State-of-the-art in electric vehicle charging infrastructure

State-of-the-Art in Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure A.M. Foley, Member IEEE EPA CCRP Fellow & Lecturer University College Cork School of Engineering, College Rd., Cork, Ireland e-mail: [email protected] B.P. Ó Gallachóir Lecturer in Energy Engineering University College Cork, School of Engineering, College Rd., Cork, Ireland email: [email protected] I.J. Winning, Senior Engineer & Traffic Manager Traffic & Roads Department, Cork City Council City Hall, Cork City, Ireland Email: [email protected] Abstract — The international introduction of electric vehicles (EVs) will see a change in private passenger car usage, operation and management. There are many stakeholders, but currently it appears that the automotive industry is focused on EV manufacture, governments and policy makers have highlighted the potential environmental and job creation opportunities while the electricity sector is preparing for an additional electrical load on the grid system. If the deployment of EVs is to be successful the introduction of international EV standards, universal charging hardware infrastructure, associated universal peripherals and user-friendly software on public and private property is necessary. The focus of this paper is to establish the state-of-the-art in EV charging infrastructure, which includes a review of existing and proposed international standards, best practice and guidelines under consideration or recommendation. established EV targets, policies and plans in order to succeed in deploying EVs. Table 1 lists some internal government policies and targets. Country Austria Australia Canada China Denmark France Germany Ireland Israel Japan New Zealand Spain Sweden United Kingdom USA Keywords – electric vehicles, charging infrastructure, charging stations, guidelines, standards, transport I. INTRODUCTION T he successful deployment of electric vehicles (EVs) over the next decade is connected to the introduction of internationally agreed EV standards, universal charging hardware infrastructure, associated universal peripherals and user-friendly software on public and private property. A number of workgroups have been formed by key organizations such as the International Energy Agency (IEA), the Society for Automobile Engineers (SAE) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). There are a number of economic and environmental benefits to the introduction of EVs. EVs have been identified as an opportunity to generate employment in research and development (R&D), manufacturing and deployment of EV infrastructure during this current global economic recession. EVs are also presented as an opportunity to reduce fossil fuel dependency and integrate renewable energy sources (RES), which should result in a better security of energy supply by reducing oil imports and a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and localized air pollution and noise levels. Furthermore GHG emissions are linked to global warming, whereas localized air and noise pollution can affect human health. A number of countries including some European Union (EU) member states, Japan, South Korea, Canada, China, Israel and the United States of America (USA) have Targets 2020: 100,000 EVs deployed1 2012: first cars on road, 2018: mass deployment, 2050: up to 65% of car stock2 2018: 500,000 EVs deployed3 2011: 500000 annual production of EVs4 2020:200,000 EVs 5 2020: 2,000,000 EVs6 2020: 1,000,000 EVs deployed7 2020: 10% EV market share8 2011: 40,000 EVs, 2012: 40,000 to 100,000 EVs annually9 2020: 50% market share of next generation vehicles10 2020: 5% market share, 2040: 60% market share11 2014: 1,000,000 EVs deployed12 2020: 600,000 EVs deployed13 No target figures, but policy to support EVs14 2015: 1,000,000 PHEV stock15 1 http://www.iea-retd.org/files/RETRANS100128%20Schauer.pdf 2 http://australia.betterplace.com/assets/pdf/Better_Place_Australia_energy_white_paper-doc.pdf 3 http://www.evtrm.gc.ca/pdfs/E-design_09_0581_electric_vehicle_e.pdf 4 http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/02/business/global/02electric.html 5 http://www.ens.dk/en-US/Sider/forside.aspx 6 http://www.physorg.com/news173639548.html 7 http://www.evworld.com/news.cfm?newsid=23301 8 http://www.dcenr.gov.ie/Press+Releases/2008/Government+announces+plans+for+the+electrification+of+Irish+motoring.htm 9 http://www.betterplace.com/ 10 http://www.autosavant.com/2008/08/27/japan-charges-ahead-with-electric-cars/ 11 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21246592/ 12 http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKARO04096020080730 13 http://www.powercircle.org/en/display/Projects/swedish-electric-mobility-initative.aspx 14 http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/scienceresearch/technology/lowcarbonelecvehicles/ 15 http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/jun2010/tc2010063_322564.htm TABLE I. SOME INTERNATIONAL EV TARGET OBJECTIVES The focus of this paper is to establish the state-of-the-art in EV charging infrastructure. A list of existing and proposed international standards, best practice and guidelines is presented. II. RELEVANCE & ROLE OF STANDARDIZATION In the next decade the automobile industry and the electricity sector will undergo a series of evolutionary changes. Reference [1] examines this EV roadmap. New players will emerge and only the best or most fit for purpose technologies, companies and ideas will survive. Traditionally R&D in the automobile industry is very secretive because of strong competition, particularly in relation to the internal combustion engine (ICE). Automobile standards and best practice have developed over time, initially to improve safety to acceptable low injury and fatality rates, to avoid litigation and costly recalls, next during the oil crisis of the seventies the Europeans and the Asians particularly became very energy conscious so manufacturers developed more efficient ICE, unlike in North America where oil was cheaper at the pump and then in the eighties air pollution and more recently GHG emissions resulted in tougher government standards to reduce ICE emissions. The drive to electrify transport will result in countries forming new trading alliances and partnerships to ensure the success of their technology. Standards may be used as tools in countries gaining a competitive advantage. The addition of new players and the changing role of existing players such as battery manufacturers, smart grid developers, electricity distribution companies, electricity regulators, utility companies and the electricity retail sector will see a massive change in the hitherto status quo of car manufacturing. The electricity sector is a different beast to the automobile industry with its own set of standards and regulations, which vary hugely from country to country and even within a country. Electricity companies have gone and are still going through a period of deregulation and market liberalization. In some countries certain utilities still have a dominant market position. The automobile industry has operated in a very competitive first to market environment. The marriage of these two very different sectors may see strange scenarios. What is the ultimate goal of the electrification of transport? Is it to truly reduce GHG emissions or just reduce them and move them from the transport sector, which is a non-emissions trading scheme (Non-ETS) sector to the electricity sector, which is an ETS sector? Is it to reinvigorate the automobile industry and increase employment? Governments are under pressure to achieve results. In order to measure and quantify the results, energy efficiency from the grid-to-the-battery and from the batteryto-the-wheel, driving performance and overall net reduction in GHG emissions under different driving conditions using an international standard test regime must be agreed. Studies have been carried out to estimate benefits, but it is difficult to compare them as like the ICE, no two EVs are the same and no two power systems are the same. Reference [2] provides a detailed review of over 40 studies carried out in the USA to examine the effects of EVs on well-to-wheel emissions. Other recent articles study potential GHG emissions reductions from EVs include References [3 - 8]. Unfortunately as global economies are in recession and car sales have slumped, the car manufacturers look like the sector with the weaker hand and the most to lose, whereas electricity is a necessary commodity. It is suggested that the electricity sector is the stronger player in this ‘EVlotion’. So perhaps unlike the automobile industries traditional reaction to events to mitigate costs and recalls, the rigid approach of the electricity sector because of the nature of power may result in standardization taking more of a front seat. Either way the ‘EVlotion’, will make for a very interesting 10 years for the engineers involved. In October of 2009 European electricity companies called for the standardization of EV charging infrastructure and pledged to apply pre-standards [9]. III. EV STANDARDS The main centre of activity in standardization development appears to be in USA and Japan with slower progress in the EU. References [10 – 12] discuss EV technology development. Table 2 provides details of some relevant SAE and the American National Standards Institute (G.O'[email protected]) EV standards and their status. Standard NFPA 70 NEC/ANSI, Article 625 – Electric Vehicle Charging Equipment SAE J-1634: Electric Vehicle Energy Consumption and Range Test SAE J-1715: Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) and Electric Vehicle (EV) Terminology SAE J-1766: Recommended Practice for Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Battery Systems Crash Integrity Testing SAE J-1772: SAE Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler SAE J-1773: SAE Electric Inductively-Coupled Charging Vehicle SAE J-1797: Recommended Practice for Packaging of Electric Vehicle Battery Modules SAE J-1798: Recommended Practice for Performance Rating of Electric Vehicle Battery Modules SAE J-2288: Life Cycle Testing of Electric Vehicle Battery Modules SAE J-2293 Part 1: Energy Transfer System for EV Part 1: Functional Requirements and System Architecture SAE J-2293 Part 2: Energy Transfer System for EV Part 2: Communications Requirements and Network Architecture SAE J-2380: Vibration Testing of Electric Vehicle Batteries SAE J-2464: Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Rechargeable Energy Storage System (RESS) Safety and Abuse Testing SAE J-2836 Part 1: Use Cases for Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the Utility Grid SAE J-2836 Part 2: Use Cases for Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the Supply Equipment (EVSE) SAE J-2836 part 3: Use Cases for Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the Utility grid for Reverse Flow SAE J-2841: Utility Factor Definitions for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using 2001 U.S. DOT National Household Travel Survey Data SAE J-2847 Part 1: Communications between Plug-In Vehicles and the Utility Grid SAE J-2847 Part 2: Communication between Plug-in Vehicles and the Supply Equipment (EVSE) SAE J-2847 Part 3: Communication between Plug-in Vehicles and the Utility Grid for Reverse Power Flow SAE J-2894 Part 1: Power Quality Requirements for Plug-In Vehicle Chargers Requirements SAE J-2894 Part 2: Power Quality Requirements for Plug-In Vehicle Chargers Test Methods SAE J-2908: Power Rating Method for Hybrid-Electric and Battery Electric Vehicle Propulsion TABLE II. Status Published January 1996, WIP January 2011 Issued and cancelled October 2002 Original issued April 1994, revised February 2008 & WIP August 2009 Issued February 2005, revised April 2005 Issued October 1996, revised November 2001 & a WIP 2009 Issued January 1995, reissued November 1999 & reaffirmed May 1995 Issued January 1997, and reaffirmed June 2008 Issued January 1997, reaffirmed July 2008 Issued January 1997, reaffirmed June 2008 Issued March 1997, reaffirmed July 2008 Issued May 1997, reaffirmed July 2008 Issued January 1998 & revised March 2009 Issued March 1999, WIP August 2009 WIP April 2009 WIP February 2009 WIP February 2009 WIP March 2009 WIP April 2009 WIP no document available WIP no document available WIP no document available WIP no document available WIP no document available SAE STANDARDS Table 3 provides details of some relevant Deutsches Institut für Normung e. V. (DIN) EV standards and their status. Standard DIN V VDE V 0510-11 (VDE V 0510-11) Safety requirements for secondary batteries and battery installations - Part 11: Safety requirements for secondary lithium batteries for hybrid vehicles and mobile applications DIN 43538 Monobloc batteries for electric vehicles; low maintenance types, rated capacities, main dimensions TABLE III. Status Published DIN STANDARDS Table 4 provides details of some relevant International Standards Organisation (ISO) EV standards and their status. Standard ISO 6469-1:2009 Electrically propelled road vehicles - Safety specifications - Part 1: Onboard rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) ISO 6469-2:2009 Electrically propelled road vehicles - Safety specifications - Part 2: Vehicle operational safety means and protection against failures ISO 6469-3:2001 Electric road vehicles Safety specifications - Part 3: Protection of persons against electric hazards ISO/DIS 6469-3 Electrically propelled road vehicles - Safety specifications - Part 3: Protection of persons against electric shock ISO 8713:2005 Electric road vehicles Vocabulary ISO/CD 8713 Electric road vehicles Vocabulary ISO 8714:2002 Electric road vehicles Reference energy consumption and range Test procedures for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles ISO 8715:2001 Electric road vehicles - Road operating characteristics ISO/DIS 12405-1 Electrically propelled road vehicles - Test specification for lithium-Ion traction battery systems - Part 1: High power applications ISO/AWI 12405-2 Electrically propelled road vehicles - Test specification for lithium-Ion traction battery systems - Part 2: High energy applications ISO/CD 15118-1 Road vehicles Communication protocol between electric vehicle and grid - Part 1: Definitions and use-case ISO/NP 15118-2 Road vehicles Communication protocol between electric vehicle and grid - Part 2: Sequence diagrams and communication layers SO/AWI 23274-2 Hybrid-electric road vehicles - Exhaust emissions and fuel consumption measurements - Part 2: Externally chargeable vehicles TABLE IV. Status Published October 2009 Published October 2009 Published but in review stage to be revised Enquiry stage but voting closed Published Committee stage, voting and comments stage closed Review stage closed Review stage, International Standard confirmed Enquiry stage but voting closed Preliminary stage, proposal for new project received Committee stage, draft study/ballot initiated Proposal stage, new project approved New project registered in the Technical Committee work program ISO STANDARDS Table 5 provides details of some relevant International Electromechanical Commission (IEC) EV standards and their status. Standard Electric vehicle conductive charging system - Part 1: General requirements (IEC 69/156/CD:2008) Secondary batteries for the propulsion of electric road vehicles - Part 4: Performance testing for lithium-ion cells (IEC 21/697/CD:2009) Secondary batteries for the propulsion of electric road vehicles - Part 5: Reliability and abuse testing for lithium-ion cells (IEC 21/698/CD:2009) Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle couplers and vehicle inlets - Conductive charging of electric vehicles - Part 1: Charging of electric vehicles up to 250 A a.c. and 400 A d.c. (IEC 23H/222/CD:2010) Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle couplers and vehicle inlets - Conductive charging of electric vehicles - Part 2: Dimensional interchangeability requirements for pin and contact-tube accessories (IEC 23H/223/CD:2010) IEC 60349-2 Ed.3: Electric traction Rotating electrical machines for rail and road vehicles - Part 2: Electronic converterfed alternating current motors IEC 61982-4 Ed.1: Secondary batteries for the propulsion of electric road vehicles - Part 4: Performance testing for lithium-ion cells IEC 62660-1 Ed. 1 (Re-numbered from IEC 61982-4): Secondary batteries for the propulsion of electric road vehicles - Part 1: Performance testing for lithium-ion cells IEC 62660-2 Ed 1 (Re-numbered from IEC 61982-5): Secondary batteries for the propulsion of electric road vehicles - Part 2: Reliability and abuse testing for lithium-ion cells MT 8, Maintenance of IEC 62196-1 Ed. 1.0 Plugs, Socket-Outlets, Vehicle Couplers and Vehicle inlets - Conductive Charging of Electric Vehicles - Part 1: Charging of electric vehicles up to 250 A a.c. and 400 A d.c. Future IEC 62196-3: Plugs, socket-outlets, and vehicle couplers - conductive charging of electric vehicles - Part 3: Dimensional interchangeability requirements for pin and contact-tube coupler with rated operating voltage up to 1000 V d.c. and rated current up to 400 A for dedicated d.c. charging IEC 62196-2 Ed 1: Plugs, socket-outlets and vehicle couplers - Conductive charging of electric vehicles - Part 2: Dimensional interchangeability requirements for a.c. pin and contact-tube accessories IEC 62196-1, Ed 2: Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle couplers and vehicle inlets Conductive charging of electric vehicles Part 1: General requirements IEC 69/75/CD, Electric power equipment for electric road vehicles IEC 61851-2-1, Ed.1: Electric vehicle conductive charging system - Part 2-1: Electric vehicles requirements for conductive connection to an AC/DC supply IEC 61851-2-2, Ed.1: Electric vehicle conductive charging system - Part 2-2: A.C. electric vehicles charging station IEC 61851-2-3 Ed.1.0: Electric vehicles conductive charging system - Part 2-3: D.C. Electric vehicle charging station TABLE V. Status Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published In preparation Revised and Published Published Published Published Published Published IEC STANDARDS Table 6 provides details of some relevant Japan Electric Vehicle Association Standards (JEVS) EV standards, which are all published. Standard C601:2000 Plugs and receptacles for EV charging D001-1995 Dimensions and Construction of Valve Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries for EVs D002:1999 Dimensions and Construction of sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries for EVs D701-1994 Capacity test procedure of lead-acid batteries for EVs D702-1994 Energy density test procedure of lead-acid batteries for EVs D703-1994 Power density test procedure of lead-acid batteries for EVs D704-1997 Cycle life test procedure of valve regulated lead-acid batteries for EVs D705:1999 Capacity test procedure of sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries for EVs D706:1999 Energy density test procedure of sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries for EVs D707:1999 Specific power and peak power test procedure of sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries for EVs D708:1999 Cycle life test procedure of sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries for EVs D709:1999 Dynamic capacity test procedure of sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries for EVs E701-1994 Combined power measurement of electric motors and controllers for EVs E702-1994 Power measurement of electric motors equivalent to the on-board state for EVs E901-85 Nameplates of electric motor and controller for EVs G101-1993 Chargers applicable to quick charging system at EcoStation G102-1993 Lead-acid batteries applicable to quick charging system at Eco-Station for EVs G103-1993 Charging stands applicable to quick charging system at Eco-Station for EVs G104-1995 Communications Protocol Applicable to Quick Charging System at Eco-Station G105-1993 Connectors applicable to quick charging system at EcoStation for EVs G106:2000 EV inductive charging system: General requirements G107:2000 EV inductive charging system: Manual connection G108:2001 EV inductive charging system: Software interface G109:2001 EV inductive charging system: General requirements G901-85 Nameplates of battery charger for EVs Z101-87 General rules of running test method of EVs Z102-87 Maximum speed test method of EVs Z103-87 Range test method of EVs Z104-87 Climbing hill test method of EVs Z105-88 Energy economy test method of EVs Z106-88 Energy consumption test method of EVs Z107-88 Combined test method of electric motors and controllers for EVs Z108-1994 Electric Vehicle - Measurement for driving range and energy consumption Z109-1995 EV - Measurement for acceleration Z110-1995 EV - Measurement for maximum cruising speed Z111-1995 EV - Measurement for reference energy consumption Z112-1996 EV - Measurement for climbing Z804:1998 Symbols for controls, Indicators & telltales for EVs Z805:1998 Glossary of terms relating to EVs (General of vehicles) Z806:1998 Glossary of terms relating to EVs (Electric motors & controllers) Z807:1998 Glossary of terms relating to EVs (Batteries) Z808:1998 Glossary of terms relating to EVs (Chargers) Z901-1995 Electric Vehicle - Standard Form of Specification (Form of Main Specification) TABLE VI. Edison Electric Institute at the IEEE P1809 Kickoff Meeting on EVs in February [13]. Pilot schemes are probably the most practical way to determine the technology solutions and standards that suits all market participants and more importantly the customer. This has been recognized in most countries with EV policies and targets. The EU, USA, UK, Ireland, Japan, Korea, China, Taiwan, Korea, Spain, France and Germany to name just a few have a variety of EV pilot projects underway [14]. IV. CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE It is important that there is a merging of standards and charging technology so that charging infrastructure is common, customers are comfortable with the technology and manufacturing costs are reduced. Already there exist different plugs, two charging terminology, ‘level’, which is used in the North America mostly and ‘mode’ used by the European based standards organizations. Interestingly, level is used widely in Europe. Earthing requirements also vary. Some EV manufacturers (i.e. Ford, General Motors, Volkswagen, Fiat, Toyota and Mitsubishi) agreed on a common, apparently 3-point (live, neutral and earth) plug standard for charging EVs in April 2009. In the EU there is the multiphase ‘Mennekes’ plug and the Électricité de France (EDF) single-phase or three-phase plugs, which involves Nissan and Renault. Figure 1 shows some of the plugs and sockets. iMiev Socket J1772 Plug & Socket Mennekes Plug & Socket Nissan Plug & Socket Th!nk Plug Volt Plug Yazaki Plug Ford Plug & Socket JEVS STANDARDS It is obvious from these tables that there are many participants, technical committees and groups internationally. Thus there is much duplication. This was referred to as a ‘tsunami of codes and standards’ by Steven Rosenstock of Figure 1. Some EV Plugs & Sockets Harmonization of certain aspects, particularly a universal socket and plug is vital, but this will not happen over night, rather through trial and error to ensure that the best system is achieved. It is suggested that ‘earthing’ and safety be under the remit of the electricity sector, as it is particular to each geographical areas practices and procedures. This needs attention soon. Billing and the customer graphical user interface on all public charging stations should be standard and user friendly, similar to an Automated Teller Machine (ATM) in the banking sector. References [14 and 15] provide details of charging infrastructure in the USA and Canada. Such documents are very useful and valuable for local governments, those responsible for building regulation and permitting and property owners. It is recommended that a similar document be prepared for other regions as part of pilot schemes. Aspects which need to be examined and standardized include the following: TABLE VII. CHARGING OPTIONS & POWER Figure 2 presents some of the numerous on-street and offstreet charging posts. On-Street, France Home, USA Private Garage, Italy • Signage, • Layouts, access and lighting in areas where public charging is proposed, • Disabled persons requirements, • Installations on properties subject to flooding, • Certification of charging equipment, • Trip hazards, liability issues and public insurance, • Ventilation, • LEED and BRE building certification requirements, • Installation certification, • Engineering design, construction and permitting on public and private property, • Charging post ownership, maintenance operation, metering and subscription services, • Smart metering for home charging to control the time of charging, which can be related to costs, time of day and so forth, On-Street, Netherlands Three-Pin Charging, UK • Battery swopping option, • Vandal proofing, and In addition to charging stations an Israeli company called Better Place proposes a battery swopping drive-in station [16]. Internationally it is expected that there will be three levels of socket charging [17 - 19]. This will vary slightly from country to country depending on the voltage, frequency, transmission standards and plug standards in terms of the rating of the plug in amperes. An EV may have a higher internal electric capacity, but this will be limited by the grid connection [20]. Table 7 gives an indication of the power demand and charging options for Ireland based on the existing grid circuitry. Level Type Electrical Level (Mode) 1 Level (Mode) 2 Level (Mode) 2 Level (Mode) 3 Standard (Domestic) Opportunity 230V 16A 1 or 3 phase 400V 32A Emergency 400V 32A Range Extension 400V 63A 80% On-Street, Rotherdam Resulting Charge 100% Time to Charge 6 to 8 hours Power 50% 30 minutes 3kW to 10kW 22kW 20km 10 minutes 22kW 30 minutes 44kW On-Street, London On-Street, USA Battery Swop Fast On-Street, Japan Figure 2. Some On-Street & Off-Street Charging Stations V. SUMMARY & CONCLUSION In summary the automobile industry and the electricity sector will undergo a series of evolutionary changes as the transport fleet is electrified. There are a number of economic and environmental benefits to the introduction of EVs, including employment in R&D, manufacturing and deployment, a reduction on fossil fuel dependency, an opportunity to better integrate renewable energy sources and ultimately ensure higher energy efficiency, better security of energy supply with an associated reduction in GHG emissions, localized air and noise pollution. This ‘EVlotion’, will make for a very interesting 10 years for the engineers involved. However, it is obvious from the comprehensive table of existing and proposed standards that there are many participants, technical committees and groups internationally. Thus there is much duplication. Pilot schemes are probably the most practical way to determine the technology solutions and standards that suits all market participants and more importantly the customer. It is important that there is a merging of standards and charging technology so that charging infrastructure is common, customers are comfortable with the technology and manufacturing costs are reduced. It is suggested that ‘earthing’ and safety be under the remit of the electricity sector, as it is particular to each geographical areas practices and procedures. It is recommended that a charging infrastructure document be prepared as part of pilot schemes to establish best practice and share lessons learned. Items which need resolving and investigation include signage, ownership, construction, layout, management, maintenance and operation, certification, vandalism and liability and so forth. An international standard plug, socket and GUI type ATM portal for customer comfort is vital. The next stage of this research is to compare and contrast the various standards and prepare a charging infrastructure document for Ireland. In conclusion this paper has established the state-of-the-art in EV charging infrastructure and provided a list of existing and proposed international standards, best practice and guidelines. VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank the Irish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for funding this research under the EPA Climate Change Research Program (CCRP). VII. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] B. Fleet, J.K. Li and R. Gilbert, Fleet Technology Partners, Situation Analysis for the Current State of Electric Vehicle Technology, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Electric Vehicle Research Committee, S. Boschert, The Cleanest Cars: Well-to-Wheels Emissions Comparisons, May 2008, available at: http://www.pluginamerica.org/images/EmissionsSummary.pdf X. Ou, X. Zhang, S. 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