, governments of nations kept not their fingers crossed. They, in response, resorted to radical decisions, promulgations and even peace-keeping forces to counter rebel actions and a lot of other stringent measures to pull the bull by the horns. In Nigeria, for example, the punishment for kidnapping was ten years imprisonment, but since the offence became selling like hot cake, some states in the country have stipulated life imprisonment, while others promulgated death sentence. Meanwhile, millions of offenders (youths) of different national, have lost their lives in prisons abroad, and multitude are still languishing in similar detentions – due to their involvement in one crime or the other. RECOMMENDATIONS The war to rid our societies of crimes is a battle for all. Neither the state nor the individual citizen, can fight it all alone and win. The key to the victory is strict application of the law – without fear or favour, taking into consideration the fact that every criminal act involves a guilty intention to accept a substantial risk that ordinarily has a foreseeable consequence which a reasonable man would perceive and avoid. For individuals, good home training of children and youths, respect for national values and its preservation, observance and obedience to laws and constituted authorities, contributing one‘s quota to the peace and development of one‘s nation is 494 recommended. Agents of socialization – teachers in schools and churches should live up to the tenets of their calls regarding the up-bringing of pupils, students and youths, at homes, parents should strictly concentrate on the discipline and moral upbringing of children and youths. Governments should, on their part, provide facilities for intellectual training of children and youths in schools, provide essential amenities for all, and most importantly, adopt strict application of the law, recognizing no sacred cow. These would ultimately check the growth of crime in our societies the world over. REFERENCES Appadorai, A. (1969). The Substance of Politics. Madras: Oxford University Press, Calcutta. Atabo, M.O, (2010). NANS pledges to collaborate with ICPC: In ICPC News, Vol. 5, No. 3 of July 2010. Azikiwe, N. (1979). Ideology for Nigeria: Capitalism, Socialism or Welfarism? Nigeria. Macmillan Nigeria Publishers Ltd. Babatunde, L. (2003). A Handbook of Criminal Law and Procedure Through Cases. Nigeria. Lawbreed Limited. Bryan, A. G. (2004). Black‘s Law Dictionary. USA. Thomson West. Denning, L. (1997). The Due Process of Law. New York. Oxford University Press Inc. Ingobro W. (2010). Ex NDLEA Boss Sentenced to jail for corruption: In ICPC News. Vol. 5, No. 3 of July 2010. Morlan, M. T. (2001). Criminal Law. London. Old Bailley Press. Nwozor, C (2010).ICPLC Arraigns Surgeon Before Enugu State High Court: ICPC News, Vol.5, No.3 of July 2010. Okoh, J. D. (2012). Youth Restiveness and The Problem of Who is Normal: Implications for Education. A paper presented at the 1st Matriculation Ceremony of the Federal College of Education (Tech.), Omoku Degree Program to be awarded in affiliation with the university of Nigeria, Nsukka. Okpara, O. (2005). Human Rights Law and Practice. Olakanmi, J. (2009). Criminal Code. Synoptic Guide. Nigeria. Lawlords Publications. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (1998). United States of America. Merriam Webster Incorporated Babalola v. The State (1989) 7 S.C (pt. 1) 94. DPP v. Morgan (1976) A. C 182. Garba v. State (2000) 4 S.C, 157. Ibeh v. State (1997) 1 NWLR (pt. 484) 632 at 65. Robbery and Firearms (Special Provision) Act No. 47 of 1970. 495 CHALLENGES OF CLIMATE CHANGE: THE ROLE OF CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS LEADERS NCHE GEORGE CHRISTIAN Department of Philosophy and Religion, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State. EMAIL: [email protected] PHONE NO: 0806 3732 241 ABSTRACT The Global Climate has substantially changed largely as a result of human activity. The sun that shone mildly to give the day-light, has suddenly become hostile, harsh and unfavorable to man. The rain that dropped to give water to the earth, has also become hostile and extreme, destroying houses and lives. The ocean and seas that were initially calm and reserved have suddenly risen and encroaching into dry lands, flooding several places. The land that sustained and produced food for man, has turned against man. And the air that was clean and unpolluted has become contaminated and harmful to man. Indeed, the world is currently faced with a seemingly intractable problem. However, this global Climate change is currently fought by world leaders. Hence, there have been several global Climate change Conferences. Precisely, the first World Climate Conference was held in 1979. And ever since, there have been similar conferences till date. Although, the fight against Climate change is quite old, the problem is still rearing its ugly head. Therefore, having critically studied the issue, the researcher outlined roles for Christian religious leaders in this War against Climate change. Keywords: Anthropogenic, Eco-sustainability, Carbon dioxide, Climate Change, Christian Religious Leaders INTRODUCTION Fears loom in the air as the atmosphere spells doom. Calamity lurks in the corner as everybody seems to be devastated. People gather in groups grubbing in search of goal related solutions. What can be done to salvage the situation? Is the big question, whose answer seems unfathomable . The earth has become intractably sick and seems to be defiling medications. The Earth‘s Climate has significantly changed with adverse effects on its inhabitants. According to scientists, there have been a dramatic change in global temperatures resulting mostly from anthropogenic (human) activities. These human activities are traceable from the industrial revolution, to the subsequent increase in the use of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, which have led to the heavy emission of Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) into the air. Also, activities like increased deforestation and land use contribute to affecting the climate ―microclimate, and measures of climate variables‖(www.en.wikipedia.org). Unfortunately, the consequences of this, affect all and sundry. Hence, there have been series of global Conferences and Summits on ―Climate change‖, aimed at mapping out modalities for a workable solution. And in one of these climate summits, the U.S President Barack Obama is reported to have said thus: The world must come together to confront climate change. There is little scientific dispute that if we do nothing, we will face more drought, famine and mass displacement that will fuel more conflict for decades (www.visibleearth.nasa.gov). With every passing week, the scientific data get more precise, and more frightening. Yet this has regrettably proven insufficient to move people to action. Instead, what dominates each Climate Summit, is politics and interest. Therefore, this Paper attempts a critical evaluation of the situation in order to create a niche for Christian Religious leaders in the fight against Climate change and its adverse effects. 496 CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS LEADERS AND CLIMATE CHANGE: DEFINITION Christian Leaders Christian leaders in this context, simply refer to those at the helm of affairs in Churches, Christian groups and organizations, all over the world. These may include Popes, General Overseers, Archbishops, Bishops, Priests, Pastors, Deacons, Evangelists, Apostles, Knights, Presidents of Church administrative groups (men, women and youth groups) choir masters/mistresses e.t.c. Climate Change Climate change refers to the significant increase in the earth‘s temperature over a long period of time. It involves the increase in the average temperature of near surface air and oceans of the earth in recent decades and its projected continuation. Nevertheless, for the purpose of this Paper, Climate change can be referred to as, those changes in the earth‘s climate variables caused by human or anthropogenic factors. THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE The Causes of Climate change can be divided into two categories; the Human (anthropogenic) and the Natural causes. Among the Natural causes are:(i)Volcanic eruptions which release large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust and ash into the atmosphere(ii)Ocean current which produces a phenomena such as ―El Nino‖ that affects the climate through the movement of CO2 into or out of the atmosphere(iii)Earth orbital changes which affect the climate substantially through the variations in orbital speed and coverage and(iv)Solar variations which also affects the climate through variations in the amount of energy output. (www.climatechangechallange.org) All this, notwithstanding, their effects on the climate are understandably negligible, when compared to the effects of human activities. There is ―strong evidence that the warming of the earth over the last half-century has been caused largely by human activity‖ wrote the Met Office, Hadley Centre U.K. (www.climatechangechallange.org). These activities include the burning of fossil fuels and coals for industrial purposes, deforestation, agriculture, transportation, energy generation (electricity) individual energy use in the home (i.e heating), driving cars, air travel and so on. All these, and others, have led to the rise in carbon dioxide (which is the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere) emission. Also, methane and nitrous oxide are another important greenhouse gases emitted from agricultural components like livestock and chemical fertilizers. For the Effects of Climate change, they are glaring. There have been significant rise in sea level, due to the indiscriminate melting of the Arctic ice cap. There have been evidence of extreme weather condition around the world and several species of animals and plants have gone into extinction. These and many more, have caused the rise in poverty level, drought, and famine; with developing countries bearing the brunt of these consequences. As a matter of fact, Ethiopian population has reportedly been suffering increased poverty; water scarcity and food insecurity as a result of Climate change. Also, precisely in 2011, flood wrecked Pakistan like never before, and claimed over 1000 lives and rendered millions homeless. Also, in the same year, there were more cases in Philippines, Thailand, China and Bangkok. Over here in Africa, Tanzania lost 23 lives(December 23), Nigeria 102 and 31(August 28 and 31 respectively), Johannesburg 40 (6000 displaced;January 18) and South Africa 50 (January 7) in the year 2011. (www.mapreport.com/worlddisaster). On the other hand, there have been cases of drought in the Horn of Africa, which is currently affecting around 10 million people in Kenya, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia. (www.guardian.co.uk). Obviously, these are just a few out of the numerous effects of Climate change. 497 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES ON CLIMATE CHANGE The incidence of Climate change has aroused concern among countries of the world; hence, there have been series of Climate Summits which are spearheaded by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These Conferences or Summits are organized to create platforms for World key leaders, among other reasons, to reach a mutually accepted legal agreement on the carbon dioxide emission reduction. However, reaching that mutually accepted agreement has regrettably been the greatest challenge. For instance, in 1997, world leaders convened to set new goals for carbon dioxide emission by signing a legal document which is popularly known as the Kyoto Protocol. By signing the Protocol, ― the countries of the European Union and 37 other industrialized Countries committed themselves to reducing their emissions respectively by an average of 5 percent against 1990 levels, and over the five-year period from 2008 to 2012‖ .(Awake.2011:12) However, this agreement (protocol) was never mutual as some developed and larger developing countries who are major carbon dioxide emitters were left out of the legal agreement. These countries include the United State of America, China and India. And the United States and China alone contribute about 40 percent of the global carbon dioxide emissions. Also, in 2009, another Climate change Conference was convened in Bella Center, Copenhagen, Denmark which lasted from 7th to 18th December 2009. This is popularly known as Copenhagen Summit (Cop 15-Conference of Parties) and meant to strengthen the commitment to the Kyoto Protocol and to set new legally binding agreement for 2012 and beyond. However, instead of the expected legally binding mutual agreement to reduced Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission, this Conference produced the non-mutual and ―ineffective‖ Copenhagen Accord. This was drafted by the US, China, India, Brazil and South Africa on December 18, 2009. This agreement was described by the Bolivian delegation as ―anti-democratic, anti-transparent and unacceptable‖(www.en.wikipedia.org) Hence, the Copenhagen summit was described as a failure. The Sixteenth Session of the Conference of Parties (COP 16) to the Kyoto Protocol took place in Cancun Mexico. This Climate change Conference drew almost 12,000 participants and said to had produced ―the basis for the most comprehensive and far-reaching international response to Climate change. However, the conference left the future of the Kyoto Protocol unresolved‖(www.unfccc.int/meetings/COP_16) And as such not actually a successful one, in the absence of a legally binding carbon dioxide emission reduction agreement. The most recent, is the Durban Climate change Conference held in South Africa. This is designated as the Cop 17 (Conference of Parties) and took place within the months of November and December 2011. This conference has been particularly described a successful one. The out comes included a decision by parties to adopt a universal legal agreement on climate change as soon as possible, and no later than 2015. Infact, the President of Cop 17, Maite Nkoana- Mashabane reportedly said ―what we have achieved in Durban will play a central role in saving tomorrow, today‖ (www.unfccc.int/meetings/COP_17) However, the questions still remain, ―will the United States, China, and other developed countries keep to this agreement? And, are the world leaders ready to overcome barriers (like political patterns of interest and power) to collective action? CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS LEADERS AND CLIMATE CHANGE There have existed diverse views and opinions on the relationship between Religion and Climate Change. Some believe in the ideal of creation care, and others see concern with nature as Paganism. Whereas some Secularists share the view that Environmentalism is religion, with its own creed and its own versions of paradise and hell. Yet, there are other group of religious extremists who would naively see the current state of the earth‘s climate as a sign of the Endtime. Be that as it may, it will be pertinent to unequivocally assert at this stage, that Christians, especially Christian leaders owe the earth some duties. 498 An aesthetic look at the waters and its inhabitants, the flowers, the plants and the trees; as well as a topographic analysis of the lands, well structured hills, mountains and fearful valleys; and a critical study of the processes that bring rain; as well as the various climatic seasons would show how beautiful, the earth is. The earth was made for the inhabitation and sustenance of man and which in turn, should be sustained and preserved by man. But the reverse has been the case as man is gradually destroying his inhabitation and abode. According to Christian theology, the earth is God‘s property put under Man‘s Dominion from the creation period. Unfortunately, this ―man‘s dominion over the earth‖ has regrettably been ―a doom‖ for the earth. According to Ituma(2009) One of the human positions; that have made the earth very hard for man to establish a harmonious and peaceful existence is the idea that the earth must be exploited and manipulated for the benefits of man. As a result of this position human idea about the earth is how to remove everything without some control or replenishment. (p.9) Consequently, the earth‘s atmosphere has been dangerously depleted and pillaged by human activities. The ever-increasing use of fossil fuels and gas which increase the Carbon dioxide(CO2) emissions, the increase in land use and deforestation for industrial and agricultural purposes and so on, account for this state of the earth‘s climate. Obviously, these have adverse effects on human livelihood and survival. For instance, there have been evidences of its effects on crops and extreme weather conditions around the world. ―It is especially clear in the dramatic change of the polar caps, i.e. the Arctic ice cap is shrinking and the Antarctica ice shelf is melting‖. (www.climatechangechallange.org) As it has been noted, the knowledge of the imminent danger of continual destruction of the ecosystem has set world leaders on their toes, in the fight against Climate change. However, this paper avers that until Christian religious leaders all over the world, take active part in this fight for eco-sustainability, the politically cum economic driven international Climate Change Summits, would yield less desired result. Nevertheless, just like, there have been series of Conferences and Summits on Climate Change, so have there been series of comments, responses, and resolutions from Christian religious leaders alongside other religious organizations, on the same issue. For instance, as far back as twenty years ago, Pope John Paul II, had expressed the need to safeguard the earth‘s environment. Thus he wrote; There is a growing awareness that world peace is threatened …also by a lack of due respect for nature. Ecological awareness, rather than being down-played, needs to be helped to develop and mature, and find fitting expression in concrete programmes and initiatives. (www.vatican.va/holyfather). Likewise, a message delivered on 1st January 2010, during the world peace day celebration, Pope Benedict XVI wrote: We are all responsible for the protection and care of the environment. This responsibility knows no boundaries… respect for creation is of immense consequence…for the pacific coexistence of mankind: if you want to cultivate peace protect creation. (www.climatechangechallange.org). Also, there have been such environmentally friendly comments from Christian religious leaders like Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu, Archbishop Thabo and so on. There have also been Christian religious organizations, specifically set up for tackling the phenomenon of Climate change. These organizations include the Interfaith Power and Light (IPL) founded by Rev Sally Bingham (a priest in the Episcopal Diocese of California) (www.interfaithpowerandlight.org) Anglican Communion Environmental Network (ACEN) and so many others. More interestingly, 499 at the just concluded United Nations Climate change Conference in Durban, South Africa, Christian religious leaders led by Bishop Geoff Davis who represented Archbishop Desmond Tutu and others, signed a historical Interfaith Pact on Climate Change, as a way of participating in the fight against Climate change. All this notwithstanding, it will be pertinent to note that the issue of creation care‖ is fundamental to Christian belief. The injunction to care and uphold stewardship over the earth, runs through the pages of the Holy Bible. At the creation period, according to Christian theology, man was created and given dominion over all creatures (Gen 1:28) Then, in Leviticus 25:23-24, man is reminded thus; the land is mine and you are but aliens and my tenants. Through out the country that you hold as a possession, you must provide for the redemption of the land‖. Also in Psalm 24:2, it is unequivocally stated thus, ―the earth is the lords and the fullness thereof, the world, and they that dwell therein‖. From the foregoing, it is clear, that the earth is God‘s property and should be accorded due respect. The earth expresses God‘s power, majesty, glory and wisdom. Hence, the protection and preservation of the features and creatures of the earth should be prioritized by man. The earth was not beautifully made to be destroyed, but to be enjoyed and sustained by man, through a conscious stewardship over it. Song(1998:454) has remarked ―The divine declaration that creation is ―very good‖ (Gen. 1:31) establishes the natural world as the proper context for human fulfillment. Mankind‘s vocation is to be found in respect for nature and the stewardship of its order‖. However, instead of this deference, gross disrespect, disregard and utter disdain characterize man‘s attitude towards nature. Hence, the earth is currently in shambles and its beauty eroding away. No wonder, Pope Benedict XVI lamented, thus; Can we remain indifferent before the problems associated with such realities as climate change, desertification, the deterioration and loss of productivity in vast agricultural areas, the pollution of rivers and aquifers, the loss of biodiversity, the increase of natural catastrophes and the deforestation of equatorial and tropical regions? Can we disregard the growing phenomenon of environmental refugees, people who are forced by the degradation of their natural habitat to forsake it and often their possessions as well-in order to face the dangers and uncertainties of forced displacement? Can we remain impassive in the face of actual and potential conflicts involving access to natural resources? (www.vatican.va/holyfather). Therefore, Christian religious leaders all over the world should practically rise and actively join the global match to save the earth and mankind; not necessarily from eternal destruction; but from generational ecological disaster. This can be achieved through the following ways: 1. Intimate Awareness Creation (IAC) This is simply an awareness created on the basis of friendship and familiarity. The reality of Climate Change should be made known. Christian leaders should take as a duty, the task of enlightening their members, on the dangers of climate change. This is where intimacy comes in, as the information shall be from the leader to the led. This should be done on regular basis during Church services, meetings, fellowship and so on. The emphasis of this Awareness should be on the practical ways and actions that can be taken to reduce carbon dioxide emission. These practical ways according to the Nature Conservancy include: i.Walking or using bicycle instead of driving cars, (cars and trucks run on fossil fuels, which release CO2 into the atmosphere) ii.Telephone or videoconference for office meetings instead of traveling by Airplanes which produce 12 percent of transportation sector CO2 emissions iii.Use of compact energy-efficient fluorescent light bulbs, iv.Recycling and use of recycled products (paper, glass, metal and plastic) at least to spare the trees in the forest which would have been cut down as raw materials for paper production, v.Planting of native trees to help absorb carbon dioxide from the air, vi.Turning down the heat or air conditioners when out of use (i.e when leaving the house or sleeping) 500 vii.Buying of renewable energy sources with solar panels, windmills and other technologies, viii.Acting globally and eating locally in order to avoid unnecessary burning of fossil fuel just to get food from supermarkets, instead of shopping at a local farmers markets for healthy and fresh food and ix.Inflation of automobile tires always to burn less gas and emit less carbon to help save the climate.(www.nature.org). With these individually-centered efforts, and if properly taught and adhered to, the earth‘s climate can be saved. The idea is that, if Christians all over the world who account for 2.1 billion(www.thegreatone22.wordpress.com) of the world population, would be enlightened by their leaders on the need to save the earth‘s climate by consciously taking environmentally friendly actions on daily basis, like the above listed ones, the earth must be healed. Also, this method of Awareness has more prospects for the Eco-sustainability Campaign. This is seen in the fact that, any injunction given on the platform of religion, tends to attract more compliance and obedience from adherents. Therefore, it is assumed that if Christian leaders actively participate in the campaign against Climate change the desired success would be achieved. This Intimate Awareness Creation on the need and how to save the earth‘s climate, can be facilitated through the following media. i. The use of electronic/non-electronic media like television, internet, radio, newspapers, etc. this would help in reaching both Christians and non-Christians all over the world. ii. Through special Seminars, Symposium and Workshops on the subject of Climate change and Way Out, and iii. The use of Church based Stickers, Tracts and Bills. 2. Charity for Climate Change Victims (CCCVs). This is one of the important roles; Christian religious leaders can play in the global war against Climate changes. It would be inappropriate to preach eco-sustainability without remembering the Climate change victims who suffer disproportionately from drought, flooding, famine and pollution. These victims are mostly found in developing Countries in Sub-saharan Africa, Asia and even Pacific Countries and Territories (like Micronesia, Palau, Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, Solomon Islands etc). Who suffer much natural disasters including flooding, drought, famine and attendant poverty and destitution? Consequently, many have been displaced from their homes and possessions with children being the most vulnerable. David Bull (U.K Unicef Director) has reported that ―those who have contributed least to Climate change; the world poorest children; are suffering the most‖. The report also added that ―Climate Change could add 40,000-160,000 extra child deaths a year in Asia and Sub-saharan Africa through lower economic growth .(Jeremy 2008). Therefore, Christian leaders should develop empathy for this group of people and extend their charitable work to them. In the midst of dejection, hopelessness and despair, Christians should be the source of hope. Christian religious leaders should head the course of rendering a helping hand, through a collective efforts of Christians, all over the world. Voluntary contributions can be encouraged during Church services crusades, meetings and fellowship for these victims. Beyond this, Christian leaders should advocate the welfare of these victims to the necessary quarters like the United Nations, Voluntary Non-government Organizations and Philanthropists for assistance. Also, they should set up either a body or an account that may be called ―Charity for Climate Change Victims‖ (CCCVs) through which, these victims can be reached. It should be done in a way that, people can voluntarily contribute money or other materials, online. Without doubt, this will go a long way in putting relieved smiles on the faces of these people who are currently bearing the brunt of Climate change. 501 Conclusion The War Against Climate change is a war for all, but fought by a few. It is regrettably lugubrious that despite the conspicuous signs of imminent danger of the Global Climate Change, many are yet to be moved to action. But it is strongly believed that if Christian leaders all over the world, would take to heart this solemn call, and actively join this war, victory will be assured and the earth‘s Climate would be saved. REFERENCES A Religious Response to Global Warming (www.interfaithpowerandlight.org). Assessed on 12 February 2012. Causes of Climate Change (www.climatechangechallenge.org) Assessed on 12 February 2012 Climate Change (en.wikipedia.org/wikiclimatechange).assessed on 22nd January 2012. Climate Summits: Just Talk? Awake! Is Belief in a Creator Reasonable? November 2011. Concun Climate Change Conference. (unfccc.int/meetings/cop_16 november 2010) Assessed on 17th February . Earth: NASA/The visible Earth (http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/barakobama). Assessed on 22nd January 2012. Ituma, E. I. The Social Context of Incarnation Theology. Nigerian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (vol.3) (Nigeria: Rabboni, 2009) pp.5-15. Jeremy. L. Poor Children Main Victims of Climate Change (www.reuters. com) Assessed on 13th April 2012. Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents (www.theogeatone22.word press.com) Assessed on 13th April 2012. Message of His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI for the Celebration of the World Day of Peace (www.vatican.va/holyfatehr 2010). Assessed on 12 February 2012. Song R. J.(1998) ―Theology of Nature: New Dictionary of Theology (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press). The nature conservancy (www.nature. Org.) Assessed on 9th April 2012. 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference. (en.wikipedia.org) Assessed on 17th February 2012. . 502 RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF CLASSROOM INTERACTION TECHNIQUES ON STUDENTS‟ PARTICIPATION IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA Oranu Philomena Chika and Onwioduokit F. A Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria [email protected] ABSTRACT This study sought to identify the relative effectiveness of classroom interaction techniques on students‘ participation in Government classrooms using three classroom interaction techniques. All senior secondary schools in Port Harcourt Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria constituted the population. Three research question and three hypotheses guided the study. The hypotheses were tested and analyzed using chi square statistics. Three classrooms were randomly selected for the study. The population is made up of 10,983 students and 496 teachers and the sample size was of 1098 students and 12 teachers. Six classroom were used; three in SS1 and three in SS11, respectively. Six teachers taught SS1 and six teachers taught SS11 using a technique (Flanders, Teacher Initiation, Students‘ Response and Teacher Evaluation; and Teaching Cycles). Twelve lessons were recorded on a cassette, transcribed, coded and analysed. Flanders category was the observational instrument. Test- retest method was used to establish the reliability of the instrument at 0.87 co-efficient. The result showed that students‘ participation is not contingent upon classroom technique used. Students‘ in these classrooms were less challenged therefore teachers should go extra step to encourage voluntary students‘ participation in the classrooms. Keywords: Interaction, Techniques, Participation, Classrooms. Introduction In many classrooms, there are no provisions for the development of intellectual and thinking skills among students. Often times teachers are more comfortable with lecturing, didactic questioning, explicit teaching, practice and drill, demonstration in the classrooms. Students are given little time for participation (Atkins & Brown 2001, Anorue,2004, Saskatoon Public School Report). The students in such situations are passive listeners. Teachers at times give less emphasis on instructional materials. The student in a teacher - centered classroom see the teacher as the main source and dispenser of information. Teachers in this scenario are erroneously regarded as the prime source of wisdom and somebody who knows everything about the subject matter. This direct instruction strategy does not allow students to develop skills, abilities, process and attitudes required for critical thinking and experiential learning. Direct instruction is not affective and gives no room for metacognitive reasoning. Learning therefore becomes less challenging, boring and less rewarding. Inspite of these shortcomings the teacher is the decisive element in any classroom. Rodriguez asserts that elements of classroom vary. Effective instruction begins with students‘ experience. An effective teacher gives room for student participation. A lively teacher uses humour which is a valuable teaching tool for establishing a conducive classroom climate. It improves instructional effectiveness and is fundamental to positive classroom learning. Structuring the classroom needs effort, skill and tact on the part of the teacher. There are many patterns of interaction in the classroom; examples include the Teaching Cycles; Teacher Initiation, Students Response and Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and other observation techniques of which Flanders analysis category is the most effective (Anorue 2004) Based on these facts there is need to study relative effectiveness of classroom interaction techniques and students participation. This is necessary because of the need to discover what is happening in special world of the classroom with a view to achieving the best interaction pattern and students holistic intellectual development. Statement of the Problem Atibile (2011) has pointed out that there is high failure rate among students that took West African Senior Certificate Examination (WASSCE) and other external examinations. In 2011 503 examination only 30 percent of the candidates made credits in both English and Mathematics. Details of the result showed that out of 1,540,250 candidates that sat for the examination, 1,460,003 candidates representing 94.79 percent had their results fully processed, 80.15 percent obtained credit in two subjects; while 8,573 candidates representing 5.29 percent were withheld. This result therefore indicates potent danger for Nigerian future. Most public senior secondary schools in Rivers state have a lot of problems such as unconducive environment for proper academic work, insufficient classroom blocks; these problems make it impossible for teachers to perform their duties effectively (Onumbu 2010 cited in Nwangwu 2010). Although, many factors determine the success or failure in the classroom, to a large extent, the teacher determines the social environment in the classroom. Kizlik (2009) has rightly observed that ‗‘effective teaching requires considerable skills in managing the myriad of tasks and situations that occur in the classroom each day‘‘. Over the years people have questioned the place of education in Nigeria. Most scholars have argued that Nigerian education system has the problem of not matching policies with action. History has shown that most prior programme in education reflect the desire to get quick results; thereby producing confusion, distortion, misdirection and misunderstanding. There are many cases of worthwhile education policies that are abandoned due to poor planning, implementation and monitoring. The 6-3-3-4 system of education in Nigeria which was abandoned for the current Universal Basic Education is an example; all these affect student performance in the classroom. The new curricular made little change in objectives, values, content, sequencing of classroom interaction processes, we are yet to find out if these objectives are actually achieved in every classroom and this is the basis of this study. Objective of the Study 1.To assess SS1 male and female students‘ facilitation skills in Government studies taught by using Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students Response, Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and Teaching Cycles (T.C) 2. To assess SS11 male and female students‘ facilitation skills in Government studies taught using Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students Response, Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and Teaching Cycles (T.C 3. To determine the relative effectiveness of classroom interaction techniques on students‘ participation in Government studies with respect to Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students Response, Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and Teaching Cycles (T.C) Significance of the Study It will help education administrators plan towards positive education which trains the total child to finding solutions to the challenging situations in the classroom and other immediate environment. Scope of the Study This study covers all secondary schools in Rivers state both male and female teachers and students. RESEARCH DESIGN This study is an experimental research. Data was collected on interactions in Government classrooms and was used to observe the nature of the classroom. In this experimental study, the teachers and students in three (3) public schools in Port Harcourt Local Government were taught the rudiments of a classroom interaction technique. One school was taught the rudiments of Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC); the other was taught the Teacher Initiation, 504 Students Response, and Teacher Evaluation (IRE) while the third school was taught Teaching Cycles (T.C). AREA OF STUDY This was conducted in Port Harcourt Local Government in Rivers State of Nigeria. Out of twelve (12) Public Secondary Schools in Port Harcourt Local Government Area, three (3) Senior Secondary Schools were used for the study. POPULATION All SS1 and SSII Government students and teachers in senior secondary schools Port Harcourt Local Government in Rivers State constituted the population of this study. The population is made up of 10,983 students and 496 teachers. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES The sample of the study consisted of twelve (12) teachers and one thousand and ninety- eight (1098) students of Government studies in three randomly selected SSI and SSII secondary schools. Three public schools were randomly selected. Six teachers taught SS1 and six teachers taught SS11 using a technique. Five hundred and forty - one (541) students participated in SS1 while five hundred and fifty seven (557) students participated in SS11. Six classrooms were involved in the study, three in SS1 and three in SS11. Three public schools were randomly selected, two teachers taught using Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) two teachers taught using Teacher Initiation, Students response and Teacher Evaluation (IRE), while two teachers taught using Teaching Cycles (T.C) in SS1and SS11 respectively. The teachers were experienced and taught each class once. Twelve lessons were recorded. INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION The instrument used in collecting the data was the Flanders interaction analysis categories (FIAC). It was used to code and analyze the interaction pattern during Government lessons in the selected schools. The Flanders interaction analysis categories were carefully designed specifically for coding teacher and student behaviours and are very useful in studying classroom events. The present researcher has decided to use Government for the study. An interaction system is an observational instrument which takes place in the classroom. The Flanders Interaction Analysis Category (FIAC) records what students and teachers say during classroom interaction, the emphasis being on what the teacher says. The categories in Flanders system are two, teacher verbal response and student verbal response. Any verbal communication event by the teacher or pupils can be classified into one of the first nine categories. There is only one non verbal category, which is silence or confusion. Each observation is done at the end of a 3 – second period and there is room for modification, the present researcher is using a five second period. The researcher went to the three schools four times. Three formative tests were administered to monitor whether teacher adjustment had impact on student learning progress and to provide ongoing feedback to the researcher on pupils and teachers. The students were given summative – test at the end of the second month, the grades of the summative test showed that there was mastery of the instructional objectives by the students and the teacher the new instructional strategy was therefore effective. VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENT Copies of the modified Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories system (FIACS) were given to experts in the Faculty of Education for validation. These scholars were to vet the instruments in terms of clarity of words and sentence structure. There recommendations were strictly incorporated in final version of the instrument; the instrument was therefore found to be valid. 505 RELIABILITY The researcher used test - retest method to establish the reliability of the instrument. The modified Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories system was used among two teachers who did not take part in the substantive study. After two weeks the experiment was repeated in the same classrooms and the reliability co-efficient of 0.87 was obtained, showing that the instrument is reliable. PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION Data for the study were collected during classroom lessons. Before the observation, the researcher made visitation to the selected schools, established rapport with the Government teachers. A tape recorder was used to record all the class events. . The researcher concluded by observing each of the teachers three times and had a number of twelve (12) lessons on the whole. The twelve (12) lessons were afterwards transcribed and coded at every five seconds. The study period was two years. METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS The data collected in this study were analyzed as follows: the research question was analyzed using pie charts expressed in gain and gain percentages. The hypothesis was tested using chi square statistics. Data Analysis The data were analyzed using pie charts and chi square statistics. Research Questions 1. How does the different classroom interaction technique (Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students Response, and Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and Teaching Cycles (T.C) affect SS1 students‘ facilitation skills in Government studies? 2. How does the different classroom interaction technique (Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students Response, and Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and Teaching Cycles (T.C) affect SS11 students‘ facilitation skills in Government Studies? 3. How does different classroom interaction techniques (Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students Response, and Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and Teaching Cycles (T.C) enable students participate in classroom learning? 506 507 Hypotheses SS1 male and female students facilitation skills is not contingent upon classroom (Ho1) interaction techniques (Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) Teacher Initiation, Students‘ Response Teacher Evaluation (IRE), and Teaching Cycles (T.C) Table 1.1: 3X2 Contingency Table Showing SS1 Male and Female Students‟ Facilitation Skills in Lesson and Classroom Interaction Techniques. X2 Class level Classroom Interaction Techniques Calculated SS 1 Males Females FIAC Fo8 Fe(6.20) Fo2 Fe(3.79) IRE 6 (6.82) 5 (4.17) 10 11 T.C 4 (4.96) 4 (3.03) 8 Total 18 2.13 11 29 508 As shown in Table 1.1, the calculated value of x2 is less than the critical value (5.99) at the degree of freedom of 2. It is concluded therefore that male and female students‘ facilitation skills in lesson are not contingent upon the classroom interaction techniques used. (Ho2) SS11 male and female students‘ facilitation skills are not contingent upon classroom interaction techniques (Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) Teacher Initiation, Students‘ Response Teacher Evaluation (IRE), and Teaching Cycles (T.C). Table 1.2: 3X2 Contingency Table Showing SS11 Male and Female Students‟ Facilitation Skills in Lesson and Classroom Interaction Techniques. Class level SS 11 Males Females X2 Classroom Interaction Techniques Calculated FIAC Fo5 Fe(4.5) Fo2 Fe(5.48) IRE 6 (4.97) 5 (6.03) T.C 3 (4.5) 7 (5.48) Total 14 1.40 17 10 11 10 31 Table 1.2 shows that male and female students‘ facilitation skills in SS11 are not contingent upon classroom interaction techniques. (Ho3) The lesson participation of SS1 and SS11 students is not contingent upon classroom interaction techniques (Flanders interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC); Teacher Initiation, Students Response, Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and Teaching Cycles (T.C). Table 1.3s: 3X2 Contingency Table Showing SS1 and SS11 Students‟ Participation in Lesson and Classroom Interaction Techniques X2 Class level Classroom Interaction Techniques Calculated FIAC IRE T.C Total Fo10 11 8 29 0.156 SSI Fe(9.67) (10 .63) (8.70) Fo10 11 10 31 SSII Fe(10.33) (11.37) (9.30) 20 22 18 60 As shown in Table 1.3, the calculated value of x2 is less than the critical value (5.99) which shows that students‘ participation is not contingent upon classroom interaction used. Discussion of Findings The level of students‘ participation in Government classrooms in Rivers State was investigated in this study. Based on the result obtained after data analysis; students‘ participation in Government classrooms is not contingent upon classroom interaction techniques used. This is buttressed by the fact that most teachers dominate classroom instruction as confirmed by research reports of Atkins & Brown, (2001) Anorue, (2004) Lathrop, (2006) Weimer, (2008) who believed that the teacher determines the classroom climate. In the present study, SS1 and SS11 students‘ 509 facilitation skills and level of participation in lesson were analyzed respectively; the result obtained after data analysis showed that students‘ facilitation skills and level of lesson participation in the classrooms are not contingent upon classroom interaction techniques used. By facilitation skills, the researcher observed the extent of collaboration among students; how focused, assertive and the nature of decisions. The researcher also observed ‗‘students question skills, the nature of questions, how students use different strategies to draw out knowledge of theory/experience, how corrections are offered to fellow students; the quality of such correction, how clear and logical, how innovative; helpful, and the quality of decisions‘‘ (Bishop, 2000; Lathrop, 2006). The result obtained reflected poor facilitation skills by these students. This makes one think that there was poor level of students‘ engagement and that teacher do not take extra steps to encourage students‘ participation. The chi – square analysis of students‘ facilitation skills in SS1 and SS11 as expressed in figures 1.1 and 1.2 respectively indicated that teachers do not encourage inquiry - based learning. Teachers‘ in these classrooms failed to use different strategies to draw out knowledge, positive ideas and experiences from the student. The percentages of students‘ facilitation skills and participation as expressed in tables 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 have shown that there was poor quality of classroom discussions as teachers adopted to a large extent direct instruction method confirming the findings of Atkins & Brown, (2001) Anorue, (2004) Lathrop, (2006) Weimer, (2008); the study therefore challenges teachers to engage all students positively in classroom sessions. The results also indicated that students in Government classrooms shy away from active classroom discussion; these students very likely are afraid of speaking in a group, peer criticisms, they may also lack understanding of the material; they may lack interest in the subject, they may be waiting for the teacher to call the ‗‘smart kids‘‘ who know the answer; they may not like the instructor as documented by scholars like Roe (2012), Dees (2010). Teachers need to create a warm and positive classroom, where students are free to make voluntary verbal contributions with a high level of creativity instilled in the students. The emphasis should be on negotiated instruction and teachers‘ should increase their wait time (Azubike 2000). Teachers should design good methods of evaluating classroom participation, knowing that some students are shy and some are over - participatory. Lessons should be clearly structured; theory should be related to experience and originality should be emphasized in classroom assignments. Students should recommend how to increase participation in the classroom (Weimer, 2005). Teacher should prepare the lessons ahead of time; emphasizing high level of student engagement. They should have good method of delivery and summarizing discussions. Recommendations Students should be taught not to shy away from active participation in the classroom. Teacher should create a warm and lively classroom environment. Teachers should use good question strategies and possibly use modern communication gadgets to reach students. This is necessary so as to draw out knowledge from students that are shy and reflective. 510 References Anorue, C. (2004) Patterns of Teacher Student Interaction in Social Studies in Imo State Secondary School. Education Dissertation University of Port Harcourt. Atkins, A & Brown. (2001) Sinclair & Couthard‘s ―IRF‖ model in one - to one classroom: AnAnalysis. http://www.birmingham.uk/Documents/college_artslaw/cels/essays/csdpPatakin.pdf Atibile, A (2011) Nigeria WEAC Results,only 39 percent pass in Mathematics, English. allafrica. Com/…/2011081208. Azubike, N. (2000) The Effects of Increased teacher wait time on students‘ Achievement in Science. Journal of Experimental Education 45, 16-18. Dees,J.(2010) How to get Students Participate in Class Discussion. www.therereligionteacher. com/how-to-g… Kizlik,R (2009) Classroom Management, Managemen that Works http//.www.Behaviouradvisor.com Lathrop, A. (2006) Tips for Encouraging Student Participation in Classroom Discussion. Faculty of Applied Sciences, Brock University.www.faculty focus.com Rodriguez, .L (no date) Classroom Management. 4faculty.org Lathrop, A (2006) Teaching how to Question: Participation Rubrics. www. faculty focus. com. Nwangwu, S. (2010) EOCDF: Promoting Education in Rivers State…builds school admin. Block PPSB Bulletin,vol 1 no 2. Rodriguez, .L (2009) Classroom Management. 4faculty.org Roe, A. (2012) Over programming Leads to Poor Student Participation. [email protected] Saskatoon Public School Online Report (no date) Approaches to Instruction. http://.www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/cethics/approaches.html Nwangwu, S. (2010) EOCDF: Promoting Education in Rivers State…builds school admin. Block PPSB Bulletin,vol 1 no 2. Weimer,M (2005) Putting Participation Puzzle together. www. faculty focus.com. Magna Publications, Inc 2718 Dryden Drive Madison Wisconsin 53704 USA.www.magnapus.com 511 LINKING GEOGRAPHY WITH ECOLOGY: A CASE STUDY FROM INDIA S. K. Sharma Head, Geography and Environmental Education Department Carman Residential and Day School, Dehradun 248007, India E-mail: [email protected] Abstract For raising the socio-economic level of the country, India has over exploited its resources including land, surface and ground water, energy, minerals, biotic and marine resources; forest and wild life resources. Some of the Contemporary Ecological issues which have arisen from these activities are : environmental hazards - landslides, earthquakes, tsunamis, floods and droughts, epidemics. Based on the principles of human geography, the Government of India is going high-tech in issuing early warning system against to these natural calamities using RS and GIS techniques. The Government has now constituted the environmental impact assessment committee (EIA) under the patronage of Ministry of Environment and Forest to deal with the changes in patterns of land use owing to increased urbanization. The principles of Human Geography has further helped in creating an environmental awareness - most notably the Chipko movement (literally means sticking to the trees) initiated in 1973 in which a human chain around the tree was made by the local people, specially the women, to save the trees from cutting by the loggers. The roots of the plants held the soil from sliding down. This approach of involving and educating the local women in the protection trees and soil played an important role in restoring ecosystem of the Himalayan region. which has Thus, it is very logical to study geography specially the human geography to understand and resolve the ecological problems. Keywords: Chipko movement, ecosystem, environmental hazards, land use, resources INTRODUCTION The study of Geography in India encompasses the Physical Geography : consisting mainly of Geomorphology - factors controlling landform development, geo-hydrology, economic geology and environment ; Climatology - temperature and pressure belts of India and the world and heat budget of the earth ; Oceanography - bottom topography of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, temperature and salinity of the oceans, heat and salt budgets and ocean deposits ; Biogeography - genesis of soils, causes of soil erosion and conservation measures; Environmental Geography - principle of ecology; human ecological adaptations; influence of man on ecology and environment; global and regional ecological changes and imbalances; ecosystem their management and conservation; environmental degradation, management and conservation; biodiversity and sustainable development; environmental policy; environmental hazards and remedial measures; environmental education and legislation and the Human Geography : perspectives in human geography, economic geography, population and settlement geography, regional planning and models, theories and laws in human geography. The total forest cover of India as per State of Forest Report 2003 is 678,333 km², which constitutes 20.64 % of the geographic area of the country, plays a significant role in biodiversity protection (gene / species protection - harboring more than 45,000 floral and 81,000 faunal species of which 5150 floral and 1837 faunal species are endemic), global environment conservation (global warming mitigation, global climate stabilization and air purification), landside prevention and soil preservation (soil erosion prevention, surface landslide/soil run-off and other natural disaster prevention), headwater conservation (flood mitigation, water resource reserve, water flow control and water quality purification), health, recreational and cultural (cure, recreation, landscape and scenic beauty, religious festivals and traditional culture), material production (timber, food such as mushroom etc, fertilizers, feeds, raw material for pharmaceutical and other industrial products, extracted ingredients, greening materials etc) and poverty alleviation. The nation has established 597 Protected Areas comprising 95 National Parks, 500 Wildlife Sanctuaries 2 conservation reserves covering 1.56 million ha area or 4.75 per 512 cent geographical area of the country for in-situ and ex-situ conservation of flora and fauna. The Environmental Geography comprising the principles of ecology; human ecological adaptations; influence of man on ecology and environment; global and regional ecological changes and imbalances has helped the country to understand the ecosystem its management and conservation; environmental degradation, management and conservation; biodiversity and sustainable development; environmental policy; environmental hazards and remedial measures; environmental education and legislation. India is a fortunate country for having rich and varied heritage of biodiversity representing almost all the bio geographical regions of the world. It has a variety of habitats of ranging from tropical rainforests to alpine vegetation and from temperate forests to coastal wetland. Fig. 1 shows the rich biodiversity regions of India which is a center of agro biodiversity. It is a homeland of nearly 167 cultivated species and the global exchange of biota existed since historical times. The restrictedness of Indian biodiversity is very high. About 33% of the country‘s recorded flora and fauna are endemic to the country and are concentrated in four regions which are represented by green color in the figure viz: North-East, Western Ghats (UN Heritage Site), North-West Himalaya and the Andaman Nicobar islands (Dhamija, 2005). Fig. 1 Rich biodiversity Hot Spots in India The biodiversity is used for different values : primarily as - Direct values – for food and medicinal values which are the most important assets of biological diversity. HUMANS, NATURE AND ECOLOGY - THE VITAL CONNECTIONS It is a well known fact that the humans are a part of nature, dependent on natural systems for a variety of economically important resources and ecological services essential to our survival and long-term prosperity whereas the Ecology is a field of science that seeks to describe relationships between organisms and their chemical and physical environment. IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON ECOSYSTEM AND FORESTS Ecosystem which Function for the Photosynthetic organisms such as plants and algae produce food within ecosystems. Their well-being is essential to the survival and well-being of all other species. However, the rising demand for forest based products and resultant deforestation and encroachment has led to a severe loss of natural resources and destruction of habitat, Fig.2 and 3. 513 Fig. 2 Forests are the natural habitat of India‘s rich fauna and flora Fig.3 Deforestation for meeting various human needs In the northern most states of India, forests meet nearly 40% of the energy needs in the form of fuel wood which is of the order of about 235 million m3 annually and the green fodder for livestock which is also of the order of 882 million tons per year making it 50% of the requirement while remaining is met by destructive over-grazing within forests (Rai, 2005). This has lead to massive deforestation, fig. 4. Fig. 4 Fuelwood collection by local villagers 514 Deforestation is one of the major reasons for wildlife loss and an increase in Global Warming leading to Climate Change. The Gangotri glacier is now has been receding since 1780 and started retreating rapidly after 1971 due to climate change attributed mainly to the deforestation, Fig 5. The expected danger of the melting down the glaciers is the widespread flooding followed by irreversible droughts, threatening the livelihood of millions of people. The climate pattern change is bringing in the variability in monsoon and seasonal rainfall is leading to 10-40% fall in agricultural food production as the water balance is disrupted leading to droughts in traditionally fertile zones. This would not only mean unprecedented food shortage but also a massive water crisis. The Indo-Gangetic basin in North India alone is a home to more than 500 million people. Nearly 70% of the discharge into the Ganga is from the rivers in Nepal, which means that if the Himalayan glaciers dry up by 2050, as predicted, so will the Ganga downstream in India causing water shortages for nearly 37 % of India‘s irrigated land. The Himalayan glaciers receding at "an alarming rate, influencing the stream run-off of Himalayan rivers." Six per cent, or 63.2 million, of India's population live in low elevation coastal zones that are vulnerable to sea-level rise. Fig 5 Retreat of Gangotri Glacier However, despite large-scale tree planting programs, forestry is one arena in which India has actually regressed since independence. Annual felling at about four times the growth rate are a major cause. Widespread pilfering by villagers for firewood and fodder also represents a major decrement. In addition, the forested area has been shrinking as a result of land cleared for farming, inundations for irrigation and hydroelectric power projects, and construction of new urban areas, industrial plants, roads, power lines, and schools, Fig. 6. Fig. 6 Forested area cleared for faulty way of farming 515 CONSERVATIONS MEASURES Since the early 1970s, as they realized that deforestation threatened not only the ecology but their livelihood in a variety of ways, people have become more interested and involved in conservation. The best known popular activist movement is the Chipko Movement In India, in which local women decided to fight the government and the vested interests to save trees. The women of Chamoli District, Uttarakhand, declared that they would embrace--literally "to stick to" (chipkna in Hindi)--trees if a sporting goods manufacturer attempted to cut down ash trees in their district, Fig. 7. Since initial activism in 1973, the movement has spread and become an ecological movement leading to similar actions in other forest areas. The movement has slowed down the process of deforestation, exposed vested interests, increased ecological awareness, and demonstrated the viability of people power (Mathew, 2008). Fig. 7 Tree hugging to save forests A few years later the news of this movement crossed the international boundaries and ‗ChipkoDay‘ was observed at New York in USA on the 29th April, 1983. In addition to it, number of eco-task force have been created by the Government of India by enacting ―The Forest Conservation Act, 1980‖ to conserve the forests for protecting the valuable soil cover, acquiring fresh water and air, shelter, and a clean and healthy environment in which we live. LONG-TERM PREVENTIVE MEASURES India's long-term strategy for forestry development reflects three major objectives: to reduce soil erosion and flooding; to supply the growing needs of the domestic wood products industries; and to supply the needs of the rural population for fuelwood, fodder, small timber, and miscellaneous forest produce. To achieve these objectives, the National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 recommended the reorganization of state forestry departments and advocated the concept of social forestry. The commission itself worked on the first two objectives, emphasizing traditional forestry and wildlife activities; in pursuit of the third objective, the commission recommended the establishment of a new kind of unit to develop community forests. Following the leads of Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, a number of other states also established community-based forestry agencies that emphasized programs on farm forestry, timber management, extension forestry, reforestation of degraded forests, and use of forests for recreational purposes. 516 The role of India's forests in the national economy and in ecology was further emphasized in the 1988 National Forest Policy, which focused on ensuring environmental stability, restoring the ecological balance, and preserving the remaining forests (Shah, 1998). Other objectives of the policy were meeting the need for fuel wood, fodder, and small timber for rural and tribal people while recognizing the need to actively involve local people in the management of forest resources. Also in 1988, the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was amended to facilitate stricter conservation measures. A new target was to increase the forest cover to 33 percent of India's land area from the then-official estimate of 23 percent. In June 1990, the central government adopted resolutions that combined forest science with social forestry, that is, taking the sociocultural traditions of the local people into consideration. In addition, Government of India has now started encouraging the Eco-Tourism in the country which is still at a very nascent stage, but there are for sure conscious efforts to save forests and its biodiversity specially, the fragile Himalayan Eco System and culture and heritage of the indigenous people, which is probably the largest concentration in the world. But in the recent past, the movement of Eco-tourism in Garhwal Himalayas in the northern part of India, is gathering momentum, not only for geological reasons but also by virtue of its archaeological, ecological and cultural values. Eco-tourism involving traveling to this relatively undisturbed natural areas with the specific objectives of studying, admiring and enjoying nature and its wild plants and animals as well as existing cultural aspects found in these areas. It stresses on the total environment while making an economic contribution and local community and is distinguished from mass tourism and general resort tourism by having a lower impact on the environment and require less infrastructure development. Such responsible travel to natural areas conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people. Eco-tourism has played a significant role in reducing the dependence of local communities on the forests. CONCLUSION Human well-being is highly dependent on ecosystems and the benefits they provide such as food and drinkable water. Over the past 50 years, however, humans have had a tremendous impact on their environment. The principles of Physical Geography and Environmental Geography has helped the government to opt for Long-Term Preventive Measures and to better understand the consequences of current changes to ecosystems and to evaluate scenarios for the future and what actions could be taken to limit harmful consequences of ecosystem degradation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Thanks are due to a large number of people who have helped with the collection of data, reviewing of drafts, and patient explaining and clarification. REFERENCES Dhamija, S.K. (2005) Environmental Science, Kataria Publishers, New Delhi, pp 217 Mathew, K.M. (2008) Manorama Year Book, Kottayam, Kerala, pp 285-87 Rai, A.N. (2005) I.S.C. Environmental Education, Part 1, Goyal Brothers Prakashan, New Delhi, pp 15-17 Shah, S.A. 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July 15th, 2011. iv 518 The principal organizations that were created and that are still leaders in the cultural heritage area are UNESCO, ICROM, ICOMOS and ICOM. lii Mainly: Nara Document on Authenticity (1994), Xi‘an Declaration ( 2005), Hoi An Protocols (2005), Declaration of Foz Do Iguaçu (2008), Quebec Declaration (2008). liii Some of the most important are: The Norms of Quito (1967), First/Second/fourth Conference of European Ministers responsible for the Preservation and Rehabilitation of the Cultural Heritage of Monuments and Sites (1969/1985/1996), Declaration of Amsterdam (1975), Cultural Tourism (1976), Recommendation concerning the Safeguarding and Contemporary Role of Historic Areas (1976), Declaration of Oaxtepec (1984), Recommendation concerning the Safeguarding and Contemporary Role of Historic Areas (1976), Intergovernmental Conference On Cultural Policies For Development (1998), International Cultural Tourism Charter (1999), Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2000). liv Even though the notion of cultural landscape and cultural routes have emerged trying to expand the definition of cultural heritage involving communities‘ cultural expression in the definition, their regulation and practices for protection also give priority to their economical value. 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