Cambridge Delta LSA 2 Essay: Grammar

Dustin Hosseini LSA 2 Essay Grammar 15 December 2009 Cambridge ESOL Centre 50724 Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar 1. Introduction and rationale In this paper, we will look at one particular aspect of an area of grammar that, in my opinion, presents a challenge to English language learners. This area is the perfect aspect versus the progressive aspect. I wish to present some of the difficulties students face with the usage of and differences in meaning between two tenses formed from the aforementioned aspects: the present perfect simple (PPS) and present perfect progressive (PPP). The main focus for this paper will be on the PPP, however. From personal experience, I feel that these tenses often confound students of intermediate and upper-intermediate levels due to the perceived similarity between the two, or perhaps due to a lack of analysis of these tenses in the classroom. Moreover, through careful reading and an analysis of these areas (Cowan, 2008; Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman, 1999), I have found that several factors must be taken into account if students are to understand thoroughly the differences in meaning when using the present perfect progressive versus the present perfect simple. First I will define the areas of grammar called tense and aspect and then analyze two parts within this area called the perfect aspect and progressive aspect. From these, I contrast the present perfect simple (e.g. I have worked hard on this paper.) and present perfect progressive (e.g. I have been working hard on this paper.) with the goal of presenting briefly the challenges these two areas present learners and why the differences between the two can be confusing for learners. Lexical aspect is one concept that might assist us in this area, and I will talk briefly about it. Finally, I will discuss a few practical classroom activities that can be used to assist and further learner understanding of the differences between these two often-used areas of English language grammar. 2. The basics: tense and aspect First we should briefly define tense and aspect to fully understand this topic. According to Cowan (2008:350-351) the tense in verbs is what expresses the time when an action happens in relation to the moment of speaking; time is divided into three dimensions: the past, present, and future. However, the aspect represents how the speaker views the action. In English, actions that are still ongoing are expressed through the progressive aspect, whereas completed actions are expressed with the perfect aspect. It should be ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 2 noted that some use the term continuous instead of progressive, but in this paper the term progressive will be used as I feel it better represents the sense of ʻongoingnessʻ that the progressive aspect conveys. From my personal experience, the progressive aspect and subsequently present perfect progressive are particularly difficult for students to understand fully, as certain languages, such as Russian, simply do not have a hard equivalent. In the next section, I will show the forms of these aspects, their respective tenses, and list the functions of those tenses. 3. The forms: the aspects and tenses The perfect aspect is formed: has or have + the past participle. Examples follow: 1. I havenʼt been to Cardiff yet. 2. Dustin hasnʼt been to Cardiff before. The progressive aspect is formed: has or have + been + the present participle: 1. Iʼve been writing this paper for over 4 weeks. 2. Heʼs been working on his paper. In the extended figure below, we can see how the respective tenses are formed: 1.1. The present perfect simple (PPS). subject form of ʻhaveʼ I/you/we/they have He/she/it/John has negative form past participle of verb other information rang twice. played all day. (not*) 1.2. The present perfect progressive (PPP). subject form of ʻhaveʼ negative form been present participle other information I/you/we/they have (not*) been buying groceries from Albertsonʼs for years. He/she/it/John has been cooking all day. *Indicates negative contractions, such as ʻhavenʼt and ʻhasnʼtʼ which are also possible and frequently used in spoken English, but have been omitted from the tables below. 1.3. Both forms in question form. (question word) form of ʻhaveʼ subject negative form been OR past participle present participle other information What have I/you/we/they (not**) forgotten - for Christmas? Has Mary/he/she/it been taking the medicine? **Indicates a possible contraction. However, in questions, a contraction is placed before the subject. ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 3 As we have noticed from the examples, there are certain words that help us express these tenses, and below they are listed in in bold in context. The examples with a star are those I feel are used more often in that particular tense: present perfect simple present perfect continuous Iʼve just arrived home from the airport. Sheʼs been living in Cardiff since last year. She still has not finished her dinner. She has been showering for nearly an hour. The post hasnʼt arrived yet. The economy has been improving over the last few months. Weʼve recently celebrated our 3rd anniversary. Iʼve been working all day.* Iʼve been to London twice. Iʼve been going to London twice a week for the past six months. They have negotiated all week. They have been negotiating all week but have achieved nothing good yet.* Has he ever traveled abroad? If we take the ʻnegotiatingʼ examples, we can see that when used in the present perfect, the idea is a mere statement of fact. Yet, when we use the present perfect progressive, we are emphasizing the duration of that event. Students do not always comprehend this. As we will see later in the section on lexical aspect, the duration of a verb helps speakers convey a message differently when used with a simple or progressive tense, and not all verbs can be used in both tenses and retain the same meaning. 3.2. The functions: The present perfect simple has the following functions. It expresses: an action/situation a past experience (e.g. a life a recently an action that happened that started in the experience) completed action sometime in the past with the past and is still result being important at the occurring time of speaking Iʼve been a teacher Sheʼs already seen that The pharmacy has The value of the dollar has since 2005. movie twice. just closed. risen over the past few weeks. ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 4 The present perfect progressive expresses the following: An action that began in An action in progress A state that changes over An observation made the past and continues that is not yet finished time, with emphasis on the over time and prompted action in progress by current evidence. up to now, if not beyond Iʼve been working at the Sheʼs been reading The weather has been Iʼve been finding a lot of local cafe. that newspaper. getting colder over the last Scottish banknotes few days. lately! Certainly the forms themselves can present potential problems for learners, but from my experience, for intermediate/upper-intermediate students it is not so much the form that causes problems, but rather the meaning and usage, that is, when to use the present perfect simple over the progressive, and when and why to use the present perfect progressive at all. As we see, learners might be confused by the differences between the functions when contrasted between the two tenses. A brief understanding of lexical aspect can help us with this, and I will discuss this in the next section. 4. Lexical aspect In brief, teachers must take into account the lexical aspect of verbs, especially those verbs used in examples when contrasting the present perfect simple to the present perfect progressive. Lexical aspect refers to the type of action or state verbs describe as they relate to time and duration, and whether the verbʼs expressed meaning has a natural endpoint (Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman, 1999). There are five categories of verbs in English: activity, accomplishment, achievement (i.e. a change of state), semelfactive (punctual events), and state verbs. They are categorized on the next page with examples. ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 5 Activity Accomplishment Achievement Semelfactive (a change of state) (instantaneous; punctual) State Does it have duration? Yes Yes No No No Does it have a natural endpoint? No Yes Yes No No Examples develop, grow, sit, work, walk, study write, build, make, do, bake, eat, drown find, understand* cross**, realize*, start** Activity Accomplishment bounce, sneeze, hit, kick, knock, throw, jump, start understand*, hope, know*, own*, consist* You still havenʼt worked w on your paper paper. / Iʼve been worki working all day. y. Iʼve been een sitting at my desk sk all mornin morning. Iʼve written ritten 2500 words. / Iʼve ve been wri writing this is paper for hours. Achievement Iʼve found und a £10 Scottish note! ote! / Iʼve been b finding ding a lot o of Scottish sh banknote banknotes lately! He hass finally un understood how ow langua language works. rks. / Sarah has crossed ssed the finish fin line! Semelfactive Sheʼss just kicked the ball into to the goal goal. / Youʼve ve been kicki kicking thatt ball aroun around all day. Little Jack has ju just jumped through 3 h hoops. / Youʼve been be jumping ing rope for an hour. State I have known Fre French for ages. es. / Sheʼs understood rstood Russi Russian since she was a child. Jake has owned only one car in his life life, and thatʼs his N Nissan. *Indicates the classes and verbs which do not normally allow for the present perfect progressive. **Indicates verbs that cannot be used in the present perfect progressive in similar cases. It would be a bit strange to say, ʻSarah has been crossing the finish line!ʼ Some call ʻactivity,ʼ ʻaccomplishment,ʼ and ʻsemelfactiveʼ verbs dynamic and the ʻachievementʼ and ʻstateʼ stative and these do present problems for students; from my experience students have tried to use ʻstativeʼ-like verbs in the PPP, but this creates ungrammatical utterances. I feel it is important for teachers and students to know and understand the lexical aspect of verbs in terms of the five aforementioned classes, as I feel it gives a slightly clearer picture to both the teacher and the learner. Right now, however, I feel that current ELT textbooks do not greatly consider the lexical aspect of verbs, opting to water down the concepts, which makes them less attainable to learners. In the next section I will present and analyze a few activities that can help students understand the distinction of the PPP in contrast to the PPS. ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 6 5. The L2 learner group The group consists of 10 students of varying cultural and linguistic background, from Arabic and Mandarin Chinese to Farsi (Persian), Greek, and Spanish. All students study on a full-time yearlong pre-university course in residence at a university in Bath, U.K. Students range from a weak to mid-high B1 level. The studentsʼ needs are focused on learning English to the degree that they could study successfully in university; proper grammar is one of their greatest needs. 6. Practice makes perfect Now I will present and analyze a few activities that will hopefully help students to recognize and understand when and why the present perfect progressive is used. The activities, I hope, will focus on the PPPʼs form, usage, and meaning in contrast to the PPS. 6.1. Introducing the present perfect progressive (intermediate+) This activity is a classic introductory grammar exercise from Gerngross, Puchta, and Thornbury (2006:122-125): on the board are drawn two pictures, one showing the beginning of a process and the other showing the process some time later. One example is drawing a man reading a book when he started reading it with the time listed; the next picture shows the clock at 3, and learners will probably produce ʻHeʼs been reading for a few hours.ʼ Then, the focus is reversed: students are given the result, and must figure out the cause. For example: ʻHe has been searching for them for two hours nowʼ - from this students must reconstruct what happened before this (e.g. Mike has lost his friends in the zoo…). The exercise goes on to usage relating PPP to leisure activites, and then reconstruction of a model text. Overall, this is a good exercise in that it gives several realistic examples students can possibly relate to. Then it gets students to think on their feet and reconstruct a situation from an ongoing result, which forces students to brainstorm several possibilities. Having students practice the PPP in terms of leisure time activities personalizes the exercise for the students. Further information on this activity is in Appendix 1. 6.2.Grammar discovery through song (Intermediate/Upper-Intermediate) I feel listening to a song is a good way to both introduce, review, and practice verb tense forms. Song can help students feel relaxed and make learning more entertaining and ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 7 rewarding. I have created my own activity to foster grammar discovery and I feel it is a good activity for intermediate or upper-intermediate levels. Its focus is the PPP and the meaning and use thereof. Below is a brief description, with the full activity in Appendix 2. • Students must read the song, predict what the song is about and its title, and guess the missing gaps which are all PPP examples. • The students then listen to the song with their eyes closed, and then make notes about the song afterwards. • They then listen again and fill in the gaps. • Students check together then with the complete lyrics and listen one last time. • After this, students must think what all the missing phrases have in common and then come up with the form for the PPP by giving an example. • Students are encouraged to think about why the singer used the PPP and not the simple, with the answer being the singer is emphasizing his love. 6.2. Looking at consumer complaints: the present perfect progressive in context (Intermediate/Upper-Intermediate) This activity is also my own; I created it by pursuing online forums for complaints that have instances of the PPP. In short, students read several complaints and analyze the language, briefly contrasting it to the PPS and past simple. Students then highlight all examples of PPP and analyze why people use it instead of the PPS. Students are encouraged to think if the PPP ʻsoundsʼ different to the PPS, and conveys a different message. In addition, the exercise gets students to notice other language items that occur with the PPP and help in emphasizing the message. The activity ends with students writing what they would say in person if they were making a complaint. This activity can be seen in Appendix 3. I feel that this activity is valuable in that students see ʻauthenticʼ complaints where the PPP emphasizes the action in progress, must analyze the usage and meaning, and then practice it for themselves in a context not far from reality. 6.3. Dynamic versus stative with ʻforʼ and ʻsinceʼ (Pre-Intermediate/ Intermediate) On good activity for simplifying the distinction between PPS and PPP while practicing stative versus dynamic verbs comes from Seymour and Popova (2003:101). One activity ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 8 involves practicing ʻforʼ and ʻsinceʼ through a question chain activity. The teacher asks a student a question (e.g. How long have you known Jerry? / How long have you been studying English?), the student answers with ʻforʼ or ʻsince,ʼ (e.g. Iʼve known him since March / I have been studying English for 2 years/since October), then asks someone else the same question, and the activity continues until the teacher changes the question. This activity provides good practice for form and usage, distinction between the two in answering, and using ʻforʼ and ʻsinceʼ in the context of PPS and PPP. This activity is listed in Appendix 4. 6.4. Activity verbs and the present perfect progressive (Intermediate/UpperIntermediate) Seymour and Popova (ibid.) have another good activity for practicing PPP in the context of how long one has been doing an activity (e.g. studying English). This activity provides, I feel, good oral practice of the PPP but also gets students to think about their answers. This exercise can be personalized if the teacher knows the students well; the words can be substituted for activities the teacher is sure the students do. In brief, the teacher must first write various nouns/ideas on the board (e.g. English, piano, house, etc.) and then elicit what verbs can go with the items. Students then mingle and ask each other how long the have been doing the activities. A good variation is also in Oxenden and Latham-Koenig (2006:25). These exercises are listed under Appendix 4 and 5 respectively. 6.5. Recent events expressed with emphasis on the action (Intermediate/ Upper-Intermediate) One good activities that get students to practice expressions such as ʻall night,ʼ all day,ʼ etc. with the present perfect progressive is also in Seymour and Popova (2003:102), in Appendix 4. The activity uses miming of actions to prompt students to ask why the action is happening. For example, a student shivers, and the other student asks ʻWhy are you shivering?ʼ to which the first students responds, for example, ʻBecause Iʼve been walking outside in the snow.ʼ Such an activity offers valuable practice in that actions are mimed, thus getting students to be creative in their actions and excuses to explain their ʻstrange behavior,ʼ while at the same time practicing the present perfect progressive in a somewhat meaningful context. The kinetic aspect of this activity might assist those who respond well to movement. ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 9 7. Conclusion As we have seen, aspect and tense influence meaning and naturally how the present perfect simple and progressive convey meaning. Lexical aspects plays a key role in verbs, and thus influences their functions and allowable forms. With this in mind, teachers can more effectively equip students with the tools to know when to use the present perfect progressive, recognize it, and understand its functions and meanings. With carefully planned exercises, and a variety of them, intermediate/upper-intermediate level students will be able to learn and acquire this often misunderstood tense. Word count: 2404 ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 10 Appendix 1 From Teaching Grammar Creatively ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 11 ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 12 ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 13 ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 14 Appendix 2 “Iʼve been waiting for you” by Guys Next Door Yeahh... Girl, I've been searching so long in this world Trying to find someone who could be What my picture of love was to me And you came along When I saw you I knew you were the one, the love that I've been dreaming of ('cause..) I've been waiting for you all my life for somebody who Makes me feel the way I feel when I'm with you, baby Have you been waiting too? ʻCause I've been waiting for you. Oh girl, I've been saving my love all this time, ʻcause I knew someday I would find the one that I've loved for so long in my mind From the moment that I looked in your eyes, I saw the girl I've loved all my life ʻcause... I've been waiting for you all my life for somebody who Makes me feel the way I feel when I'm with you, baby Have you been waiting, too? ʻCause I've been waiting for you Now that I've found you I just cant let u go, no, no, no, ohhh Oh there's just one thing I want you to know: Girl I love you so... I've been waitinʼ for you, all my life waitinʼ for you I've been waitinʼ for you, all my life waitinʼ for you When I saw you I knew you were the one, the love that I've been dreaming of, ʻcause... I've been waitinʼ for you all my life for somebody who Makes me feel the way I feel When I'm with you, baby Have you been waiting, too? ʻCause I've been waiting for you I've been waitinʼ for you, all my life waitinʼ for you I've been waitinʼ for you, all my life waitinʼ for you I've been waitinʼ for you, all my life waitinʼ for you ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 15 “_____ _____ __________ _____ you” by Guys Next Door Yeahh... Girl, _____ _____ __________ so long in this world Trying to find someone who could be What my picture of love was to me And you came along When I saw you I knew you were the one, the love that _____ _____ __________ _____ ('cause..) _____ _____ __________ _____ you _____ _____ _____ for somebody who Makes me feel the way I feel when I'm with you, baby _____ _____ _____ __________, _____? ʻCause _____ _____ __________ _____ _____. Oh girl, _____ _____ __________ my love all this time, ʻcause I knew someday I would find the one that I've loved for so long in my mind From the moment that I looked in your eyes, I saw the girl I've loved all my life ʻcause... I've _____ __________ _____ you all my life for somebody who Makes me feel the way I feel when I'm with you, baby Have you been waiting, too? ʻCause I've been waiting for you Now that I've found you I just cant let u go, no, no, no, ohhh Oh there's just one thing I want you to know: Girl I love you so... I've _____ __________ _____ you, all my life __________ for you _____ been __________ for you, all my life __________ for you When I saw you I knew you were the one, the love that _____ _____ __________ _____, ʻcause... ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 16 “Iʼve been waiting for you” by Guys Next Door Listening for grammar discovery: the present perfect progressive, itʼs meaning and use. Good for introduction for intermediate or review for upper-intermediate level. Time: 20-25 minutes PROCEDURE: 1. Make/distribute copies of the song lyrics of “Iʼve been waiting for you” by Guys Next Door, that are on the previous page. 2. Tell students to read the part of the song. 3. Say: 3.1. What do you think the song is about? 3.2. What is the name of the song? 3.3. Discuss your ideas with a partner. 4. Tell students they are now going to listen to the song. 4.1. Tell students: Listen with your eyes closed. 4.2. Play the recording. 5. After the song is over… 5.1. Ask students to write down any notes about the song. 5.2. Then have student compare notes in pairs/groups. 6. Then : 6.1. Ask students: What do you think the missing words are? 6.2. Play song for students once more. 7. Have students check answers together in pairs; replay song as needed. 8. Feedback: 8.1. In pairs/groups to check answers. 8.2. Give each student a copy of the full song with lyrics from the first page and replay song 1 last time. 9. Ask students concept checking and discovery questions: 9.1. Whatʼs the title of the song? 9.1.1. Answer: “Iʼve been waiting for you” 9.2. What do all the sentences with missing words have in common? 9.2.1. Answer: They use the present perfect progressive/continuous) 9.3. Whatʼs the form of the present perfect progressive? (write on board) 9.3.1. Answer: ʻsubjectʼ + ʻhaveʼ or ʻhasʼ + ʻbeenʼ + ʻverbʼ + ʻ-ingʼ 9.4. Whatʼs one example of the present perfect progressive from the song? ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 17 9.4.1. Answer: (e.g.) ʻIʼve been waiting for you all my lifeʼ, etc. 10. Write on board: 10.1. ʻIʼve been searching so long in this worldʼ 10.2. ʻIʼve searched so long in the worldʼ 11. Ask: 11.1. Why do you think the singer chose the first, but not the second? 12. Elicit, for example: 12.1. Because his search has been very long. 12.2. Because he really loves this person. 12.3. Because he really wants to find someone. 12.4. Because he waited so long. 12.5. Etc…. 13. Ask: 13.1. Sо does this guy love the person he found a lot or a little? 14. Elicit ʻa lotʼ 15. Tell students: 15.1. So he really, really loves this person. 15.2. He is emphasizing that he loves this person a lot, right? 15.3. Okay, so the singer is using the present perfect progressive to emphasize how very long he has waited, searched, and dreamt of his special person. 15.4. In saying, ʻIʼve been searching so longʼ he is stressing the amount of time he looked for us, not the simple fact that he looked for us. ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 18 Appendix 3 A look at complaints: how do people complain? 1. Read the complaints made by various people. Have you ever had a similar experience to any one of these? A. I am in Australia and have been trying to contact Westjet for 6 weeks now! In total I have spent over 13 hours "on hold" on the non-toll free number! I have sent 5 emails to different, hidden email addresses that I managed to find on the webpage! How do I speak with someone regarding a booking made on the telephone 3 months ago, but for which I have never received an email confirmation or e-ticket?! B. I work at a call-centre, and one of the biggest problems for call-centre workers are customers who complain about how long they have had to wait: customers always lie! Where I work we can see how long theyʼve been waiting on hold, and for example the clock will say something like "4:39" when you answer. Of course, they'll say, "I've been waiting on the phone for 10 minutes," then pause and expect you to grovel and offer to build a time machine so you can go back and cure the world of the injustice of waiting! C. The customer service at this bank is terrible! The lady in front of me has been queuing for nearly half and hour, and Iʼve been standing for nearly 20 minutes! This is the tenth time that I have had to wait this long. This is my lunch break! I only wanted to cash a check that my grandmother sent me for Christmas, but it looks like I wonʼt be able to do that now! I think I have had enough of this. Iʼm going to switch to another bank today! D. The people in Pandaʼs Chinese Restaurant are very friendly and go out of their way to make your day. We've been going there for years but the quality of their food has gone downhill. The vegetables in the wonton soup aren't fully cooked and the fried rice was mushy. I donʼt know if they changed cooks or what, but I miss how it used to be. 2. Look at these sentences from example A. A. I am in Australia and have been trying to contact Westjet for 6 weeks now! B. I have sent 5 emails to different, hidden email addresses that… C. ...I managed to find on the webpage! 3. Which of the examples in bold above is: 1. the past simple 2. the present perfect simple 3. the present perfect progressive 4. Now, match the examples from 2 with the following: 1. an action that began in the past an is still in progress 2. an action in the past that has a result in the present 3. a single action in the past 5. In section 1, underline all examples of the present perfect progressive. The first one is done for you. 6. Why do you think that these people choose the present perfect progressive to express a complaint? Does the present perfect progressive help us ʻsayʼ something differently? Explain your answer. ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 19 7. Now look at the examples you have underlined. In each example, what are some expressions that the people use to emphasize their opinion? Hint: time. 8. Imagine you have just bought a new computer, but it doesnʼt work! You go back to the store to exchange the computer and have to wait a very long time. You demand to speak to the store manager to complain. Write exactly what you will say to the store manager. Explain why you want to complain, how long you have waited, and anything else you feel is important. 9. Imagine you are on the phone with your bank. Youʼve been on hold for nearly 20 minutes. Make a complaint to the customer service representative as soon as they answer the phone. Write your response below. ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 20 Appendix 4 ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 21 ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 22 Appendix 5 From New English File Intermediate Student's Book ! Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 23 Bibliography Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book. Heinle & Heinle ! Publishers. Comrie, B. (1976). Aspect: An Introduction to the Study of Verbal Aspect and Related $ Problems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cowan, R. (2008). The Teacherʼs Grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University ! Press. Gerngross, G., Puchta, H. & Thornbury, S. (2006). Teaching Grammar Creatively. ! Helbling Languages. Nettle, M. & Hopkins, D. (2003). Developing Grammar in Context. Cambridge: Cambridge ! University Press. Oxenden, C. & Latham-Koenig, C. (2006). New English File Intermediate Studentʼs Book. $ Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seymour, D. & Popova, M. (2003). 700 Classroom Activities. Oxford: Macmillan ! Publishers Limited. Thornbury, S. (2005). Uncovering Grammar. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers Limited. Yates, J. (2006). Master the Basics: English, 2nd Ed. Hauppauge, New York: Barronʼs ! ! Educational Series, Inc. Dustin Hosseini - Centre 50724 - LSA 2 Essay: Grammar ! 24